Climatic and Geomorphic Techniques and Their Application to Regional Resource Planning
CLIMATIC AND GEOMORPHIC TECHNIQUES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO REGIONAL RESOURCE PLANNING
^7
THOMAS WILLIAM LONEY
REPORT ON A PROJECT SUBMITTED IN LIEU OP A THESIS IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in the Department of
COMMUNITY AND REGIONAL PLANNING
We accept this report as conforming to the standard required from candidates for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE
Members of the Department of Community and Regional Planning
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
April, 1958. i
ABSTRACT
The human race exists and progresses by virtue of a sum of knowledge, with which it is able to maintain a measure of control over the physical world. The real wealth of any region, race or nation is drawn from the land and today much of this land is bankrupt. Through overpopulation and misuse of his natural resources, man is rapidly backing himself into
an ecological trap. The solution to this problem is to inc•
rease what may be termed the "carrying capacity" of the land.
The only way this may be done Is by national land use planning
and development of resources on a regional basis.
In developing land for any purpose, man faces certain physical limitations. The two most obvious and important are
climate and land forms. Throughout history these fields have been studied and today are large and complex branches of
science - they have remained, however, largely separate
fields. Only very recently have some advances been made in
the field of climatic geomorphology. The investigators in
this field have tried to show some of the complex interrelat•
ionships that exist between climate and geomorphology. Unfor•
tunately, although it shows great promise, most work to date
has been on a highly academic level and its practical applic•
ation has been piecemeal at best. This thesis is a modest
attempt to define, on one hand, some fundamental interrelat•
ionships between climatology and geomorphology and then, on
the other hand, to apply these defined principles to selected types of resource development regions. In this presentation, it is recognized that other factors, economic, political, administrative, technological, etc. may be equally, if not more important, in determining the patterns and nature of regional resource development; these factors, however, are only referred to in passing.
The overall presentation is as follows: firstly, the need for regional resource planning is discussed in the light of pertinent physical factors. This is followed by two chapters which present an introduction into climatology and land forms. In these chapters the basic concepts and terms of these fields are explained and provide the essential background for the discussion to follow. To conclude the discussion of the physical elements, the two fields are inter• related and fundamental principles applicable to regional resource development, are developed. In the next section of the paper these principles are applied to selected types of resource development regions. In this connection, two major areas of development are examined as "case studies". These areas include: (1) the Kitimat-Kemano region as an example of the development of one resource; (2) the Lower Mainland region as an example of complex resource development which is Influe• nced by a large urban area. Finally, the general applications of climatic and geomorphic principles to regional resource development which emerge from the examination of the two case studies are discussed. In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Head of my
Department or by his representative. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission.
Department of Community and Regional Planning
The University of British Columbia, Vancouver 8, Canada.
Date May 9th 1958 iii
PREFACE
The Eleventh Commandment
Thou shalt inherit the Holy Earth as a faithful steward, conserving Its resources and productivity from generation to generation. Thou shalt safeguard thy fields from soil erosion; thy living waters from drying up; thy forests from desolation; and protect thy hills from overgrazing by thy herds, that thy descend• ants may have abundance forever. If any shall fail in this stewardship of the land, thy fruitful fields shall become sterile, strong ground and wasting gullies, and thy descendants shall derrease and live in poverty or perish from off the face of the earth.
- 14-th British Columbia Natural Resources Conference, 19!?1.
•» «• •»
The writer would like to acknowledge the assistance of Mr. J.W. Wilson, Director, Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board, Professor J.F. Muir, Head of the Department of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia, and Dr. J.L. Robinson, Head of the Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, to whom the writer owes his geographic background. Special thanks are due to Professor I.M. Robinson of the Department of Community and Regional Planning for his assistance and criticism during the preparation of this paper. iv
TABLE OP CONTENTS Page
ABSTRACT i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
INTRODUCTION - THE INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL FACTORS IN REGIONAL RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
The Need for Regional Resource Development 1 and Planning The Physical Setting llj. Purposes of Study 17 Data Used in Study 18
PART ONE - THE PHYSICAL ELEMENTS: CLIMATE AND LANDFO RMS
Chapter I - Climatology 20 Climatic Elements and Controls 21 Climatic Variability , 26 Present Trends and Shortcomings 29 in Climatology Application of Principles 3i\.
Chapter II - Geomorphology 37 Basic Concepts 37 Present Trends \\2 Application of Principles i|4 Three Essential Tools ij.7 Topographic Maps I4.7 Aerial Photographs 50 Land Classification 5l
Chapter III - Climatology and Geomorphology: 55 Interrelationships and Fundamental Principles Applicable to Regional Resource Planning Introduction 55 Climatic Classification 55 Microclimates 62 Climatic Maps 61| Morphogenetic Regions 65 Principles and Areas of Study 67
PART TWO - APPLICATIONS OF PRINCIPLES TO SELECTED TYPES OF RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT REGIONS
Chapter IV - Introduction: Resources and their 73 Development V
Chapter V - Kitimat-Kemano Region 79 Introduction 79 Location and Description 80 Economic and Geographic Considerations 83 Physical Geographic Background 86 Climatology 86 Geomorphology 91 Vegetation and Soil 96 Influence of Physical Factors 99 upon Planning Considerations Regional Considerations 100 Townsite Planning 110
Chapter VI - The Lower Mainland Region 123 . Introduction 123 Physical Geographic Background 125 Climatology 125 Geomorphology 129 Soils and Vegetation 132. Influence of Physical Factors 135 upon Planning Considerations Regional Considerations 135 Urban Considerations li|i. Planning and the "Rural-Urban ll+5 Conflict" Lower Mainland Regional Planning l5l Board
Chapter VII - Conclusions 162 Introduction 162 Conclusions 165
APPENDECES 176
BIBLIOGRAPHY 188 vi
LIST OP FIGURES
Page
Figure 1 Unused Capacity for Forest 11 Production
Figure 2 Unused Capacity for Agricultural 12 Production
Figure 3 Comparative Monthly Temperature 23 in Continental and Marine Situations
Figure k Accumulated Sums of Departures, An• 30 nual Precipitation, Dodge City, Kansas
Figure 5> Schematic Representation of the 71 Interrelationships between Climatic, Vegetation, and Soil Types
Figure 6 Morphogenetic Regions 72
Figure 7 Technology Brings New Materials 75 to the Fore
Figure 8 Regional Setting of "Case Studies" 81
Figure 9 Kitimat-Kemano Development 82
Figure 10 Sketch of Kemano Development Qk QP Ir. packet- Figure 11 Kitimat - General Layout Plan 7 <- «,fc e.r,«L
Figure 12 City of Vancouver, Rainfall Freque• ncy Intensity Curves
Figure 13 Climatic Factors in Building Design 117
Figure Ik Lower Mainland Region 12li
Figure 15 Climograph of Temperature and 126 Precipitation, Lower Mainland Region vii
LIST OP TABLES
Page
Table 1 Monthly Precipitation Average 119 for 13 Complete Years, Covering 1902-7, 1931-IJ-3
Table 2 Monthly Mean Temperatures 120
Table 3 Monthly Precipitation and 121 Altitude of Station
Table k Monthly Extremes of Temp• 122 erature, and Absolute Maximum and Minimum viii
LIST OF APPENDECES
Page
Appendix A Specific Elements of Climate 176 Relating to Regional Resource Planning
Appendix B Elements of Aerial Photo 178 Interpretation
Appendix C Effects Produced by Various 182 Geomorphic Agents
Appendix D Thornthwaite1s Classification 183 of Climate -
Appendix E Man as a Geological Agent l8£ INTRODUCTION THE INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL FACTORS IN REGIONAL RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
"There are two sets of ruins: one is the -work of Time, the other of Men".
- Chateaubriand
The Need for Regional Resource Development and Planning
Throughout his short, intense history man has fought a never-ending battle with nature. Events of the late 19th
Century and the first half of the 20th Century seem to indicate man has been successful in many ways; he has tamed rivers, conquered the air, explored the earth, changed its climate - indeed, what can the future possibly hold for him but an ever-broadening road towards a "super civilization"?
Today man stands at the crossroads. He has begun to realize that to defeat nature is a reversible process. Even as man removes the forest to plant wheat today, he sets the
stage for the floods tomorrow, as he builds his cities on the fertile plains he moves the source of his bread further away from him. Man is becoming aware of the limits of his earth.
No longer is a community or country immune to the influences of the rest of the world. Perhaps the only thing linking all men is the future - the physical, social, and economic forces at work in the world today are the expression of the unfilled desires and needs of the rapidly Increasing population of the earth for the essentials of life. Conflict between men is not the result of political ideologies alone. The strength 2 of any political system will be a direct result of its ab• ility (or lack of it) to keep its people from want. History provides some sort of perspective. When resources have proved adequate for both basic needs and the needs of expan•
sion, so called "great empires" rose. It is thrilling to
read of these great empires and yet, for the purpose of this paper, we mu3t see not their greatness but discover the
reasons behind their downfall. These reasons are, of course, many and complex but from the early civilizations in Egypt to
the fall of the Roman empire, one fact is common to all:
their land lost its productivity and their resources failed
them.
"At that period, however, with which we are dealing, when Attica.was still intact, what are now her mountains were lofty, soil clad hills; her so-called shingle plains of the present day were full of rich soil; and her mountains were heavily afforested - a fact of which there are still visible traces. There are mountains in Attica which can now keep nothing but bees, but which were clothed, not so very long ago, with fine trees producing timber suitable for roofing the largest build• ings; and roofs hewn from this timber are still in existence. There were also many lofty cultivated trees, while the country produced boundless pasture for cattle. The annual supply of rainfall was not lost, as it is at present, through being allowed to flow over the denuded surface into the sea, but was received by the country, in all potler's earth and so was able to discharge the drainage of the heights into the hollows in the form of springs and rivers with an abundant volume and a wide territorial distribution. The shrines that survive to the present day on the sites of extinct water supplies are evidence for the correctness of my present hypothesis".-*-
Plato made these observations over two thousand years
Toynbee, A.J.: Greek Historical Thought. (Prom Homer to the . Age of Heraclius), J.M. Dent, London, 1921}., pp. 169-170, Translation taken from Plato: Collected Works, Oxford Text, Volume IV. 3
ago and recognized that soils, forests, and water supply formed a unity. He further postulates that a deterioration
of the physical environment will lead to a nation's downfall.
