Urbanised Nature in the Past Site Formation and Environmental Development in Two Swedish Towns, AD 1200-1800

Urbanised Nature in the Past Site formation and environmental development in two Swedish towns, AD 1200-1800

Jens Heimdahl

Avhandling i Kvartärgeologi Thesis in Quaternary Geology No. 5 Department of Physical Geography and Quaternary Geology Stockholm University 2005

1 Cover painting by Jens Heimdahl

ISBN 91-7155-143-3 ISSN 1651-3940 Akademitryck AB Urbanised Nature in the Past Site formation and environmental development in two Swedish towns, AD 1200-1800

Jens Heimdahl

This doctoral thesis has ﬁ ve appendant papers, listed below. They are referenced by their roman numerals in the text. All ﬁ gures included in the thesis are original illustrations made by the author.

Paper I Heimdahl, J., Menander, H., and Karlsson, P., in press: A New Method for Urban Geoar- chaeological Excavation, Example from Norrköping, Sweden. Reprinted from Norwegian Archaeological Review, Vol.38:2 (www.tandf.no/nar) by permission of Taylor & Francis AS.

Paper II Heimdahl, J.: Urban Sediments as Indicators of Changes in Land use and Building Tradition in two Swedish Towns, AD 1200-1800 in two Swedish Towns. Manuscript

Paper III Heimdahl, J.: Botanical Evidence of Changes in Vegetation and Cultural Landscape in Post- Medieval Karlstad, Sweden. Manuscript

Paper IV Heimdahl, J.: Botanical Evidence of Changes in Environment and Tradition in Norrköping, Sweden, AD 1200-1660. Manuscript

Paper V Heimdahl, J.: Archaeobotanical Evidence of Early Tobacco Cultivation in Norrköping, Sweden. Manuscript accepted by Vegetation History and Archaeobotany Content

1 Introduction 7 2 Interdisciplinarity 8 Geology and archaeology 8 Interdiciplinary urban research 9 Occupational layers and archaeological stratigraphy 10 Clashes in terminology 13 Stratigraphic terms used in this thesis 14 3 Urban occupational deposits 14 Urbanisation and towns 14 Urban deposits 15 Dark earths 16 The stratigraphy of urban constructions 18 Stratigraphy of waste 20 Urban pedogene soil processes 21 4 Urban plant ecology 23 Earlier studies of urban archaeobotany in Sweden and neighbouring countries 24 5 Taphonomy of urban macro remains 26 1. Biology 26 2. Depositional processed and ecology in urban environments 26 A. The local fl ora 27 B. The regional fl ora 28 C. Plants from pastures and meadows 28 D. Cultural plants 28 3. Human infl uence 28 4. Preservation of plant macrofossils 29 5. The reworking processes 29 6. Sampling preparation and registration 29 7. Personal biases 29 6 Study sites 29 Norrköping 29 Karlstad 31 7 Methods 32 Fieldwork 32 Macrofossil analysis 33 Pollen analysis 33 Diatom analysis 33 Grain size distribution 33 Organic carbon and loss on ignition 33 14C-Dating 34 Other dating methods 34 Ecological grouping 34 Biological nomenclature 34 8 Summary of papers 34 Paper I 34 Paper II 35 Paper III 36 Paper IV 37 Paper V 37 9 Discussion 38 Urban strata, a formation model 38 The formation of dark earth 41 Sediments, soil horizons and culture 42 10 Conclusions 43 References 44 Svensk sammanfattning 55 Tack! 59 Abstract In order to explore site formations and reconstruct environmental development in Medieval and Post-Medi- eval towns, urban occupational strata in Norrköping and Karlstad were studied according to biostratigraphy, sedimentology and pedology. New fi eld procedures including continuous pilot sampling, parallel archaeological and geological stratigraphic interpretation, and on-site analysis of plant macrofossils were developed and applied at archaeological excavations in both towns. Representation of both disciplines in the fi eld during excavations greatly contributed to more complete fi eld interpretations. Stratigraphical analyses indicate that geological processes have been active in both towns, and reveal similarities in site formation. The earliest proto-urban phase is represented by the presence of dark earths, formed by the combination of alluvial processes and cattle tramping. Alluvial processes were common in Karlstad due to the fl ooding of the river delta, and in Norrköping due to the sloping topography. Both situations were enhanced by human activity, which caused drainage problems. A signifi cant change in composition and origin of house foundation fi ll was also noted. The oldest foundations contained fi ne-grained material of local origin in contrast to younger foundations, which contained coarser material, sometimes of regional origin. This is interpreted as a professionalisation of the urban building tradition, which in Norrköping occurred during the beginning of the 17th century and in Karlstad during the 18th century. Site formations of urban strata are regulated by three major factors: deposition, post-depositional soil formation and erosion/truncation, which all may occur both culturally and naturally. Plant macrofossil analyses in Norrköping and Karlstad resulted in a fossil record with a total amount of 203 and 169 different types of plant species and taxa respectively. The records indicate that site formation processes seem to have been inhibited during wintertime. The results also confi rm the idea of the early Scan- dinavian towns as rural, also during the Post-Medieval time. The fi nds of cultural plants in Karlstad indicate 18th century cultivation of Fragaria moscata and 17th century import of Pimento offi cinalis. In Norrköping remains of beer additives confi rm that the tradition of combining Humulus lupulus and Myrica gale disappeared after the 15th century, but also indicate a the use of Filipendula ulmaria as a beer addative. Finds of seeds from Nicotiana rustica suggests that tobacco cultivation occurred in Norrköping 1560-1640, which is some decades earlier than known so far in Sweden.

Keywords: Urban stratigraphy, environmental reconstruction, site formation, geoarchaeology, dark earth, macrofossil analysis

Urbanised Nature in the Past

1 Introduction more carefully discussed in the chapter “Urban oc- Towns are often built on older remains called ‘ur- cupational deposits”. ban occupational deposits’ that contain informa- The foundation of palaeoenvironmental studies of tion about the history of the town. Geological and urban areas is the interpretation of the urban stratig- biological remains are mixed and interbedded with raphy. It is important to understand the site forma- archaeological traces of houses, streets and artefacts tion processes of urban occupational deposits, since (man-made objects). In other words, urban occupa- these deposits derive from both cultural and natural tional layers do not only contain ancient cultural re- processes. Ideally, archaeologists and Quaternary mains, but also environmental archives from which geologists should perform the fi eld interpretation palaeoenvironmental records can be extracted. Ur- together. However, the archaeological method of re- ban nature occurs alongside and intermingled with cording and interpreting urban stratigraphy, devel- the cultural life in a town, and adapts to and affects oped during the last 25 years, has often proven to be urban cultural expressions. In this way, the study of diffi cult and demanding to combine with the meth- urban nature results in the knowledge about urban ods used by visiting geologists (cf., Lucas 2001). culture, and thus we may fi nd examples throughout The present thesis is based on site studies and anal- history of the reactions and responses in the relation yses of samples collected from two urban excavations between culture and nature. performed within the frames of so called ‘rescue ar- Traditionally, the main focus of geological and bio- chaeology’. A rescue excavation is conducted as a logical studies have been placed on the ‘undisturbed’ controlled form of the destruction of material that nature – the nature untouched and unaffected by hu- is classifi ed as cultural heritage when making room mans. In later decades, with growing concern about for new constructions. The task of archaeologists is the anthropogenic effects on the environment, stud- to retrieve, document and interpret the archaeologi- ies of ‘disturbed’ nature have become more common. cal remains, leaving a description and interpretation Among culturally affected areas, the urban environ- in its place. Ideally the description should leave pos- ment can be considered the most extreme. Geologi- sibilities for researchers in the future to make new cal and ecological studies of towns – urbanised na- interpretations. In Sweden rescue archaeology is fi - ture – is however a young and growing discipline nanced by those responsible for the exploitation of (Gilbert 1989, McDonnell & Pickett 1990, Botkin the ground where ancient remains are present. Eco- & Beveridge 1997, McDonnell 1997, Walbridge nomical frameworks defi ned by the county adminis- 1998, Nilon et al. 1999). In this fi eld, studies of the trative board limit the excavation time and the ana- palaeoecological traces in urban occupational layers lytical work performed after the excavation. It affects may contribute new perspectives (e.g., Latalova et also the choice of strata that are to be documented. al. 2003, Wittig 2004). The term ‘urban’, used in the Generally urban occupational deposits in Sweden title of this thesis, has been defi ned in many different that are older than the 18th century are considered to perspectives, for example according to law, history be part of the cultural heritage and are classifi ed as and demography. I use this term to characterize a ancient remains that should be preserved. Younger specifi c type of environment. The defi nitions will be strata are excavated without documentation.

A 10 20 B Karlstad County of Sweden Värmland 60 County of Örebro County of Södermanland Vänern

Baltic Sea Norrköping County of 55 Västra götaland 200 km 50 km County of Östergötland

Figure 1: (A-B) location of the investigated towns of Norrköping and Karlstad in southern Sweden.

7 J. Heimdahl

The sites investigated within this study are situated ditionally belong to different faculties, natural sci- in Norrköping and Karlstad, middle Sweden (Fig. 1). ences and art, this may give an impression that they The main aims are: I) To develop methods for inte- are fundamentally different. It has been stated that: grated fi eldwork between archaeologists and Quater- “…archaeology […] straddles the gulf which sepa- nary geologists/palaeoecologists (Paper I). How can rates the arts from the sciences.” (Hodder 1992). But the members of the different disciplines adapt their I don’t believe that it is so. I don’t think there is a working procedures to utilize each other’s capacity gulf. of interpretation? II) To reconstruct site formation A popular opinion concerning those differences is and environmental development at two urban sites that natural sciences are based on empirical princi- (Paper II-V). ples and use quantitative methods while the humani- Reconstructions of site formation and environ- ties are based on hermeneutical principles and main- mental development are performed according to two ly use qualitative approaches. This is incorrect; the main perspectives. Site formation is mainly studied fundaments of both disciplines rest upon empirical by sedimentology and pedology, an approach that I principles and hermeneutics (sensu lato interpreta- refer to as ‘geoarchaeological’ (Paper II). Environ- tion – not only of text) and use both quantitative and mental development is principally studied from the qualitative methods (Kieffer 2005). For example, ge- perspective of biostratigraphy/archaeobotany (Paper ological interpretation of stratigraphical sequences III-V). However, the two perspectives of geoarchae- is inherently hermeneutic and qualitative. Similarly, ology and archaeobotany are sometimes integrated the botanical identifi cation of plant remain based to confi rm or contradict specifi c results. on morphology, is qualitative. These studies can be This thesis has been written from the perspectives quite subjective, perhaps more so than either disci- of Quaternary geology and palaeoecology/archaeo- pline would like to admit. botany. The environmental development of Karlstad There is currently a debate among Scandinavian and Norrköping has been previously studied from archaeologists concerning the question of what may the perspectives of archaeology and history, studies be considered archaeology (Svestad 2004; Wien- which I take into account, and the conclusions of berg 2004; Cornell 2005; Hegardt 2005; Herschend which are compared with the results and conclusions 2005; Karlsson 2005; Kristiansen 2005; Notelid in this thesis. Hence, it is my intention that archae- 2005; Rundqvist 2005). It relates to the criticism ologists and historians, as well as Quaternary scien- of post-processual archaeology, which emphasises tists and botanists, should be able to understand, use the symbolic meaning of material culture, partly as and scrutinize this research. Accordingly, the differ- a reaction to positivistic trends, the so-called ‘New ent disciplines require an introduction and my basic Archaeology’ that infl uenced archaeology in the 60s approach to this interdisciplinary work is presented and 70s and attempted to reform archaeology to be- below. come more like the natural sciences. The debate is ongoing and trends are developing in all scientifi c disciplines but I would like to emphasise that my 2 Interdisciplinarity studies of archaeological material from a perspective The description and interpretation of objects and of natural science are not to be seen as a contribution subjects may be facilitated if they are approached to this debate. I will not debate the nature of archae- from different disciplinary perspectives. Geological ology, only some of the study objects of archaeology, deposits may contain biological remains and hence, although from a different perspective. a biological perspective can contribute to the under- Some of the differences between humanities and standing of the deposit. The objects of the archae- natural sciences fall back on the classic and contro- ological study are the remains of material culture, versial question of what is considered nature versus which are also possible to study according to the culture. One perspective is that humanity exists be- methods of natural sciences, history and social sci- side or on the top of nature and that human activ- ences. ity (culture) is considered separate from nature. The These statements and examples may sound trite, contrasting perspective is that humanity is part of but while they are easy to make, they are, however, nature and that culture should be considered as a diffi cult to implement. part of nature as well. The controversial aspect of these questions partly derives from the defi nitions of the terms that apply Geology and archaeology to societal values. ‘Nature’ is often used as synony- Since the disciplines of geology and archaeology tra- mously to positive terms such as ‘normal’, ‘ordinary’,

8 Urbanised Nature in the Past

Figure 2: Conceptual model of how an object – urban occupational strata and the processes that caused them (marked with grey) – may be studied by different disciplines. More disciplines may also be added, such as chemistry, phys- ics and human geography. These disciplines may further be divided into sub-disciplines e.g., geoarchaeology which is at the boundary zone between archaeology and geology.

‘usual’, ‘regular’ or ‘original’, and to describe some- fect and infl uence each other. thing that is ‘good’, ‘harmonious’ or according to a In this study the objects consist of the physical re- higher or ‘God-given’ purpose. On the other hand, mains of towns – urban occupational strata. These the term ‘culture’ is more complex, referring to a strata, and some of the processes that have caused way of life, customs, beliefs, art, identity etc. It may them, may be studied from the perspectives of ar- refer to something sophisticated but also something chaeology and natural sciences. However, some of that opposes nature – something ‘unnatural’. the causes behind the processes may be of such na- From the perspective of natural science, human- ture that they only can be understood by the use of ity might also be seen as a part of nature because historical or sociological methods, even if the physi- humans and human culture are observable in the cal object itself cannot be explained according to physical world. This does not mean that all aspects those methods (Fig. 2). of humanity and culture can or should be studied Since the end of the 19th century, urban occupa- according to the methods of natural science. In fact, tional deposits have been considered part of our most cultural aspects are far too complex for these cultural heritage and the main responsibility to in- methods and instead, require methods from the hu- vestigate them has fallen on archaeologists. Euro- manities and social sciences. In the following, I will pean towns generally belong to the period defi ned as use the term ‘culture’ to describe human activity ‘historical’ – the period that can be studied through while ‘nature’ will be used for everything that is not written sources. When archaeologists began to study cultural. It is merely a practical use that results from the material from this period they collaborated with the need to separate human actions from non-human historians. The archaeological branch that studies actions, not a moral statement. In this regard, it is remains from the historical period is called ‘histori- also important to note that irregardless of whether cal archaeology’, and it has to consider different we include culture as part of nature or not, nature types of sources of information. The specifi c study of and culture strongly affect each other and often in town remains may be called ‘urban archaeology’. In such a way that cause and effect are diffi cult to dis- Sweden urban archaeology includes ‘Medieval’ and tinguish. It is not always possible to separate nature ‘Post-Medieval archaeology’, two periods that are and culture, and it is in such cases that interdiscipli- separated by the time of reformation of the church narity is put to the test. defi ned at AD 1527 by king Gustavus Vasa. Urban archaeology has undertaken many questions that traditionally fall within social sciences and human Interdisciplinary urban research geography, questions important to the urbanisation A multidisciplinary approach is to study an object process. from the perspective of many different disciplines Many archaeologists remedy the need for multidici- parallel to each other. This multidisciplinary work plinary knowledge by taking supplementary training becomes interdisciplinary in the dialogue between in Quaternary geology, and there are archaeologists the different disciplines, and when they thereby af- that are also good geologists or geoarchaeologists.

9 J. Heimdahl

This supplementary knowledge is however not enough to cover the need at all excavations. Archaeologists and geologists work with different scientifi c questions, not only because of the differences in the study objects, but also because of the differences in disciplinary background. Archaeolo- gists need not only to determine what process or behaviour has formed a certain record, but must also ask questions about why this process or behaviour occurred and attempt to understand the context of social interaction behind it (cf., McLees et al. 1994, Larsson 2000). Geologists need to ask questions Figure 3: Many excavations during the fi rst half of the 20th century were performed according to the ‘Box and about the mechanisms behind processes but since baulk system’. The excavations were performed accord- those processes traditionally do not include human ing to a regular system of rectangular areas. The bottom activity, social interactions are not normally consid- of the pits was always horizontal and often cut through ered as a factor. If a geologist works with occupa- strata that were dipping. Stratigraphic control was poor tional layers, the processes behind these layers may and stratigraphic interpretation diffi cult. be caused by social interactions and should therefore be considered. However, since geologists generally lack the necessary knowledge concerning cultural also because of the methodological development explanations, the interpretation process should be within stratigraphy. Traditionally there has been a performed in conjunction with archaeologists or/and need for archaeologists to separate stratigraphical historians (Fig. 2). units formed intentionally, like fi ll used as foundation for houses or other buildings, from units that are formed unintentionally, either by cultural or Occupational layers and archaeological stratigraphy natural action. Strata formed intentionally may in The sediments that compose the stratigraphy in oc- fact be considered as artefacts (cf. Arrhenius 1996) cupational sites may be of natural or cultural origin. since humans create them, and their form and place- Natural deposits that can be formed within, or cover ment may reveal information about the people that an occupation may be of eolian (wind transported), formed them. On the other hand, strata formed un- alluvial (water transported) or colluvial (gravity intentionally, for example as a secondary effect of a transported) origin but most common are depositions cultural activity, may reveal information about this created by humans. Such deposits are called ‘occupa- activity also by its content. tional layers’, ‘occupational deposits’ or sometimes Excavation techniques differ slightly between ‘cultural layers’. It is here worth mentioning that the countries and regions. Here I will briefl y describe the geological terminology concerning occupational de- development of excavation methods in Sweden. They posits is poor. On the maps of Quaternary deposits have many international connections, especially to published by the Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU), the development in Britain (cf., Roskhams 2001). urban occupational layers are marked as “Artifi cial For a long time excavations were made in rec- fi ll: the original ground surface is covered by an alien tangular, horizontal blocks, the so-called “box and material” (Persson & Svantesson 1994). The word baulk system” (Larsson 2000, Roskhams 2001), ‘alien’ may here also serve as an example of how without concern for how the layers dipped (Fig. 3). humans sometimes are viewed from the perspective The stratigraphy was carefully documented by the of geology. The archaeological terminology is hence interpretation and drawing of sections when the developed independently from geology. A general excavation was completed, but the stratigraphical difference between geological and archaeological control of the fi nds was poor. During the 1970s, the stratigraphical methods is that those used by archae- stratigraphical awareness started to grow among ur- ologists, to a greater extent, are focused to describe ban archaeologists who had begun to confront the the surfaces buried within the stratigraphy (contacts complex occupational deposits of towns. Järpe et al. between layers called ‘interfaces’). Geological terms (1979) suggested a drawing standard for document- and methods are more focused around the layers and ing occupational layers. Also a narrow defi nition sediments themselves and their changes with depth. of what was to be called ‘occupational layers’ was Different defi nitions of ‘occupational layer’ exist, suggested, according to the idea that the strata had partly because fi eld-terminology varies locally and “grown” through “unintentional cultural sedimen-

10 Urbanised Nature in the Past tation”. Beside those slowly and continuously depos- er (e.g., Anund 1995, Ros 1996, Larsson 2000). ited sediments called ‘accumulations’ (Sw. avsatta A considerable shift in excavation techniques, es- lager), there were also intentionally created layers pecially at urban sites, occurred in the beginning of called ‘depositions’ (Sw. påförda lager), which were the 21st century. The shift had its prologue in 1993 not to be considered occupational layers. The idea when the method of so-called Single Context Re- was that the unintentionally accumulated occupa- cording (hence referred to as SCR) was introduced tional layers that successively had been growing dur- in Sweden after experiences from Norway (Lars- ing occupation (due to the habit of waste handling) son 1993). SCR is a stratigraphic recording method would contain more information about the everyday adapted to archaeology that deals with complex life on the site than the intentionally formed depos- stratigraphy. It was developed in Britain by Edward its. Järpe et al. (1979) also called this type of occupational layers ‘cultural gyttja’ and presented a number of symbols, representing different types of layers, to be used use within section drawing (Fig. 4). The type of layers presented in the system were however not explained and defi ned, and even though many of the words used (such as ‘peat’, ‘gyttja’, ‘alluvial layer’ etc.) were of geological origin, it is obvious that the defi nitions used by the authors were not geological. For a period the paper by Järpe et al. and the symbols they presented had a great infl uence on stratigraphical methods in Sweden (Larsson 2000, Tagesson 2000a) since it contributed a tool to handle stratigraphy in a more interpretative way. It also seems to have corresponded to former ideas about site formation process in Britain (Matthews 1993). During the 80s Andrén (1985, 1986, 1989a, b) introduced the terms ‘latent’ and ‘manifest’ which aimed to separate deposits formed due to unintentional action from those formed by intentional acts. Since the different deposits are formed according to different degrees of intent, they have to be separated and sometimes interpreted in closed contexts (cf. Andrén 1989a, b). The ideas of different degrees of intent in site formation processes have also been discussed by Florén and Dahlgren (1996) who suggested a separation between ‘acts’ (intentional acts) and ‘behaviour patterns’ (acts according to habits without specifi ed intention). The need for better stratigraphic control within urban archaeology was emphasised by Beronius-Jörpe- land (1992) and a broader defi nition of occupational deposits was suggested. She suggests that all deposits created by humans are to be called ‘occupational deposits’, and stressed the importance of separation between depositional and post-depositional processes. During the 80s and 90s there was a continuous de- Figure 4: Stratigraphical drawing according to the system of Järpe et al. (1979). According to this system only the velopment of excavation techniques, although they ‘accumulated’ units and the ‘cultural gyttja’ are considered differed locally. The technique of excavating strati- as true occupational layer. The system presented a large graphically was developed. One stratum at a time number of symbols for the different types of material, but was excavated and the extension of the stratum was did not defi ne the material itself. A comparison of different followed horizontally. By this method it was possible stratigraphical records obtained with this system, shows to uncover and separate old ground surfaces, which that the terms are not classifi ed according to any geologi- made the interpretation of the site development easi- cal or archaeological defi nition.

