Hospitality in practice Hospitality in necessitudine: Hospices, hostels and hospitals In the continuing series reflecting on hospitality Mario Conti, Kevin O’Gorman and David McAlpine explore an aspect of hospitality often overlooked – the constantly evolving religious practice of providing hospitality to those in most need. They present an overview of the evolution of hospitality for the needy and consider how throughout history, even when religion is under attack, there has always been recognition of the importance of charitable hospitality: hospitality in necessitudine.

Charitable hospitality tied it to advantage. Noting that the ‘houses of illus- in classical antiquity trious men should be open to illustrious guests’4 he hroughout the last 2,000 years, the then rejected the argument that hospitality must be biblical instruction to be hospitable has been bestowed upon suitable persons; he reasoned instead T interpreted and developed in diferent ways, that a Christian’s hospitality must be open to the lowly oten at the forefront of medical as well as spiritual and abject in other words—reinforcing hospitality as advances in hospitality. his began with the letter of a charitable act. St Paul1 to an apostolic delegate sent to oversee the he other writer was St John Chrysostom, one of Church in Ephesus.2 he instruction in the letter is: the leading voices within the Christian community; ‘A bishop then must be blameless, faithful, vigilant, he was one of the great Greek Fathers and Bishop of sober, of good behaviour, given to hospitality…’3 hus, Constantinople to whom is ascribed the Orthodox the Bishop, as ‘overseer’ of the local Church, has been Liturgy used throughout the East in both Orthodox mandated from the beginning of the Christian faith and Catholic Churches. He described exactly how a to ofer charitable hospitality. Christian was to conduct himself: Two fourth century writers articulated the unmis- He must be well awake; he must be fervent in spir- takably Christian concept of charitable hospitality. it, and, as it were, breathe ire; he must labour and attend upon his duty by day and by night, even more than a general upon he reasoned … that a Christian’s hospitality must his army; he must be careful and con- be open to the lowly and abject in other words cerned for all, sober, of good behaviour, – reinforcing hospitality as a charitable act given to hospitality.5 his was not prearranged hospital- ity. Christians were to be ready at all he irst was Lactantius, a Christian apologist, who times to receive and welcome guests; due preparations explicitly contrasted Christian hospitality with Greco- were always to be in place.6 Embracing earlier teach- Roman practices. He used the example of the gods ings Chrysostom highlighted this hospitality was not assuming human form to go into the world to exer- to be let to the servants; it must be carried out by the cise their right to hospitality. Recognising hospitality masters of the household.7 He was a realist and he as a ‘principal virtue’ for philosophers and Christians recognised the earthly beneits Christians could gain alike, Lactantius criticised those philosophers who from entertaining persons of high status. However, he

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HR_10iiFINAL1i.indd 28 30/5/08 10:16:40 The Hostal dos Reis Católicos in the Plaza do Obradoiro (left) Santiago de Compostela forms, together with the adjoining cathedral, one of the world’s remarkable urban settings. The hostal, built as a royal hospital in 1499 to house pilgrims arriving in Santiago, is now a Parador and could be one of the oldest hotels in the world; it is also one of the most luxurious and beautiful. It has four beautiful cloisters, elegant public rooms, spectacular bedrooms and a luxurious dining room (overleaf) offering Galician delicacies. (Paradores) Recognition and also criticised such a practice. He developed his teach- ing by showing that generous hosts, as long as they are reinforcement in classical antiquity not seeking gain, would nevertheless ind themselves History credits Emperor Constantine with the conver- blessed in the hospitality relationship. Central to his sion of the Roman Empire to Christianity ater his vic- teaching was the idea that by ofering hospitality to a tory over his stronger rival Maxentius at the Milvian person in need one ministered to Christ. Bridge on 28 October ad 312. With Constantine’s Reinforcing the role of the Church for charitable support of the Christian Church, it became richer hospitality, the Ecumenical Council held at Carthage and undertook substantial responsibilities, not least in charitable hospitality through the care of the needy. In ad 362 the generous hosts…ind themselves blessed in the Emperor Julian, although attempt- hospitality relationship… by ofering hospitality to a ing to suppress the Christian Church person in need one ministered to Christ and reintroduce paganism across the Empire, explicitly urged his governors to maintain the Christian practice of in ad 419 decreed that hospitality was an exception the xenodochein.9 In a letter to the Hellenic Archpriest to what was otherwise regarded as forbidden, namely Arsacius, he wrote: the use of church buildings for festal meals. Canon 42 If Hellenism is not making the progress it should, the was entitled ‘Concerning the not having festal meals fault is with us who practise it... Do we not see that under any circumstances in churches’ and it stated as what has most contributed to the success of athe- an exception: ism [Christianity] is its charity towards strangers...? hat no bishops or clerics are to hold festal meals in Establish numerous hospices in every city, so that churches, unless perchance they are forced thereto by strangers may beneit from our charity, not only those the necessity of hospitality as guests pass by. he peo- of our own number, but anyone else who is in need ple too, as far as possible, are to be prohibited from ... For it is disgraceful that not a single Jew is a men- attending such feasts.8 dicant, and that the impious Galileans [Christians]