There were, of course, many reasons for the fall of great
early civilizations. In Greece an increasing lack of respon•
sibility developed. Equality promised in the constitution
was simply non-existent. Materialism gained a foothold and
the philosophy of wealth as a measure of social values foll•
owed. With her love for life in small groups and political
Independence in each group, Greece was never able to unite
Into a national state. Thus she was conquored by the Maced•
onian nation under Phillip. Another fact Is clear from rec•
orded history - the ever-decreasing productivity of the land
and a progressive failure of resources. Widespread deforest•
ation resulted in a fluctuating and inefficient water supply
which in turn upset the stability of agriculture.
The Roman Empire did create and maintain unity. Its
economic and political organization was unsurpassed. The
Romans solved the great technical problems created by the
concentration of people in cities building sewers, water supply
systems, heating systems and the like. What Rome could not
do, however, was adapt to change. The ruling class became
richer and moved to country estates - the gulf between classes
In society widened and exploited and depleted lands were left
to waste. The social consequences of failing agriculture were k an important contribution to the disintegration of the nation. With the fall of the Roman empire the impact of man on his environment was, to a great extent, checked. The his• tory of the Middle Ages is one of famine, plague, and death.
In the period from 1200 to 1600 A.D., England suffered a famine on the average of every fifteen years^, and at the time of George III, balanced on the brink of starvation, of what "we now call an Asiatic standard".3 Prom 108 B.C. to
1911 A.D. there were 1828 famines in China, or nearly one
every year.^- Down to the end of the eighteenth century fam•
ine and want was the normal, periodic lot of most people.
Pood could be neither transported nor stored so when nature
failed, men died.
At this time the Industrial Revolution (preceded by the
Agricultural Revolution a century earlier) gave birth to an
entirely new concept of living. In the next two hundred years
the world's population more than doubled. Robert Thomas
Maithus warned, in 1798, that man's population tended to out•
strip his food supply. His theories were hard to understand
when every day the resources of the new world grew more limit•
less. Why bother about land? What if sugar was wearing out
the soil in the West Indies and watersheds were being destroyed
in the United States? There was more land, wasn't there? The
Cited in Burch, G.I. and Pendell, E.: Population Roads to - Peace and War, Washington, Population Reference Bureau, 19^5« Clark, Colin: Conditions of Economic Progress. Macmillan Co., London, 191+0. ~" Pearson, P.A. and Paarlberg, E.: Starvation Truths. Half- truths, Untruths. Ithaca, 191+6, p. 12. 5
standard of living was rising wasn't it? Production of goods was equated to money and this became the wealth of the nation.
The eventual limits to production, the resource base, which
is one good index of the real wealth of a nation, was not
considered.
The story of Anglo-America in the last century, as far
as resource utilization is concerned, is one of much exploit•
ation and waste. The result of the westward surge of settlers,
in many areas, was the loss of grassland, forest, animal life,
and many inches of topsoil. The facts are all available -
gathered by many government services, conservation agencies,
and individuals. The following example illustrates this
overall picture. The land area of the United States amounts
to approximately 1,900,000,000 acres. In its original state
about 1+0 percent was In virgin forest. Today this figure is
less than 7 percent. The estimated total stand of saw timber
in 1909 was 2,826 billion board feet while the estimate for
191+5 totalled 1,601 billion board feet - a reduction of 1+1+
percent.^
Man today is slowly becoming conscious of the fact that
to avoid world wide disaster, he must co-operate with nature.
Limitless technological development will never substitute for
the natural life-giving elements of the earth. On the other
hand, technological development, if fully applied towards an
Statistical Abstract of the United States. U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C, 191+9. 6 enlightened policy of resource conservation and development, will provide for the continuation of civilization.
It is not the intention of this paper to present a hope• less situation of rising population and failing resources.
The means of success are available. If man will use them a
"super civilization" is within his grasp. If he does not use them, he will destroy himself - the choice is as simple as that.
In Its final analysis, planning may be defined as the
"wise use of all the resources within an area".* The develop• mental level a nation attains is a direct result of the degree
of success with which its natural resources are developed.
Success, used in this sense, is not quantity of production
alone, but more a measure of the ratio between production
and replacement, natural growth, regeneration, discovery of
new reserves, and so on. Because of the great abundance of
the earth's resources andr.raan's increasing technical skill,
we have taken much for granted. Our real wealth is drawn
from the earth and today much of that earth is bankrupt. By
excessive breeding and abuse of the land man is rapidly back•
ing himself into an ecological trap. The wealth of land
(whether present or potential) may be roughly equated to its
"carrying capacity".*! The carrying capacity may be defined,
for our purposes, as follows:
* Dr. J. Lewis Robinson: Geography in Regional Analysis and Planning, address prepared for orientation course in Community Planning, University of British Columbia, 1955* #1 This concept of "carrying capacity" is based on the work of F. Osborn, Our Plundered Planet, Little, Brown & Co., New York, 19%0~. 7
C = P %, P - the productive (or potential productive) capacity. This
may vary within general limits set by nature. For example,
the biotic potential of a soil may be approached by appl•
ication of the best utilization techniques.
% s the environmental limits. This is the sum of all the
limiting factors acting on the environment. Where it is
possible to reduce the effect of these factors, the envir•
onmental limit is raised and a rise in productive capacity
may follow. Methods of irrigation, erosion control, and
insect control are examples of the reduction of environ•
mental limits.
The other factor influencing developmental level is population - its growth, composition, distribution, and social structure. After centuries of relatively slow growth, it has increased very quickly in the past two hundred years. In order to maintain a constant standard of living this increase in population must be accompanied by an increase in carrying capacity. In some areas this cannot be done as environment limits are too low. In some areas where it can be done, it is not being done or not being done properly. If these two forces, carrying capacity and population, may be represented graphically this "ecological trap" may be seen thus: 6
- POPULATION
- CARRYfNG CAPACITY
1900 TIME 1980
The curves of population and carrying capacity have crossed.
On a world-wide basis this indicates many "have not" areas.
Today Anglo-America is still seen by many as the country that
"can feed the world". Not only is this a myth but also much evidence indicates Anglo-America will find it difficult to support its growing population at present living standards.
Some writers have referred to man as the "new geological force".* The short history of development in Anglo-America, in many areas, has been one of wholesale destruction of nat• ural resources. No longer is Anglo-America a land of plenty - resource development and use must be directed toward the int• erests of the people as a whole if present standards of living are to be maintained. It was not until shortly before World
War I that the first steps towards very necessary, co-ordinated land use planning were taken (in the form of conservation measures). Assuming that drastic population control measures
(while considered desirable in some cases by the writer) will
* See Appendix E. 9 not be attained in the foreseeable future, the carrying cap• acity of the land must be increased. The writer is not, how• ever, subscribing to the pessimistic doctrines of the modern
Malthusians. Their methods are only a few of many available to man if he will use them.
There is only one way to increase this carrying capacity
and that is national land use planning and development of re•
sources on some regional basis. By land use planning the writer does not mean the classification of land for a specific purpose; for example, agricultural use. Rather, it is the
comprehensive planning of all land uses in their relation to
the present and future economic and physical structure of the
nation. If this planning is to be comprehensive it must be
done on some regional basis. The various aspects of resource
development are interrelated and each aspect must be studied
both in Itself and in its relation to the other aspects. The
foregoing is perhaps the "negative" need for regional resource
development. In other words it is necessary to increase the
carrying capacity of our land and prevent the destruction of
our resources through Improper use.
In addition to this, is what may be called the "positive"
need for resource development. This is the tremendous poten•
tial for economic expansion and social progress that exists
if a planned program of resource development is realized.
For example, some of the benefits which accrue from a planned
water supply policy alone are: 10
1. The support of far larger populations in arid regions.
2. Solution of the urban water supply problem which is serious in many large urban areas,
3. Irrigation to provide for more food production and to introduce new crops into specialized areas, thus cre• ating a broader agricultural base.
k. Much industry today requires a large amount of water both for production processes and waste disposal. Water is becoming a more important location factor in many areas and the use of sea water is presenting an interesting challenge.
5>. Large resources of water power capable of economic development augment the value of the other resources in an area. Hydro power, although it may be trans• ported up to approximately £00 miles, is a powerful location factor.
6. Other resources are closely associated with water resources. Recreation, wildlife, inland and inter- coastal waterways, flood control and land reclamation, etc. are all part of the overall problem.
The need for co-ordinated resource development has been
recognized, the benefits are apparent and progress has been made. T.V.A., for example, with all its shortcomings, is
a magnificant example. It is not regional planning but was never intended to be. It is the development of a single re•
source (water) for multiple purpose ;;use and within that def•
inition has met with considerable success. Consider a com• prehensive programming of all resources within a planning re•
gion (not a single function region) - the results would be infinitely greater. Figures 1 and 2 show graphically the
scope of potential development in forest and agricultural products. Soils and forests, today, are being exploited at widely differing efficiencies even in the most advanced the inc i 1 1 1 1 I I - 1 r M i I i i I I 1• TftiT 1I 1 1 'r • T i ! | 1 . i_[ i 1 •
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13 countries. Today conservation techniques are being applied to soil, accounting for less than one-quarter of the world's food supply.
Finally, of great importance is the regional basis on which the planning Is to be done. The philosophy of region• alism will not be examined but a few identifying statements and assumptions are necessary in order to d efine what the writer means by regionalism.
1. A region shall be defined by locating "core" or prob• lem areas of natural resource development out of which socioeconomic progress arises.
2. When these "core" areas have been located on the basis of greatest Jiomogeniety (measured by specific criteria) It is then possible to define a somewhat elastic boun• dary line or zone.
3» Regionalism must function within the national frame• work, towards an end result of national unity. In other words, it is not sectionalism which is the promotion of local interests toward a policy of self- sufficiency. The nation cannot be stronger than the sum of its regions as prosperity or depression within the region is reflected in the nation, and vice versa.
1+. For the purpose of this paper, the concept of the composite region will be assumed. The establishment of single function regions in resource development is adequate for some forms of research but will not work with a combination of factors.
5. The existence of political, administrative and conven• ience regions results in a complex system, of over• lapping and, In many cases, confusion. These boun• daries have been established on the basis of some criteria and, because they include an administrative organization and represent large vested interests, they are very often very difficult or impossible to change.
6. Regardless of where or on what basis regional bound• aries are drawn, a Regional Planning Agency should be formed. Whatever its precise administrative and pol• itical structure, this Agency would be responsible for the overall planning and development of the region. The geographer, by nature of his training, uses region•
al analysis as a basic method. He sees any region in two ways:
1. As the sura of its individual parts.
2. How It fits into the next largest region.
The geographic method, then, establishes a hierarchy of reg•
ions and, after studying parts of each, fits into a whole.