11 J. Heimdahl

Fig. 5: Example of application of Harris matrix (Harris 1979). In the matrix to the left stones are marked with boxes, layers with rings, holes with pentagons, and hole inﬁ llings with triangles. In this case, layer (4) is the settling sand for the cobblestones (3). If this cobbled ground were interpreted as a part of the construction that was held up with posts, e.g. a shed, posthole (2) would also be a part of the shed-context, marked within the dotted line in the matrix. The hole inﬁ lling (1) is a later deposition and will not be a part of the context.

Harris (Harris 1979 and Harris et al. 1991) and was oped within the depositions are generated by the ef- built on the idea of classifying and uniting different fect from a longer sequence of every-day activities. stratigraphical units (which are defi ned as consist- In later years, the development of digital tools and ing of ‘depositions’ and ‘interfaces’) and artefacts GIS-techniques have greatly improved urban strati- into time dependent contexts. The contexts are in graphical documentation and new techniques are turn connected to groups. The stratigraphical rela- tested alongside the use of SCR. Extensions of lay- tion between those units, contexts and groups, are ers and positions of fi nds and samples are measured, illustrated by the drawing of a so-called ‘Harris Ma- digitalised and registered in GIS-programs (for ex- trix’ (Fig. 5). This type of matrix was used earlier, for ample Arc-View). Also 3-D visualization of complex example at Helgeandsholmen in Stockholm but the urban stratigraphy has been tested, for example in excavation only used parts of this method (Broberg Naantali, Finland (Lehtonen & Uotila 2004). & Douglas 1983). In this method both layers, inter- The extensive redeposition that has occurred in faces and “negative” units, such as holes, are given urban occupational deposits sometimes makes it dif- the same treatment. The method has proven to be a fi cult to interpret fi nds therein. This has led to a need powerful and effective tool in order to document and to classify different deposits according to the risk that interpret stratigraphical information, and it forces its content (of for example artefacts) is redeposited. the user to carefully consider all strata and contacts. In Britain, a system of classifying fi nds into ‘primary’ SCR has dominated urban excavations in the latest (original) and ‘secondary’ (redeposited) positions has years, for instance at excavations in Lund from 1993 been in use, but was criticised by Roskhams (1992) (Larsson 1993, 2000); Norrköping 1998 and 2000 as being too coarse. He instead suggested a system of (Hållans et al. 1999, Tagesson 2000b Karlsson et al. four classes, relating the fi nd to chronological, spa- in press); Sigtuna 1999-2000 (Fogelberg & Wick- tial and functional contexts. In Sweden, this system ström 2003) and Karlstad 2001 (Bäck 2002). developed into a three-grade scale where the fi nds There has been criticism against the weaknesses are classifi ed as: within the SCR-system, for example the problem of • primary deposited – according to original time, catching the cultural activities within the time-gaps space and function contexts, for instance household between the stratigraphical units described within the tools dropped on the fl oor in the house where it was matrix (Fogelberg et al. 2004). Harris (1979) states used. that occupational layers consist of two components: depositions and interfaces. In the later years, the • secondary deposited – contemporaneous but iso- need for separating the strata into depositions and lated from original context in function and space, for soil horizons (depositional and post-depositional example waste deposits. remains) within the interpretation has been stressed • tertiary deposited – redeposited material, isolated (Heimdahl 2003, 2004). The depositions generally in time, space and function (Larsson & Johansson- refl ect short-term events, while soil horizons devel- Hevren 1998), for example material and artefacts in

12 Urbanised Nature in the Past layers that are excavated and used as fi ll in new con- nology is insuffi cient to describe the material that structions on another site. occurs in archaeological contexts, and the geologist This system was later adapted to account for the may lack knowledge of the formation process of “ar- depositions themselves (Tagesson 2000a). Tertiary chaeological” strata. Also, terms with common defi - deposits consisting of fi ll that is redeposited may nitions used in archaeology may at times be more ap- then have had a primary function, for instance as a propriate than geological or pedological terms when foundation for a house. describing occupational deposits (cf., Heimdahl et al. 2003). One example is the Swedish word torv, which has Clashes in terminology two possible translations in English: ‘peat’ and ‘turf’. When discussing terminology, we must assume that In Swedish geological terminology torv is defi ned terminological use within a discipline often differs strictly as ‘peat’ – an autochthonous accumulation of between different groups of researchers, both locally plant remains, for instance vitmosstorv (Sphagnum and regionally. However in this discussion, I refer to peat) or starrtorv (Carex peat). However, an older geologists and archaeologists, although simplifi ed, as meaning of the word, probably of agrarian origin, is two homogeneous groups and discuss some similari- the uppermost vegetative zone of soils in grasslands – ties and differences that appear to be widespread. the root horizon (easy to cut with a spade to sods) of Both geology and archaeology work with the phys- turf. In Sweden as in many other European countries, ical material that holds information on past condi- turf has been used as a building material, for exam- tions, and both disciplines attempt to gain knowledge ple in ramparts, earthwork and as a cover on house through the use of stratigraphic principles. Many of roofs. At some archaeological sites, ground vegeta- the stratigraphic terms used in archaeology derive tion and root horizons may be covered and become from geology (c.f., Larsson 2000). It can therefore preserved as buried horizons within the stratigraphy, be presumed that archaeologists and geologists use which also may be considered turf. Furthermore dif- the same stratigraphical terminology. This is partly ferent types of peat have been used throughout his- true, especially when it comes to descriptive terms tory. For instance, Sphagnum was used as a packing (e.g., ‘deposition’, ‘interface’) and technical terms material, as ‘toilet paper’, as moist buffering mate- (e.g., ‘gravel’ or ‘clay’). rial in beds and as litter in stables (Krzywinski et al. However, there are major differences between the 1983, Geraghty 1996, Hansson & Dicksson 1997). uses of terminology in the two disciplines. Archaeol- In some cases, when a site is located in a moist area ogists usually do not apply many terms used in geol- (for instance an alluvial valley), peat may also have ogy. Examples are: ‘autochthonous’/‘allochthonous’ accumulated naturally in the urban environment. and ‘concordance’/‘discordance’, which are descrip- It is possible to fi nd both remains of peat and tive terms that probably would be useful also to ar- turf in urban occupational layers and of course, it chaeologists. Although when these terms have been is important to separate these two different types of used by archaeologists (e.g., Roslund 1997), other material since they indicate different environmental archaeologists have found them complicated (Larson origin and cultural use. This does not mean that the & Johansson-Hervén 1998). Swedish term torv should be applied only in one way In other cases, archaeologists have developed their but it is of great importance to be aware of the differ- own terms to describe stratigraphy. Good examples ent defi nitions in order to clarify descriptions. are the terms referring to SCR and the use of Har- Another example of confusing terminology is the ris matrix. There are also examples of terms that Swedish term jordart, which may be translated to are used by both disciplines but differ in defi nition. ‘regolith’ – an unconsolidated deposit. It may have Some of those differences are necessary and depend both a genetic defi nition like ‘till’, ‘glaciofl uvium’, on the differences in approach, objects of study and ‘littoral sand’, or a descriptive function, for exam- methods. ple ‘gravel’, ‘sand’ and ‘clay’. Occupational depos- The different use of terms has led to interdiscipli- its may also be referred to as a type of jordart. In nary misunderstandings and confl icts. Since geolo- Scandinavia, deposits of this type are of Quaternary gists often have a clearer view of terms associated origin but the term is also used to describe weathered with sediments and soils, sometimes archaeologists material that may be much older in other parts of just leave it up to the geologists to classify the mate- the world. The geological term jordart should not be rial. This can create a false sense that the material is confused with the pedological term jordmån, which classifi ed according to strict and correct principles. corresponds to ‘soil’ – the upper part of a regolith This is perhaps so, but sometimes geological termi- that has been affected by post-depositional proc-

13 J. Heimdahl esses associated with physical, chemical, biological where long traditions of urban archaeology existed. or cultural factors. The problem is that the English Large building projects during the 1970s and 1980s term ‘soil’ is not only used in the strict pedological caused a huge expansion in urban archaeology. As defi nition but also in a more general manner, even by a response to the need for information concerning scientists. It does not then refer to a specifi c type of ancient remains in towns, a project called ‘The Me- soil but either to all soils covering the world’s land dieval Town’ (Sw: Medeltidsstaden) was initiated by area (Brady 1990), or at times to the material com- the National Heritage Board (RAÄ). The aim of this posing a soil or terrestrial sediment. This use may project was to provide an overview of the urban me- correspond to the word jord, which lacks a geologi- dieval remains in Sweden, which concerned about 70 cal defi nition, but may sometimes refer to what in a towns that were given privileges before the Refor- geological defi nition should be considered a regolith mation in 1527 (Forsström 1982, Andersson 2001, (jordart). It may also be added that the term ‘earth’ Lindeblad 2002). is not used as a substitute for soil. The history of towns differs according to the defi - Many Swedish archaeologists are not aware of this nition of ‘town’. In the juridical aspect, a town is an complexity of defi nitions and do not notice when a area that has received special privileges to regulate British or American author refers to the pedologi- trade. In Scandinavia, this system was fi rst intro- cal defi nition of soil or merely uses the word in a duced in Denmark (11th century) and Norway (12th general, undefi ned way. For instance, it is common century). Therefore, the oldest Swedish towns, ac- that archaeologists defi ne culturally affected soil ho- cording to this defi nition, are located in areas that rizons as ‘occupational layers’. Since ‘layer’ refers to previously belonged to those countries. Lund and a deposit, and the culturally affected soil to the main Helsingborg in the county of Skåne was founded in part consisting of the minerogenic sediment that has Denmark during the end of the 11th century. Kun- been there before the occupation, this often leads to gahälla in the county of Bohuslän was founded 1130 misunderstandings. in Norway. In Sweden, the system of town privileges Torv and jord- (art/mån) are two examples of how was introduced during the early 13th century. Exam- problems concerning geoarchaeological terminology ples of early Swedish towns, according to this defi ni- may arise. These, and many more examples not men- tion, are Visby, Söderköping and Sigtuna (Ahlberg tioned here, reveal the importance of awareness of & Redin 1994). the differences and similarities between the terminol- Another type of defi nition of town is social and ogies used within the two disciplines. Clear and open structural, for example “a dense settlement, where communication between the disciplines is necessary, inhabitants form a social unit in economic or/and not only through an explanation of terms, but also juridical aspect according to common interests in through a sensitive and receptive dialogue. trade” (Schück 1926). According to this defi nition, Scandinavian towns are older. Ribe in Denmark seems to have been founded as a central trading Stratigraphic terms used in this thesis place in the early 8th century. Birka in Lake Mälaren The urban occupational layers I have worked with (Sweden) existed c. 760-1000 AD, and many of the are composed of two main physical units: deposi- later medieval towns seem to have been founded tional layers and post-depositional soil horizons. upon older occupations, which in many cases may be Since it is of great importance to keep these apart, called towns, for instance Visby and Sigtuna. Within I will use the terms sensu stricto according to the the juridical defi nition of towns, those types of set- working defi nitions presented in Table 1. tlements are sometimes referred to as ‘proto-towns’ (Holmqvist-Olausson 1993). Defi nitions related to the environmental aspects of 3 Urban occupational deposits the terms ‘town’ and ‘urban’ are also used among urban ecologists (cf., Mcintyre et al. 2000). In ur- Urbanisation and towns ban ecology, the environment is often compared Historians, human geographers and archaeologists with rural areas along so-called ‘urban – rural gra- have mainly performed research on the history of dients’ (e.g., McDonnell & Pickett 1990, McDon- towns during the last 25 years. Before the 1970s, nell et al. 1997, Simmons et al. 2002, Moffatt et historians dominated the arena of urban science and al. 2004). ‘Urban’ and ‘rural’ are then commonly at that time very few urban archaeological excava- defi ned according to population density in specifi c tions had been performed in Sweden. Exceptions areas (e.g., McDonnell et al. 1997). Urban palae- were the towns of Birka, Lund and Gamla Lödöse, oecology often confronts similar gradients, although

14 Urbanised Nature in the Past

Table 1: Explanation of stratigraphical terms used in this thesis Term Explanation Contact and Interface The boundary between layers/beds/deposits. Archaeologists most commonly use ‘Interface’ while geologists use ‘contact’. Dark earth A dark, organic rich stratum (generally over 2 dm thick) that commonly pre-dates the well stratiﬁ ed medieval and post-medieval urban occupational deposits in Scandinavia and Europe. Dark earths are more thoroughly discussed in Chapter 3.

Deposit, layer and bed The terms are used synonymously for depositional units or sediments of natural or cultural origin. The material in layers and beds may have been deposited during a single event or by successive deposition, for example in water bodies where sedimentation of single beds may take some time. Layers, beds and deposits can be divided into subunits that are also called layers, beds and deposits. Facies A series of speciﬁ c stratigraphical units developed during similar conditions (cf. Reading & Levell 1996). The stratigraphy at the sites studied here is divided into four different Facies. A Facies may further be divided into subfacies.

Horizon or soil horizon A post-depositional feature developed within a deposit/layer/bed by pedogenic processes under the inﬂ uence of climate, soil chemistry and/or biology. Horizons in urban occupational layers are often developed by tramping by humans and cattle. When horizons are formed through several strata, contacts between layers can be destroyed and older stratigraphical features disappear or become obscured.

Phase A term used by archaeologists (based on e.g. different building styles or other cultural habits reﬂ ected by artefacts) to separate time dependent units in a stratigraphy

Sediment Transported and deposited minerogenic and/or organic material consisting of one or several layers.

Soil Not used as a single word in this thesis in order to avoid confusion. It is, however, used to describe post- depositional process or strata e.g., soil horizon, soil process or soil bioturbation.

Stratum and unit Refers to an unspeciﬁ ed stratigraphical unit that has not yet been classiﬁ ed as a layer/bed/deposition or a soil horizon or a combination of both.

Urban deposits occurring chronologically, but there is generally a The character of urban occupational strata in Scan- lack of information concerning population density. dinavia differs not only between but also within the The term ‘urban’ is instead used to name a certain towns themselves. Compared to geological depos- type of environment with specifi c characteristics. its, an urban stratigraphical unit varies on a smaller Early Scandinavian towns generally had a strong ru- scale due to its cultural origin. Of course there are ral character since farms were often situated within also many urban sites that lack older occupational the towns. This means that the early urban environ- layers, both because of uneven deposition and as an ments had rural character that eventually decreased effect of truncation. and disappeared. Because of this process, the terms According to my own observations at urban exca- ‘urban’ and ‘rural’ are not mutually exclusive (cf., vations (in Norrköping 2000; Sigtuna 2001; Stock- Clark 1992). I will use the term ‘rural’ as referring holm 1999, 2001; Lund 2003; Mariestad 2003; Karl- to an environment dominated by activities occurring stad 2003-2005 and Skänninge 2003-2005), as well in a rural economy (as crop processing and live stock as studies of records from older excavations (Bero- handling), n.b. the degree of self-suffi ciency not de- nius-Jörpeland 1992, Larsson 2000), some general fi ned. The term ‘urban’ will refer to a densely and features may be recognised. permanently populated area that is environmentally Urban sites are commonly located close to the characterised by trade, craft and/or industry. water (for instance, rivers, lakes or in coastal areas) A central issue within urban history is the proc- since waterways were the natural routes for trade esses that give rise to the towns – the urbanisation. and transport. As a result, many towns have been The causes behind urbanisation are complex. They exposed to fl ooding and alluvial deposits are often include geographical, social, historical, economical found interbedded within urban deposits. Water- and physical factors. Ambitions of a central political logging of deposits is also common, which leads to power often seem to have initiated the process. In anaerobic conditions. This inhibits the decay of un- Scandinavia, urbanisation occurred irregularly from charred organic material and leads to the preserva- the late Iron Age (Viking Age) until modern times tion of organic material, for example plant remains. (Andersson 2001). The thickness of urban occupational deposits

15 J. Heimdahl

Figure 6: Type profi le of occurrence of older urban occupational deposits. They tend to be concentrated to depressions in the natural substratum and as slope front fi lls. Older urban occupational layers are generally covered by modern fi ll, and excavations occur where this modern fi ll would replace them. seems to be dependent on local topographical fea- that occurred at former urban and proto-urban sites tures and therefore have a levelling effect on the ur- (Macphail et al. 2003). (Note that both ‘dark earth’ ban topographical landscape, since they tend to fi ll and ‘black earth’ are terms also used in the classifi - depressions and become thinner on the top of hills cation of natural Amazonian soils and humid step (Fig. 6). In a fl at landscape, the thickness of urban soils. Those natural soils have nothing to do with deposits is generally even. In Sweden, the thickness the dark earths found in the archaeological contexts of urban deposits is up to 12 meters thick, excluding discussed here.) 19-21st century fi lls. In later decades archaeologists in, for example Ita- In many towns there is a general trend in the degree ly, Belgium and France (terres noires) have adopted of stratifi cation according to relative age. Younger the term. The European use of the term gave rise to units are generally thinner and more distinctly strati- a broader defi nition, and ‘dark earths’ are no longer fi ed than older units, which are often composed of considered to have been formed during a specifi c time thick (20-70 cm), dark, homogeneous strata rich in period, in a specifi c urban environment, or by a spe- organic matter. Such old strata have proven diffi cult cifi c human activity. The term is now more generally to interpret through archaeological methods. Inter- used to describe dark, thick (often 20-70 cm), poorly nationally they have been called ‘dark earths’ (more stratifi ed stratigraphic, organically rich units that oc- thoroughly discussed in the following section). The cur at archaeological sites. The genesis of dark earths upper, well-stratifi ed strata are generally easier to in- on different sites is probably diverse. When occur- terpret since they mainly consist of two main units: ring at urban sites, dark earth is usually associated remnants of constructions (e.g., fi lls, houses and with some type of urban decline, and the local envi- streets) and waste. ronment is often interpreted as changing into waste The material that constitutes urban deposits var- ground or midden (Macphail et al. 2003). ies from minerogenic to more or less organic but is Ideas about the processes that create dark earths mostly a mixture of minerogenic and organic com- have varied. Macphail (1994) showed that dark ponents. Charcoal, fragments of wood and faecal earth might be formed by natural soil formation due material from both humans and animals often domi- to total abandonment of the area. A ruderal fl ora nate the organic component. Reworking processes may begin to grow in the house debris, giving rise to were extensive, both due to deliberate actions such entisols or inceptisols (developed by earthworm and as digging and truncation, and unintentional effects root bioturbation) in occupational deposits. Cat- of tramping by humans and animals. The material in tle grazing (Gebhardt 1997), middening (Macphail the deposits is therefore often from different origins. 1994), cultivation (Gebhardt 1997), market activities (Reece 1980), ‘backyard activities’ (Gebhardt 1997) and natural fl ood events (Corty et al. 1989) Dark earths have all been used to explain the formation of spe- The term ‘dark earth’ (in some early texts referred cifi c dark earths. to as ‘black earth’) originates from Britain and was In the 1980s and 1990s, a discussion took place in coined to describe the thick, homogeneous, poorly Italy concerning the formation process of dark earth. stratifi ed, dark soils that often separate the clearly The question was whether the formation process oc- stratifi ed urban deposits of the Roman and Medieval curred during a few years or decades, or longer time Ages (Fig. 7). The term was traditionally associated periods of hundreds of years (Macphail et al. 2003). with the abandonment and decline of urban environ- In later years, it has been obvious that dark earth ments during the early Middle Ages – the ‘Dark Ages’ often reveals a more complex stratigraphy, obscured c. AD 500-1000 (Norman & Reader 1912). Dark by the bioturbation (e.g., Sidell 2000). earths were formed as a result of cultural activities In Sweden, the term ‘dark earth’ has so far not been

