Petro-Democracy: Oil, Power and Politics in Niger

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Petro-Democracy: Oil, Power and Politics in Niger Petro-Democracy: Oil, Power and Politics in Niger Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Sozialwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Georg-August-Universität Göttingen vorgelegt von Jannik Schritt geboren in Eutin Göttingen 2018 Betreuungsausschuss Erstbetreuer: Prof. Dr. Nikolaus Schareika Weitere Betreuer: Dr. Andrea Behrends Weitere Mitglieder der Prüfungskommission: Prof. Dr. Roman Loimeier Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 22.11.2017 For Angela and Edzard Abstract In 2008, Niger signed an oil contract with China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) over the Agadem oil block located in the far eastern region of Diffa; and in 2011, they inaugurated the country’s first and only oil refinery near Zinder, the second biggest city, situated in the country’s south-east. While the inauguration had been planned as a major celebration to mark the coming of oil, it soon became a highly contested political event. That day, with new President Mahamadou Issoufou coming from the capital Niamey (located in the west of the country) to Zinder to mark the occasion, youths set alight tire street barricades and clashed with police. The protests turned into violent riots some days later with youth clashing with security forces in the streets, burning down a police station and looting a bank. Two people were killed and several were injured. Using in-depth ethnographic material collected over 13 months of fieldwork from 2011 to 2014 within the methodological framework of the extended case method, the book takes the event of the oil refinery’s inauguration as point of departure. Based on the tradition of the Manchester School, but reformulated in light of contemporary social theory, the extended case method is used to extend out from the ethnographic description of the inauguration to the historical processes and structural conditions that made the celebration and contestation possible in the first place: first, to the colonial and postcolonial entanglements in the quest for Niger’s natural resources, and then to political conflicts that were played out on the public political stage after the signing of the oil contract in 2008. The main section of the book then focuses on the political arena that formed in Zinder around the inauguration. It shows the political work that turned the opening ceremony into a highly contested event and thereby contributed to making oil into a social and political reality, reconstructing social and political difference and reinforcing patterns of domination. In the next step, abstracting from the ethnographic material, the historically sedimented patterns of domination in Nigerien politics and society are analyzed and placed in relation to the politics of the oil infrastructure. Doing so enables an understanding of how the spatial dispersion of the petro-infrastructure in Niger over different administrative regions produced and connected different publics. Furthermore, it makes visible how local historical narratives of repression and marginalization were stitched together to reconfigure collective identities. Finally, the transformation of Niger into an oil state is analyzed, mainly focusing on the period from the beginning of oil production in 2011 until the time of writing in 2018, to understand how entanglements of Western and Chinese economic, political and military forces shape such a development. The empirical findings are then used to theorize on the significatory, temporal, material, and spatial dimensions of an oil state in the making, arguing that oil acts as a catalyst that transforms meshwork-like structures or dynamic systems from one state to another. In the case of Niger, a formerly authoritarian uranium-based state was transformed into a petro-democracy. Keywords: Oil, protest, social movements, civil society, African politics and the state, China in Africa, capitalism, assemblage. Zusammenfassung Im Jahr 2008 unterzeichneten die nigrische Regierung und die China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) einen Vertrag zur Erdölförderung im Agademblock, der in der fernöstlichen Region Diffa liegt, und eröffneten 2011 die erste und einzige Ölraffinerie des Landes in der Nähe von Zinder, der zweitgrößten Stadt im Südosten des Landes. Während die Einweihung als eine große Feier geplant war, um das Erdölzeitalter in Niger einzuläuten, wurde die Einweihung bald zu einem stark umkämpften politischen Ereignis. Zur zeremoniellen Eröffnung der Feierlichkeiten reiste der neue Präsident des Niger, Mahamadou Issoufou, aus der Hauptstadt Niamey im Westen des Landes nach Zinder. Zeitgleich setzten Jugendliche in Zinder gegen seine Ankunft Barrikaden in Brand und es kam zu gewaltsamen Auseinandersetzungen mit lokalen