The planner and the geographer have many methods in common
in that both collect information from many fields and "put
it together". In a regional sense the planner is far behind
the geographer, both in training and accomplishment. The
basic methods of geography must be adopted and utilized more
fully by the planner. "Planning is regional geography pro•
jected into the future, with the hope of guiding the region
into desirable patterns In harmony with its environment".
The Physical Setting
In developing land for any purpose, man faces certain
physical limitations. The two most obvious and important are
climate and landforms.
While man makes minor changes in his world, his environ•
ment is the product of vast forces that are beyond his control
and may operate at a rhythm too slow for perception. The
distribution of the earth's topographic features are of major
importance to man as they determine where he may build his
6 Robinson, J.L.: "Geography and Regional Planning", The Canadian Geographer. No. 8, 193>6, p. 6. 15 cities, the placement of his agricultural lands, his lines of communication, and so on. This is the realm of geomorphol• ogy which attempts to discover the origin and the systematic evolution of the earth's landforms.
In many cases topographic features may be the surface expression of subsurface features, for example a dome-like structure on the surface may indicate an anticlinal structure below It. This branch of geomorphology requires an understand• ing of geologic principles both for explaining structure and variety of subsurface phenomena and to help explain the type, origin, and distribution of economic materials - coal, nat• ural gas, metallic ores, construction materials, and many others. As geology and geomorphology seek to explain earth features, these features are, in turn, ever changing. Geo• morphology is a dynamic thing and its processes draw their energy from the atmosphere. The science of hydrology is a basic tool in the study of landforms. In addition to giving life to man and his activities, water provides him with power, transportation, recreation, a basic raw material for industry, etc. Water, more than any other atmospheric element, is the tool which sculptures the face of the land.
Although man lives on the solid surface of the earth, he owes his very survival to favourable conditions of weather and climate. The patterns of man's activity over the earth are directly related to climatological patterns. Climatic factors not only offer potentials, but also impose severe limitations 16 on what man is doing and may do in the future. To a consid• erable extent, climate governs what man eats, wears, the structures he builds, and where he lives. This becomes less marked as a society becomes more highly industrialized, but weather and climate still effectively govern most primary industries, and many commercial operations.
Lying, in effect, between the atmosphere and the surface of the earth is the thin layer of soil. The distribution of soil will greatly influence the patterns of man's agriculture and the distribution of the natural vegetation. Perhaps the most tangible evidence of physical factors may be seen in the soil. Climate may be taken for granted, geomorphic processes, with the exception of spectacular features, such as floods, may operate too slowly to be appreciated, but soil fertility may be seen In production; and economic losses from soil eros• ion are very real.
These physical factors cannot be thought of as separate branches of study. They are all interrelated and the influen• ces and changes of one will be reflected in the others. Our soil reflects the parent material upon which it has developed, the climate under which it has developed, and the vegetative complex it supports. The distribution and patterns of land- forms is a major influence in both regional and local climat• ology. Climate, in turn, supplies the energy for geomorphic processes. Even as the great forces of uplift create new sur• face features, they are being destroyed by rain, frost, wind, and ice. The "everlasting hills" of the poet do not exist - 17 there are no everlasting hills.
Purposes of Study
Climatology and geomorphology have been studied for hun• dreds of years. Basic principles have been developed in these fields and applied to the planned use of specific resources.
But only in the past few years have investigations sought to define the interrelationships between the two fields. Such men as Cotton, Fielder, Matthes, and Visher have realized the importance of these interrelationships and established many
"first principles". The application of these principles has been, unfortunately, on a piecemeal rather than a regional ba• sis. Most work seems to lie in the specialized branches of the physical sciences and much remains as theory which is dis• cussed for academic interest only.
This study is a modest attempt at filling this gap ex• isting between theory and practical application. In the sec• ond part of the study an effort will be made to bring together the various fields of knowledge with respect to climatology and geomorphology, with the purpose of indicating those basic principles applicable and significant to regional resource development. Then in Part II, these principles will be app• lied, or tested as it were, to two types of resource develop• ment regions. These two types will include the single resour• ce development region and the region of complex resource dev• elopment modified by a large industrial complex. 18
The study, then, is primarily concerned with demonstr• ating the application and implication of certain climatolog- ical and geomorphological principles in the planned use of natural resources on a regional basis. Since regional dev• elopment also involves urban building, some reference will be made to the applications of the principles of climate and landforms on this phase of planning as well.
It is recognized, of course, that the planned use of natural resources does not only depend on the application of our knowledge of physical (and other) factors. Political and administrative factors are equally important; but these con• siderations are only discussed in this study in passing.
Data Used in Study
As the accuracy of conclusions will depend on the data used, some qualifications must be made.
Climatology - Most of the data used is in statistical form.
There is no problem in obtaining adequate data for the stan• dard elements - temperature, precipitation, etc. Today many more elements are being recorded by a multitude of new devices.
The problem Is they have a short history which makes the res• ults of complex statistical treatment somewhat doubtful.
1. Accuracy - in analysis allowance must be made for inst•
rument error, vast differences in quality of Instruments
used to measure the same thing, the development of more
accuracy instruments over the years, and the human error
factor (which is very real at times when non-professional 19
people collect much of the data).
2. Completeness and Representativeness - some of the data are
not complete and some are only partially complete. This
is a very important factor, as in the main, the longer the
record the better the results of statistical treatment.
Climatic data is not completely representative of any
area, and British Columbia is a good example. There are
simply no recording stations where people do not live,
so many results are based on the best inferences possible.
Geomorpho1ogy - The writer quotes only moderate use of statis• tical data as:
1. Much of it is too specific and applies to a single prob•
lem only.
2. Much of it is highly doubtful and subject to much debate.
In the main, accepted basic principles of geomorphology and related geological sciences are discussed in so far as they are related to climatology. Por "case study" examples, statistical data are used along with information from maps and technical papers.
It is hard to discuss geomorphic data as being complete or representative. It may be on a very small scale but from a regional aspect it is very incomplete and non-representative,
One need only read a few opinions of the best authorities in the field to realize that there is much disagreement even on so called "first principles". PART ONE
THE PHYSICAL ELEMENTS: CLIMATE AND LANDFORMS 20
CHAPTER I - CLIMATOLOGY
The vapor, which the Greeks and our own nation call by the same name, air - this is the principle of life, and penetrates all the universe, and is intertwined with the whole.
- Pliny the Elder
In developing land for any purpose, man faces certain physical limitations. The first and perhaps most obvious is climate.
Man lives at the bottom of a sea hundreds of miles deep - on the floor of a great ocean of air. He is as dependent upon the atmosphere for life as a marine organism in its natural element of water.
"In fact, among the several elements (climate, terrain, economic minerals, soils, native vegetation, etc.) which in combination comprise the total natural equipment of any region for human use, climate prob• ably is the single most important one causing varia• tions in use potentialities between extensive regions of subcontinental size".?
Climate may be defined as "the average state of the atmosphere over a particular place or region of the earth*s surface, related to a particular epoch and taking into con• sideration the average and extreme variations to which the atmospheric state is subject".^ While "weather" on the other hand is the term applying to atmospheric conditions at
Trewartha, G.T.: An Introduction to Climate. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., Toronto, 19$k-* P» 3« Conrad, V., and Pollak, L.W.: Methods in Climatology, Harv ard University Press, 2nd Edition, 19 50. 21
any given time, it may vary greatly from day to day or year to year in a given locality. This may not indicate a change in climate.
Climatic Elements and Controls
The condition of the atmosphere at any given time or place is expressed by a combination of several elements.
These are the basic ingredients, if you will, out of which various types of weather are compounded. The most Important of these elements are:*
1. Temperature and solar radiation
2. Precipitation and humidity
and to a lesser degree:
3. Winds
k-. Air pressure systems
Weather not only varies from day to day but varies considerably
from place to place. This is due to great differences in the
amount, intensity, effectiveness, and areal distribution of
these various elements. These differences are governed by
the climatic controls. These major controls are:
1. Latitude - for our purposes we may assume that solar
radiation is constant. The latitude of an area will
determine the angle of incidence of incoming insol•
ation. This in turn will determine the intensity of
* See Appendix A for a more complete classifIcation-of these elements. 22
the insolation and the amount of atmosphere it must
travel through to reach the ground surface. In addition
to these effects, latitude will determine the length of,
day and night and hence the potential duration of insol•
ation. As a result the higher the latitude (north or
south) the less the amount and effective intensity of
the insolation.
2. Distribution of Land and Water - the distribution of
land and water surfaces over the face of the earth is an
important factor in modifying the effect of latitude.
Land surfaces heat and cool more quickly than water sur•
faces and effect the covering air masses accordingly.
This results in a greater range of temperature in air
over the continents. Compare marine and continental
stations (Figure 3) and, although each pair have about
the same latitude, they differ greatly in maximum and
minimum temperatures, annual ranges, and the general sha•
pes of their curves. Cloudiness and rainfall are also
directly effected by land and water surfaces. As the
chief source of atmospheric moisture is the ocean, con•
tinental interiors have dryer climates, lower relative hum'
idity, and more sunshine. This marine influence, when
effective to the west of mountain ranges produces a coast•
al marine climate of which British Columbia is a good
example.
3. Altitude - elevated land areas have certain climatic (1^.^2^38-3? to the inch ! LI II 1 i 1 | 1 1 i ! I j
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4 i_lCp.M^.AL8.AJjyE_ MONTH LY; ; il^E.MPERAJURES ! IN 1 CO NT IN E NT AU T '' " ^ -.- ; ,--f - T—i—+—1—-f—I—1—*— 4-4- -AND -MARI-N-E-L S ITU AT IONS 4-U xtutixxi LXT rnt -t-T-T-t ! ! ~_jX| :A. SAN .JUAN, run: Tt PU E P.TQ . RJG.0nr,4 lLA|r.:_J!8?_29XlNj_a -i—r lT -L. T r it 4_i_LL \-i ^. S^i± utfft3 7' N .'C0PENHAGN , LAT. 5 5< -t-Ht- Xliriii" 9 4l'N ! ! I h D. TOMSK, LAT. 5 6° 30'N' I ' i , I ±±t iT i - AFTE R ' TREWARTHA : P-Oil -LlJ-J- [TITX xx Xlriiu-ttthx: •H--K- —f- : -r • I — TIG. 3 4-l-UU i i i -T -fTt -ffttjt 21+ characteristics in common as a direct result of their alt• itude. The most obvious result of an Increase in elevation is a corresponding decrease In atmospheric pressure. Among
other results this causes an increase in evaporation and a
decrease in available oxygen. The intensity of insolation
is increased with an increase in altitude largely because of
the air which is more free of dust and water vapor. This
increased intensity of insolation has important effects on
the soil temperature and hence the growth of vegetation.