16 Urbanised Nature in the Past adapted in this European aspect. The term svarta ing deposits of the Viking Age marketplace Kaupang jorden (‘black earth’) has long been used to describe (Sørensen et al. 2002). The term ‘black/dark earth’ in soils with occupational remnants rich in carbon Scandinavian contexts seems to refer to carbon/or- dust, for example the soils in the area of the Viking ganic-rich urban occupational deposits in general. Age town Birka on Björkö in Lake Mälaren. Use Thick, poorly stratifi ed, organic-rich strata that of this term is documented from 1683, probably as predate well-stratifi ed medieval urban units are also an adaptation to the terminology used locally (Hal- commonly found in Scandinavia (Fig. 7). Apparent- dorph 1683, Hyenstrand 1992). After this, and since ly, they correspond to the European dark earths but the excavations during the 19th century (e.g., Stolpe have not been referred to as such. In the following, 1871-1879), the term ‘black earth’ has been regular- I refer to these Scandinavian units as ‘dark earths’, ly used when referring to the complete stratigraphy in the broad, descriptive sense not connected to any of the occupational layers in Birka (c. 1-2 m thick). specifi c formation process or human activity. The Also, well-stratifi ed units preserved within the occu- occurrences of dark earths have also been debated pational layers at Birka are referred to as belonging in Scandinavia, but since this area lacks the traces to the ‘black earth’. The Swedish term svarta jorden of Roman occupation as on the European continent is also used to describe the carbon-rich occupational and on the British Isles, the Scandinavian dark earths layers of the 12th century town of Kungahälla (An- have generally been looked upon as indications of dersson & Carlsson 2001). Engelmark (2002) used a new development – a development that preceded the term ‘dark earth’ for the urban occupational lay- the advanced medieval urban phase, rather than as a ers at Sigtuna, deposited between the 10th and 13th decline of an earlier advanced phase. To explain the century. Those layers are, however, well-stratifi ed shift from dark earths to well-stratifi ed urban units, units of urban occupational layers so in this case, the the focus has mainly been placed upon the changes term is used in a different way. In Norway, the term in the thickness of the strata. ‘black earth’ has been used to describe the remain- The Scandinavian discussion concerning the dark earths has generally been focused on their disappearance. Many Scandinavian authors note that this type of thick occupational strata was formed between the 10th and 14th century (e.g., Andrén 1986). Beronius- Jörpeland (1992) suggested that the high ‘growth- rate’ of deposits, resulting in thick occupational layers, might indicate that settlement expansion was at its height during this period. Runer (1999) noted the difference between urban and agrarian development during Medieval time. While the occurrence of thick urban strata decreases from the 14th century, they seem to remain in many agrarian environments, which are interpreted as an indication of a ‘social in- tegration’ into new hierarchies that occurred within towns but not in rural settings. In Lund and many other towns, the thinning of occupational strata from the 14th to the 17th century has been described as a decrease in ‘growth-rate’ (Andrén 1986). The thick, early occupational strata in Uppsala have been explained as being caused by a ‘semi-agrarian’ economy with large cattle stocks within the town (Ersgård 1986). The shift to thinner strata in Visby is explained by the increase in waste control (e.g., Westholm 1990, Nydolf et al. 1992). Also Andrén (1986) refers to the changes in waste handling when explaining this general shift within urban occupational stratigraphy. The increasing use of manure on fi elds during the 15th century may have decreased the Figure 7: Typical stratigraphical position and habitus of amount of cattle faeces deposited within the urban dark earths in Britain (left) and Scandinavia (right). environment, and the increasing use of pavements

17 J. Heimdahl and permanent plots may have made it easier to keep of this multiproxy approach has also been applied the town clean. Andrén also suggests that the waste- to trace the possibly obscured stratigraphy of dark handling shift may indicate a changed cultural view earths. One approach has been to determine vertical on waste. This view was supported by Solli (1989) or horizontal compositional variations (Sidell 2000). who suggested that the shift in the thickness of urban Chemical analysis and measurements of magnetic strata in Norwegian towns was caused by social and susceptibility may also be useful when separating political changes. Accordingly, the ‘growth of layers’ dark earths formed in urban and rural environments may be a measure of a town’s capacity for organisa- (Macphail et al. 2000). A clear indication of hidden tion. strata are the remnants of constructions found in situ It is interesting to note the differences and simi- within the homogeneous stratigraphical unit, resting larities between the Scandinavian and European dis- on a former surface that now invisible in sections. cussions concerning dark earths. One of the main differences is what is considered status quo in the environment where dark earth is formed. At many The stratigraphy of urban constructions urban sites where Roman towns preceded Medieval From an archaeological point of view, the most im- towns, the interlayering dark earth is considered as portant components in urban occupational layers a break in an urban activity continuum. Apparently are the physical remains of the town itself – its build- pedogenic processes acting on the debris of Roman ings, streets and yards. In the discussion concerning buildings formed dark earth at some sites. Others what part of the occupational deposits are intention- have been formed by rural activities (Macphail et ally or unintentionally created (Järpe et al. 1979; al. 2003). In Scandinavia, dark earth seems to indi- Andrén 1985, 1986), these constructions are consid- cate new development at a site. Apparently they are ered intentionally created deposits (and may also be formed during the initial phase of the riddling urban- referred to as ‘manifest’). It is important to realize isation process. Naturally, this phase has never been that medieval houses, and parts of houses, were of- referred to as an ‘abandonment’ or ‘decline’ – rather ten constructed during different time periods (e.g., the opposite – since the preceding environment com- Eriksdotter 1996) and that old structures rarely have monly has been a non-occupied site, even though the been left untouched by later activities. Therefore, a later urban phase with its thinner and better-defi ned building remnant may represent building phases that stratigraphical units is considered to be formed dur- span over several decades. ing a more advanced phase. Parts of buildings preserved in urban strata gen- The similarities in these discussions are found in erally consist of the lower units – the foundation, the ideas concerning specifi c activities and proc- which in turn may consist of fi ll, stones, sills, posts/ esses that may have caused the formation of dark postholes and sometimes fl oor remains. Foundations earth. Cultivation, grazing/cattle handling, midden- or parts of ovens and kilns are also sometimes pre- ing/waste ground use or less intensive occupational served. activities have been common interpretations in both In archaeological studies, the focus is generally the European and the Scandinavian debate. placed on documenting the structural proportions The methodological approach to dark earth and of house remains in order to interpret the type of obscured stratigraphy varies between the traditions building and its function, and the spatial distribu- in the different countries. In England and France mi- tion between different buildings in order to locate cromorphological studies have been used (e.g., Corty backyards, lanes and streets (Augustsson 1992). et al. 1989, Gebhardt 1997), for example in Lon- In order to interpret building techniques, there has don (Corty et al. 1989), Worchester (Dalwood 1992) been a focus on the parts that most clearly reveal and Paris (Cammas 1997). In Sweden there has been the upper structures of the building, for example no tradition of incorporating micromorphological the arrangement and styles of sills and postholes (cf. studies in archaeology so far. The exception is the Goodburn 1995). The foundation layers of houses, studies of soil profi les from cultivated terraces in the which generally are the remains that built up the oc- counties of Halland and Närke and the occupational cupational layers, have been studied in terms of their strata of Birka (mentioned in Håkansson 1995 and general morphology. Only few, if any, studies have Håkansson 1997). Unfortunately, the results of those until now focused on the material in those founda- studies have not been published thus far. tions, the fi ll that composes them. Since they often Measurements of various biological, chemical contain reworked material, fi nds within the fi lls are and physical parameters are applied in geology in diffi cult to interpret and relate to time and place de- order to make stratigraphical interpretations. Some pendent contexts and are therefore considered as be-

18 Urbanised Nature in the Past

Figure 8: The collapse of a building controls the extension of debris layers deposited above the foundations. Examples of collapses are: A) Outward collapse, B) Inward collapse and C) Collapse through tipping. Samples taken from building debris (grey) may therefore be plotted as being outside the building, since constructions commonly are marked on excavation plans by the extension of their foundations (dotted lines). ing of limited archaeological value (e.g., Roskhams val towns, it was common to use debris from older 1992, 2001, Tagesson 2000a). buildings as fi ll in the new foundations. Augusts- In some cases, the upper parts of buildings are pre- son (1992) states that building materiasl in Swedish served in the stratigraphy. This is especially evident towns were limited, which may be refl ected in the when buildings have been burned but sometimes also habit of recycling house debris as fi ll. deliberately demolished, generally in order to make A special valuable type of stratigraphical remains space for other constructions. These types of remains of destructed buildings is the traces of large city are preserved as depositions of house debris consist- fi res, which often were well documented in histori- ing of fragments of the former houses and in some cal records (Fig. 9). Residues of such fi res may be cases, their content in the form of charcoal, wood, preserved as extensive and continuous charcoal ho- fragmented bricks, chalk, mortar, glass, stones and rizons that contain building remains and objects af- pieces of turf. Sometimes it is possible to identify lay- fected by fi re (melted glass, burned clay etc.). These ers of different composition within the house debris, layers are often possible to identify even if they have which may make it possible to understand which been truncated. If such identifi cation is possible (and materials composed the different units of the build- supported by artefact typology) the dating of the ing. strata can be pinpointed, sometimes down to hours. When dealing with the stratigraphy of collapsed Also streets, lanes and yards may be preserved constructions, it is important to consider how the within the stratigraphy, both as deposits and as hori- building came down (e.g., Keevill 1995, Robins zons. When cobble streets and yards are preserved in 2003). Did the building collapse on its foundation, urban occupational layers, they generally consist of or did it tip over in the process? If the building tipped a settling material (commonly sand) into which the over, or if its walls fell outwards, the house debris cobblestones are pressed. Sometimes the stones have would also be distributed outside its foundations been removed and the settling horizon may then (Fig. 8). The investigation of how a collapse of a be recognised by its surface morphology, with pre- building took place may also reveal evidence of the served imprints of the stones. At waterlogged sites, building techniques (Keevill 1995). wooden boardwalks are sometimes found. The most When new buildings were constructed in medie- common types of streets, lanes and yards in Scan-

19 J. Heimdahl

Figure 9: Fire could be extremely destructive among densely built timber constructions and many Medieval and Post Medieval towns were burnt down at several occasions. Traces of large town fi res are sometimes preserved stratigraphically and may be used for dating. dinavian towns were probably naked, tramped soil a specifi c social context, may be considered valu- without any paving at all. Remains of such surfaces able and useful in another. In Scandinavian medieval may be recognised by the compacted topsoil or the towns, the things that were interpreted as waste can tramping horizon. Old walking grounds may also be be classifi ed in different groups: by-products, broken recognised by the orientation of artefacts and other or used objects, and faeces – which also may be con- objects that almost exclusively are deposited in hori- sidered a type of by-product (Fig. 10). zontal positions. For instance, by-products (or waste products) may Finds of former tramping grounds are generally be wooden chips created during carpentry, bones considered as being of high interpretative value. Ob- during the cutting of meat, or ash and charcoal from jects found on those grounds may be considered as hearths. This type of waste is the material that in one primary deposits, and can therefore be connected way or another was originally brought into the town to a time and space dependent context (Tagesson from the surroundings. Another type of by-product 2000a). has its origin within the town itself, for example nat- Another type of urban construction is the large- ural (or cultural) sediments that may be considered scale fi ll that was used to transform ground surfaces as waste when being redistributed by digging. Be- within the town. Examples of this are the rearrange- sides by-products, broken, used or old products will ments or damming of rivers, fi lling and founda- often also be considered waste. It is the waste of past tions of banks or shores, and fi lling in depressions times, the small things forgotten, that in our times (Beronius-Jörpeland 1992). In order to transform will consist the absolute majority of the ‘artefacts’ landforms or prepare an area for building, negative studied by archaeologists (cf., Deetz 1996). A third forms such as pits, cavities, hollows and truncations type of waste is faeces from humans and animals. were also created (Yule 1992, Clark 2000, Tagesson Cattle, horses, pigs, sheep, goats, dogs, cats and 2000a). In geological terms the contact between the fowls were kept on the streets during daytime. This truncated material and a later deposition is ‘erosive’ is the reason that dung constitutes a major part of (indication of hiatus). In archaeological terms it is the organic compound in many urban occupational sometimes called a ‘truncation horizon’. layers. Faecal material from animals is often found in urban refuse hips, which indicates that this material was removed from the streets. Human faeces The stratigraphy of waste are generally found concentrated in latrines and on ‘Waste’ would possibly be the most common answer dump piles where latrine buckets or chamber pots to the question of what mainly composes urban oc- were emptied. cupational layers, and probably many archaeologists There are many popular myths concerning waste and geologists would agree on this point. There are handling in Medieval and Post-Medieval times and many reasons for this. many have a mental picture of the medieval towns as Waste may be considered a term for unwanted ma- extremely dirty. Numerous authors have described terial. What is considered as ‘unwanted’ in a specifi c how household waste was dumped directly on the situation is, of course, dependent on social conven- street, which has contributed to the idea of the me- tions. Things that are ‘waste’ in one situation or in dieval town as a constantly growing waste pile – an

20 Urbanised Nature in the Past idea that in turn has been used in order to explain Urban pedogene soil processes the presence of urban occupational deposits, since Alongside the depositional processes, like construc- they have been interpreted as the actual waste pile. tion and waste handling, the urban environment and Archaeologists initially supported this picture since its associated activities also led to the formation of it was impossible to fi nd traces of cleaning and trun- strata accorded to post-depositional process and cation, according to earlier excavation techniques formation of horizons. The soil horizons formed in (Larsson 2000). During the latest decade this picture urban sites can be developed by natural pedogene has been adjusted. Partly because of the introduc- processes that occur independently of the urban en- tion of SCR, it has been possible to interpret pat- vironment and also by processes directly linked to terns of refuse removal within urban environments. the urban environment. Tramping by humans and Specifi c dumping places and dumping pits are often domesticated animals, grubbing of pigs and peck- identifi ed, and an organised system of waste disper- ing of fowls cause culturally induced bioturbation in sal with wooden barrels seems to have been in use the urban topsoil. At the same time horizons may in many towns. The systematic cleaning in Medieval form by natural bioturbation, for instance caused and Post-Medieval towns is also supported by writ- by roots, earthworms and other soil organisms. A ten sources (Beronius-Jörpeland 2001). majority of the topsoil horizons in towns were prob- Urban production of waste during the Medieval ably truncated, but sometimes they were buried and and Post-Medieval times was limited compared to thereby preserved. later times and the recycling of material was prob- In the south Swedish lowland two orders of ‘natural’ ably common (cf. Drangert & Hallström 2002). pedogene soils dominate: Spodosoles (Sw: podsoler) Organic by-products from cooking was used to feed and a type of Entisoles (sometimes also referred to as pigs, wooden waste was often used as fuel and when Inceptisoles), (Sw: brunjordar). The Entisols are de- things could not be recycled in other ways, they could veloped in grasslands and broad leaf forests through serve as fi ll in foundations for new constructions earthworm bioturbation (Fig. 11). Organic litter on (Beronius-Jörpeland 2001). In many towns there are the ground is mixed with the upper part of the min- examples of how waste was used as fi ll in the con- erogenic material that constitutes the sub-soil. This struction of extensive land forming, for instance the leads to the formation of A and B-horizons above foundation of new waterfronts in Stockholm during the unaffected C-horizon: The surface A-horizon is th the 14 century (Hansson 1970, Dahlbäck 1982). characterised by humifi ed organic matter mixed with

Figure 10: Deposition of waste occurs through different degrees of awareness. A) By-products, such as wood chip litter, e.g. created through carpentry. They are unintentionally accumulated as litter on the ﬂ oor or ground and later mixed with the topsoil through post depositional tramping. B) Minerogenic waste created as a by-product from digging. They can be left as unintentionally created waste piles, be dumped intentionally in waste piles or be reused as ﬁ ll. C) Objects may be dropped accidentally and are then considered waste by mistake. If new protecting layers do not cover the surface, the objects dropped can be either tramped into the ground or cleaned away and deposited in waste pits or piles. D) Waste from e.g. households was commonly and intentionally thrown in waste pits or given to pigs.

21 J. Heimdahl

The two major horizon-types formed due to cultural activities found in urban occupational deposits are tramping horizons (developed by humans and animals) and cultivation horizons (developed through ploughing and digging). Cultivation horizons, or cropmark horizons, are sometimes diffi cult to separate from horizons developed through cattle tramping. Their content and appearance in cross section may be similar. Both contain a mixture of cattle faeces and minerogenic material, and both may be developed to similar depths (c 10-20 cm). If studied in detail in the fi eld, they may be separated by different features in their contact with the unaffected substratum, for example in cultivation horizons the contact may be impressed by marks from ploughs or shovels (e.g., Petersson 1999, Hedwall et al. 2000, Karlenby 2002). Ploughing is a very rough mechanical force that Fig 11: Typical Entisol (Sw. brunjord), developed in Mid- dle Swedish grassland. It consists of three horizons. The generally destroys remnants of buildings and struc- A-horizon, a surface horizon of humifi ed organic matter tures within the affected horizon, and archaeologi- mixed with minerogenic particles. The B-horizon, a sub- cal interpretation in plough horizons is diffi cult, al- surface minerogenic horizon enriched with organic matter. though possible (Alexander & Armit 1993, Sarnäs The C-horizon, the unaffected minerogenic mother mate- 2004). Tramping, on the other hand, may be gentler, rial. and the turbative force is not as large but still has an effect on objects within the affected horizon. Experi- ments have proven that tramping effects by humans, minerogenic particles and the subsurface minerogen- especially in sand, may cause dispersal effects on ar- ic B-horizon is characterised by the enrichment of tefacts, not only on the horizontal plan but also in organic matter. If an area, for instance, a vacant lot their vertical displacement (Stockton 1973, Villa & within a town is left untouched, it generally leads to Courtin 1983). Another soil affecting process may the establishment of ruderal plants and earthworms be heating of the ground, for example below hearths begin to thrive. After some years this will develop or burned buildings (Corty et al. 1989). The effect of natural A and B-horizons. Such horizons (sometimes earthworms is even smaller than tramping but still partly truncated) are commonly found buried in ar- these organisms can be capable of moving larger ob- chaeological sites and indicate old ground surfaces jects, such as bones and stones. The effects of earth- that have been open, and relatively undisturbed, for worms on artefacts and archaeological sites have several years. been investigated several times (e.g., Armour-Chelu Human interaction with soil forming processes & Andrews 1994; Grave & Kealhofer 1999; Lawson is sometimes considered as ‘disturbance’ but soils et al. 2000; Davidson 2002). formed due to anthropogenic activity may also be Traces of earthworms may be found either by the classifi ed as its own order: Anthrosols (Gilbert 1989) structural analysis of the soil, by macrofossil fi nds or that may include soils affected by ploughing, dig- by worm tracks in the sediment. Earthworms’ faeces ging, tramping, or chemical pollution. Individual are composed of mineral particles and humic mate- horizons within soils, affected by ploughing (often rial that stick together in aggregates. These aggre- rich in phosphate due to fertilizing) may also be gates form a structure called ‘crumb microstructure’. called ‘anthropic’ (e.g., Brady 1990). However, the Generally they are easy to identify with fi eld obser- classifi cation of Anthrosols is generally adapted to vations but sometimes micromorphological studies modern soils (Gilbert 1989) and the letter system of are required (Corty et al. 1989). A soil that contains classifying different horizons within soils is not suf- crumb microstructures obtains specifi c properties, fi cient when classifying horizons in urban archaeo- for instance it becomes much more resistant to ero- logical contexts. Instead the individual horizons are sion by rain and alluvial runoff (Brady 1990). The referred to by the descriptions of the activity that cre- cocoons formed on the worms’ clitellum constitute ated them such as: ‘tramping horizon’, ‘earthworm the most common remains of earthworms (Fig 12). horizon’, ‘root horizon’ or in combination such as They are easy to fi nd and identify during macrofos- ‘tramping horizon, affected by earthworms’.

22 Urbanised Nature in the Past

of water along the roots also leads to the transport of oxygen. The rate of decomposition can ﬂ uctuate through time due to changes in climate and local environment, like nearby excavations. Excavations lead to the drainage of surrounding strata, which then increases decomposition rate. This in turn may lead to the settling of the ground and the destruction of buildings. The processes and effects of decomposition of occupational strata have been studied several times (e.g., Borg 1993, Oxley 1993, Gardelin 2002, Lagerlöf & Nord 2002, Wikström 2003).