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HR_10iiFINAL1i.indd 29 30/5/08 10:16:43 maintain our poor in addition to their own, and our Monastic influence needy are seen to lack assistance from us.10 Julian then went on to give the speciic command St Benedict’s Rule (c. ad 530) is recognised as one ‘Teach those of the Hellenic faith to contribute to public of the key foci for Christian and subsequent Western service of this sort.’ hus he gave clear witness to the European monastic hospitality provision.13 Recent signiicance of Christian institutions to care for soci- research and analysis of St Benedict’s Rule shows that ety as a whole. Christians carried on establishing many it is possible to construct and order a taxonomy of more xenodochia to care for strangers—particularly hospitality principles that would be recognisable to for poor strangers who had no other resources—and modern professional hospitality managers;14 thus for the local poor. Gradually, these were diferenti- highlighting that by the sixth century St Benedict had ated into separate institutions according to the type already codiied the provision of hospitality within of person in need: the monastic guest- orphans, widows, house. hese rules strangers, sick and were to underpin poor. hospitality provision he xenodochia in Europe for at least led to ‘a social clas- the next 900 years, siication built on until the Protestant poor versus rich Reformation. with poverty not St Bede the only a material and Venerable (d. 735), in economic condition, his work Ecclesiastical but also a legal and History of the English social status’. his Nation, records the arrangement consti- c o r r e s p o n d e n c e tuted ‘a privileged between St Augustine establishment for of Canterbury and the Church’, endow- Pope Gregory regard- ing ‘it with the ing how a bishop was means of sustaining to run his household. the burden of relief he First Question which the Byzantine of Augustine, Bishop Emperor [Justinian] of the Church of could henceforth devolve on it’.11 Beggars and trav- Canterbury. Concerning bishops, how they are to ellers were treated by the law as total strangers and behave themselves towards their clergy? Or into how therefore did not enjoy protection—unlike slaves, who many portions the things given by the faithful to the were some citizen’s property and, as such, enjoyed altar are to be divided? And how the bishop is to act in the Church? Gregory, Pope of the City of , A layman has fulilled the duty of hospitality by answers. Holy Writ, which no doubt receiving one or two; a bishop, however, unless he you are well versed in, testiies to this, shall receive everyone … is inhuman and particularly St Paul’s Epistle to Timothy, wherein he endeavours to instruct him how he should behave the protection of the law.12 he xenodochia treated himself in the house of God; but it is the custom of these legal non-persons as legitimate inmates, forcing the apostolic see to prescribe rules to bishops newly Emperor Justinian to grant them legal status (c. ad ordained, that all emoluments which accrue, are to 530). he divided into four portions; one for the bishop and