As the land heats quickly by day, so it cools quickly by
night in elevated regions. This produces greater daily ran•
ges in temperature and creates "thermal belts" along the
slopes - the cool air collects in the valley bottoms which
become colder than the mountain sides and often contain
cloud and fog. As a result, "frost sensitive" crops are
grown on the slopes and benches, in elevated regions, above
the level of the cool air. There are so many local topogra•
phic variations that it is difficult to formulate rules that
have wide application.
1+. Topography - apart from the -distribution of land and
water surfaces the actual configuration of the land
surface results in climatic differences. The orientation
of a slope may partially determine the amount of insol•
ation it receives which In turn will effect soil temper•
atures, vegetation, snow cover, runoff, etc. In a regional. 25 sense, mountain systems may effect the movement of air masses - protecting some areas from cold air, bringing other areas more precipitation, etc. In general mount• ains will cause the upward movement of air, thus increas• ing the amount of precipitation. The modification of climate by mountain systems is very common; for example, the east-west trend of the Alps protects northern Italy from the storms of central Europe. The north-south trend of the Rocky Mountains permits cold air from the Arctic to move south into the Gulf area.
Pressure Belts and Winds - are perhaps the least percept- able to humans but, as climatic controls, through the effects which they have upon temperature and precipitation, they are of the highest importance. In actual fact, most
"belts" of pressure are really "cells" of high or low pressure especially in the .northern hemisphere where the temperature contrasts of large land masses break the
"belts" up. Differences in pressure produce air movement and result in the general circulation patterns over the earth. The general pattern of these belts in the Northern
Hemisphere is: (south to north)
(a) equatorial low pressure (b) sub-tropical high pressure (c) sub-polar (mid latitude) low pressure (d) polar high pressure
These pressure cells are further modified by:
(a) Unequal heating between latitudinal belts (b) Coriolis force - resulting from the rotation of the earth. (c) The non-horaogeniety of the surface. 26
The pressure cells developed have winds associated with
them. For example a high pressure cell results in a
divergent movement of air from the center towards areas
of lower pressure, This is reversed in the low pressure
cells and hence pressure gradients are established.
In various areas of the world definite types of weather may be associated with these pressure systems as they are born, move about, and die, for example, the Aleutian Low will bring rain to Vancouver while the Hawaiian High will bring clear weather.
In general the wind systems serve two fundamental climat• ic functions:
1. The transportation of heat from lower to higher lat•
itudes; thus maintaining the latitudinal heat balance
of the earth.
2. They provide the land masses with the necessary mois•
ture supply for precipitation.
There are other controls of climate (ocean currents,
storms, etc.) but the above factors are the major controls
and, within the scope of this paper, adequate to provide some
elementary introduction to the mechanics of climate.
Climatic Variability
Perhaps the climatic picture given so far has been a
static one. This Is not the nature of climate for, superimp-
ised on a large scale stability, are numerous climatic fluct•
uations of varying intensity and period. The conclusion of 27 most geologists is that, although these changes were irreg• ular and fluctuating in character, they occurred simultane• ously over the whole earth.
In addition to these great world-wide variations in
climate much evidence points to lesser variations. The
fluctuation of lake levels and the advance and retreat of
Alpine glaciers point to wet and dry periods. The study of
growth rings on trees has revealed fluctuations in their rate
of growth evidently due to climatic variations. Statistics
seem to indicate two trends today:
1. A world wide rise in temperatures
2. Increasing arridity in the tropic and sub-tropic regions.
Many theories have been advanced which attempt to explain
these long and short term variations in climate. In examina•
tion of them, the following points must be kept in mind:
1. Any change of climate will be due to the combined effect of many causes both terrestrial and solar.
2. Attention must be given to both sides of.the argu• ment as to whether glaciation is due primarily to a loss of the earth's supply of heat or to a redistri• bution of the heat through changes in atmospheric and oceanic circulation.
3. Any acceptable theory must explain the synchronism between great uplifts in the earth's crust and great changes in climate.
k-» Any acceptable theory must satisfy the geological record of repetition of mild and cool periods.
The most reasonable theories today are based on:
1. Variations of solar radiation as .indicated by sunspot cycle. This presumably creates a redistribution of the earth's atmospheric pressure with a shifting of the wind belts and storm tracks. 28
2. Changes in atmospheric transmission of solar rad• iation caused by variable amounts of air-borne volcanic dust and carbon dioxide content; an incre• ase in the former lowering surface temperature and an increase in the latter raising it.
3. Land distribution and elevation. The changes in the ratio of land to water surfaces would alter the dis• tribution of continental and marine climates. Changes In elevation of land masses would similarly produce temperature changes.
The above factors are all probably influential in wea•
ther variations. When examined in detail, however, they do not offer a satisfactory explanation of the actual climatic
changes indicated by accepted geological evidence.
Theories of climatic variability have little direct
bearing on the subject of this paper. However, people accept
weather as a dynamic state but seldom think of climate in
the same sense. It is impossible to express climatic elements,
of a given region, in terms of "normal" values obtained by
averaging weather data for 5>0 to 100 years.
"Climatic conditions neither remain constant nor change forever in one direction, but instead they vib• rate back and forth In a highly complex and Irregular manner in waves of lengths varying from a few months to millions of years."9
Presumably in large scale resource development a vast amount
of money will be invested - in most cases over a long period
of time. In addition, the result will probably be some degree
of human occupance of the region. Changes, in climate, of a few years duration, often have serious economic and social
Blair, T.A.: Climatology. General and Regional. Prentice- Hall, Inc., New York, 191+2, p. 9l+. 29 effects on the people of an area. Take, for example, the case of an area receiving just enough precipitation to sus• tain agriculture. A variation above the "normal" produces a good crop where a fall below normal means complete crop fail• ure. One need only to look at the social and economic history of the "dust bowl" areas of the United States to appreciate
this point. Figure 1+ illustrates the variation in annual rainfall in Dodge City, Kansas. The average for the entire
record is used and the accumulated sums of the departures from it are plotted. Years of lighter than average rainfall are
Indicated by a falling curve and a rising curve shows heavier
than average rainfall. This curve gives a clearer indication
of one aspect of climatic variability.
With the above in mind, then, it Is apparent that the
possible effects of any trends In climatic variation should
be taken into account in a long-range planning analysis for
resource development.
Present Trends and Shortcomings in Climatology
Climatology has been, until recently, a purely descrip•
tive science. Meteorological data was collected, analyzed,
and used for geographic description. Man has harnessed many
natural forces but climate still, in the main, must be "taken
as it comes". If man then is to get along with climate he must make use of it as it exists. To do this its causes and effects must be determined and kept under observation. World War II
provided the opportunity and need for much research and since fcirlS IP*X 8 to the incl
PAR TU RES 1 ^ t-4- ^ --j-f
A NNUA L • ' PREC IPITATION 7l D 0 DG E C IT Y7 KANSAS ..La ; Ml.
! I i i i : ! r
1 1 AF_iT_E_R .BLAIR . . -1- .i-l-L 4-i 4- U- 1 1 M i i M 1 H~r- —t- 4—4 -i M-i- Tt 1-7llfr :alxt —1—i - r I I i 1 1
!_!..!. L. 4- -: iii j_J_l_i_. L 4_ .1 i I . + _u 4. 4- -l-f -T-f" -+-t r-r 1 ±rn± -X ;:n: .TJ±ttl HT XJT.L i 1 ! 31 then much has been done in the study of climate elements, causes, modifications (by physical elements and man) and effects. Today much Is being learned through high altitude rocket research and the use of balloon equipment. Various methods of weather control are meeting with varied success, for example, modification of micro-climates, polution and fog control, measures to promote and discourage precipitation, long range forecasting, etc. The field of climatology is, of course, broken Into areas of special study. Arnold Court has recently classified climatology as dynamic, synoptic, and complex.10 Dynamic climatology describes atmospheric circulation in terms of the available sources and transfor• mation of energy. It is a large scale tool mainly for the research meteorologist. Synoptic climatology describes the totality of weather resulting from atmospheric circulation.
It is the description of the cause and effect of day to day weather and forms the basis of forecasting. It provides the
"possibility of predicting phenomena from limited information"
Complex climatology is the analysis and presentation of clim• atic information for practical applications. It is with the latter area that this paper is most concerned. If climatic information is to be useful the specific data required for the
10 Court, A.: Climatology:"Complex, Dynamic, and Synoptic," Annal3, Association of American Geographers, Vol. 1+7, 1957. 11 Strahler, A.N.:"Empirical and Explanatory Methods in Physical Geography", The Professional Geographer Vol. 6, 1951;, PP. 1+-8. 32 problem at hand must be secured. The amount of material available is great but most of it is restricted to a few climatic elements - pressure, temperature, and precipitation.
On the whole, the standard climatic summaries leave much to be desired, as yet. H.E. Landsberg1^ suggests the following:
1. Insufficient coverage with existing equipment
- solar radiation - Information on ice and snow ? - soil temperatures, moisture, cooling power, etc. - suspended particles, (dust, etc.)
2. Inadequate techniques or instruments
- evaporation and transpiration - corrosive substances in air - composition of precipitation - radiation losses - slant visibility - foliage temperatures - cloud, layering, extent, temperature, density - vertical temperature gradients - rates of heat transfer
Most recent advances in complex, or applied climatology, have been towards better methods of statistical treatments of data.
This is mostly work in combinations of two or three elements.
Ceiling-Visibility combinations have been tabulated and analyzed on a geographical basis.Temperature-wetbulb combinations were investigated by Albright.1^- The human
Landsberg, H.E.:. Applied Climatology, in Compendium of Meteorology, American Meteorological Soc• iety, Waverly Press, Inc., Baltimore, 19$3. Cunningham, G.: A Map of Flying Weather, Annals Assoc. Am. Geog., Vol. k2, 19$2, pp. 21|7-2$0. li+ Allbright, J.C.: Summer Weather Data, Kansas City, The Marley Co., 1939. 33 factor has been combined with climatic elements in a study directed by Brooks.1^
A very definite limit is imposed on the development of statistical techniques and that is the amount and reliability of data available. (See page 18.) Closely connected with advances in applied climatology are advances in applied micro- climatology. "There is a need for standardization of micro• climatic procedures and equipment. More measurements are needed on the vertical distribution of the usual climatic elements in the boundary layer over various forms of terrain and vegetation".
There is very much room for improvement in:
1. The securing of more complete, representative, and
accurate data.