4 Urban Plant Ecology From a perspective of botanical ecology, the urban environment is a mosaic of ecological niches, provid- ing habitats for a multitude of communities characterised by species with different strategies. The urban environment has changed in many ways Figure 12: A) Earthworm cocoon formed on the clitel- since the Medieval and Post-Medieval times. One of lum (jointed segments at the anterior third of the body of the most important changes is the urbanisation of oligochaetes). B) Earthworm traces obscuring the contact the rural economy. The end of animal husbandry between two strata. within towns and the disappearance of horse driven transport have decreased the content of nutrients in the systems. The transport of seeds and fruits from sil analysis, and may reveal the former presence of meadow and pasture plants by animal faeces and earthworms even if a crumb microstructure has not fi eld weeds from crops has almost ceased. Streets and been identifi ed. Tunnels burrowed by earthworms yards are almost exclusively covered with asphalt or are identifi able by characteristic tracks. They are stones and few cultivation plots for kitchen plants especially easy to identify when the worms have remain. On the other hand, cultivation for esthetical moved from one strata into another since the mate- or recreational purposes has increased since the mid rial from the old strata will occur as tunnel fi ll in 19th century when public parks were introduced (c.f., the new strata (Fig. 12). If earthworms occur in and Nolin 1999). In those parks, plant communities of between several strata separated by sharp contacts, cultivated species and weeds co-exist. these contacts will gradually become obscured. This There are also examples of urban environments makes it possible to exclude bioturbation by earth- that remain relatively unchanged. Past and present worms between strata whose contacts are sharp and processes of soil exposure are probably similar. undisturbed. Loosely packed and exposed soil provides a niche for Another important post-depositional effect is the r-strategists (cf., Hitchmough et al. 2001) – pioneer decomposition of organic material in the deposi- plants adapted to quick environmental fl uctuations tions. The decomposition occurs through activities by a rapid reproductive capacity and the capacity to by microorganisms, mainly fungi and bacteria. This form seed banks (Begon et al. 1996, Crawley 1997). activity is largely controlled by the access to oxygen, Plants that are resistant to mechanical disturbances, which in turn is controlled by the amount of water such as tramping, fi nd their niches in both past and in the material. Decomposition activities are there- present towns on paths and between cobblestones fore low in waterlogged material. The presence of on streets and yards. It is also common to fi nd refu- water depends on the ground water table and the gias of natural environments in towns (Gilbert 1989, capillarity of the material. Richness in organic mate- Botkin & Beveridge 1997). Along cliffs and water rial increases the fi ne-grained fraction through hu- lines, it is also common to fi nd a fl ora dominated mus particles and the water is easily kept within the by K-strategists – competitive plants with long life strata. Preservation in coarse-grained material, like cycles. gravel and stones, is generally poor if it is not situ- Present urban environments are often character- ated below the groundwater surface. Preservation ised by a large number of exotic plants introduced along roots is generally poorer because the transport both intentionally and unintentionally (Gilbert

23 J. Heimdahl

1989). Gardens and parks are especially rich in from 11th – 13th century Lund, 12th-14th century Upp- foreign plants, and it happens that imported plants sala (Hjelmqvist 1963, 1991, Regnell in Carelli & naturalise in vacant ecological niches or take over Lenntorp 1994, Regnell in Carelli 1995, Påhlsson niches by interspecies competition. Unintentionally 1983, 1991a, 1991b) and 16th century Gävle (Elf- introduced plants commonly spread in harbours and wendahl & Påhlsson 1991). During the archaeologi- places where cargo is unloaded, for instance on mar- cal excavations at Helgeandsholmen in Stockholm, ket places. The high introduction rate of neophytes there was a close collaboration between the National provides a stress to the urban ecology in general (Gil- Heritage Board (RAÄ) and the Geological Survey of bert 1989) and it has been observed that many alien Sweden (SGU). Palaeoecological reconstructions, species become a part of the urban seed bank (Kos- based on diatom and pollen fl oras, were performed tel-Hughes et al. 1998). by Miller and Robertsson (1982) and the plant mac- The introduction pattern of alien taxa has changed rofossils were studied by Griffi n (1983) and Berg- since the Medieval and Post-Medieval times. Both gren (1984). In Stockholm, studies have also been intentional introduction of cultural plants and un- carried out on the material from the Post-Medieval intentional introduction have increased in the last area of ‘Kvasten’ (Heimdahl 1999b) and from the centuries (Lundqvist 2000). Proportionally, the in- park ‘Humlegården’ (Hansson & Dyhlén-Täckman tentional introduction has increased much more 1999). Urban archaeobotanical studies in Göteborg than the unintentional introduction because of the have been performed at four Post-Medieval sites large quantities of cultural plants. Although the early (Larsson 1985, 1986). Geoarchaeological studies towns were probably rich in neophytes and past ur- in a wider sense have been carried out around and ban environments should also be suitable to study in the Viking Age town of Birka (Miller & Clarke from this perspective (cf., Preston et al. 2004, Wittig 1997 and Risberg et. al 2002), including archaeobo- 2004). tanical analysis (Hansson 1995, 1996, Hansson & Urban fossil fl oras commonly consist of a mixture Dickson 1997, Heimdahl 1999a). Birka, however, of plants derived from different environments (see differs from other Swedish urban contexts since the Chapter 5). This mixture may be analysed through occupational deposits are not waterlogged and the the ecological grouping of those species that can pro- preservation of organic remains is poor. Much of the vide important information about both local and re- study has therefore focused on the clay-gyttja depos- gional environments (Latalowa et al. 2003). ited offshore, just outside the town. This is similar to the sediments of the former lake Fatburssjön, that represent depositions from the Bronze Age to Earlier studies of urban archaeobotany in Sweden the 19th century (Robertsson et al. 1995). In addi- and neighbouring countries tion, earlier analyses of plant macrofossils of sam- The material in this study has been compared with ples from the 16th -17th century have been performed the results from other investigations of urban Medi- in Norrköping (Ranheden 1999). Macrofossils were eval sites in Sweden, and also from Finland, Norway also sampled in the castle of the Medieval town of and Denmark where archaeobotanical methods have Vadstena (Ranheden in Hedvall et al. 2000). Macro been applied (Fig. 13). Some results are unpublished remains from the Medieval town of Sigtuna (9th-13th or exist as reports from local museums or univer- century) were studied by Engelmark (2002). sity departments. In other nearby countries, such as Urban palaeoenvironmental reconstructions in Germany, Poland and Great Britain, urban biostrati- Finland have been undertaken in the Helsinki area graphical records have been more frequently studied using different biostratigraphical methods (Vuorela and published than in Scandinavia. Examples are the & Lempiäinen 1993). In Turku macrofossil analyses investigations in Cracow (Wasylikowa 1978), Göt- were carried out by Aalto (1994) and Lempiäinen tingen (Hellwig 1995), Kiel (Wiethold 1995), Led- (1985, 1988, 1994 &1995). During the reconstruc- nicki (Polcyn 1995), York (Kenward & Hall 1995), tion of the environmental history of Turku, a combi- Wroclaw (Kosina 1995), Dublin (Geraghty 1996), nation of palaeoecological methods (pollen, diatoms London (Giorgi 1997), and Elbag and Kołobrzeg and plant-macrofossils) was used (Vuorela et al. (Latalova et al. 1998, 2003). 1996). The Finnish data is probably well suited for Most archaeobotanical studies in Sweden have fo- comparison with the Swedish sites since Finland was cused on prehistorical sites but there are some exam- strongly infl uenced by Sweden during the Medieval ples of the studies of plant remains from Medieval and Post-Medieval times as it was under Swedish ad- and Post-Medieval urban sites. Urban archaeobo- ministration during AD1323-1809. tanical work has been performed on plant material Extensive geoarchaeological and palaeoecological

24 Urbanised Nature in the Past

Sweden Norway Finland 14 15 60 12 11 1 2 3 4 Estonia 16 5 6 7

Denmark

9 8 Baltic Sea 55 10 10 20

Figure 13: Location of urban sites, which has been archaeobotanically investigated, and are here compared with the results of this thesis. 1. Uppsala 5. Norrköping Griffi n et al. (1988) Påhlsson (1983, 1991a, 1991b) Ranheden (1999) Viklund (2000) 12. Bergen 6. Vadstena Krzywinski et al. (1983) 2. Sigtuna Ranheden in Hedvall et al. (2000) Krzywinski & Kaland (1983) Engelmark (2002) 7. Göteborg Hjelle (2002) Larsson (1985, 1986) 3. Birka 13. Trondheim Hansson (1995, 1996) 8. Lund Griffi n & Sandvik (1989) Miller & Clarke (1997) Hjelmqvist (1963, 1991) Sandvik (1992, 1995) Hansson & Dickson (1997) Regnell in Carelli & Lenntorp (1994) Heimdahl (1999a) Regnell in Carelli (1995) 14. Turku Risberg et al. (2002) Lempiäinen (1985, 1988, 1994, 1995) 9. Copenhagen Vuorela et al. (1996) 4. Stockholm Moltsen (2002) Aalto (1994) Miller & Robertsson (1982) Griffi n (1983) 10. Svendborg 15. Helsinki Berggren (1984). Jensen (1979) Vuorela & Lempiäinen (1993) Robertsson et al. (1995) Hansson & Dyhlén-Täckman (1999) 11. Oslo 16. Tartu Heimdahl (1999b) Griffi n (1979) Sillasoo (2002) work has been carried out in urban medieval con- ysis have been made in Oslo (Griffi n 1979, Griffi n et texts in Norway, for example in Bergen (Krzywinski al. 1988) and Trondheim (Griffi n & Sandvik 1989, et al. 1983, Krzywinski & Kaland 1983). Investiga- Sandvik 1992, 1995). tions specifi cally focusing on plant macrofossil anal- Denmark has a long tradition of archaeobotanical

25 J. Heimdahl

Figure 14: Examples of the regional origin of plant diaspores recorded in an urban environment.

investigations of Medieval contexts. However, during 1. Biology the Medieval Time Denmark was heavily infl uenced Life strategies of plant species vary. K-strategists by northern continental Europe, and the Medieval have a long and less effective reproductive cycle than Danish archaeobotanical material is more compara- r-strategists (e.g., Begon et al. 1996, Crawley 1997). ble to the German or Polish than to the Scandinavi- K-strategists more commonly form wood tissue and an material. Results from Svendborg (Jensen 1979), have thicker roots. Differences in seed dispersal and København (Moltsen 1999, 2002) and a summary seed production (Howe & Westley 1997) will infl u- of plant macrofossil data from the Medieval Danish ence the fossil record. Some plants are dioicic (sepa- sites (Karg and Robinson 2002) were used as north- rated sexes of the individuals) and only female, fruit ern European case studies in this investigation. setting plants will be registered through seed or fruit identifi cation. Plants of the same species may act dif- 5 Taphonomy of urban macro remains ferently from time to time depending on environmental factors. They may produce different amounts of The study in this thesis is largely built on the analy- seeds or set fruits in different periods, and thus give sis of plant macrofossils. In order to understand a signals of varying magnitude in the fossil record. fossil record, both palaeoecological and taphonomic Since plant macrofossil analysis commonly deals aspects must be considered. Taphonomy of urban with diaspores (as they are relative to other plant tis- material is especially complex, and it is therefore sue that are both resistant and easier to determine to necessary to include it as a background for palae- species), we will come across plants that have been oecological analyses and interpretation of results. going through seed setting. This also means that Taphonomy includes all factors, both natural and male individuals (in the case of dioic plants) will not cultural, that affect the fi nal setting of a fossil record, be found in this fossil record. It is also important to including post-depositional processes as well as the take into account that seed and fruit production var- sampling and treatment of material in the laboratory. ies between different plant species in quantity, season This account will mainly focus on the plant macro- and frequency. fossil material – seeds, fruits and other diaspores. A more extensive taphonomic account of pollen grains can be found in Vuorela (1999). I have chosen to 2. Depositional processes and ecology in urban en- divide the taphonomic factors into seven groups: vironments biology; deposition; human infl uence; preservation; Depositional processes within the urban environment reworking; sampling, preparation and registration; are complex (Fig. 14 and 15) (cf. Thomas 1997). In and personal bias. this discussion, the fossil plant record has been di-

26 Urbanised Nature in the Past vided into four groups, based on taphonomic origin and large-scale domestic animal bioturbation (e.g., of the plants: A: the local fl ora; B: the regional fl ora; pigs). In this type of environment, alluvial and col- C: plants from pastures and meadows, and D: cul- luvial processes lead to the exposure of soils. These tural plants. These groups can in turn be subdivided environmental factors will disturb plant communi- as discussed below. ties, and small-scale migration of plants will occur between patches in the area. The in situ urban fl ora with ruderal plants and weeds has pioneer strategies A: The local fl ora with a high capacity of dispersal and low competi- The local fl ora is considered to include plants, which tion ability, according to trade-off effects (e.g., Craw- have grown in the immediate vicinity of the inves- ley 1997). This means that these plants often have a tigated area. The Medieval and Post-Medieval ur- rich production of seeds and can form seed-banks ban environment was characterised by continued or seeds that are easily dispersed (Rees 1997, Howe spatial rearrangement of buildings and structures, & Westley 1997). The Medieval urban fl ora gener- and by the large production and deposition of waste ally developed different biotopes directly connected and nutrients. Soils were exposed and covered by to the soil types within the site (Gilbert 1989). These new depositions rapidly, both by human activities biotopes can be divided into eight groups (Fig. 15):

Figure 15: Local urban ﬂ ora environments (1-8) and transport of material and seeds within the town (A-I).

1. Tramping resistant fl ora on streets and in yards A. Seed dispersal through footwear and wheels 2. Loose soil fl ora B. Import of (sometimes exotic) seeds 3. Nitrophilous fl ora C. Storing and processing of seeds before marketing 4. Turf roof fl ora D. Export of seeds 5. Refugal fl ora on cliffs, etc. E. Cleaning of streets and yards, dumping of waste 6. Harbour fl ora, neophytes etc. F. Cleaning of dung from streets and yards, used as fertilizer 7. Weeds in local cultivation plots G. Dung from stables 8. Flora thriving along walls, etc. H. Stored and processed crops I. Processed cereals used within the town or exported

27 J. Heimdahl

separated if their occurrence is connected to other 1. Tramping resistant communities occurring on species that are specifi c to certain local or regional pathways, backyards and in streets. environments. 2. Loose soil communities growing on loosely packed debris and soil stacks. C: Plants from pastures and meadows 3. Nitrophilous communities found near latrines, Grazing by cattle can lead to a concentration of plant waste piles, dung heaps and along house walls and remains from pastures and meadows in urban areas ditches, where moisture and nutrients are concen- by deposition of faeces and hay. This taphonomic trated in the soil. factor plays a major role in most Medieval and Post- 4. Turf-roof communities will occur if roofs are over- Medieval urban sites. Cattle sometimes also graze grown with e.g., grass or plants selected for fi re pro- ruderal plants and weeds, and some of the ruderal tection (Krzywinski et al. 1983). plants are abundant in pastures as well. If isolated coprolites (in this case, faeces that are distinguished 5. Remains of the pre-urban natural fl ora may occur as coming from one individual) are found, it may be as refugium biotopes, for example river and seashore possible to determine the species of the animal that fl ora, or plants growing on cliffs or rocks. produced it by the morphology or species-specifi c 6. Harbours where cargo is handled may act as a fi rst parasites. Plant macrofossils in coprolites can also environment for neophytes. Floras in harbours and provide important information on the grazed area, wharves often contain specifi c species. or during which season the grazing or cutting of the 7. Weeds and kitchen plants may grow on cultivation hay occurred (Moe 1996, Moltsen 1999, Karlsson plots within the town. Cultivation within and just 2000). outside towns is documented in historical sources. 8. The ground adjacent to walls may act as a sub- D: Cultural plants strate for weeds. The environmental factors along Cultural plants are referred here as plants that are walls vary according to geographical position, house known to have been regularly used by humans. They type, street-type etc. could have been collected from a wild or cultivated population and might have been brought into the B: The regional fl ora town for trade, storage and/or processing. If a cultural plant is represented, both in the pollen fl ora In this study the regional fl ora is defi ned as all rud- and by macrofossils, it may be an indication of re- eral and natural plants occurring outside the exca- gional cultivation. This is not always the case since vated area, both outside and in the town. The re- pollen grains can also be brought into the town in an gional fl ora is mainly represented by plants along artifi cial way (cf., Faegri and Iversen 1989). roads and in the nearby town blocks. These plants Cultural plants are generally processed in specifi c can be spread by wind or by attachment to animals, ways which may affect the fossil record. For exam- humans (Clifford 1956) or wheels (Millberg 1991). ple, harvested cereal crops are processed through Seeds transported in this way are, however, diffi cult different methods of threshing, sieving and cleaning. to differentiate from seeds grown in situ, since they Fossil records of crops may differ according to which are often derived from identical biotopes. Sometimes steps have been taken in their handling. (cf., Hansson they may also arrive from different environments, 1997, Viklund 1998, Hambro Mikkelsen 2003). such as forests and wetlands. Many plant species thriving in urban areas can also grow as weeds in cultivated fi elds. Among the 3. Human infl uence fi nds from Norrköping and Karlstad, there are also Humans can selectively have affected plant commu- plants that are common in many different environ- nities due to cultural habits that may be unknown ments and thus are hard to correlate to any specifi c to us. Some species may have been cleaned away or habitat. This is especially relevant for the Chenopo- favoured for different reasons, for example due to dium album-type and also the species Cirsium arven- unpleasant characteristics (like stinging or burning se, Fumaria offi cinalis, Galeopsis tetrahit/G. bifi da, tissues), pleasant characteristics (like beauty), or due Lithospermum arvense, Solanum dulcamara and to mythical ideas (like luck or misfortune). Small- Stellaria media. These plants could have been grow- scale cultivation or the collecting of species, according in fi elds, along roads and pathways, in the town ing to religion, tradition, medicine and decoration, or locally within the investigated area. They may be

28 Urbanised Nature in the Past must also be considered (cf., Johnson 1999). the biotopes for plant remains found in this type of deposit must be handled with care.

4. Preservation of plant macrofossils Macrofossils are preserved by water logging and oc- 6. Sampling, preparation and registration casionally by carbonisation through heating. Differ- Additional taphonomic factors occur by sampling, ent preservation processes of the same original plant storing, processing and fi nally by analysing the fos- community will lead to different fossil records. Wa- sil content of the samples. For example, the fl ota- ter logging generally leads to a wider and more com- tion process is a method that works differently plete spectra of preserved plant remains but there are with different sedimentological mediums, and it is exceptions. Cereal grains and wild grasses are more a good idea not to handle all samples in the same easily preserved by carbonisation, while fruits of e.g., way (Wright 2005). During wet sieving, the choice the Apiaceae family are much better preserved by of sieve size will have an effect on the composition water logging (Gustafsson 2000). Another example of the retrieved material, which in turn may affect is the differences between r- and K-strategists. Since ecological interpretation (e.g., Birks 2001; Zohar & r-strategists often have the capacity to form seed Belmaker 2005). During analysis, it is also important banks, the seeds tend to be bigger and more hard- to have a clear classifi cation and quantifi cation strat- coated than seeds from K-strategists. This may lead egy for fragmented material, and for the compari- to that seeds from r-strategists are over represented son of the different anatomical features preserved as in materials with bad preservation status. plant macrofossils. How do we compare leaves with At Norrköping and Karlstad, about 95% of the seeds? counted macrofossils were preserved as un-carbonised specimen, since the embedding medium consisted of a dense, fi ne-grained deposit with high capillarity 7. Personal biases and low permeability. Only 5% of the material con- The fi nal taphonomic factor is connected to the per- sisted of carbonised diaspores, concentrated mostly son performing the analysis. It is therefore important on the old surfaces in connection with fi replaces or to ask the question: what are my personal biases? debris from burnt houses. Samples with carbonised It appeared to me that I fi rst observed certain types material were generally lacking un-carbonised mate- of fossils. These were usually the most common rial and vice versa but in some cases they occurred types of moderate size (1-2 mm) like Chenopodium- together. This may indicate different taphonomic types, Carex sp. and Urtica sp. This was probably origin of the plant material and the two groups were due to their high abundance within the samples and interpreted separately. that they were easily noted with the magnifi cation used (c. ×8-15). But it also may have been a kind of “favouring the expected”. To avoid this, the sam- 5. The reworking processes ples were analysed on a number of occasions to en- The reworking of deposits in urban environments sure that the more unusual or discrete fossils (e.g., is usually extensive. It may affect the preservation Poaceae-fruits) were identifi ed as well as the more status of the fossil content by mechanical, biologi- common remains. cal and chemical deterioration. This can lead to the The trade-off of favouring the expected is to favour relative concentration of hard macrofossils in the re- the unexpected. This seemed to happen when I made deposited material, (given that they also occur dur- unusual or exotic fi ndings. This then led to attempts ing the reworking process or are present in the mixed to fi nd more fossils of the same type, which perhaps material). This also makes robust macrofossils less made me ignorant to the more common fi ndings. suitable to use for reconstructions since they can Again, to go through the samples repeatedly was my be reworked many times and still remain well pre- strategy to avoid this bias. served. For the same reason, we can put more trust in fragile material. Some samples from ‘Konstantinopel’ were charac- 6 Study sites terised by high concentrations of plant macrofossils with the same size as the medium sand fraction (0.2- Norrköping (Paper I, II, IV, V) 0.6 mm). This occurred in well-sorted, water depos- Norrköping is situated along the river Motala Ström, ited alluvial material, dominated by silt and is prob- between Lake Glan in the west and a bay of the Bal- ably an effect of sorting by water. Conclusions about tic Sea, Bråviken, in the east (Fig. 16). The excavated

29 J. Heimdahl

Figure 16: A) Map over Norrköping. The investigated area is marked with black in the upper left corner of the marked block. The present river Motala ström is shown in dark grey, and the light-shaded area marks the former extension of the stream before the rearrangements after AD 1640. B) Simplifi ed map of Quaternary deposits in the area (After Bergström and Kornfeldt 1973). Till and bedrock are marked with triangles, glaciofl uvium with dots, fi ne grained marine sediments with white, and light grey marks the alluvial deposits of the river (dark grey).