Polizeikräften. In den darauffolgenden Tagen eskalierten die Proteste weiter und entwickelten sich zu urbanen Aufständen. Männliche Jugendliche lieferten sich Straßenschlachten mit der Polizei, brannten eine Polizeiwache nieder und plünderten eine Bank. Es gab zwei Tote und mehrere Verletzte. Die Dissertation greift auf dichtes ethnographisches Material zurück, das im Verlauf von 13 Monaten Feldforschung zwischen 2011 und 2014 mit der erweiterten Fallmethode gesammelt wurde. Basierend auf der Tradition der Manchester Schule, aber im Lichte zeitgenössischer Sozialtheorie neu formuliert, wird die erweiterte Fallmethode verwendet, um ausgehend von der ethnographischen Beschreibung der Einweihung der neuen Raffinerie zu den historischen Prozessen und strukturellen Bedingungen zu gelangen, die dieses umkämpfte Ereignis erst ermöglichten. Zunächst werden die kolonialen und postkolonialen Verflechtungen auf der Suche nach Nigers natürlichen Ressourcen untersucht. Danach werden die politischen Konflikte betrachtet, die nach der Unterzeichnung des Erdölvertrages 2008 auf der politischen Bühne im Idiom des Erdöls ausgetragen wurden. Der Hauptteil des Buches konzentriert sich vorrangig auf Zinders politische Arena, die sich um die Einweihung herum formierte. Es zeigt die Politiken verschiedener Akteure, die die Eröffnungszeremonie zu einem höchst umstrittenen Ereignis machten und so dazu beitrugen, Öl in eine soziale und politische Realität zu verwandeln, soziale und politische Unterschiede zu rekonstruieren und bestehende Herrschaftsmuster zu verstärken. In einem nächsten Schritt werden, abstrahiert vom ethnographischen Material, die historisch sedimentierten Herrschaftsmuster der nigrischen Politik und Gesellschaft analysiert und nachfolgend in Beziehung zur Politik der Erdölinfrastruktur gesetzt. Dies ermöglicht ein Verständnis darüber, wie die räumliche Strukturierung der Erdölinfrastruktur in Niger über verschiedene Verwaltungsregionen hinweg unterschiedliche Öffentlichkeiten hervorgebracht und miteinander verbunden hat. Durch diese Verflechtungen wurden ortsspezifische historische Narrative der Repression und Marginalisierung zusammengefügt und kollektive Identitäten in diesem Prozess rekonfiguriert. Abschließend wird die Transformation Nigers in einen Erdölstaat analysiert, die sich hauptsächlich auf den Zeitraum vom Beginn der Ölproduktion 2011 bis zum Zeitpunkt des Schreibens im Jahr 2018 konzentriert. So wird nachgezeichnet, wie Verflechtungen von westlichen und chinesischen wirtschaftlichen, politischen und militärischen Kräften diese Transformation formen. Schließlich werden die empirischen Untersuchungen dazu verwendet, um die bedeutungsgebenden, zeitlichen, materiellen und räumlichen Dimensionen eines Erdölstaates im Werden zu theoretisieren. Die Dissertation argumentiert, dass Erdöl als Katalysator wirkt, der netzwerkartige Gefüge oder dynamische Systeme von einem bestehenden Zustand in einen anderen neuen Zustand transformiert. Im Fall von Niger wird dargelegt, wie sich aus einem ehemaligen autoritären Uranstaat eine Petro-Demokratie entwickelt. Schlagwörter: Öl, Protest, soziale Bewegungen, Zivilgesellschaft, Politik und Staat in Afrika, China in Afrika, Kapitalismus, Assemblage. Acknowledgements Writing the acknowledgement section and thinking about who has contributed to this dissertation along the way, it occurs to me that this short section may well be the most difficult part of the whole thesis. Having collected so many debts along the way, I am afraid I cannot express my full appreciation for the contribution of my friends, family, companions and colleagues, and, worse still, do not even have the space here to mention them all. First of all, I would like to thank the supervisors and academic mentors who have guided me along the way and commented in a critical yet always helpful and encouraging way. Having pursued my PhD at the Institute for Social and Cultural Anthropology at the University of Göttingen, I would like to thank my first supervisor, Prof. Dr. Nikolaus Schareika, for giving me the opportunity to be part of his research team. It was in this intellectual framework that Nik taught me practice theory and ethnographic rigor, while always allowing me to walk, or perhaps meander, along my own intellectual paths. I would also like to thank him for the excellent working conditions that allowed me to devote most of my time to working on my PhD. My thanks also go to Dr. Andrea Behrends, my second supervisor, who always lent an ear when I had problems or requests, and supported and encouraged me in the various stages of my work. Finally, I would like to thank Prof. Dr. Roman Loimeier, my third supervisor, for offering thought-provoking questions, loyalty and support during my defense. Secondly, my gratitude goes to all my colleagues and friends who have read various pieces of my dissertation.
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