2. Development of new techniques and instruments.
3. The selection of specific data types for specific
problems.
k» Finally, there is a growing field of bioclimatology.
This branch of science deals with the many complex
relations of weather and climate to life and health.
For example:
Brooks, CF. ed.:: Papers on the Relation of the Atmosphere to Human Comfort, Monthly Weather Review, Vol. 53, PP. 1^3-W7. Baum, W.A., and Court, A.: "Research Status and Needs in Micro-Climatology", Trans. Am. Geophysics Union, Vol. 30, 191+9, pp. lj.88-ij.93. 3k
- a number of investigations have indicated that the most favourable temperatures for man to work in is 6k°. - frequent small fluctuations are better than long periods of hot or cold. - air of moderate humidity is better than very moist or very dry air. Much disease can be related to humidity conditions. - considerable attention has been given to obtaining a measure of the cooling power of the air, partic• ularly with reference to the cooling of human skin, under different atmospheric conditions. - the amount of sunshine received is very closely related to health.
One of the major developments in all phases of climatology and the major trend at present is the development of more complex statistical treatment of data. Some authorities feel the techniques used are better than the data in many cases.
This may lead to the mistake of building a complex framework that has little basis in fact.
Application of Principles
Every place has a climate of some type and, as was stated above, this climate is a dynamic state subject to both short and long range variations. Man may modify his climate, with varying degrees of success, but he cannot change or control it to any appreciable extent. Generally, man has been more
successful where he has taken climatic factors into consider• ation. In many instances where he has not the effects have been disastrous. Before man can work in more complete harmony with climate, he must apply his knowledge of it. Much more effective resource planning and utilization may be done on the basis of what is known about climate at present. This does not mean to say that there is little need for more knowledge
on the subject, but if advances in climatology are incorpor•
ated, with a more complete utilization of present information much can be done towards a more harmonious balance between
resource development, man, and nature.
In considering climate and its effect on present and potential resource development certain basic steps must be
taken.
1. Measurement - the collection of data, by the measurement
of elements and controls of climate and their variations.
The development of instruments, location of recording
stations, and techniques of interpretation are most im•
portant. The whole question of obtaining data that is
both complete and representative is one of the greatest
problems in climatology.
2. Interpretation - of the data. As the extent of the app•
lication of climatic information to resource development
expands, so does the need for complex statistical inform•
ation. The data obtained must be classified into signif•
icant groupings, depending upon the particular problem
being considered.
3» Application - of the analyzed data. Now the practical
value of climatic information becomes effective. It is
now possible to draw boundaries and establish climatic
regions. Then attempts may be made to answer such quest•
ions as. "Within a region what are the optimum conditions
for growth?", "How much water is available for irrigation "What is the forest fire danger?". The application of regional and local climatology is becoming more and more important today in every phase of resource development. 37
CHAPTER II - GEOMORPHOLOGY
Nothing under heaven is softerr or more yielding than water; but when it att• acks things hard and resistant, there is not one of them that can prevail.
- From the Chinese, Tao Te Ching, Chapter LXXVII, 21+0 B.C.
Geomorphology is literally the study of the "forms of the earth". In studying the configuration of the earth, geomorphology looks at the continents, ocean basins, great mountain systems, and broad plains. The end result is the classification, measurement, and description of landforms, with the history of the processes that have produced them.
Geomorphology has always been a borderline field between geology and geography, and its most successful students are those trained adequately in the concepts and methods of both sciences.
Basic Concepts
Geomorphology has a long history of slow development.
The underlying principle of modern geomorphology is known as the principle of uniformitarianism. This was first stated by Hutton in 1785 who argued that the same geologic processes operating today have operated with the same intensity throu•
ghout geologic time. Today we know that the various processes have operated at different intensities, at different times, but the processes have themselves remained the same. Glaciers today behave the same as in Pleistocene times; streams cut 38 valleys in the past as they do now; wind deposition followed
the same laws in the Jurassic age as it does today. In add• ition to the above principle, the following basic concepts must be understood before the whole subject of landforms and
their interpretation is meaningful.-*
Concept 1 - Geologic structure is a dominant control factor
in the evolution of land forms and is reflected in them. The
term "structure" used in this sense, implies regional rather
than small scale rock features.. Variations in physical hard• ness, presence or absence of joints, faults, permeability,
regional dip, and strike of strata, etc., all are reflected
in landforms (although the resulting structure may not be visable). Major structural features are generally old and
were established long before the geomorphic features existing
on them.
Concept 2 - Geomorphic processes leave their distinctive im• print upon landforms and each process develops its own chara•
cteristic group of landforms. Naturally certain forms become
associated with others and where they cannot be seen, they may often be inferred. As a result a classification of land
forms is possible on more than a purely morphological basis.
Por example, the term "cliff" conveys relatively little but
the term "fault line scarp" tells the reader much of the geo-
The first 3 of these concepts are adapted from the works of W.H. Davis, the "father" of the American School. His impact on geomorphology was perhaps greater than that of any other one man. For example, Davis, W.H.: Geographical Essays. 39 raorphic history of the feature. Geomorphic processes are
generally classified as endogenic and exogenic.The former originate from forces within the earth's crust (volcanic
action, etc.); the latter from external forces (mass wasting,
erosion, etc.). In general the endogenic processes build up
areas worn down by exogenic processes.
Concept 3 - As the different erosional agencies act upon the
earth's surface, there is produced a sequence of landforms having distinctive characteristics at the successive stages
of their development. This concept gives rise to the geo• morphic cycle, one of the most useful tools in geomorphology.
In other words, a given land surface underlain by certain
types of structure and operated on by certain geomorphic pro•
cesses will undergo a sequence of development to a somewhat
theoretical end. Infinite variety is naturally the result
and, as many processes go on at one time, a complex rather
than simple evolution is the rule. The terms youth, maturity,
and old age are commonly used to represent the stages of dev- i ft
elopment. As much of the earth's crust is relatively mobile
(subject to defomation and movement) a partial cycle or com•
pound cycles are far more likely to exist than a completed
cycle. Finally there are three factors to keep in mind:
!7 Penck, ¥.: Die Morphologische Analyse, Stuttgart, 1927.
18 Davis, W.M.: "The. Geographical Cycle", Chapter 13 in Geographical Essays, Glnn & Co., 1909. 1. Much of the research that has led to what we accept
as fundamental geomorphic principles, has been done in
the humid temperature regions. Not enough research
has been done in tropical, arid, and polar regions to
formulate basic geomorphic principles but enough has
been done to indicate that the processes which are dom•
inant in the humid latitudes are not necessarily Imp•
ortant to the same degree in the lower and higher lat•
itudes. Here again climatic variations provide a good
Indication of the varying importance of geomorphic
principles.
2. Proper interpretations of present day landforms is
impossible without a full appreciation of the great
influence of climatic changes during the Pleistocene
Epoch.19
CALENDAR OP PLEISTOCENE TIME ROUGHLY EPOCHS SUBEPOCHS AGES (of time) ESTIMATED DATES STAGES (of deposits) 20,000 B.C. Recent Eldoran 125,000 B.C. Wisconsin (lith glacial) 250,000 B.C. PLEISTOCENE Central!an Sangamon Interglacial 350,000 B.C. Illinolan (3rd-/glacial) 650,000 B.C. Ottomwan Yarmouth Interglacial 750,000 B.C. Kansan.(2nd glacial) Aftonian Interglacial 950,000 B.C. Grandi an Nebraskan (1st glacial) 1,000,000 B.C. - After CO. Dunbar
19 Peltier, L.: "The Geographic Cycle in Periglacial Regions and its Relation to Climatic Geomorpholoey". Assn of ^SliS^SS^li. NO. i+o, PP. afc-2361- „ The Pleistocene is regarded as an epoch of the Cenozoil per• iod. Each subepoch begins with the expansion of glacier ice and the deposition of drift. As the ice wasted away, these deposits were exposed to geomorphic processes that produced soil, established drainage patterns, etc. Over this pattern spread the next ice sheet and a new erosion cycle began. It has been estimated that glaciation effected directly over
10,000,000 square miles. . Its indirect effects were, however, world wide in extent. Fluctuations in sea level, depressions of ice covered regions (and subsequent "rebound" with ice retreat), drainage changes, depositional features, etc. had far-reaching effects. The general lowering and rising of world-wide temperature averages are presumed to have a cause and effect relationship with glacier formation and extent".
Many areas that are arid today had humid climates during the glacial ages and many areas that are temperate today were subject to polar-like climates during the ice advances.
Glaciation has been responsible for the formation of more lakes than all other causes combined. These lakes, in turn, have their influence on present-day climate.
3. Most evidence today indicates that very little of the
earth's topography is older than the Tertiary period
and most of it is no older than the Pleistocene epoch. 1*2
Time
Recent Epoch 1,000,000 B.C.
Pleistocene Epoch
Pliocene Epoch
CENOZOIC TERTIARY Miocene Epoch ERA PERIOD Oligocene Epoch
Eocene Epoch
Paleocene Epoch MESOZOIC CRETACEOUS 60-70,000,000 B.C. ERA PERIOD
Ashley has made a strong case for the youthfulness of our
topography. He estimated that as much as 99 percent is past
Miocene.20 Most geologic structures are very old and, as it has been previously stated, they are, in general, much older
than the features developed upon them.
Present Trends
The concept of a wasting, dynamic landscape in contrast with a permanent one was envisaged by early thinkers. A long,
slow development of geologic thought has laid the basis for present-day geomorphic thinking. Even today the concept of
"everlasting hills" dominates the thinking of many peoples.
Penneman described the various stages through which geomorphic
thinking has passed in these words.21
20 Ashley, G.H.: "Our Youthful Scenery", Geol. Soc. Am.. Bulletin 1+2, 1931, pp. 537-51+6.
21 Fenneraan, N.M.:"The Rise of Physiography," Geol. Soc. Am.. Bulletin 50, pp. 31*9-3&0. 14-3
"There appeared first the mere universal fact of degrad• ation as known to some men of the ancient world and others down to the late eighteenth century. Then came the daring proposition that streams make their own valleys . • • it means that topography is, In the main, carved out and not built up. Some Greeks, Romans, and Arabs saw this and James Hutton . . . saw it clearly (in 1785) • • • Even in the geo- olgical world . • . this principle did not cease to be de• bated before the time of the Civil War. It barely had time to take Its place among the fundamental data of the science when the third stage arrived, in which moving water does not act aimlessly, carving valleys at haphazard, and leaving hills distributed fortuitously, but works to a pattern whose specifications are as distinctive as the sutures of a naut• ilus or the venation of a leaf. This Is the stage of modern physiography or geomorphology."