site is located in the centre of the town (Fig. 16). 13th century can be estimated to be about 2.4 m a.s.l. The bedrock consists of migmatised granites, The present surface of the excavation site is located gneisses and mica schists (Bergström & Kornfält about 9 m above present sea level and the substra- 1973) and is partly exposed in the highland area tum of the oldest occupation layers is situated about southwest of the town. In the east, thicker Quater- 7 m a.s.l. Since the Medieval times, the site has not nary deposits cover the bedrock. About one kilome- been affected by the regressive sea level. The eleva- tre south of Norrköping, the deposits are generally tion of the earliest medieval ground surface in the dominated by different littoral sediments (Fig. 16). excavated area was about 4.5 m a.s.l. The eastern lowland is characterised by fl at areas The fl at landscape is suitable for cultivation. Hu- with post-glacial clay and silt underlain by varved mans have been present in the area since the land glacial clay and silt and southwest of the town, the in the vicinity started to rise above sea level about landscape is hummocky and consists of till and bed- 2000 years ago. The river Motala Ström, which in rock outcrops. An esker runs straight through the this part is characterised by rapids and turbulent wa- town from northwest to southeast. The investigated ter, made the place attractive for salmon fi shing and site is situated where the river Motala Ström cuts the ideal for establishing mills and therefore, it became a esker. The glaciofl uvial deposits are surrounded by place of economic interest (Ljung 1965). coarse silt and till. The slope within the excavated Norrköping was fi rst mentioned as a trade centre area is part of the river valley of Motala Ström, and in 1283, but it was not given its town privileges until the esker itself does not seem to affect the local to- 1384. Written sources indicate that during the Me- pography (cf., Lindgren-Hertz 1999). Downstream, dieval times, Norrköping was an important centre the riversides are dominated by alluvial deposits, for trade and administration, where both the state from clays to coarse silt rich in organic material. The and the church had interests (Lindeblad 1997). Dur- distribution of this alluvium is poorly known, espe- ing the middle of the 16th century, as a result of the cially the area along the southern riverside, where reformation under the regiment of Gustavus Vasa, the investigated area is situated (Bergström & Ko- Norrköping became the most important Swedish rnfält 1973). harbour for the export of iron. The town expanded The investigation area is situated close to a bay rapidly and during the 17th century, due to indus- of the Baltic and thus the shore displacement must trialisation, Norrköping became the second largest be considered. Present land uplift in the area is 3.0 town in Sweden, next to Stockholm. mm/yr and according to a relevant shore displace- The Medieval constructions in Norrköping have ment curve (Persson 1979), the rate has probably not so far remained unknown because of the major re- changed signifi cantly during the last 3000 yrs. The constructions of the city plan during the 16th and altitude of the shoreline of the Baltic Sea during the 17th centuries, including a major reconstruction and

30 Urbanised Nature in the Past

fi lling of the river Motala Ström, which was made shoreline of Lake Vänern has remained more or less narrower and deeper (Fig. 16). Therefore, the oldest stable and local changes are mainly due to a continu- remains normally found during archaeological exca- ous built up of the delta. Coring in the delta revealed vations are from the 16th century or later (Parr 1987, silty and sandy sediments with a depth between 10 Kjellén 1996, Hållans et al. 1999). and 20 m (Fredén 2000). The present water level In the excavated area the preserved occupation lay- of Lake Vänern is 44.0 m a.s.l. and the water level ers are sloping towards the west and the former river fl uctuates about ±1.3m between low and high wa- course, which according to the rectifi ed map of 1640 ter (Heikenskiöld 1981). Heikenskiöld (1981) esti- was very close, perhaps only some meters away from mates that the delta situated at the excavation area the border of the present investigation area (Fig. 1). was built up over the sea level about 700 BC to AD Due to the sloping substratum, the layers are thicker 1. During the beginning of the Roman Iron age, a and better preserved towards the west. The occupa- sandbank dividing the river into two branches was tion layers disappear about 50 meters upwards from formed. Later the delta mainly grew in the eastern the western edge of the excavated area (Lindgren- and western branches of the river. By AD 700 the Hertz 1998). central part of the delta had the same characteristic features as today. From the 13th century the expansion of the delta shifted to the south, and since then Karlstad (Paper II and III) the central parts of the delta have remained stable, Karlstad is situated in southwestern Sweden on the although certain morphological changes of the spit river Klarälven delta that fi lls out a bay on the north- of Sandgrund was seen during the 19th century. ern shore of lake Vänern (Fig. 17). The lake was The hills around the fl at delta plain display sev- isolated from the sea due to land uplift c. 7000 BC eral Iron Age and Medieval settlements. There seems (Fredén 1988). Karlstad is the only town in Scandi- to have existed a Medieval trade centre located at navia that is located on an active river delta. Hum- a place called ‘Tingvalla’. In AD 1290 Tingvalla is mocky terrain with exposed and sparsely till-covered mentioned as the centre where markets and juridical bedrock surrounds and partly penetrates the delta processes were held (Nygren 1934), but the exact lo- plain. cation and nature of Tingvalla is not known, and no Between 7000 and c. 2500-2000 BC the shoreline archaeological evidence has so far been found. How- of Lake Vänern retreated ca 20 km southwards due ever, single artefacts from the Middle Ages found to land uplift (Sandegren 1939, Heijkenskiöld 1981, within Karlstad indicate nearby activities during this Sundborg & Heikenskiöld 1972 and Fredén 2000) period (Andersson & Schedin 2001). and the delta sedimentation moved southwards to Karlstad was founded as a strategic iron-shipping the present area. During the last 2000, years the town between the mining areas in middle Sweden

Figure 17: A) Map of central Karlstad. The investigated area is marked with black on the left side of the marked block. The river Klarälven is shown in dark grey. The line that surrounds and lies southeast of the church marks the hill ‘Lagber- get’. A part of the hill ‘Marieberg’ is marked in the southwestern corner. B) Simpliﬁ ed map of Quaternary deposits in the area (after Fredén 2000). The alluvial delta material is light grey, and the river Klarälven and Lake Vänern are dark grey. White areas are dominated by till and bedrock but also include ﬁ ne-grained sediments and peat accumulations.

31 J. Heimdahl

(Bergslagen) and the Swedish west coast. Karlstad Field work was given its town privileges in AD 1584 by King Since the geological fi eldwork was carried out during Karl IX and until now, no urban structures pre-dat- the archaeological excavations it had to be adapted to ing that year has been found (Lundh et al. 1994, the archaeological framework (Menander & Karls- Ängeby 1995). The town had its main economical son 2002, Heimdahl et al. 2003; Paper I). At each th th growth during the 18 and 19 centuries. site the archaeological excavation was performed ac- The accumulation of sand seems to have been cording to SCR methodology and the stratigraphy a problem in Karlstad for a long time and regular was plotted in a Harris Matrix. The positions of all dredging of the river was necessary for the shipping. stratigraphical units, as well as artefacts and samples, Flooding in the town centre also occurred regularly, were documented three-dimensionally in a database except for the hilly areas of till-covered bedrock that and visualised in the GIS-program Arc View. are seen above the fl at delta plain (Andersson & A sampling technique for macrofossil analysis was Schedin 2001). developed and adapted to the single context meth- The excavated area is located on the fl at delta area odology used at the excavation (Paper I). Pilot sam- in the town centre between the till-covered hills of pling was performed in each layer except those that Lagberget in the northeast and Marieberg in the were unfavourable for the preservation of organic re- southwest (Fig. 17). The c. 1 m thick occupational mains, for instance deposits including coarse gravel layers were deposited directly on, and partly devel- or stones. The samples aimed for macrofossil analy- oped as horizons in the fl at delta surface and they are ses were collected in cardboard boxes with a plastic evenly distributed over the investigated area. inner fi lm. The samples were normally fl oatated and wet-sieved immediately after sampling, according to the method described by Wasylikowa (1986). The 7 Methods enriched remains were investigated under a dissect- Field methods and sampling strategies of this project ing microscope at the site and the plant macrofos- are described in more detail in Paper I. Because of sil content was qualitatively diagnosed in order to the nature of the urban stratigraphy, continuous evaluate the need of additional sampling before the sampling was not undertaken in all stratigraphical layer was totally excavated. After this pilot analysis, units. The main method used was plant macrofos- the samples were stored in water fi lled plastic con- sil analysis, which was suitable to describe the local tainers. environment as well as human activities. The mac- Stratigraphical cross sections were described and rofossil content was diagnosed in all stratigraphical drawn both by the archaeologists and the author. The units excavated. In remains directly related to hu- colour of the strata was classifi ed according to the man activities, e.g., house debris, the method was Munsell Soil Colour Cart (Munsell Colour 2000). In limited to the search for indicators of past vegetation some cases the drawings were dissimilar because of and cultural plant use. In these contexts, sampling differences in the interpretation of the stratigraphy. in each stratigraphical unit became more extensive In layers where sedimentological structures could be in order to adapt to the archaeological excavation of interest for sampling, metal boxes were pressed strategy. into the wall and cut out so that suffi cient parts of Other biostratigraphical methods used were pol- the strata were preserved intact. The fi lled boxes len and diatom analysis. These methods were only were subsequently wrapped in plastic and stored in a applied when more specifi c questions arose. Pollen cold room before sub-sampling. analysis was used as a complement to plant mac- In order to minimise contamination by recent veg- rofossil analysis on the oldest strata because of the etation, a survey was made of the seed-producing lack of cereal grains in these layers. In order to trace plants in the present local urban fl ora. The composi- the origin of the deposits, diatom analysis was used tion of the modern local fl ora was also compared where the stratigraphy presumably was infl uenced with the fossil urban fl ora investigated. Investiga- by alluvial action. Some stratigraphical units were tions were carried out on fi ve occasions during each studied more carefully for sedimentological features excavation in an area up to 10 metres away from and in these cases, samples were taken for texture the excavation site. Plants with seeds spread by wind analysis and the determination of organic carbon were documented with extra care, even if they were content. Fabric analysis was carried out when it was growing a long distance from the excavation site e.g., diffi cult to distinguish between dumped fi lling mass- Betula spp. and Salix spp. The time of seed setting es and till. was noted and plants that were about to set fruits close to the site were, if possible, removed.

32 Urbanised Nature in the Past

Macrofossil analysis Pollen analysis In order to facilitate an ecological interpretation of Pollen analysis was undertaken to investigate the ce- the macrofossil content, between 300-500 diaspores real pollen content in the dark earths of Norrköping. were identifi ed to species level in each sample inves- Samples designated for pollen analysis were sub-sam- tigated. Other plant remains which could be identi- pled from the sediment collected in the metal boxes. fi ed, such as needles, leaves and bark, were registered In order to concentrate pollen and spores from the but not included in the percentage calculations. The sediment, a standard acetolysis method was used macrofossil samples were, when necessary, wet- (Erdtman 1936; Berglund & Ralska-Jasiewiczowa sieved for a second time and cleaned in the labora- 1989). A collection of reference slides and the work tory according to methods described by Wasylikowa of Moore et al. (1991) were used for identifi cation. (1986). The cereal type pollen grains were measured and sur- After the wet sieving the samples were examined face structures were studied according to Beug and as subsamples of c. 3-5 ml at a time. The microscope Firbas (1961) and Andersen (1979). used in the laboratory had a magnifi cation of ×8-100. The samples were fi rst described according to their general composition of tissues and biota. The groups Diatom analysis used were wood, charcoal, bark, herbacea epigaeic Analysis of diatom composition were undertaken in (stems and leaves), herbacea hypogaeic (roots), in- order to investigate ecological signals of terrestrial sects, statoblasts (hibernate-capsules of bryozoans), or aquatic environments. Samples for diatom analy- puparia (pups, eggs, cocoons etc. of lower animals), sis were sub-sampled from the metal boxes. Siliceous Ichtyes (bones and scales from fi sh), Mammalia microfossils were extracted according to the method (bones and hair from mammals) and artefacts, e.g., described by Battarbee (1986). Identifi cation of the slag, glass fragments and brick fragments were also diatoms and the interpretation of the ecological con- included in this description. The amounts of the most ditions were made with the use of Kramer and Lange- frequent components: wood, charcoal and bark was Bertalot (1986; 1988; 1991a; 1991b) and Round et roughly quantifi ed as ‘1’ (single objects), ‘2’ (<5% al. (1990). The diatoms were grouped according to of the visual fi eld) or ‘3’ (>5%). The diaspores were their habitat, either as terrestrial or aquatic. Only counted as single units. one of the six samples contained signifi cant amounts Fragmented material was noted as parts of units of diatoms for a quantitative analysis. if the original parts could be reconstructed or the amounts were roughly quantifi ed into separate units. Fragments of a seed taxon, represented by a single Grain size distribution element from the original carpum (e.g., a hilum), Texture analysis was performed as a complemen- could be counted as one unit but in contrast, frag- tary stratigraphical tool in order to reveal obscured ments without these special elements were not con- stratigraphical changes and in order to trace possible sidered for quantifi cation. mother material for fi lls. When sediment is reworked The remains with characteristic cell patterns, such (for example by digging), its structural features will as Poaceae and Juncus fruits, were determined under disappear and changes but the texture will remain a light-microscope with higher magnifi cations (×100- intact (cf., Paper I). Samples for grain size distribu- 1000). For specimens where identifi cation was of tion were taken directly from the open transects and extra importance, further analyses were undertaken on surfaces where stratigraphical units had been ex- with a SEM-microscope (Paper II). posed. Texture analyses were performed on gravel The identifi cation of the seeds was mainly carried and sand particles by dry sieving using sieves with out by consulting a reference collection and the works square-formed holes. The silt and clay fractions were of Korsmo (1926); Bertsch (1941); Körber-Grohne determined by hydrometer analysis (Kompendium i (1964, 1991); Katz et al. (1965); Berggren (1969, jordartsanalys 1995). 1981); Beijerink (1976); Tallantire (1976); Jacomet (1987); Schoch et al. (1988); Jacomet et al. (1989); Blidow and Krause (1990); Anderberg (1994) and Organic carbon and loss on ignition Krause (1997). After identifi cation, the seeds were The analysis of organic carbon content and the loss stored in distilled H2O in 5ml plastic containers. A on ignition (LOI) was performed in order to reveal mixture of glycerine, ethanol and thymol was used obscured stratigraphy of the dark earths. It was defor storing very fragile material. termined on the dark earths from both Norrköping and Karlstad. Continuous samples, each 1 cm thick

33 J. Heimdahl yielding c. 1-2 cm3, were extracted from the dark evaluate their degree of abundance with a number earth at 3-5 cm intervals. Organic carbon content (a scale from 1-5). The system is heterarcic, which was determined by a carbon sulphur detector (EL- means that a plant may occur with the same frequen- TRA CS 500). The LOI was calculated as percent- cy in different habitats. In this way plants with gen- ages from the weight loss of dried samples, which eralist strategies can be separated from plants with were slowly heated to +550ºC and kept at that tem- special strategies according to their habitat. This sys- perature for two hours (Kompendium i jordartsana- tem covers about 60% of the plant species found in lys 1995). the investigations. Mossberg et al. (1992, 2003) is a comprehensive ﬂ ora with descriptions of the ecology and habitats of plants found in the Scandinavian 14 C-Dating Peninsula. This was mainly used for plants that were Seven plant macrofossil samples (ﬁ ve from Nor- not included in the systems of Grime et al. (1988) or rköping and two from Karlstad) were AMS dated at Ellenberg et al. (1991) Mossberg et al. (1992, 2003) the Ångström Laboratory, Uppsala University. The was also useful for comparing descriptions of plant material used was sub-sampled from the macrofos- ecology in order to check if there are differences be- sil samples (Table 1), which were stored in distilled tween the regions.

H2O in a cold room at +4ºC, between the summer The following publications were also used for of 2000 and the autumn of 2001. Fragile seeds from information on single plant species: Jensen (1985, terrestrial plants found in a primary position (e.g., 1998); Kroll (1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000); ﬂ oors, tramping horizons and hearths) were chosen Schultze-Motel (1992, 1993, 1994); Johnson (1999) for dating to minimize the risk of using reworked and Mabberley (2000). material. The seeds were gently cleaned in distilled

H2O and detritus was washed away with a small ny- lon brush under a dissecting microscope. This mate- Biological nomenclature rial was ﬁ rst slowly heated at +70ºC for 2h and then The Latin names of plant species and taxas are ac- dried at +105ºC for 8h and placed in small glass jars cording to the continuously updated species list pub- with plastic screw lids. lished on the internet by the Museum of Natural History in Stockholm. The version used here was updated 2004-01-19 (Karlson 2004). The English Other dating methods names are according to Qualtrocchi (2000). Dendrochronology and the typology of artefacts and coins were also used for dating purposes. Thomas Bartholin at the National Museum in Copenhagen 8 Summary of Papers carried out the dendrochronological work. The archaeologists at the excavation undertook the typo- Paper I logical datings. Monica Golabiewski Lannby at the Jens Heimdahl, Hanna Menander and Pär Karlsson, Royal Coin Cabinet in Stockholm performed the In press 2005: A New Method for Urban Geoarchae- identiﬁ cation of coins. ological Excavation, Example from Norrköping, Sweden. Norwegian Archaeological Review. In press November 2005. Ecological grouping

The identifi ed plants were grouped according to During excavations of complex urban occupational ecology using the systems described by Grime et al. deposits in Norrköping, new procedures were elabo- (1988), Ellenberg et al. (1991) and Mossberg et al. rated in order to combine archaeological, geological (1992, 2003). The system of Ellenberg et al. is based and archaeobotanical fi eldwork. This fi eldwork was on Central European data, and groups the plants ac- also based on parallel work by members of the dif- cording to their different requirements (e.g., light, ferent disciplines throughout the whole excavation. moisture, nutrients and temperature) expressed in The archaeological fi eldwork was based on SCR. In numbers. The system is hierarchic and a plant can order to understand the archaeological fi eldwork only be described as thriving either in light or shad- procedures and the basis of interpretation, the ge- ow. This compilation covers about 90% of the spe- ologist (Jens Heimdahl) also spent time excavating cies found in Norrköping and Karlstad. Grime et al. with the archaeologists. (1988) describe the biotopes of plants in the British The elaborated procedures resulted in continu- Isles according to where the plants are found and ous pilot sampling and on site preparation and di-

34 Urbanised Nature in the Past agnostics of samples. When excavation of a new had accumulated in water ponds. Some of the water stratigraphical unit started, it was sampled by the ponds had acted as traps for material from surround- geologist who immediately enriched and analysed ing ground surfaces. Surfaces are important for ar- the material under a dissecting microscope at the chaeological interpretation, and since many surfaces site. Hence, a pilot survey of the macroscopic con- had disappeared though truncations or were located tent of the stratigraphical unit was available before outside the excavation area, the macro content of it had been fully excavated. The pilot surveys facili- water pond sediments could sometimes be used to tated the fi eld interpretation of the strata. On sev- reveal cultural activities and environment on those eral occasions the results revealed the functions of surfaces. constructions, and provided environmental glimpses already in the fi eld. For example, it was possible to take additional pilot samples in order to investigate Paper II if the macrofossil content within the strata differed Jens Heimdahl, 2005: Urban Sediments as Indicators spatially, and a comparison to other strata could of Changes in Land use and Building Tradition in also quickly be performed. The method also made two Swedish Towns, AD 1200-1800. (Manuscript) the correlation easier between strata cut by younger truncations. The pilot surveys were also used to trace Results and conclusions from sedimentological stud- former root-horizons. Such horizons were analysed ies of occupational deposits at the excavations in to determine which type of plants that had grown Norrköping and Karlstad were compared in order to on the site, information that in turn could give clues reconstruct urban environmental development and for how long time surfaces had been left open and site formation processes. untouched. The site in Norrköping is situated on a slope to- All strata were geologically studied according to wards the river Motala ström, and the occupational sedimentological structure and texture, parallel to layers were deposited as slope front fi ll on a substra- the archaeological stratigraphical interpretations. tum of littoral and alluvial sand. The occupational These double interpretations resulted in constantly deposits were 3-4 meters thick downslope and disap- ongoing fi eld discussions. On some occasions the dif- peared 10-15 m upslope from the excavation limit. ferent interpretations confi rmed each other, in others The lowest 1m thick layers consisted of minerogenic they opposed each other. The discussions that fol- sediments, probably of littoral and glaciofl uvial ori- lowed proved important for the development of a gin, dumped partly in the fl ooded stream during the mutual understanding and in some cases led to new, 13th century. On top of these fi ll, two dark earth sometimes surprising conclusions. units with obscured strata developed during the 13th The geological interpretations revealed that the to 14th century. Wooden boardwalks were built on thick minerogenic strata, located below the dark top of the uppermost dark earth during the mid 14th earths, were fi lls consisting of reworked glaciofl uvi- century. Above the boardwalks the stratigraphy is um and littoral sand. Without the geological expertise characterised by c. 1 m well-stratifi ed urban occupa- present, they would probably have been interpreted tional deposits originating from 1400-1660. as the natural substratum. The geological fi eld inter- The occupational layers at the site in Karlstad are pretations also revealed new ways to critically treat deposited on top of the active delta of river Klaräl- stratigraphical units as information sources. This ven. The substratum consists of the top set beds of especially counted for material that traditionally is the delta. The oldest culturally affected deposits at considered reworked, like fi ll. By analysing the fi ll the site is the uppermost delta sand in which a 30- texture and comparing it with the texture in other 40 cm thick dark earth with obscured strata have local material of natural origin, it was on some oc- formed, probably during the 16th century, but it may casions possible to determine the source material for also contain older units. This dark earth is overlain the fi ll. Another way of dealing with the problem of by 1 m well stratifi ed urban occupational layers de- reworking was to look at the degree of fragmenta- posited between c. 1600-1800 and at some places, tion of fragile organic macro compounds. Finds of interlayered by delta beds from fl ooding events. large pieces of leafs or fragile seeds may be used to The dark earths at Norrköping and Karlstad seem exclude reworking. to have developed in similar ways. They consist of Geological fi eld interpretation also resulted in the 85-95% of minerogenic material with the identical discovery that the occupational deposits to a large texture as the unaffected substratum. The organic extent were of alluvial origin. Many of those allu- component seems to be dominated by cattle faeces. vial deposits consisted of silt lenses that apparently Sedimentological structures indicate that this dung