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HR_10iiFINAL1i.indd 30 30/5/08 10:16:46 his family, because of hospitality and entertainments; Navarre, who visited Jerusalem in 1163, described the another for the clergy; a third for the poor; and the hospital in Jerusalem ‘as supporting four hundred fourth for the repair of churches.15 knights, and afording shelter to the sick; these are Episcopal hospitality was also common across provided with everything they may want, both during Europe. Early seventh-century St Isidore, Bishop of life and death’.22 When, in 1187, Saladin recaptured Seville, emphasises the bishop’s special role: Jerusalem he allowed a small number of Hospitallers A layman has fulilled the duty of hospitality by to stay and care for their sick until they could travel; receiving one or two; a bishop, however, unless he he then enlarged the hospital and appointed a staf of shall receive everyone ... is inhuman.16 Islamic physicians.23 Ater leaving Jerusalem the Knights established themselves for a while in Rhodes where they built Further mediaeval influences a large hospital, the ruins of which can still be seen In around ad 700 the Christian community in today. hey were driven out of Rhodes by Suleiman Damascus aided the local Islamic community in the Magniicent and eventually found refuge on the the construction of a hospital, probably the irst island of Malta, which they also fortiied. heir hospi- prominent Islamic hospital.17 Muslims were actively tal buildings are is still extant today although now used engaged in alms-giving, with the waqf (a donation as a museum of the work of the Order. he standards system) allowing for pious gits as part of a contract set in that hospital greatly inluenced standards in between Allah and the waqif (donor). Founding a hos- hospitals throughout the rest of Europe. he Order pital or a caravanserai (accommodation for travellers) continues today and now has its main seat in Rome. allowed prominent Muslims to display their prosper- he mediaeval poor laws highlight the very close ity and benevolence and the hospitals lourished in connection between clerical hospitality and the relief some of the most important Islamic cities: Cairo (874), of the poor: Baghdad (918) and Granada (1366).18 his meant that he word ‘hospitality’ is of some importance because by the time that great urbanisation and population the phrase most commonly used by the medieval can- growth occurred, Eastern civilisations appeared bet- onists to describe the poor relief responsibilities of the ter equipped to deal with the changing demographics. parish clergy was tenere hospitalitatem—they were So much was this the case, that ‘by the 12th century a obliged, that is, to ‘keep hospitality’. he primary hospital was an essential feature of any large Islamic town’.19 Islamic hospitals also seem to have been far superior at Islamic hospitals … included separate areas for men that time, as they included separate and women, wards for diferent ailments and even areas for men and women, wards for the creation of psychiatric units diferent ailments and even the crea- tion of psychiatric units. Although within the Christian monasteries the sense of the word referred to the reception of travel- xenodochia were not as elaborate as the Islamic hospi- lers, the welcoming of guests, but the canonists very tals, a two-fold provision began to appear.20 he plans oten used it in a broader sense to include almsgiving for the monastery at St Gall included not just a hospi- and poor relief in general.24 tal for the monks, but also some sort of public xeno- he importance of hospitality was again emphasised dochein, which would operate under more traditional and enshrined with compilation and publication of values ofering rest and respite to the needy, travellers the code of laws ater the second Lateran Council in and pilgrims. A hostel for pilgrims had already been 1152. his formed the basis of Canon Law until 1917. It in existence in Jerusalem by 1070.21 he members has a section dedicated to hospitality and the role of a of the Order became known as Knights of St John bishop and this makes clear that if any priest is found or Hospitallers. he hospitality was based around to be lacking in hospitality, he cannot be ordained a hostels, or pilgrim hospices, and caring for the sick for bishop.25 spiritual reward. A chronicler, Rabbi Benjamin from As the population grew within Europe, the need for