Many ideas failed to gain acceptance because they were
"ahead of their time" - in some cases by hundreds of years.
Several distinctive trends In geomorphology are apparent
today.
1. Geomorphology is becoming more a geologic and less a
geographic interest. This is due to more qualitative
methods of study. The specific phases of geologic
study are being applied to geomorphic problems. Por
example:
(a) paleogeomorphology and stratigraphy in dating and establishing the history of landforms.22 (b) mineralogy in the study of weathering.23
2. An apparent decline in Interest among geographers (North
American geographers, at least) in physical geography as
22 King, L.C.: "The Study of the World's Plainlands: A New Approach in Geomorphology", Tuart, J., Geol. Soc. London, 106, 1950, pp. 101-127. 2 3 Gardner, J.H.:"Origin and Development of Limestone Caverns", • Geol. Soc» Am., Bull. 1+6, pp. 1255-1271+. and Rich, J.L.: "Recognition and Significance of Multiple Erosion Surfaces", Geol. Soc. Am., Bull. 1+9, pp. 1695-1722. . kk
they give more emphasis to human geography e.g. Victor,
Roterus, H..M. Mayer;- and other leading geographers are-
doing much of the fundamental research in rural and urban
geography and planning.
3. The development of regional geomorphology which attempts
to divide the continents into areas of similar history
and land forms.^ k. More application of geomorphic principles to practical
problems In soil science, engineering, military science,
resource development, etc.2^
5. Application of the laws of hydrodynamics in qualitative
experiments. This is a definite step forward but we must
proceed with caution. Many elaborate formulae have been
developed but many are so involved in a specific problem
that they have little application to land forms in general,
Application of Principles
Many geomorphological concepts, some very basic, remain to be tested. As more factual evidence accumulates, these basic concepts are being tested in detailed studies of small areas or of specific individual topics.
Wright, P.J.: The Eroslonal History of the Blue Ridge. Denlson Univ. of J Sci. Labs., 23, pp. 321-31+J- ^ Erdmann, C.E.: "Application of Geology to the Principle of War", Geol. Soc. Am., Bull. PP« H69-1191+. and Bramlette, M.N.:"Geology of the Arkansas Bauxite Region", Arkansas Geol. Surv., Inf. Circ. 8, pp. I+-31* and Bryan, K.: "Geology of Reservoir and Dam Sites", U.S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper 597, pp. 1-33*
26 Joyce, J.R.P.: "Stone Runs of the Falkland Islands", Geol. Mag. 87, pp. 105-115. 1. Descriptive Geomorphology - a system of description of
landforms based on more than their origin seems most
likely to meet the requirements of not only geographers,
but also those in other fields who find applied geomorph•
ology useful. Great accomplishments in this direction
have been made, In the field of glacial geomorphology
with the recognition of such map able glacial landforms
as cirques, drumlines, etc. In the newly developing
field of climatic geomorphology, surface features are
related to the climatic regime under which they have
been produced.
2» Dynamic Geomorphology - Is that part of the field con•
cerned with geomorphic processes. In the main, there
are seven different areas of study with the first two
receiving the greatest'attention.*
(a) Pluvial Processes - are developed in mountainous areas
and alluvial valleys of arid and semi-arid climates.
At present the development of slopes is under intensive
study by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service and others.
The major problems are relations between fluvial feat•
ures and other environmental conditions, for example,
climate, vegetation cover, erosion, and sedimentation.
(b) Glacial Processes - a classification of glacial features
has been developed and applied to many areas. The major
See Appendix C. directions of study at present are concerned with
glacial recession and the influence of glacial stages,
on climatic fluctuations.
(c) Solution Processes - studies of solution processes
have focused mostly on limestone caverns. Relatively
little has been done towards classification and inter•
pretation of other solution features.
(d) Marine Processes - study of marine processes includes
the study of shorelines, the Continental Shelf, and
slope, submarine canyons, fluctuations of sea level
during glacial epochs, and organic reefs. Rapid ad•
vances are being made with the co-operation of oil
companies, oceano graphic research programs, etc.
(e) Periglacial Processes - this is essentially the study
of Pleistocene geomorphology. The field Is very young
at present and of paramount importance when related to
climatic influences in that epoch.
(f) Eolian Processes - is the study of features attributed
to wind action. The study of sand and loess deposits
and their relation to general stratigraphic problems Is
the main area of investigation.
(g) Volcanic Processes - much work in this field has been
done by volcanologists and geophysicists as well as geo-
morphologists. The area of study is essentially forma•
tion and character of volcanic rocks and landforms
produced by volcanic processes. 1*7
In summation, geomorphology has suffered, in recent years, from a lack of geographic approach. The geomorpholo- gist seems to concern himself with questions of "structure, process, and stage" but the geographer, and hence the region• al planner who will use much geographic methodology and think• ing, wants:
1. Specific answers to the questions; what, where, and how much?
2. Information that may be presented as areal groupings and patterns.
Geomorphology is in a period of vigorous growth and starting
to provide the basis from which these answers may be formulated.
Three Essential Tools
Among the many techniques available in this field today,
three are very significant. They are topographic maps, the
aerial photograph, and a system of land classification. Their use and applications play such an important role in the study
of landforms that a working knowledge of them is of paramount
importance to the Investigation. The writer feels justified,
therefore, in including a brief note on these techniques in
this chapter.
Topographic Maps - the science of cartography seeks to bring
into graphic relationship points and features on the earth's
surface. This graphic reproduction is made on a scale so the
definite patterns are clearly visible. A map of the earth's
surface tells what is known about the surface and is not meant
to represent a "view from the air". Throughout its long his- tory of development, cartography has become highly special• ized. Depending on what the cartographer is trying to show, he has an infinite variety of special purpose maps. Nor is the cartographer restricted to maps - he may use relief mod• els, block diagrams, globes, etc.
Planners have adopted cartography as a tool and use it very effectively, especially in urban planning. They are, however, far behind the geographer, engineer, and geologist, etc., in adapting cartography on a larger scale. As mentioned above there are many types of map3 but for the purpose of this paper, the writer considers topographic maps to be of param• ount importance. In studying the landforms or geomorphology of any area it is most important that accurate topographic maps be available. A topographic map portrays by some means the shape and elevation of the terrain. This may be done by. shading, hachures, color tints, or contours. Por example, the maps of the U.S. Geological Survey represent elevations by contours and use a variety of conventional symbols (including color) for other features. These symbols show:
1. Man made features 2. Survey control levels and points 3. Administrative boundaries Drainage 5>. Natural vegetation
In using topographic maps certain factors must be kept in mind:
1. The scale of the map will limit the amount of informat•
ion that can be shown on it. In studying an area, if a 1+9
map at too small a scale is used, important informat•
ion may be missed. In a similar fashion, before maps
are made of a potentially developable area, the amount
of detail to be shown must be decided on so proper
scales may be used.
2. The purpose for which the map is being used will lar•
gely control the types of features shown. Por example,
a map for the purpose of designing a new highway might
show drainage, property lines, soil and rock classif•
ication, and so on.
3. Much physical information may be derived from the top•
ographic map.
(a) erosional features - features formed by running water (b) residual features - cliffs, plateaus, etc. (c) depositional features - soil, glacial deposits, stream deposits, etc. (d) drainage features - springs, rivers, lakes, shore• lines, glaciers, etc.
In addition to information shown on the topographic sheet much more may be obtained by interpretation of this information.
Complex statistical techniques are available to determine aver• age slopes, the relative relief over areas, etc. A qualified analyst may be able to determine geologic structure from drainage patterns and so on.
It is beyond the scope of this paper to present a detail• ed guide to the use and interpretation of topographic maps.
In planning resource development a great deal of information is available to the planner. The important point is not that he become an expert at map interpretation, but that he realizes the source of information is available along with someone who can interpret it. Topographic maps are far from the only maps important in resource development but they present a good composite picture of an area and from them many init• ial limitations and possibilities are apparent.
Aerial Photographs - in contrast with topographic maps aerial photography is a development of the'twentieth century. The science of photogrammetry has developed into a highly;special• ized and technical field. Not only does it mean conventional mapping may be done much more rapidly, but also aerial photo• graphy Is revealing new relationships and situations that can not be seen from the ground.
The most useful type of aerial photograph in landform and other physical analysis is the simple vertical photo. It is taken with the optical axis as nearly vertical as possible and gives a plan picture of the area photographed. Mosaics may be made of a large area by putting vertical photos together with various degrees of control depending upon the accuracy desired. These mosaics are perhaps the most important tool that aerial photography gives the geographer and planner.
Aerial photographs have many advantages, but do not eliminate
the need for topographic maps. Their biggest advantage is the enormous amount of detail they show and the fact that this detail may be seen in a perspective, not seen on the ground.
By use of optical methods a three-dimensional picture may be obtained from which relief features may be identified. This 51
is the field of air photo interpretation* and is a science
in itself. The understanding of geomorphic forms with all
their implications is the most basic tool In the interpretat•
ion of aerial photographs. This implies a thorough under•
standing of the response of different rocks to various pro•
cesses under various climatic conditions and how surface
features may reflect structure at depth.
There are, of course, very real limitations to aerial photographs. Many types of distortion and exaggeration may
be Introduced into the photographs and must be corrected for
or taken into consideration.
The end result of most aerial photography is the prepar•
ation of topographic maps. A complex system of instruments
and techniques have been developed and a high degree of acc•
uracy has been achieved in this field.
Aerial photography today is an ever-widening field^i and,
offers great promise as a tool in planning the development of
resources throughout the world, through the wealth of detail
and information it provides.
Land Classification - the classification of land is not a new
technique and can be an important tool in regional planning
and development. Before any attempt at land classification
* See Appendix B for a list of the elements and features that can be identified by means of aerial photo interpretation.
#1 Por an excellent example see M.C. Branch, Aerial Photography in Urban Planning and Research, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 191+8. 52 is made, the purpose for which it is to be used must be known. Thus land classification is not an end in itself, but a technique which may improve land utilization. This leads to the major fault of most land classification systems in use today. They are simply too specific and empirical.
The net position or resultant value of any block of land is influenced by too many factors to be reduced to a formula.
On the other hand there are many competing uses for land to• day involving too many decisions from too many points of view to make it possible for only one classification. The problem, then, Is a system of classification somewhere between the above extremes.
The following system (for agricultural development) will serve to illustrate an attempt at such a classification syst• em.* Land classification may be divided into 5 types In terms of:
(a) inherent use (b) present use (c) use capabilities (d) recommended use (e) program effectuation
(a) An example of inherent use is the topographic map or soil-
survey map. Such a map, In itself, tells nothing about
the present use of the land, nor the yields or profits
* Adapted from: Land Classification for Agricultural Develop• ment, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, November 1952. Obtained; nor does it make recommendations of any kind.