35 J. Heimdahl was tramped into the ground, possibly during wet and Carex species were growing at the waterline. conditions. There are also several structures revealing Submerged plants like Nitella opaca, Isoëtes echino- that the homogeneous dark earths contain obscured spora and Potamogeton spp. probably grew in the strata. The dark earths are believed to have formed delta channels. during a combination of repeated alluvial sedimenta- Cattle grazing and the creation of meadows defor- tion and a continuous tramping of cattle, thus suc- ested the delta during the time when the black earth cessively deepening the horizon and homogenising was formed, sometime between AD 500 and 1500. the individual alluvial deposits. In Karlstad the al- An increase of ruderal plants in the uppermost part luvial deposits originate from regular fl ood events on of the undisturbed delta sediments provides an indi- the active delta. In Norrköping they are formed by cation of human occupation predating the formation alluvial runoff on the slope. This also explains why of the dark earth. The macrofossil concentration in the dark earths here are thicker downslope. the dark earth is heterogeneous and varies both spa- The alluvial deposits in Norrköping continued to tially and vertically. The composition of the fl ora, form during the formation of the well-stratifi ed ur- however, is homogeneous, and is heavily dominated ban occupational deposits. Silty alluvium accumulat- (up to 90%) by Juncus spp., mainly Juncus bufonius ed repeatedly in the depressions of the town, mainly and other wet meadow plants like Carex spp. The in streets and lanes between the houses, and on some taphonomy of wet meadow plants is interpreted as occasions, created negative casts of the urban land- cattle faeces. Samples taken from fresh cattle faeces scape. When alluvial silt fi lled the streets, new con- at a nearby wet meadow with ungrazed Juncus tufts structions had to be elevated in order to avoid mois- reveal that the faecal material becomes heavily domi- ture. This habit is thought to have formed a cycle of nated by Juncus fruits, due to the grazing of fruits human response to natural effects thereby inducing stuck to the surrounding grazed vegetation. each other and resulting in the growth of urban oc- The macrofossil record in the urban occupational cupational deposits. deposits is dominated by a species composition that At both Norrköping and Karlstad fi lls used in the also characterises cattle faeces. This confi rms the his- foundations for houses were investigated with grain torical notes from the 16-17th centuries that the town size analyses. The results show that the fi ll used in was largely composed of farms. Hay remains were the early stages of the urban development was local found stuck to the inside of a compressed bucket material of a fi ne fraction, not suitable for founda- that was situated on the fl oor in a burnt down small tions. In the foundations built later, the material was stable from the early 17th century. The macrofossil coarser and taken from more distant deposits. This composition of the hay, dominated by Filipendula ul- shift is thought to represent a professionalisation maria and Poa palustris, differs completely from the of building construction. In Norrköping it seems to composition in the cattle faeces, dominated by Jun- have occurred during the beginning of the 17th cen- cus bufonius, found on the stable fl oor (that seems tury. In Karlstad the shift occurs later, during the 18th to have been covered by spruce branches). This show century. that the cattle kept in this stable had been grazing and was not fed with hay mowed from meadows. Since hay was likely used as winter fodder, this indi- Paper III cates that the stable was not used for winter stabling. Jens Heimdahl, 2005: Botanical Evidence of Changes An explanation to this may be that it was used spe- in Vegetation and Cultural Landscape in Post-Medi- cifi cally for cattle that were to be slaughtered. eval Karlstad, Sweden. (Manuscript) The urban cultural layers were also rich in the remains of cultivated, collected and imported plants. Macrofossil evidences from Karlstad reveal glimpses The fi nds of cereal grains were dominated by Avena of environmental development of the urban and re- sativa (oat). According to historical sources, this was gional area, cultivation, trade, and differences be- the most frequently cultivated plant in the county of tween grazed pastures and mowed meadows. Värmland at this time, which indicates that locally The oldest 14C-dated samples taken in the delta cultivated crops dominated the urban use of cere- sediments had calibrated ages of 215 (±40) BC and als. Macrofossil fi nds also indicate the cultivation of AD 165 (±40). A dense forest vegetation represent- Fragaria moschata (Hatbois strawberry) during 17- th ed by birch and alder formed on the newly built up 18 century, Rubus subg. Rubus sect. Rubus (black- delta surface. Light demanding plants, for example berries), Pisum sativum var. arvense (fi eld peas) and Prunus spinosa, Rubus idaeus and Bidens tripartite, Fagopyrum esculentum (buckwheat). Further, there thrived along channel banks, and different Juncus is botanical evidence of cultivation of Nicotiana rus-

36 Urbanised Nature in the Past tica (wild tobacco). This cultivation is historically plants like Plantago major and Lamium album dis- documented to have been introduced in Karlstad by appear and are replaced by newcomers like Aethusa Gustav Claren during the mid 18th century. Histori- cynapium and an increase of Hyoscyamus niger. cal documentation and fi nd positions in the debris Centaurea cyanus, Rumex acetosella and Spergu- of a burnt house may contribute to a dating of the laria arvensis are examples of plants interpreted as destruction of the building to June 8, 1752, when regional fi eld weeds. Field weeds especially common there was a large fi re in Karlstad. in fi elds with autumn sawed rye, for example Bro- The discovery of a fruit from Pimenta offi cinalis mus secalinus and Agrostemma githago, was found. (allspice) in a stratum from the latter part of the 17th The cattle that were brought into town were prob- century indicates the importation of exotic species. ably mainly grazing on wet meadows with different Allspice has earlier only been archaeologically found species of Carex spp. twice, in England and Poland, and this is probably Secale cereale (rye) dominates among the cereals in the oldest fi nd in Europe so far. There is also other the pollen record from the dark earths (1200-1400) evidence of long distance trade in the form of rare and in the cereal macrofossil composition between species specifi cally known to grow at docking places 1400 and 1550. If this refl ects local cultivation, it and in harbours, for example Erucastrum gallicum is partly in line with historical evidences since the and Chenopodium murale/ C. vulvaria. area became part of the so called ‘rye belt’ during the 15th century. Of special interest is a burnt fi nd of what is interpreted as threshed remains from a har- Paper IV vested rye crop from 1400-1550. The cereal grains Jens Heimdahl, 2005: Botanical Evidence of Envi- are here mixed with seeds from typical fi eld weeds ronmental and Traditional Changes in Norrköping, like Centaurea cyanus and Rumex acetocella but the Sweden, AD 1200-1660 (Manuscript) most common non-cereal plants are Poa palustris and Trifolium hybridum, which are typical meadow During excavations in Medieval and Post-Medieval plants common in mowed hay. This may be either a Norrköping, macrofossil and pollen evidences re- mixture of a crop and hay, or possibly a crop from a vealed local and regional fl oral changes, cultivation fi eld that previously was used as a meadow. of plants, preparation of food and importation of Among the most commonly found cultivated exotic plants. plants were hops (Humulus lupulus), well known to The oldest macrofossils were found in alluvial de- have been used for the fl avouring of beer. Beer mak- posits underlying the oldest occupational deposit – a ing seems to have been common at the site between th th fi ll from c. AD 1200. The composition indicates that the 14 and 16 centuries. In some samples, hops the slope towards the river Motala ström partly con- were found together with Myrica gale, which was the tained a wet meadow with tufts of Juncus sp. and most commonly used beer fl avour in Sweden before Urtica dioica, and partly a drier sand bank vegeta- hops was introduced. The fi nds also indicate that a tion with for example, Arenaria serpyllifolia, Poten- mixture of H. lupulus and M. gale was used for beer tilla argentaea and Arabidopsis thaliana. fl avouring in 1400-1550. Filipendula ulmaria was The urban phase at the site seems to have started over-represented in the samples that contained other with the dumping of fi lling masses on the slope to- beer fl avours. This plant is earlier known to have wards the river. On these fi lling masses, a dark earth been used as a fl avouring of mead during the Viking developed through cattle tramping between AD Age. The fi nd in Norrköping may indicate that this 1200-1400. Nitrophilous plants with pioneer strat- tradition survived into the late Middle Ages. egies like Thlaspi arvense and Lamium album be- Further, seeds from imported plants like grapes sides species thriving on faeces like Urtica dioica and and fi gs were found. An early fi nd of grape, probably th Chenopodium glaucum/rubrum seem to have domi- deriving from the 14 century, indicates the presence nated the site together with plants resistant to tramp- of a clerical, or upper class, community. ing, for instance Polygonum aviculare and Plantago major. This combination of plants indicates a rural Paper V environment with dung heaps, tramped paths and plants growing along fences and buildings. Jens Heimdahl, 2005: Archaeobotanical Evidence of Above the dark earths, complex strata of urban oc- Early Tobacco Cultivation in Norrköping, Sweden cupational layers were deposited between AD 1400 (Manuscript) and 1660. The composition in the layers indicate a shift in the local plant ecology since earlier common Botanical evidence of tobacco cultivation was found

37 J. Heimdahl during the investigations in Norrköping. It is the fi rst formed by depositional and post-depositional proc- archaeological fi nd of tobacco in Sweden. Light mi- esses respectively. This classifi cation has earlier been croscope and SEM analysis resulted in the identifi ca- stressed in archaeological contexts by both geologists tion of the seeds as Nicotiana rustica (wild tobacco) (Limbrey 1975, Lundqvist 1986, Corty et al. 1989, and Nicotiana spp. (tobacco unspec.) Since fi nds of Carter 1992), and archaeologists (Beronius-Jörpe- fossil tobacco seeds are rare, the seeds are carefully land 1992). A third important factor that affects site described. No leaf tissue from tobacco was found in formation are the negative effects from truncations, the samples containing the seeds. In total, 42 seeds erosion (Tagesson 2000a) and decomposition. The were identifi ed. Although a 14C-date indicates a processes that controlled the formation of the urban younger age, artefacts and stratigraphical informa- stratigraphy in Norrköping and Karlstad can be di- tion suggests that cultivation occurred sometime vided into three major groups: Depositional, Post- during 1560-1660 – possibly the earliest tobacco depositional and Truncation/erosion/decomposition cultivation in Sweden. processes. The conclusion that the seeds indicate cultivation Deposition provides the material, which is redis- in Norrköping is based on several facts. Tobacco for tributed and reworked during post-deposition, and smoking or sniffi ng was imported as leaves. In order the third process, truncation/erosion, removes the to maximise the size of cultivated tobacco leafs, the material. Truncation/erosion may be also followed fl ower buds were cut off the plants. The possibility by redeposition. Again, each of these groups may that the seeds derive from imported tobacco leaves is contain both natural and cultural elements. One of therefore minimal. the major questions archaeologists ask about site So far the oldest known cultivation of tobacco in formation is which of the units were formed by in- Sweden took place in the garden of Uppsala castle in tentional acts, and which were formed unintention- 1632. During the 17th century, tobacco cultivation ally (Järpe et al. 1979, Andrén1986, Beronius-Jör- in Sweden was not aimed for large-scale production peland 1992, Larsson 2000). The answer infl uences but for medical use. Tobacco was considered a pan- the information potential of each stratum. Moving acea – a miracle medicine able to cure many types towards a classifi cation of possible site formation of diseases. Early tobacco cultivation for medical or causes as being either intentional or unintentional, I scientifi c use is a probable explanation to the fi nd in would like to add natural processes as a third factor. Norrköping. From written sources, tobacco cultiva- Table 2 presents how the tree groups of processes, tion for industrial use is known to have occurred in depositional, post-depositional and truncational/ this town between 1720 and 1930. erosional, combined with the tree groups of causes, intentional, unintentional and natural, may result in different types of stratigraphic features. 9 Discussion A compilation of processes that affects the formation of urban occupational strata can be combined Urban strata, a formation model into a model (Fig. 18). This model combines the geo- From a geological perspective, it is natural to de- logical and archaeological approaches to the stratig- fi ne urban strata as two different types of phenom- raphy. The model is divided in three main steps: caus- enon: sediments and soil horizons, meaning strata es, cultural actions/natural events and stratigraphic

Table 2: Classiﬁ cation of urban occupational strata

Natural Unintentional Intentional Alluvial (water) Constructions Cattle droppings Depositions Colluvial (gravity) Fills Unintentional waste Eolian (wind) Waste and dump

Tramping horizons (humans and cat- Earthworm horizons Plough horizons Horizons tle) Root horizons Cultivation horizons Live stock turbation

Erosion/truncation/de- Alluvial erosion Tramping erosion Truncations composition Microbiological decomposition

38 Urbanised Nature in the Past

Cause Action/event Stratigraphic result

Organic Mixed Minerogenic

g enin Waste and dumps idd /m ing p ments Fills and fundaments um nda D f fu n o atio ruction re /dest Building debris/remains C tion ruc nst Co n Cattle faeces io ct Strata formation Intentional ru st Alluvial e g D in p p o ll r fa Deposition may be D in Deposition ra post-depositionally or d affected (reworking on o Post-deposition D lo small scale) i F gg in g/ Culture plo Depth scale in meters ug hin g 0,001 0,01 0,1 1 Unintentional Plough/crop horizons Tr amping Ho Tramping horizons lding o f live stock Live stock turbation horizons

Reworking

Reworking orms Nature of earthw Earth worms horizons ence Pres plants Growing of Root horizons

D Natural ig Deposition and horizons E g . g in may disappear or be . g w / t reworked by truncation Strata destruction a ru lk n or erosion in c F g a lo ti od o o n M r r Truncations ic ain ro fal bio l log ica Erosion l ac tivity Decomposition Disappearence Preservation Preservation and disappearence of strata may affect natural and of strata of strata cultural conditions Erosive Strata contacts (Layers and horizons)

Figure18: Model for the formation of occupational strata within a site. Disappearance of material from this model will result in depositions on other sites. The system is inﬂ uenced by the opposite situation. results. The stratigraphic results are in turn divided site are here referred to as depositional. From a geo- into: strata formation (depositional and post-deposi- logical perspective, they can be considered as ‘sedi- tional) and strata destruction (including truncation/ mentological’ processes. The depositional processes erosion/decomposition) effects. The model illustrates result in accumulations of different layers. The in- how cultural and natural causes contribute to site tentional deposits dominate the occupational layers formation in both the depositional and the post- in both Norrköping and Karlstad. The main volume depositional phase, and also how the stratigraphic of the deposits consists of minerogenic layers that results in turn can act as a trigger mechanism for were transported to the site with speciﬁ c intentions, cultural and natural responses (cf., the cyclic model mostly to reshape the local landscape, for example in Paper II). to make a terrace on a slope, as in Norrköping, or All types of processes that bring material to the to construct elevated foundations for buildings. For

39 J. Heimdahl these purposes mainly minerogenic material was deposits unaffected by post-depositional processes is used. Reworked house debris are also intentional extremely rare. deposits. The destruction of houses may have been Tramping by humans and animals was probably unintentional but often the material of destructed the most important of the post-depositional process- houses was truncated and used as fi lls in new founda- es that occurred in the Medieval and Post-Medieval tions, and the unintentionally created debris is there- urban environment. Experiments have proved this by intentionally reworked (cf., Tagesson 2000a). A process to be able to redistribute objects up to 17 cm special type of intentionally deposited material was in depth (Villa & Cortuin 1983) in sandy material sand that was spread on icy grounds during winter- during just one day of tramping. However, with the time. This sand was deposited with a purpose but exception of dark earths, tramping horizons on the when the snow melted in the spring, it became redis- sites in this study are 3-10 cm deep. Cobblestones, tributed by alluvial processes and by cleaning. Waste wooden boardwalks and a compact humic ground piles, dung heaps and latrines are examples of inten- inhibited the tramping effect. tionally created organic deposits but all traces of or- Natural soil formation processes occurred parallel ganic waste piles found in Norrköping and Karlstad to the tramping. There are several examples of strata contained 40-80% minerogenic material. The fact in both Norrköping and Karlstad where earthworm that cattle faeces were dumped within the town and traces were present. This is indicated both by hori- not brought to the surrounding fi elds indicates an zons with crumb microstructure and macroscopic overproduction, which is also confi rmed by written fi nds of earthworm cocoons. It was quite common sources (see Paper V). to fi nd traces of root horizons together with traces The second most common depositional factor in of earthworms. Traces of smaller soil-penetrating Norrköping and Karlstad was natural events (Paper organisms like nematodes and Oribateids were also II). The major natural process was alluvial and re- found in many samples. sulted in the sedimentation of silt and sand in water Examples of intentionally created post-deposi- ponds formed in depressions. In Norrköping there is tional processes are ploughing or digging in order also an example of small mudfl ows. Regularly occur- to prepare a soil for cultivation. Soils of this type ring exposure of sandy material in the slope results were not found at any of the sites although a 16th in erosion during rainfall and snow melt. The allu- century plough-horizon had earlier been identifi ed in vial slope runoff in Norrköping probably worked as Karlstad, c. 200 m east of the present site (Lund et a trigger mechanism for a certain cultural responses. al. 1994). The concentration of alluvial and mudfl ow deposits The macrofossil record from Karlstad indicates to depressions results in drainage problems in these that the development of soil horizons occurred dur- areas, which led to that buildings had to be elevated ing summer and autumn (cf. Paper III). Due to frozen by their foundations in order to avoid the moisture, ground no organic material was mixed into the soils which in turn created new depressions in the streets. during wintertime. Cattle faeces loaded with fodder Hence, this includes a nature-culture cycle of reac- plants remnants from mowed meadows (winter sig- tions and responses (cf. Paper II). This is probably nal) are absent in the urban soils and must therefore one of the reasons why occupational deposits are have been deposited during the grazing season. Since thicker in depressions. The cycle was inhibited when deposition of winter droppings loaded with fodder the foundation materials became coarser, with better plants most likely occurred, their absence implies permeability and more resistance to alluvial erosion. that the droppings were cleaned from the streets be- (In Fig. 18 the bottom arrow that leads from the fore the thawing of the ground. It could have oc- strata and the erosive cintacts back to the cultural curred during snow ploughing but since snow is not and natural causes represent these processes.) A fully always present, their absence also implies that the natural process dominates the alluvial material in frozen streets were cleaned from dung also when they Karlstad – the regular fl ooding of the river Klarälven were snow-free – probably due to a regular habit of and the formation of top set beds on the still active cleaning the streets. This is in line with the idea that delta. an organised cleaning occurred in the towns during Examples of unintentional deposits are dropped the Medieval and Post-Medieval times (cf., Beronius- objects and animal faeces dropped on the ground Jörpeland 2001). in the streets and yards. Normally, material depos- Intentional truncation and unintentional/natu- ited on the ground was mixed into the topsoil by ral erosion created negative features found in Nor- post-depositional processes such as tramping and rköping and Karlstad. These features are revealed by bioturbation by earthworms. To fi nd these types of erosive contacts between layers. Truncations may be

40 Urbanised Nature in the Past

Figure 19: Formation of dark earth through continuous land use (in this case, cattle handling causing tramping horizon) and repeated alluvial events causing deposition of alluvial sand. The stratigraphy is repeatedly obscured by the tramping but may also be preserved, e.g. by root horizons from vegetation and by postholes from constructions. recognised by their regular extension that excludes during snow ploughing. Natural erosion may occur, natural or unintentional processes. When a trunca- for example through alluvial processes. In this study tion has cut one or several strata, it is sometimes pos- erosion has been harder to recognise than trunca- sible to identify and trace the eroded or truncated tion, as it occurs on a smaller scale. On the other material that is redeposited as fi lls nearby. This is pos- hand, the material that is eroded and redeposited by sible when the redeposited material contains a mix- alluvial process has been easier to identify. ture that is possible to identify, for instance through recognisable specifi c pieces or lumps. It is possible to make these observations in the fi eld, although soil The formation of dark earth micromorphology provides a more powerful tool The dark earths of Norrköping and Karlstad were when dealing with these features (cf., Carter 1993). formed by a combination of depositions by natural Erosion by unintentional acts may be, for example events through alluvial processes and the post-depo- hollowed walking paths or streets that are eroded sitional unintentional formation of soil horizons by

s s s s s eek Second Minute Hours Days W Month Year Decades Centuries

Faecal dropp

Fills

Alluvial deposits

Waste/dump/middening piles Deposits Fire debris

Accumulation of charred material in kilns and on cooking places

Accumulation of litter on floors

Root horizons

Plowing/cultivation horizons

Tramping horizons Horizons Earth worm horizons

Fig. 20: Duration of urban strata formation. Note that deposits generally have a longer duration than horizons.