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HR_10iiFINAL1i.indd 31 30/5/08 10:16:46 following the religious model of providing hospital- Reformation and was revived in countries where, fol- ity for travellers and care for the sick based on public lowing the Reformation, the had charity was emphasised; by around ad 1250, civil to an extent re-established itself; as in , for hospitals started being built across Western Europe. example, where Pluscarden and Nunraw continue the he designs for these were mainly taken from the tradition. descriptions passed down from pilgrims, crusaders or Although the medieval monastic hospitals had travellers about the vast and impressive hospitals in smaller capacity in terms of medical treatment, they the East. still ofered a place of shelter for the old and the needy. As Eastern European nations were expanding, their Many of the mediaeval hospitals were closed.30 his hospitals grew rapidly during the 12th and 13th centu- event though did not happen in isolation. In the ries. Western civilisations started to build more and German states, the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 saw more civil hospitals. Many travellers, pilgrims and the coniscation of religious property to the beneit of crusaders were returning from the East, and with them Protestant princes, and in later centuries a similar situ- the need for the growth of hospitals increased. he role of the monk and monastic houses also started to change the hospitality of the Knights of St John or within this period. During the 12th Hospitallers… was based around hostels, or pilgrim century bishops in Germany started hospices, and caring for the sick for spiritual reward building new xenodochia beyond any form of monastic rule, including during the early part of the 13th century special hospi- ation was to arise throughout the Iberian Peninsula, tals to deal with the plague and leprosy.26 in France and in the Italian states. he Protestant he 12th-century hospitals were vast in comparison Reformation had a transforming efect on religious to the earlier xenodochia and included more special- hospitality, hospitals, poor relief and the responsi- ist medical requirements; however, their mission of bility to refugees, not least because the sacramental hospitality to the sick remained.27 he Church’s direct character of hospitality was diminished. Hospitality contact with hospitals was to change with the Council gradually became separated from Christian roots as of Clermont (1130) when monks were forbidden the state increasingly took over more responsibility to practice medicine as this was thought to under- for the care of the sick. mine their spiritual goals. his rule was conirmed One example of religious hospitality being subsumed by the Fourth Lateran Council (1215).28 Although into the modern age is El Hostal de Los Reyes Católicos the running of hospitals was taken out of monastic in Santiago de Compostela, Spain, originally founded hands, the new hospitals were still stafed throughout in 1499 as a hostel and hospital for pilgrims that had by monks and nuns. With these changing roles there just completed the Camino de Santiago. Since 1953, as was the greater need for the expansion of medical a ive-star hotel, it has formed part of the network of learning, although monasteries remained important Paradores de Turismo de España. he Hostal, in an in servicing this expansion, until the more compre- attempt to be true to its founding mandate of care hensive rise of universities in the mid-14th century. of the pilgrim’s body and soul, on a daily basis still ofers free breakfast, lunch and dinner to the irst The effects of ten pilgrims who have completed (on foot) the inal 100km of the Camino. Protestant Reformation he diminishing responsibility of monasteries to hos- The changed role of pitality accelerated in the 16th century; the Protestant Reformation efectively ended monastic charitable charitable hospitality hospitality in Britain for a period of some 300 years.29 Until recently several religious orders provided hospi- However, monastic hospitality has continued in those tals in Britain though the last surviving Catholic hos- countries which remained Catholic at the time of the pital in London, established and served by the Sisters

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HR_10iiFINAL1i.indd 32 30/5/08 10:16:47 Archbishope Conti visits one of the Mungo Foundation’s centres and talks to artists Mary McBride and Jaqui Gillies. (Paul McSherry)

of Mercy, is now under lay control—the hospital of St Services. In 2002 the department obtained independ- John and St Elizabeth—to which is attached the chap- ent trust status and became the Mungo Foundation el of the Order of Malta in St John’s Wood. Among with its own legal persona and a measure of autonomy. the nurses who assisted Florence Nightingale in the he Mungo Foundation now has the opportunity to Crimea were Sisters of Mercy. Catholic hospitals still develop its own marketing and fundraising strate- exist especially in Germany, Italy and the United States. Following the revival of the Catholic the Community Social Church in Scotland (1878), various Services obtained independent trust status to religious orders came to Scotland bocame the Mungo Foundation with its own legal and particularly to Glasgow, which persona and a measure of autonomy became the centre of the expansion of Catholicism in the West of Scotland through immigration. hey recruited many from the gies, create its own distinctive ethos in the market- immigrant community, and provided schools and a place of care and carry on the traditions of Christian wide range of what we now call social services, mainly caring in the modern world. he Foundation provides based on visitation of the homes of the poor and the a wide range of social-care services and is run by a sick. board of trustees, which employs a large operational During the episcopate of —subsequently staf of around 700 full-time and part-time people. Its Cardinal—homas Winning and with a change of comprehensive mission to ofer support to those in government policy to seek the support of and to necessitudine includes: fund the private sector, it was decided to give more to promote welfare, relieve poverty and advance edu- formal shape to the social activities of the Catholic cation for the public beneit by the provision of wide- Church in the Archdiocese of Glasgow. Administered ranging social services to children and adults with directly by the Church was a wide range of services care and support needs within Scotland.31 which could be considered to be in line with tradi- With a generated income of approximately £14m, tional charitable hospitality. hey came under the the Foundation is able to support over 1,000 people title of Archdiocese of Glasgow Community Social in its community-based care and support services