(b) This type of classification divides the land into a
system of classes based on existing use. It may show,
for example, brushland, timberland, cropland, industrial
use, etc. It is very useful when used in conjunction
with type (a) classification.
(c) Land capability classification goes one step further
than type (b) classification. For example, a map on
which soil types, distinguished by a type (a) classific•
ation, were grouped according to their physical and chem•
ical capabilities of producing various crops and forage
plants would be a type (c) map.
(d) This type of classification must take into consideration
other factors than capable use to which the land may be
put. It must consider the size of the farms, standard
of living of the farmers, the local market situations,
and so on. The use of judgement is required based on
classification of type (a), (b), and (c), plus a thorough
economic analysis.
(e) This final type of classification Is more than a recomm•
endation - it is, in effect, a plan. It must take into
account factors of wider scope than the agency directly
concerned with putting the plan into effect. For example,
land may be classified for taxation purposes.
There should be no conflict between land classification maps of the different types. For most planning purposes, (formulation of public policy) land classification for recommended use is needed. More basic classification, however, is required as steps in making this classification for "recommended use". Recommended use then sets the stage for the development of policy. 55
CHAPTER III
CLIMATOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY - INTERRELATIONSHIPS AND FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES APPLICABLE TO REGIONAL RESOURCE PLANNING
111 fares the land, to hast'ning ills a prey, Where wealth accumulates, and men decay: Princes and lords may flourish, or may fade; A breath can make them, as a breath has made; But a bold peasantry, their country's pride, When once destroyed, can never be supplied.
- The Deserted Village Oliver Goldsmith, 1770.
Introduction
In Chapters II and III the writer has attempted to set forth some of the basic facts of climatology and geomorphology.
These basic principles must be understood before any discuss• ion of climate and landforms becomes meaningful. Climate and landforms form the two most important physical limitations facing man in the development of his natural resources.
Although these two fields are separate branches of study, they are most definitely interrelated. A very broad, and little understood, field of interaction exists between region• al climate (and micro-climate) and the various geomorphic processes and their consequences.
In this chapter these two fields will be related, with the purpose of obtaining principles that must be applied, and areas that must be studied in the regional development of natural resources.
Climatic Classification
It is impossible to understand the importance of the 56 various geomorphic processes without an appreciation of world climates. Climate supplies much of the exogenic processes and the differences in the areal distribution of climatic patterns produces, to a large extent, the existing patterns of land- forms. Thus landforms are strikingly different as we move from arid to humid to polar areas. Almost as striking may be the difference between high and low altitudes within one clim• atic area. Climatic variations may effect geomorphic processes directly as temperature variation, precipitation intensity, etc., or indirectly by its effect on the amount and type of vegetal cover, soil characteristics, etc., in an area. G-eo- morphic processes - diastrophism, faulting, folding, sedimen• tation, etc. provide the initial land relief. Climatic pro• cesses - the provision of running water, wind, Ice, etc. then
shape the land. The two are not separate but always in a
state of flux, so to speak; as new land is formed the forces of erosion, originating in the atmosphere, continually strive to level it. During these processes the land is continually changing in form.
Classification is a process basic to all sciences and climatology is no exception. Many methods of dividing the
earth into climatic types are available, depending on the purpose in mind.*
* Por example, the U.S. Quartermaster Corps, has produced cli• matic maps based on the heat loss of active troops in various regions for.use in clothing design. 57
A good deal of dissatisfaction has been expressed with pres• ent methods of climate classification as many classifications for specific purposes are of little general use - they involve too many built-in limitations, arbitrary decisions, and so on.
The two best known and most widely used systems of climatic classifications are those developed by Koppen and Thornth- walte. Both systems have the advantage of being qualitative with numerical values used to define boundaries. Both syst• ems also are based on the idea that the native vegetation of an area is the best expression of the totality of climate in the area.* The result of these systems is the empirical iden• tification of climatic types through noting vegetation, soil, and drainage features. For the purpose of this paper these systems are of little value as:
1. There are other ends to climatic classification than the boundaries of plant associations.
2. Much of the data needed cannot be derived from direct observation but is the result of quite complex treat• ment. *2.
The writer feels it is more apropos to compare and contrast, as an example, the typical humid and arid regions as to general cause and effect relationships between climate and landforms.
Arid Regions - There is no satisfactory definition of a des• ert but lack of precipitation and vegetation are generally
* and *]_ See Appendix D *8 the most significant criteria. They are generally within the trade wind belts on the western sides of the continents.
Geomorphic processes are, in the main, the result of temp• erature variation and the availability of water. The drain• age is, for the most part, internal - that is very little reaches the ocean. Precipitation is aperiodic in nature and its intensity is commonly high. This results In 3hort but widespread floods with rapid formation of gullies, etc. Due to the lack of water, chemical weathering with the exception of oxidation, is slow. This results in a slow rate of soil formation. The topography is angular due to the general lack of downslope movement, (gravitation transfer) of material.
Abundant moisture is essential to downslope movement of soil and subsoil and where it is deficient, the smoothing effects of the mass movement of weathered material are lacking. The temperature variation, especially if fluctuations below and above freezing are present, is the main contributing factor to mechanical weathering.* Where the topography is broken, the result is large talus slopes of angular material. Pro• bably the most common misconception concerning arid regions is the idea that the wind has been mainly responsible for the creation of the desert landforms. Wind abrasion may aid in the shaping of some of the details of major landforms, but Is
* This is presently the subject of some debate in geological circles. 59
Incapable of producing features of great areal extent. The most common manifestations of wind action are: rock polishing, grooving, blowouts (small depressions), eolian deposits
(dunes, loess, etc.), and the transportation of material.
Running water is the most important geomorphic agent in arid regions. Plains are the most common features of deserts and running water is the major formative agent. In turn, the
factors controlling the amount of water available are:
(a) the amount and kind of vegetation (b) rates of evaporation and transpiration (c) frequency of precipitation (d) intensity of precipitation (e) geologic structure including permeability and strat• igraphy. The first four factors are directly related to climate and are primarily responsible for landforms in arid regions - rather
than differences in geology.
Humid Regions - One of the most outstanding features of humid
regions is the deep, chemical decay of rocks. This is the
result of high moisture content and temperatures. This leads
to the formation of great thichnesses of soil where vegetation
cover exists. This is true even on steep slopes (up to 70
degrees). Under this protective cover and high, uniform
temperature mechanical weathering is almost negligible. As
the soil is highly saturated, vertical erosion is the domin•
ant geomorphological process. Slumping, mudflows, and land•
slides contribute to the steepening of valley walls. Although
the vegetative cover offers excellent protection, the results
of its removal may be spectacular. Large runoff is the usual 60 result (as the soil and subsoil are saturated) and even the usual precipitation received brings about rapid gulleying and sheet erosion. Slope or sheet erosion is the most imp• ortant of all erosion as it can effect the entire surface.
It is influenced by:
1. Rainfall Intensity - will determine the rainfall excess which is the intensity minus the infiltration rate. 2. Infiltration - the ability of the soil to absorb water. It depends on the permeability of the soil, e.g. in a sand it is high, in a clay low. 3. Length of Overland Plow - or the distance from ridge to crest. This factor involves complicated hydraulics but in general, the controlling influences are intensity of rainfall, slope distance, slope cross- section, density of flowing material, surface roughness, and the velocity of flow. i+. Slope Angle - other things being equal, the gre• ater the angle the more the erosion. 5. Character of the Soil Surface - governs the res• istance to erosion and is a function of vegetation, soil texture, and soil structure.
Humid regions are usually characterized by smooth, rounded landforms. This is due to the movement of material by creep downslope. Abundant moisture is necessary for this and the result is fewer abrupt changes in slope. As a result of high, uniform temperatures (little or no freeze and thaw cycles), predominance of chemical weathering and abundant vegetation, there is a lack of accumulation of debris (talus) at the base of valleys, escarpments, etc. The relative resistance of rocks varies a great deal depending on climatic factors. For exam• ple, limestone is considered a "hard" rock in arid regions as it is highly resistant to mechanical weathering. It Is, 61 therefore, commonly a cliff or a ridge former. In humid regions, however, limestone is considered a "weak" rock as it is highly susceptible to solution and other forms of chemical weathering. Areas underlain by limestone, in humid regions, are generally lower than surrounding areas.
It follows that, as a result of its climate, an area will have certain landform characteristics. In addition to these direct effects, climate will have somewhat more in• direct effect on landforms. These effects are in the dis-. - tribution of vegetative associations and soil groups. Clim- ate and soil types are the controlling factors in vegetation distribution. The type and amount of vegetation will deter• mine many geomorphic factors such as runoff rates, moisture retention, area evaporation, resistance to erosion, subsur• face drainage, and so on. In turn, the soil type in an area is a result of many factors and may reflect Its geomorphic history better than the landforms. Soil is a natural part of the earth's surface resulting from the modification of the parent material by various processes. These processes are generally accepted as:
1. climate 2. time 3. parent material 1+.. topography soil biota - including vegetative cover and organ• isms within the soil.
These factors vary in importance, for example, climate is very important In British Columbia while parent material may be more important in unglaciated regions. The extreme importance of 62 climate and vegetative type in soil formation was not rec• ognized until about 1870, when Russian pedologists claimed that, regardless of the composition of the parent material, similar topographic, climatic, and vegetative conditions, in time, produced essentially the same soil. Although modified today, this is essentially the case in most areas.
Microclimates
Micro-climatology is essentially the study of the cli• mate within a given climatic region. Depending on the region in question, great variations may occur due to large water bodies, topographic variation, regional setting, air mass control, and even such "man-made" climatic factors as air pollution. The development of microclimatology would never have taken place so rapidly had it not been for the new demands of agriculture, forestry, industry, etc. As the population in regions grew, the degree of resource exploit• ation grew with it. As a natural result the demand for more complete climatological data grew as well. The study of microclimatology today Is growing rapidly and includes many refined techniques and complex Instruments. There are many applications of microclimatology:
1. Agriculture - the location of all cultivated plants de•
pends on the microclimate and the way in which it is aff•
ected hy topography, soil treatment, type of plant, etc.
The three major problems are: 63
(a) wind protection r in addition to physical prot• ection, losses from evaporation may be decreased. (b) frost protection - if reliable statistics on - frost probability are available it is simply a matter of economic feasibility. (c) irrigation - the timing and amount must be adj• usted to local climatic conditions.