41 J. Heimdahl cattle tramping (Fig. 19). The effective depositional time of the urban layers The post-depositional processes led to the forma- in Norrköping and Karlstad may be a few days or tion of soil horizons in the exposed ground surfaces. weeks in total, even though the whole stratigraphy When cattle were present at the site, new organic represents a development during several millennia. material in the form of dung was deposited on top The pedogene post-depositional soil formation proc- of the sand. The mixture of sand and dung occurred ess had a longer duration. The tramping horizons de- by cattle tramping but probably also by other pedo- veloped in some of the deposits represent units that gene soil forming processes, such as bioturbation by were formed through ‘the unintentional activities of earthworms and roots. In this way a tramping hori- the daily life’. If the total formation time of these zon mainly composed of a dung-and-sand mixture soil horizons are added to the total formation time was formed. However, alluvial processes continued of the deposits, the result is more likely to represent to affect the area, and additional sand and silt were decades instead of days or weeks but it is still impor- deposited on top of the horizon. Since the cattle han- tant to remember that we are trying to reconstruct dling at the site continued, the deposition and mix- millennia from the fragments of those decades. ing of the dung into the tramping horizon also con- Harris’ (1979) statement that a stratigraphic se- tinued. The horizon affected the ground all the way quence comprises depositions and interfaces is, in below the contact between the old ground surface my opinion, too generalized. Larsson (2000) may and the newly deposited alluvial sand, and erased be sociological correct when he states that “the this contact. This process continued and the result surface is the scene upon which the social interac- was dark earths that contained several obscured beds tions occurred” but it may also be stratigraphically of alluvial material and several overlapping obscured misleading. The idea that the surfaces are the most tramping horizons (Fig. 19). interesting stratigraphical units to the archaeologist The obscured stratigraphy of the dark earths in (Gardelin et al. 1997, Larsson 2000) may lead to Norrköping and Karlstad was revealed through the some confusion when trying to understand how the traces within them, such as preserved fragments of ground was affected by activities. Surfaces are two- minerogenic units, traces of constructions that ap- dimensional and constantly changing on a substrate parently were built on top of obscured surfaces and and if they are buried, they are extremely diffi cult the varying organic compound and macrofossil con- to trace through excavation. Surfaces themselves are tent that differed through depth (Paper II, cf., Sidell rarely preserved in a stratigraphy because of trunca- 2000). tion and erosion. In fact, most of the contacts/inter- The reason why the dark earths at the investigated faces between the urban deposits of Norrköping and sites ceased to form was probably due to the change Karlstad are erosive. Instead the traces after those in land use when the area was divided into plots in ‘activity surfaces’ have to be searched for in the soil order to raise houses. Even if cattle were still kept horizons developed as three-dimensional strata in within the towns, movements of the animals were the deposits that constituted the ground at a specifi c restricted to streets and backyards that were partly period. The social interaction mainly took place dur- paved, inhibiting alluvial effects. Tramping horizons ing the post-depositional phase, and it is therefore of cattle do occur also in the strata above the dark the post-depositional features – the tramping hori- earths but were not developed to the same depth or zons etc. – that must be studied in order to interpret complexity. this daily life activity, and thus the cultural and social complexes. Still, it has also been proven fruitful to trace social Sediments, soil horizons and culture and cultural changes by studying the deposits. Al- The formation of deposits in the urban environment luvial beds may contain reworked objects from lost generally occurred during short-term intervals while surfaces and objects found in minerogenic deposits post-depositional formation of soil horizons nor- with known origin may be considered as primary mally had a longer duration (Fig. 20). Fills in foun- deposited (Paper I). In addition, textural studies of dations and terraces were most likely formed dur- fi ll have proven rewarding. The shift from locally ing minutes, hours or days. Waste deposits may, as used material in the fi lls to material with ‘exotic’ a whole unit, have a longer duration of months or and coarser texture probably refl ects a profession- years but parts of the waste heaps can be formed alisation of the building tradition (Paper II). Among during seconds. Geologically speaking, the urban urban historians such a change has long been known occupational deposits are extremely rich in hiatus- but it has not been known when it occurred, or if es since no continuous accumulation takes place. it developed at different times in different towns,

42 Urbanised Nature in the Past and in different blocks within the town (Augustsson stratigraphy, functions of structures and past local 1992). The investigations in Norrköping and Karl- environments. stad suggest that this shift occurred at different times • The presence of a geologist during archaeological in different towns, but it is not known if it occurred excavations contributes with knowledge concerning simultaneously in all areas within the these towns. both natural and cultural factors connected to the This professionalisation may also have inhibited site formation processes. Naturally formed sediments the further formation of well-stratifi ed urban occu- may be studied to obtain cultural information, for pational strata. The use of coarser material led to example alluvial sediments may have acted as traps better drainage and higher resistance to erosion by for material on truncated surfaces or areas situated alluvial processes. This change also resulted in more outside the excavation area. advanced drainage systems and the paving of streets • and backyards become more common. The paving There is evidence of small changes in the local inhibited soil formation by tramping, and the streets urban fl ora through time, probably as an effect of became easier to keep clean (cf., Beronius-Jörpeland interspecies competition. Marked fl oral changes oc- 2001). It is probably not a coincidence that well curred according to changes in land use. In Karlstad stratifi ed urban strata are not found after the reor- there is evidence of a neophyte harbour fl ora with ganisation of building tradition was introduced. The rare species, nowadays limited to sporadic occur- younger urban occupational deposits are coarser, rences on the west coast. Many species are found water logging is inhibited and the preservation sta- which probably had a more northerly distribution th th tus of organic material in this material is therefore during the 14 –19 centuries than today. poor. • Botanical evidence combined with historical data Larsson (2000) stated that we might expect a de- suggests that the main consumption of cereals in the crease of natural (geological) processes within the towns derived from local crops. Rye dominated in urban environment in comparison to a rural envi- Norrköping and oat dominated in Karlstad. In Nor- ronment. The results in this thesis speak in favour of rköping evidence of a transition between a grass-clo- the opposite: The specifi c urban environmental con- ver meadow and a rye fi eld was found. There are ditions at Norrköping seem to have enforced geo- also indications of cultivation of berries, for example logical processes. In Karlstad, the geological, alluvial Fragaria moschata in Karlstad during the 17th and processes were not affected at all until the control of 18th centuries. In Karlstad and Norrköping evidence the river in the beginning of the 20th century. It is also of tobacco cultivation was found. In Norrköping worth mentioning that urban occupational deposits tobacco cultivation occurred between 1560-1660, generally are thicker than rural occupational depos- and may be one of the earliest tobacco cultivations its. The comparisons I have made between excava- in Sweden. In Karlstad it occurred during the 18th tions indicate rather that naturally formed geologi- century, and by historical sources it is possible to cal deposits are more commonly found interlayered connect to Gustav Clareen’s cultivation of tobacco within urban deposits than rural deposits. This also 1741-1772. suggests that the urbanisation in Medieval and Post- • Comparison between the content of plant mac- Medieval towns, with their constant ongoing soil ex- rofossils in mowed hay and cattle dung in Karlstad posure, reworking and land use shifts, increased the strongly suggests the use of a specifi c stable as a activity of local geological processes. slaughterhouse, not used for winter stabling. The fl oral composition of meadows and pastures differed and there existed several types of meadows 10 Conclusions that were managed differently. The grazed pastures • Stratigraphic interpretations are more complete in the area were characterised by ungrazed tufts of and reliable when archaeologists and geologists car- Juncus bufonius. Sampling of recent cattle droppings ry out excavations together. Possibilities of continu- from a pasture with an ungrazed Juncus community ous fi eld discussions enhance the prospects of mu- shows that the cattle graze the Juncus fruits that fall tual understanding between the disciplines. Methods on the surrounding vegetation. The composition of connected to Single Context Recording are fully diaspores in cattle faeces may therefore also include adaptable to a continuous geological fi eldwork dur- ungrazed species. ing archaeological excavation. • The formations of dark earths in Sweden are not • Continuous pilot diagnoses of macro contents in connected to any specifi c time period but probably to samples during excavation greatly contribute to fi eld rural environments. The dark earths found in Nor- interpretations, concerning both interpretation of rköping and Karlstad were formed due to a combi-

43 J. Heimdahl nation of recurrent alluvial deposition in areas that sitional soil formation and erosion/truncation. All were used for intense cattle handling. By the tramp- these factors may occur as both natural and cultural. ing of the cattle, humic soil horizons were formed Culturally controlled factors dominate but natural that obscured the contacts between the alluvial sand factors are always present and even dominate on and silt. In Norrköping the dark earth was formed some occasions. Intentional and natural depositions during the 13th century, in Karlstad up to the 17th seem to have contributed to the main part of the century. minerogenic material. The main part of the organic • Deposition of urban strata was generally more material was successively deposited unintentionally intense in depressions and at the base of slopes. The and unintentionally mixed into the topsoil through causes of this seem partly to have been from a cul- tramping. Past urban environments in Norrköping tural need of levelling the ground due to drainage, and Karlstad were geologically active and geological and partly because alluvial deposits from rain water, processes contributed to and greatly affected the site snow melting and fl ooding were concentrated in de- formation process. pressions. Since alluvial deposits were concentrated to depressions in the town, they may sometimes have created casts of streets and lanes and backyards. References Aalto, M., 1994: The vegetation of the Turku castle. Turun • Development of urban soil horizons was concen- Maakuntamuseo Raportteja 16, 21-38. trated during spring, summer and autumn, when the ground was not frozen. This is indicated by the mac- Ahlberg, N. & Redin, L., 1994: Städerna. In: Selinge, K.- rofossil record originating from cattle dung in Karl- G. (ed.), Kulturminnen och kulturmiljövård, 110-117 stad that consists entirely of species that were grazed Sveriges nationalatlas, SNA. Bra Böcker Förlag. Stock- at meadows. Remains of mowed winter fodder have holm. not been found within the preserved soils. Alexander, D. & Armit, I., 1993: Unstratifi ed stratigraphy: • In the occupational deposits of Norrköping and methodologies for interpreting and presenting cropmark Karlstad there is a signifi cant textural trend of coars- sites. In: Barber, J., (ed.): Interpreting Stratigraphy ening upwards of the minerogenic material because – 1992 Edinburgh, 37-41. AOC (Scotland) Ltd, Edin- the local sand and silt was used as fi ll in the early burgh. phases, and more coarse sand and gravel was used in later constructions. (This trend is also observed dur- Anderberg, A.-L., 1994: Atlas of seeds. Part 4. Resedace- ing fi eld studies in Skänninge and Stockholm, and ae-Umbelliferae, 281 pp. Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet according to many archaeologists it seems to be com- Stockholm. mon in the occupational deposits of most towns.) The shift was identifi ed to have occurred during Andersen, S. Th., 1979: Identifi cation of wild grass and ce- the 17th century in Norrköping and during the 18th real pollen. Danmarks Geologiske Undersøgelse. Årbog century in Karlstad. It is probably a refl ection of a 1978, 69-92. professionalisation of the urban building procedures Andersson, H., 2001: Perspektiv bakåt och framåt på that apparently occurred at different times in differ- medeltida stadsforskning. Bebyggelsehistorisk tidskrift ent towns. 42: 7-16. • Waste material does not seem to have been used as a primary fi lling. Places where the dumping of Andersson, H. & Carlsson, K., 2001: Kungahällaprojektet minerogenic fi lling material occurred were probably – en bakgrundsteckning. In: Andersson, H., Carlsson, secondarily used as places for waste dumping. The K., Vretemark, M., (eds.) Kungahälla. Problem och for- different taphonomy of the urban macrofossil record skning kring stadens äldsta historia (Kungahälla. Prob- may be utilized to make interpretations of the com- lems and research on the early history of the town). Bo- position of mixed and reworked depositions. Mac- husläns museums förlag. Stockholm, Uddevalla. 9-28. rofossil remains may contribute to model the devel- Andersson, S. & Schedin, P., 2001: Den värmländska ur- opment of both local and regional environments. baniseringen. Urbaniseringsprocesser i Västsverige. En Changes in the local urban fl ora may refl ect both utvärdering av uppdragsarkeologins möjligheter att environmental changes and interspecies competition. belysa historiska processer [The Urbanization in Värm- When such changes occur, they can be locally used land. Processes of Urbanization in Western Sweden. An for indirect dating of strata. Evaluation of the Possibilities of Rescue Archaeology to • Formation processes of urban strata are regu- elucidate Historical Processes], 144 pp. Värmlands mu- lated by three major factors: Deposition, post-depo- seum, Karlstad.

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Walbridge, M. R., 1998: Growing Interest in Urban Eco- Vuorela, I., Grönlund, T. & Lempiäinen, T. 1996: A re- systems. Urban Ecosystems 2: 3. construction of the environment of Rettig in the city of Turku, Finland on the basis of diatom, pollen, plant Wasylikowa, K. 1978: Plant Remains from the Early and macrofossil and phytolith analyses. Bulletin of the Geo- Late Medieval Time found on the Wawel Hill in Cracow. logical Society of Finland 68 (2), 46-71. Acta Palaeobotanica XIX: 2, 198 pp. Vuorela, I. & Lempiäinen, T. 1993: Palynological and Wasylikowa, K. 1986: Analysis of fossil fruits and seeds. palaeobotanical investigations in the area of the post- In: Berglund, B. E., (ed.): Handbook of Holocene Palae- medieval Helsinki old town. Vegetation History and Ar- oecology and Palaeohydrology, 571-590. John Wiley & chaeobotany 2, 101-123. Sons Ltd, Chichester. Yule, B., 1992: Truncation Horizons and Reworking in Westholm, G., 1990: Gaturenhållning och hushållsavlopp Urban Stratigraphy. In: Steane, K., (ed.), Interpreting – Modern service eller medeltida teknik? Om Visbys Stratigraphy 1992 (Lincoln), 20-22. City of Lincoln Ar- medeltida stadsmiljö utifrån det arkeologiska materi- chaeology Unit. Lincoln. alet. In: Bohm, R: Gotlandia Irredenta. Festschrift für Gunnar Svahnström zu seinem 75. Geburtstag, 303- Zohar, I., Belmaker, M., 2005: Size does matter: methodo- 323. Sigmaringen. Thorbecke. logical comments on sieve size and species richness in fi shbone assemblages. Journal of Archaeological Science Wienberg, J., 2004: Arkaeologi, fi losofi og retorik. META 32: 635-641. 2004, 3: 26-37.

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54 Urbanised Nature in the Past

sad för att tillvarata dessa typer av information som Den urbaniserade fi nns bevarad i kulturlagren. Både i Sverige och internationellt har stadskultur- naturen lager främst varit studieobjekt för arkeologer, men de senaste decennierna har också naturvetare såsom. biologer (arkeobotaniker) och geologer (geoarkeol- De äldre städernas spår oger), alltmer kommit att knytas till utgrävningar- na. Vanligen är det fråga om tillfälliga, i bästa fall Städer är ofta byggda på resterna av sina forna regelbundna, besök i fält, eller analys av jordprover lämningar. Äldre fyllnadsmassor, husgrunder, gator, som skickas in till laboratorier. Samtidigt har praxis avfallshögar och enstaka glömda och borttappade inom exploateringsarkeologin (som står för nästan föremål utgör s.k. stadskulturlager. Vid sidan av alla utgrävningar i Sverige) varit att fältarbetet ut- arkeologiska kulturlämningar vittnar geologiska och förs av arkeologer, vilket innebär att den viktiga biologiska spår om den miljö som funnits i och om- fälttolkningen av kulturlagren, som är avgörande kring staden under olika perioder. Det är lätt att se för slutresultaten, nästan uteslutande görs av arke- ’staden’ som en motsats till ’naturen’, men miljön i ologer. Det kan också uttryckas som så att natur- städer utgör också en ekologisk nisch för växter och vetenskapliga studier av kulturlager ofta saknat en djur med särskilda krav. I staden skapas också förut- tillfredställande fältfas. En del av detta har berott på sättningar för vissa geologiska processer. På samma outtalad praxis, en annan på uppfattningen att mod- sätt som man kan tala om en ”urbaniserad männi- ern arkeologisk grävteknik är knepig att kombinera ska/kultur” kan man också tala om en ”urbaniserad med deltagande av naturvetare under fältarbetet. natur”. Mot denna bakgrund kan den här avhandlingens Traditionen att arkeologiskt gräva ut stadskultur- syfte beskrivas som: Att utveckla och tillämpa me- lager är ung och uppkom när lagren, och fynden i toder för integrerat fältarbete mellan arkeologi och lagren började klassifi ceras som fornminnen. Före kvartärgeologi/arkeobotanik, och att från ett kvar- 1970-talet hade bara en handfull utgrävningar tärgeologiskt/paleoekologiskt perspektiv tolka och av städer gjorts i Sverige. Stadskulturlager är ofta rekonstruera miljöutvecklingen och tillkomsten av stratigrafi skt komplexa och svårtolkade, och inte kulturlager i två olika städer: Norrköping och Karl- sällan är de fl era meter tjocka, och när arkeologin stad. Jag har fältarbetat på grävningen i kvarteret ställdes inför dem tog utvecklingen den arkeologiska ”Konstantinopel” i Norrköping sommaren 2000, stratigrafi n fart. Man frågade sig vad alla dessa la- och under undersökningen av kvarteret ”Druvan” i ger egentligen representerade, vad de bestod av och Karlstad hösten och vintern 2003-2004. hur de bildats. En central fråga för tolkningen, och för att kunna förstå fyndmaterial och konstruktioner, blev om dessa lager var medvetet skapade, eller Utgrävningarna tillkommit omedvetet. Norrköping fi ck stadsprivilegier 1384 och är den I ett tidigt skede kallade man bara de omedvetet äldsta av de två städerna. Namnet fi nns omnämnt tillkomna lagren för kulturlager och man antog att redan 1283 som en viktig handelsplats. Staden är de till stor utsträckning bildats genom att människor byggd runt forsarna i Motala ström, där man anlagt hällt ut avfall på gatan och tappat saker – alltså att kvarnar och bedrivit laxfi ske. Under stormaktstiden ett visst omedvetet vardagslivsbeteende gav upphov växte staden i samband med att kronan anlade vap- till kulturlager. På senare år har denna syn förändrats enfabriker där, och den blev en viktig exporthamn. radikalt. Alla lager som skapats av människan defi n- På 1660-talet skedde stora ombyggnader, gatunätet ierar man idag som kulturlager. Den gängse synen ritades om och stora delar av den gamla bebyggelsen är, att den övervägande delen av stadskulturlagren är revs och schaktades bort. Samtidigt omformade man medvetet skapade. Man är idag kritisk mot synen på strömfåran så att den blev smalare än den varit tidi- den medeltida människan som boende på en ständigt gare. Ombyggnationen var så omfattande att spåren växande sophög. Ändå fi nns bilden av medeltidens efter det medeltida Norrköping nästan försvann helt, miljö som genomsyrad av smuts kvar i mångas med- och det var först 1999, under förundersökningen av vetande, delvis på grund av synen på stadskulturla- kvarteret Konstantinopel, som man hittade spår efter gren. Den moderna synen på stadskulturlager hänger den medeltida staden. Utgrävningsområdet ligger på bl.a. samman med utvecklingen av den arkeologiska sluttningen ner mot Motala ström, på en plats, som grävtekniken. De tidiga grävteknikerna omöjlig- enligt äldre kartor ligger mycket nära strömmens gjorde upptäckandet av s.k. avröjningar, t.ex. spår gamla strandkant. efter städning. Modern grävteknik är bättre anpas-

55 J. Heimdahl

År 1589 grundade Hertig Karl (senare Karl IV) redan i fält. På så viss kunde provtagningen effek- Karlstad, som en strategisk utskeppningsplats mot tiviseras och arkeologerna kunde få svar på vilka väster. Staden har en möjlig medeltida föregångare växtrester som fanns i olika lager, innan de var helt som kallas ”Tingvalla”. Den är omnämnd som utgrävda. Förutom att ge svar på hur den lokala marknadsplats i området, men har hittills inte loka- fl oran i kvarteret såg ut, visade också analyserna liserats arkeologiskt, även om man då och då hittar t.ex. spår av latrinavfall, kodynga, odlingsväxter lösa fynd i området, som visar att människor varit och åkerogräs, rester av ölkryddor, exotiska (im- här under medeltiden. Karlstad ligger på Vänerns porterade) växer, men också spår av hantverk som norra strand, där Klarälven har sitt aktiva delta. t.ex. smidesloppor. Staden är byggd på själva deltaytan, vilket medför att översvämningar har varit regelbundet förekom- mande i Karlstad genom historien. Växterna i Norrköping och Karlstad Under utgrävningen i Norrköping utvecklades me- Växtrester som bevarats i stadskulturlager har ett toder i syfte att anpassa de kvartärgeologiska och komplext ursprung. För att kunna tolka sammansät- arkeologiska fältarbetsmetoderna till varandra. Alla tningen av växtfossilen, måste man förstå vilka proc- stratigrafi ska tolkningar i fält gjordes parallellt, både esser som lett till att de hamnat där. arkeologiskt och kvartärgeologiskt, vilket ledde till Staden har en lokal fl ora med växter som trivs i mycket fruktbara diskussioner. Det blev uppenbart själva stadsmiljön och som kan avslöja hur miljön att förutsättningarna för förståelsen av kulturlagren varit på olika platser, t.ex. vilka områden som be- kraftigt ökade vid gemensamt fältarbete. Det blev trampats, var avfallsplatser har funnits, och vilka också tydligt att varken arkeologisk eller kvartär- områden som legat i skugga eller sol. Förändringar geologisk kompetens enskilt var tillräckligt för att i lokalfl oran kan avslöja förändringar i stadsmiljön. tillfredsställande tolka och förstå stadsstratigrafi n. En stor mängd frön och frukter kommer in i staden Närvaron av de två disciplinerna bidrog till att fl era via djur som betat i hagar eller ätit vinterfoder slaget nya typer av fenomen kom att undersökas. Exem- på ängar. Frön och frukter i dynga ger signaler om pelvis lager, som bildats genom ”naturliga” geolo- hur stadens omgivande hag- och ängsfl ora sett ut vid giska processer såsom sediment bildade i vattenpölar olika tider. En tredje viktig fyndgrupp är frön och och som nu framträdde som laminerade (randiga) frukter från odlade och insamlade växter, som förts linser i stratigrafi n. Linserna användes för att spåra in i staden för bearbetning, försäljning och konsum- äldre markytor som annars försvunnit i avröjningar tion. Makrofossil som hittas i spiskonstruktioner el- och de var vanliga i både Norrköping och Karlstad. ler i latrinavfall kan ge indikationer på vilken typ Dessa linser visade sig vid fl era tillfällen innehålla av kost som konsumerats, vilket i sin tur kan ge makro- och mikroskopiska spår efter aktiviteter som antydningar om den lokala ekonomiska situationen ägt rum på nu helt försvunna markytor, och i om- och klasstillhörighet hos de inneboende i kvarteret. råden som låg utanför själva undersökningsytorna. I Norrköping fanns tydliga tecken på att lokalfl oran Det verkar till exempel som om ölbryggning ägde skiftat karaktär genom tiden. Före stadsbebyggelsens rum i området ovanför den sluttning, som grävdes tillkomst verkar platsen ha utgjort en del av en betad ut i Norrköping. fl odstrandäng med kvarlämnade tuvor av tågväx- Den geologiska undersökningen i Norrköping visar ter och brännässlor. Längre upp i sluttningen fanns att de äldsta kulturlagren i området bestod av meter- ett naturligt strandhak utbildat i sand, och ovanpå tjocka fyllnadsmassor av sand och grus, som använts detta hak återfanns torrmarksväxter som sandnarv för att någon gång på 1200-talet skapa en terrass på och backtrav. Denna vegetation begravdes helt av sluttningen, kanske som ett skydd mot översvämn- de metertjocka fyllnadsmassor som dumpades i slut- ingar av Motala ström. Fyllnadsmassorna har delvis tningen för att forma en terrass någon gång på 1200- blivit dumpade i vatten, antagligen under en övers- talet. Byggnader restes på denna terrass och kreatur vämning. Utan den geologiska undersökningen hade hölls i området, vilket ledde till att näringshalten i dessa tidiga fyllnadsmassor antagligen blivit tolkade marken ökade kraftigt. Större delen av marken var som naturliga sediment, och inte kommit att ingå i förmodligen barmark till följd av intensiv kreaturs- den arkeologiska tolkningen av platsen. trampning, Näringskrävande växter som brännässla Eftersom analys av växtmakrofossil (växtrester och blåmålla växte förmodligen längst husväggar synliga för blotta ögat, främst frukter och frön) och inhägnader. Likaså fanns en tramptålig fl ora med tillämpades som huvudmetod utvecklades ett system t.ex. trampört på vägar och bakgårdar. Sammansät- för att kontinuerligt och preliminärt analysera alla tningen av den lokala fl ora verkar i stor utsträckn- stratigrafi ska enheter och arkeologiska lämningar ing ha varit oförändrad från 1300-talet och framåt,