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HR_10iiFINAL1i.indd 33 30/5/08 10:16:49 throughout the West of Scotland. he services help still being interpreted and followed today. One of the many people with learning disabilities, sensory impair- latest projects being developed, for example, by the ment, dementia, mental-health problems, people Archdiocese of Glasgow is a new cloister garden, next to the city centre cathedral, that will ofer a welcoming, tranquil and hospi- it remains the duty of the bishop and the Church and table sacred space in the heart of the now for society in general to care for those needs in city. Hospitality provision for those in a practical and compassionate manner necessitudine has always continued to change and develop. As people’s needs continue to change it remains the duty afected by drug and alcohol misuse and young home- of the Bishop and the Church, and now for society less people, including asylum seekers from countries in general, to care for those needs in a practical and such as Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Somalia and Kenya. compassionate manner. Today, much of the work of the Mungo Foundation in Scotland is funded by local authorities. he organi- sation also depends on the eforts of staf, volunteers and families who raise funds to support local work. he Mungo Foundation continues to depend on donations from the wider community and remains committed to its founding values of life, justice and community.

Evolving but unchanged: the essence of charitable hospitality What is evident from the preceding historical survey of hospitality for the needy is that even when religion is attacked there has always been recognition of the References importance of hospitality in necessitudine. Emperor 1 he letter is datable to the year AD 60 or shortly thereater if Julian, when attempting to suppress the Christian it is not by Paul’s hand or dictation. faith, emphasised the importance of preserving and 2 1 Timothy 1:3 3 1 Timothy 3:2 adapting for use by the state the Christian institutions 4 Lactantius Divinæ Institutiones 4:12. Full text can be found of charitable hospitality. Emperor Justinian had been in Firmiani Lactantii opera: ad optimorum librorum idem forced to give legal status to beggars and travellers emendavit et cum selecta lectionum varietate (Leipzig, due to the protection that they received in institu- Tauchnitz 1844). tions of hospitality. he Protestant reformers had also 5 Chrysostom Homily on Timothy 1:10. Full texts of all Chrysostom’s writings can be found in Joannis Chrysostomi, moved those institutions out of religious control into Archiepiscopi Constantinopolitani opera omnia quæ exstant the secular realm of society just as Julian had attempt- vel quæ ejus nomine circumferuntur; accurante et denuo ed to do 1,100 years earlier. However, most recently, recognoscente J.P. Migne (Paris, Apud Garnier Fratres 1890) instead of trying to subsume charitable hospitality, 6 Chrysostom Homily on Acts 45 the government chose to support and partially fund 7 Chrysostom Homily on Timothy 1:14 8 Full text of the council can be found in: Dionysii Exigui, the Church’s eforts. In every case the inluence of the Viventioli, Trojani, Pontiani, S. Cæsarii Arelatensis episcopi, underpinning ethos remains even though the govern- Fulgentii Ferrandi et rustici quorum prior Carthaginensis, ance of the institutions may have changed. posterior Romanæ ecclesiæ diaconus, necnon Justi, Facundi, Although society has changed and evolved over Urgellensis et Hermianensis episcoporum, opera omnia. J.P. Migne (Paris, Lutetiæ 1865) the last 2,000 years, despite the continually evolv- 9 Or hospice; before AD 800 Latin documents tended to refer ing practice of providing hospitality to those in most to houses of public hospitality and charity using the Greek need, St Paul’s mandate of hospitable behaviour is term xenodochein. Ater this period, however, the Latin word