56 Urbanised Nature in the Past men vissa förändringar kan dock spåras, i synnerhet mellan 1000- och 1600-talet började man hålla kring mitten av 1500-talet då djurhållningen får ge boskap i någon form av fållor och vegetationen på vika för en mer hantverkspräglad miljö. Vissa örter, den trampstörda marken ersattes lokalt av en rud- t.ex. trampört och vitplister försvinner ur kvarteret, eratfl ora dominerad av revormstörel och pilört. De medan andra, t.ex. bolmört och vildpersilja ökar i omgivande fuktängarna dominerades alltjämt av tåg. betydelse. Även rester av bevuxna hustak hittades När hus började byggas på platsen i slutet av 1500- på platsen. Innehållet i de rikliga resterna av dynga talet tillkom näringskrävande växter (t.ex. nässlor, i kulturlagren visar att boskapen betat på fuktiga blåmålla och tiggarranunkel) och tramptåliga växter strandängar dominerade av starr och tågväxter runt (ex. groblad och trampört). I mitten av 1600-talet Motala ström, utanför själva staden. försvann den tidigare dominerande revormstöreln Det fanns rikligt med spår av kulturväxter i Nor- och mer ovanliga växter uppträdde, såsom kålsenap rköping. Bland sädesslagen dominerar rågen från och gat- eller stinkmålla, vilka idag blott sporadiskt 1300-talet och framåt, vilket överensstämmer med förekommer längst hamnar på västkusten. Förekom- historiska uppgifter om Östergötland som en del av sten av dessa växter visar på Karlstads dåvarande dåtidens ”rågbälte”. Det indikerar kanske också att betydelse som utskeppningshamn till västkusten. Li- den lokala konsumtionen präglades av lokalt od- kaså verkar många växter som idag har sitt utbredn- lade grödor. En annan intressant fyndgrupp utgörs ingsområde begränsat söder om Vänern ha förekom- av ölkryddor som hittas i lämningar från 1300-talet mit i Karlstads lokalfl ora på 1600-1700-talet. och framåt. Förutom den populära humlen verkar I lämningarna av ett litet nedbrunnet stall i Karl- ölet fram till 1550-talet också ha kryddats med pors, stad hittades en sammanpressat laggkärl med rester men därefter verkar humlen ha blivit den helt dom- av bevarat hö, som satt fastklibbat på kärlets insida. inerande ölkryddan. Ytterligare en intressant växt i Jämförelser av innehållet i detta hö med innehål- sammanhanget är älggräs, som är överrespresenterat let i den kreatursdynga som fanns på golvet i stal- i prover, som också innehåller humle och pors. Älg- let visar radikalt olika sammansättning, och ger en gräset användes som öl-/mjödkrydda under vikingati- unik möjlighet att separat urskilja ängs- och betes- den, men inget är hittills känt om eventuell användn- marksmiljöerna runt 1600-talets Karlstad. Resterna ing under medeltid, eller i kombination med humle i spannen består med all sannolikhet av hö från fl era och pors. Från 1550-talet ökar fynden av exotiska olika ängar, och visar att foder tagits från både häv- och exklusiva frukter som vindruva och fi kon, vilket dade och ohävdade ängar. Sannolikt motsvarar sam- väl överensstämmer med kvarterets utveckling till mansättningen den man kan förvänta sig fi nna i det borgarkvarter. Av särskilt intresse är fyndet av frön vinterfoder som använts lokalt. Sammansättningen från bondtobak. Eftersom import av tobak innebär av dyngan på stallgolvet är däremot en helt annan import av blad, och eftersom ingen bladvävnad hit- och domineras av tåg, och liknar all annan dynga tades tillsammans med tobaksfröerna, indikerar des- som hittades i Karlstads kulturlager. Detta innebär sa med stor sannolikhet att tobaksodling ägt rum i förmodligen att sammansättningen av dyngan rep- eller omkring Norrköping. Tobaksodling blev vanlig resenterar betad hagmark och inte slaget foder. Det i Sverige under början av 1700-talet. Dessförinnan innebär att det lilla stallet sannolikt inte använts för odlades växten i liten skala, mest som kuriosum, eller vinterstallning av djur, utan att djuren som hållits där som medicinalväxt. Den tidigaste Svenska odlingen nyligen varit på sensommar eller höstbete, förmodli- av bondtobak känd från historiska källor fi nns angi- gen inför slakt. Idén om funktionen av det lilla stallet ven 1632 från Uppsala slottsträdgård. Tobaksfynden som slakteri förstärks av att en grop i närheten in- från Norrköping dateras med hjälp av stratigrafi n nehöll koskallar, vilket därmed skulle knyta gropen och artefakttypologi till mellan 1560 och 1660, men till stallbyggnaden. Prover tagna från modern dynga den tidigare delen av perioden, alltså ca 1560-1610 på Mariebergs strandängar visar att frukter från är troligast. Stämmer denna datering är detta spåren tågväxter är mycket rikligt förekommande, trots att efter den tidigaste odlingen av tobak i Sverige. djuren undviker denna växt som lämnas kvar som Spåren efter den tidigaste lokala fl oran i Karlstad tuvor. Djuren får i sig tågfrukterna genom att dessa hittades i deltasedimenten på en meters djup. De visar sprids från tuvorna till den omgivande betade veg- att deltat kring Kristi födelse varit skogsbevuxet med etationen. björk och al, och att snår av ljuskrävande växter som Också i Karlstad gjordes rikligt med fynd av rester slån och hallon vuxit längst stränderna av de slin- efter odlade och insamlade växter. Liksom i Nor- grande älvkanalerna. Någon gång, troligtvis under rköping dominerar det lokalt odlade sädesslaget, i medeltiden röjs skogen och deltat omvandlades till detta fall havre. Spår av insamlade frukter och bär, betesmark, karaktäriserad av tågtuvor. Någon gång bl.a. björnbär, hallon, smultron och blåhallon, före-

57 J. Heimdahl kommer rikligt. I lager från 1700-talet förekommer omsvängning, först med användning av en kombina- också spår av parksmultron, en äldre odlingsväxt som tion av lokalt fi nkornigt material och grövre mate- sedermera kom att ersättas av jordgubben. Ett fynd rial, och sedermera till bruk av grovsand och grus, av kryddpeppar från tidigt 1600-tal utgör ett intres- som i Karlstad måste ha hämtades från mer avlägsna sant exempel på en mer exklusiv växt, som nyligen täkter. Denna förändring är tolkad som en profes- börjat öka i användning på kontinenten under denna sionalisering av byggandet. Från att husbyggarna tid. Endast två arkeologiska fynd av denna växt är ti- varit infl yttande bönder, går ansvaret över till ett digare kända från Europa. I resterna av ett nedbrun- byggarskrå med andra traditioner. Det fi nkorniga net hus från 1700-talet hittades ett antal tobaksfrön. materialet i grunderna kan förklaras av att det på Tobaksodlingen i Karlstad kan knytas till en specifi k landsbygden, där husen mer fritt kunnat placeras historisk person: Gustav Clareen, som odlade tobak på dränerade platser, funnits en tradition av att ha i trakten mellan 1741 och 1772. Fyndet av tobaken i betraktat grundmaterialet främst som köldisolering, detta nedbrunna hus skulle därmed kunna knyta det medan de professionella byggarna i städerna främst till stadsbranden den 8 juni 1752. såg det som en stabil infi ltrationsbädd. Professionali- seringen av byggandet sker vid olika tidpunkter i de två städerna, i Norrköping sker den omkring 1600 Lagrens och horisonternas tillkomst och i Karlstad omkring 1700. Förändringen leder till Det är tydligt att bildningen av kulturlager både i att de yngre kulturlagren är bättre dränerade vilket Norrköping och Karlstad starkt infl uerats av de gör att organiskt material bevaras sämre än i de rådande lokala topografi ska och geologiska förut- äldre lagren. Det grövre materialet står också emot sättningarna. Den sluttande topografi n i Norrköping erosion bättre, varför också förekomsten av vatten- skapade förutsättningar för vattentranport av materi- transporterade lager minskar. al utför sluttningen så att fi nsand och silt ansamlades Vid studierna av stadsstratigrafi har jag funnit i de lägre belägna delarna av kvarteret. Ansamlandet det nödvändigt att skilja mellan två huvudtyper av av vattentransporterat slam var så omfattande att stratigrafi ska enheter (strata): lager och horisonter. decimetertjocka lager bildades och fyllde ut gränder Med lager, eller depositioner, menas här ett material och gator mellan husen och kom att skapa ett slags som transporteras och deponerats ovanpå en yta och negativa avgjutningar av gatunätet och angränsande kommit att bilda en sammanhängande enhet. Med byggnader. Det blev därigenom möjligt att, genom en horisont menas en del av markskiktet (oftast de studier av det vattenavsatta sedimentets form, fi nna översta centimetrarna) som påverkats av den miljö avgjutningar av föremål och konstruktioner som som existerat ovanför. Det kan t.ex. vara fråga om fanns på platsen när slammet avsattes men som nu markskiktet som påverkats av växtrötter, eller att är försvunna. marken trampats. Man kan också tala om lagren När slammet avsattes i gränderna och på gatorna som depositionella och horisonterna som postdepo- i stadens lägre belägna delar, ledde de till dränering- sitionella stratigrafi sk enheter. Depositionerna, eller sproblem. Detta löstes genom att nya byggnader restes lagren är i allmänhet bildade under kortare tidspe- på upphöjda grunder över gatuplanet, vilket skapade rioder, från några sekunder upp till ett antal veckor, nya sänkor av gatunätet, och snart var problemet medan horisonterna ofta är bildade under betydligt tillbaka när nytt slam täppte till gatorna, varpå hus- längre tidsperioder. Många tramphorisonter har för- grunderna ånyo fi ck höjas. Följden blev ett cykliskt modligen utbildats under fl era års tid. förlopp i en miljö där erosionskänsliga jordmassor I syfte att skapa en teoretisk modell över hur stad- exponerades. Erosion genom regnfall och slamavsät- skulturlager bildas kan de två huvudtyperna av strata tning ledde till en viss kulturell respons som innebar kombineras med den arkeologiska frågeställningen att nya jordmassor exponerades. Förekomsten av om vilka enheter som bildats under medvetna och denna natur-kulturcykel skulle kunna förklara de omedvetna processer. För att alla lager i stadsstrati- tjocka kulturlagren och den rikliga förekomsten av grafi n skall täckas in krävs också att man frågar sig vattenavsatta sediment i städernas svackor. vilka enheter som bildats genom naturliga processer. Undersökningar av texturen (kornstorlekssam- Modellen, som framträder, är ett nätverk av med- mansättningen) i materialet som använts i hus- vetna, omedvetna och naturliga handlingar, aktiv- grunder vid olika tidpunkter i stadens historia, visar iteter och processer som bidrar till bildning av olika liknande tendenser för Norrköping och Karlstad. I typer av lager och horisonter, men också till deras det tidiga skedet användes fi nkornigt material (silt försvinnande. Modellen möjliggör också en direkt och fi nsand) som hämtats lokalt (förmodligen inte tolkning av de handlingar, händelser och förutsät- mer än några meter bort). I senare tid skedde en tningar som ligger bakom fl ertalet stadsstratigrafi ska

58 Urbanised Nature in the Past

vet (trotts att han vet mest av alla) har inspirerat mig enheter. mycket. Mats Regnell var den som först ledde mig Analyserna av makrofossil ger också indikationer över arkeobotanikens ängder. Hans osvikliga tro på hur kulturlagren och tramphorisonterna bildas. I på mig har många gånger fått mig att må bättre än Karlstad, där det varit möjligt att skilja mellan vin- jag förtjänat. Slutligen vill jag i denna skara också terfoder och sommar-/höstbete, är det uppenbart att tacka Claes Hättestrand, som inte varit handledare dyngan bevarad i stadskulturlagren domineras av i formell bemärkelse, men som ”utomstående for- det senare. Detta tyder på att bildandet av trampho- skare” tog sig tid att läsa min kappa och som kom- risonter hämmades vintertid då marken var frusen. mit med många värdefulla kommentarer. Frånvaron av spår av vinterfoder indikerar också att Den andra skaran jag vill tacka är de arkeologer den dynga, som avsatts i staden vintertid, antagligen som tagit hand om mig under fältarbetena. I Nor- hunnit städats undan innan marken tinade och den rköping, där jag tog mina första stapplande steg trampades ner i marken. Detta antyder i sin tur på bland kulturlagren, och först hade svårt att förstå att gatorna i Karlstad städades regelbundet. vad det var jag såg, leddes utgrävningen av Hanna Det sammantagna intrycket av bildningen av stad- Mennander och Pär Karlsson (UV- öst). De gav mig skulturlager är ett komplext system av kulturella sprit och värme och såg till att jag hade det bra. De och naturliga processer. De mänskliga aktiviteterna blev sedermera mina medförfattare och genom dem i de äldre städerna skapade förutsättningar för en har många dörrar till den arkeologiska världen öpp- mängd geologiska processer som i sin tur gav up- nats för mig. Också de andra arkeologerna i Nor- phov till motåtgärder. Den geologiska miljön i de rköpingsgropen Anna, Annelie, Clas, Jasmine och äldre städerna kan både betraktas som aktiverad och Kattis är jag skyldig ett stort tack för allt socialt ut- i viss mån kontrollerad av människan, samtidigt som byte av både och kunskapsmässigt utbyte. I Karlstad människan i viss mån styrts av geologiska förutsät- leddes utgrävningen av Martin Karlsson (Värmlands tningar och påverkats av geologiska processer. museum) och Kerstin Fogelberg (UV-bergslagen) som tillsammans med Ebba och Björn gjorde arbetet och vistelsen där mycket angenäm. Jag vill också tacka Kerstin och Ebba för att de delade sin kvart med mig, och Kerstin för att hon hjälpt mig med språket i en Tack! av artiklarna. Andra arkeologer som betytt mycket för mig i sammanhanget, är Ingrid Dyhlén-Täckman Som den strikta men förvirrade forskare jag nu kom- på Stockholm stadsmuseum, Mattias Bäck och Jo- mit att bli, har jag valt att dela in detta tack till olika han Anund på UV-mitt, Stefan Larsson på UV-syd, personer som riktat till olika skaror. Dessa är fem till Ulrika Söderlind på Stockholms universitet, Rickard antalet och individerna inom dem har haft betydelse Hedvall, Karin Lindeblad, Maria Petersson, Magnus för avhandlingen på olika sätt. Stibéus och Göran Tagesson på UV-öst. De har alla Jag vill inleda med att tacka den första skaran, på sitt sätt bidragit till att jag kunnat utveckla idéer- nämligen mina handledare och mentorer som alltid na i denna avhandling. funnits där när jag behövt dem, först min huvudhan- Till den tredje skaran räknar jag mina arbetskam- dledare Ann-Marie Robertsson. En gång för snart tio rater. De har alla hjälpt och stöttat mig på olika sätt. år sedan bad hon mig vänligt men bestämt återgå Särskilt vill jag nämna Barbara Wohlfarth för att hon till övningspreparaten när jag försökte se hur mina visat mig stort förtroende och stöttat mig sen den dag anteckningar i blyerts såg ut genom mikroskopet. hon började leda avdelningen. Urve Miller för hennes Sedan dess har jag alltid haft stor respekt för vad brinnande tro på tvärvetenskap och hennes uppmun- hon sagt. Hon har genom åren oförtröttligt stöttat tran och stöd genom åren. Tack vare hennes har jag mig med sin kunskap, sitt tålamod och sitt kulturella kunnat delta i många konferenser och symposier engagemang. Sedan kommer jag till mina biträdande runt Östersjön. Lars Brunnberg har delat med sig av handledare i bokstavsordning: Ann-Marie Hans- sin pedologiska kunskap och förgyllt åren genom att son (Arkeologiska forskningslaboratoriet) ledde mig ösa ur sin kopiösa fatabur med anekdoter. Jan Ris- genom grinden till arkeobotanikens ängder. Föru- berg har hjälpt mig med diatomékunskaper och Sven tom att hon alltid varit mycket generös med sitt kun- Karlsson med pollenkunskaper. De har båda med sin nande, gav hon mig dessutom en frack som jag sed- erfarenhet av arkeologer också kunnat le överseende ermera gifte mig i! Jan Lundqvist har handlett mig när jag stundom farit ut i frustration över de språk- i de sedimentologiska frågorna och med outsägligt förbistringar som råder mellan kvartärgeologer och glatt humör hjälpt mig på många sätt. Hans öppen- arkeologer. Helena Alexandersson höll mig i handen het och förmåga att ständigt framhålla hur lite han

59 J. Heimdahl när jag började fumla med layoutprogrammet. Jag gyllt min tillvaro med långa diskussioner om varia, vill också tacka dem som varit mina doktorandkol- fi losofi , arkitektur, historia, Victorian ways of Firing leger genom åren. Anna, Greger, Martina, Kristian, Automatically och kostymer. Sedan alla i den my- Tiit, Gun, Anders, Prem, Linda, Sofi a, Joshi, Dan- tomspunna Mystiska klubben, däri, förutom Erik, nile, Jonas, Amélie och Tim som jag haft mycket ro- också Danny, Axel, Helena, Caroline, Lotta och Jo- ligt med. Särskilt vill jag tacka Anders Borgmark för nas ingår. Tack vare dem har jag gjort många värde- alla spel han laddat ner till mig, all öl han trugat i fulla internationella bekantskaper som t.ex. Walter mig, alla efterrätter han lagat och allt kul vi haft till- Talcott, Patricia Herrington och Robert Tindale, sammans, och Jonas Bergman för alla ickegeologiska vilka alla bidragit till utvecklingen av detta arbete. diskussioner, all badminton och allt bus i källaren. Det femte kategorin att tacka är min släkt för att Jag vill också tacka Danny, Siwan, Tina, Martin och de alltid stöttat mig och, helt okritiskt, tycker allt Kerstin som hjälpt mig med språket i denna avhan- jag gör är bra. Mina föräldrar vill jag tacka för att dling, och Anna-Lena Anderberg (Naturhistoriska de alltid uppmuntrat mitt petimeterintresse för na- riksmuseet) som hjälpt mig med identifi ering av vissa turen, och mina systrar för att de stått ut med (och fröer som inte ville ge sig tillkänna. fortfarande står ut med) att jag på ett självgott sätt Ekonomiskt stöd har erhållits från Gerhard De försökt imponera på dem med dessa petimeterkun- Geer’s stiftelse. Dateringar har bekostats av Swed- skaper. Sist, men kanske ändå främst, vill jag tacka ish Match North Europé AB via Inga Junhem som min fru Jenny för att hon den där kulna höstkvällen också entusiastiskt hjälpte mig med referenser om för fem år sedan repade mod och frågade om hon äldre svensk tobaksodling. fi ck se mitt ”laboratorium”. Det fi ck hon, och jag Den fjärde kategorin är mina nära vänner som bid- saknar ord att tacka henne för det. ragit till min lyckliga status även sedan jag lämnat det otroligt stimulerande dagsverket av att sortera tusentals millimeterstora frön i mycket små burkar. Främst vill jag tacka min vän och före detta sambo Erik som i sanning outat mitt humanist-jag och för-