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HR_10iiFINAL1i.indd 34 30/5/08 10:16:49 hospital became more common although certain confusion Most Rev MARIO JOSePH COnTI is Archbishop can arise from a number of writers still using the Greek and Metropolitan of Glasgow and an Honorary term. Professor of Theology in University. 10 R Browning he Emperor Julian (London, Weidenfeld & Amongst other duties, Archbishop Conti is Nicolson 1975) p 179 currently a member of the Pontiical Council 11 E Patlagean Structure social, famille, chrétienté a Byzance, for the Promotion of Christian Unity, based in IVe–XIe siècle (London, Variorum Reprints 1981) p 71 the Vatican City. He is a Knight Commander of 12 M Mollet Les Pauvres au Moyen âge: étude sociale (Paris, the equestrian Order of the Holy Sepulchre of Hachette 1978) Jerusalem and a Principal Chaplain of the Order of 13 A Borias ‘Hospitalité Augustinienne et Bénédictine’ Revue de St John of Jerusalem Rhodes and Malta. In 2002, 50 Histoire de Spiritualité 1974 pp 3–16 immediately after his appointment as Archbishop, 14 A J Morrison and K D O’Gorman forthcoming (2008) he established the Mungo Foundation. In 2007, 15 Bede Histoica I:27. Full text can be found in Baedae Opera Archbishop Conti was awarded the title Grande Historica: Loeb Classical Library (London, Heinemann Uiciale dell’Ordine della Stella della Solidarietà 1930) Italiana by the President of Italy. 16 Isidore Patrologiae Latina LXXXIII.786 17 M W Dols ‘he origins of the Islamic Hospital: Myth and reality’ Bulletin of Historical Medicine 61 1987 pp 367–90 18 K D O’Gorman ‘Iranian Hospitality: A hidden treasure’ he Hospitality Review 9 (1) 2007 pp 31–6; S M Imamuddin KeVIn D O’GORMAn is a lecturer in Hospitality and ‘Maristan in Medieval Spain’ Islamic Studies 17 (1978) pp Heritage in the Department of Hospitality and 45–55 Tourism Management, University of Strathclyde, 19 L I Conrad ‘he Arab-Islamic medical tradition’ in L I in Glasgow. His doctoral research focused on Conrad M Neve V Nutton R Porter and A Wear he Western an identiication of the essence of hospitality Medical Tradition 800 BC to AD 1800 (New York, Cambridge from the texts of Classical Antiquity and the University Press 1995) p 136 development of a hermeneutical helix to identify 20 T S Miller ‘he Knights of Saint John and the Hospitals of the the philosophy of the phenomenon of hospitality. Latin West’ Speculum 53 (4) 1978 pp 709–33 Previous postgraduate study in Salamanca, Rome 21 K D O’Gorman ‘he Legacy of Monastic Hospitality: 1 he and Glasgow has encompassed the areas of Rule of Benedict and rise of Western monastic hospitality’ philosophy, theology and classics. His research he Hospitality Review 8 (3) 2006 pp 35–44 interests include the history and philosophy 22 T Wright Early travels in Palestine : comprising the narratives of hospitality and he is currently undertaking of Arculf, Willibald, Bernard, Sæwulf, Sigurd, Benjamin of ieldwork in Iran, exploring the evolution Tudela, Sir John Maundeville, De la Brocquière, and Maundrell caravanserais and bazaars from their charitable (London, H G Bohn 1848) and hospitable origins. 23 S Hamarneh ‘Ecology and the therapeutics in medieval Arabic medicine’ Sudhofs Archive 5 1974 pp 166–85 24 B Tierney Medieval Poor Law: a sketch of canonical theory and its application in England (Berkeley, University of California Press 1959) p 68 DAVID McAlPIne is a graduate of the University of 25 Gratian Distinctio I:xlii Dundee with an MA Hons in Business economics 26 F P Retief and L Cilliers ‘he Evolution of Hospitals from with Marketing and Psychology. He also has Antiquity to Renaissance’ Acta heologica Supplementum 7 hospitality industry experience. David is currently 2005 pp 213–33; R Porter Blood and Guts: A Short History of completing research for an MSc in International Medicine (London, Allen Lane Penguin Press 2003) Hospitality Management at the University of 27 V Nutton ‘Medicine in Medieval Western Europe’ in L I Strathclyde, in Glasgow. His research is focused on Conrad M Neve V Nutton R Porter and A Wear he Western investigating the changing aspects of charitable Medical Tradition 800 BC to AD 1800 (New York, Cambridge hospitality and the signiicant contribution made University Press 1995) pp 139–98 by the Mungo Foundation and the Archdiocese of 28 N P Tanner Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils. (London, Glasgow. Sheed & Ward 1990) 29 K D O’Gorman and E MacPhee ‘he Legacy of Monastic Hospitality: 2 he Lasting Inluence’ he Hospitality Review 8 (4) 2006 pp 16–25 30 R Porter he Greatest Beneit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present (London, Fontana Press 1997) 31 Mungo Foundation, 2007

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