2, Forestry - today a knowledge of microclimatology is
helping to cut losses from weather damage, forest
fire, improper reforestation, insect damage, too low
reproduction rates, etc.
3. City Building - every new building and improvement
produces a change of microclimate. A radiant, warm,
dry microclimate is usually produced at the south wall
while the north wall suffers from a rough, moist,
cool microclimate. The over-all effect of urban•
ization is influencing microclimates to an ever inc•
reasing extent. Many disruptions of the natural
state are created, for example:
(a) pollution of air (b) interference with air flow (c) amount of precipitation available for ground water recharge (d) topographic barriers changing microclimates around them. The Metropolitan Area of Vancouver is an excellent example of microclimatic variation. Here the situation is controlled, essentially, by three factors:
1. A topographic barrier
2. The pressure system predominating
3. The large body of water. The local effect of topography alone on climate may be seen from the precipitation received at various stations in Van• couver. Moving south to north from Sea Island (at sea level) to Mount Seymour (30001), the average annual precipitation increase from 35" to over 100". As a rule, south facing slopes of east-west valleys are less steep than north facing slopes. Variations in the microclimatology of the two slo• pes is generally believed responsible. North facing slopes have a longer snow cover, experience fewer days of freeze and thaw, retain their soil moisture longer, and probably have a better vegetal cover. The result of these factors is very likely to be less active erosion on these slopes than on those facing the sun. This problem of orientation of slope problem can be very important in the siting of facilities and living accommodation (in resource development).
Climatic Maps
In developing regional contrasts, climatic elements are best expressed by the use of maps. This is particularly imp• ortant in connection with those elements most interrelated with geomorphic processes. S.S. Visher has presented a list of 30 climatic maps of geologic interest.2?
Precipitation - the amount, time of fall, and.;intensity of precipitation will effect ground water available, runoff, etc.
2? Visher, S.S.: "Climatic Maps of Geologic Interest", Geol. Soc. Am. Bulletin, July 1914-5- The intensity is of particular importance and helps explain soil erosion, leaching, and infertility. Ground water re• charge varies with the amount and time of fall, and intensity and evaporation produce the maximum recharge. In like manner, runoff, evaporation, duration of snow cover, /etc. may be rep• resented cartographic ally. The following maps are the most applicable to precipitation considerations;
(a) precipitation totals In a wet year (b) precipitation totals in a dry year (c) greatest amount of precipitation received in 1 month (d) greatest amount of precipitation received in 2I4. hours (e) /frequency of daily totals of 6 inches or more of precipitation (f) frequency of downpours of 3 inches or more In 2 hours (g) frequency of very hard rains (h) frequency of thunderstorms (i) average precipitation totals during season of chief - ground water recharge (j) average annual runoff (k) duration of snow cover (1) precipitation regions
Streams and slopes are adjusted to normal conditions; there• fore extreme conditions bring about rapid effects.
Temperature - the effects of temperature on geomorphic pro• cesses have been discussed. Weathering, slope orientation to insolation, frost action, accumulation of snow and ice and some forms of erosion are directly related to temperature.
Frost action, of course, also depends on the moisture avail• able. Temperature will also influence human occupance of a region, e.g. fuel needed, types of structures required. The following maps are the most applicable to temperature consid• erations : 65
(a) average annual temperature range (b) extreme annual temperature range (c) average daily temperature range (d) sunshine,;average annual number of hours (e) frost at night, average number of times per year (f) days per year with temperature below 32 (g) average annual number of times of freeze and thaw (h) frequency of freeze and thaw (i) average depth of frost penetration (j) regions based on the duration and severity of free• zing temperatures (k) contrasts in the amount of temperatures below 65°F (1) temperature regions
Wind Velocity - will effect erosion, evaporation and, to some extent, vegetation. A map of the average wind velocity is included.
Morphogenetic Regions
It follows from the above discussion that landforms may be related to the climatic regime under which they develop.
In other words,, they reflect these climatic conditions.
Furthermore, soils and biotic phenomena can be related to climate. (Figure 5). Geomorphology therefore, can be tied to these other aspects of physical and bio-geography through the common denominator of climate.
The geographer, who thinks in terms of patterns, regions, and areal distributions, is more likely to recognize the significance of the similarity in the world distribution patterns of physiographic regions, soil groups, vegetation types, and climatic regions, than the geologist or geomorph- ologist. Budel, in 19l|-8, suggested the existence of form- kreisen or what may be called morphogenetic regions.28
Budel, J.: Die Klima Morphologlschen Zonen der Folarlander, Erkunde 2, 194*3, pp. 25-53. 66
Peltier, in 195>0, put forth a tentative list of such regions
(Figure 6). The overall concept of a morphogenetic region is, that under a certain set of climatic conditions particular., geomorphic processes will predominate and hence will give to
the landscape of the region characteristics that will set it off from those of other areas developed under different clim-
atic conditions.
Figure 6 suggests the morphologic characteristics and
climatic boundaries of these regions. The close correlation
of climate and landforms is apparent, e.g.
- the absence of erosion by running water in areas of little rainfall and temperature variation - the importance of wind action where precipitation, and therefore, vegetation, is lacking - the strong effect of sheet erosion where precipitation is adequate for soil saturation - the absence of glacial effects where temperatures are too high.
In the past, too much emphasis has been placed on geomorphic processes per se. As set forth above, these concepts must be
expanded to include processes as controlled by particular
climatic regimes. This recognition of climatically defined morphogenetic regions provides for a more detailed system of
analysis of, for example, slope categories, erosional process•
es, and soil processes. One important classification which
has become quite useful has been based on slope (or the att•
itude of the surface), the nature of the underlying material,
and the particular agent(s) that produced the surface. 67
Principles and Areas of Study
The writer feels the foregoing discussion has established the dynamic relationship existing between climate and land- forms. If it is now accepted that these two fields are inter• dependent and closely interrelated, it remains to define the principles and areas of study, resulting from this relation• ship, that are applicable to the planning and development of natural resources. We shall be concerned mainly with "non urban" areas and therefore urban areas will be considered only as they may form part of a resource development scheme.
In any area under consideration the following principles and areas of study are of major importance - their applicat• ions to resource development is obvious.*
CLIMATIC ELEMENTS AREA OF STUDY AND APPLICATION
1. Temperature 1. Vegetative complex present - the values of these elements 2. Precipitation will limit species natural to the area as well as species that 3. Wind may be introduced. The develop• ment of any biotic resource will Radiation depend on the climatic regime present. 5. Cloud Coverage 2. Soil groups developed. Depend• 6. Relative and Absolute ing on the area, climate may be Humidity a major factor. Climatic fac• tors will also dictate, to a 7. Evaporation & Trans• large degree to what use the piration soil may be put in any develop• ment program.
3. The role these climatic elements play in the development of the geomorphic processes which pro• duce the resulting landforms.
* For specific data types, see Appendix A and C 68
In a development program, many things, from the lo• cation of highways to the siting of buildings, will be influenced by this as• pect.
I}.. The environmental struct• ure created by these ele• ments is important. Cli• matic conditions, espec• ially combined with top• ography, etc., may set definite limits to man's activities.
GEOMORPHIC ELEMENTS AREAS OF STUDY AND APPLICATION
1. Weathering 1. These elements must be consid• ered in the light of the clim• 2. Mass Wasting or atic regime under which they Gravitative Transfer are operating. This will det• ermine their relative import• 3. Running Water ance to the area in question. k* Wind 2. The same process must be carr• ied out relating these elements S>. Snow & Ice to the vegetative complex and soil groupings present in the 6. Subsurface Water area.
7. Waves 3. When this has been done the results of development on these 8. Organisms elements may be studied. For example: 9. Volcanism - the possible results of re• moval of vegetation (erosion, sheetwash, gullying, etc.) - the effects the duration of snow cover will have on run• off, erosion, and ground water levels. - the danger of avalanche and flood in periods of high intensity precipitation.
Man has, on a world-wide level, problems of demand for goods and services that cannot be supplied. Many factors are responsible for this, but perhaps the most important is the 69 way nature has distributed resources* over the earth. Some areas have great iron ore deposits and no coal, some have rich, fertile soil while others must import almost all they eat, and so on.
When the geographic distribution of resources is related to world economic patterns (national Income, buying power, international debt structure, national patterns of production, and consumption, etc.), the result is the "have" and "have not" areas. People in China may die lacking rice which might have been supplied by the United States - they cannot afford it.
The Canadian government may exclude Japanese made products from Canada to protect the Canadian producer and so on.
Today, a great increase in technology is increasing the means by which this demand for goods and services may be more fully realized. Many of these new methods will be of little use to the people in the "have not" areas (for many years at least) as•;they still cannot afford them.
Complimentary to technological advances is the concept of comprehensive land use planning. In the development of land for any purpose, physical geographic factors will play
an important role and may, in themselves, create new concepts
and methods of planning. To date, the influence of physical factors in planning resource development has not been fully
realized except by a very few.
* Used in this context, the word resources covers a wide range to include metals, soils, climate, vegetation, landforms, rivers, etc. The term "natural resource" as used in the fol• lowing chapters will be defined later. 70
It seems to be the familiar problem of the gap between what we know i3 beneficial and what we are willing, politic• ally and administratively, to do about it.
In the words of J. Russell Smith:
"A cow will walk up to a pile of hay, eat some, and -trample the rest Into the mud. The more I study man's management of natural resources, the greater is the resemblance I note between the effective intellect of man and that of a cow."29
Smith, J.R.: "Regional Suicide", The Land. Vol. 8, No. 5, 191+9, pp. 311+-318. 71 Schematic representation of the interrelationships between climatic, vegetation, and soil types.
- after D.I. Blumenstock & C.W. Thornthwaite Dry Cold Wet Cold A The distribution PERPETUAL SNOW AND ICE of climatic types TUNDRA TAIGA
n •H •rH u •H •P CLIMATE T3 cd •H •H U a x> so CO CO
16" Dry Hot 32 4S 64 Wet Hot
B The distribution PERPETUAL SNOW AND ICE of vegetative formations on a TUNDRA climatic base TAIGA 01 CD CO 01 oi X> cd 3 -P CD CO 01 O J3 ft •P CD ft G 01 u •POoT CD cd CD B -P rH Cn o VEGETATION CO 13 eo CQ o ol C CO c 01 cd nJ •H O U CC) O
The distribution PERPETUAL SNOW AND ICE of the major zonal soil groups TUNDRA SOILS on a climatic PODZOLS basis 32
Podzols nd CO 01 CrH rH C 46* Cd >rl •H t- CcO ra 01 O OJ Gray-brown o rH oi tO •H to X a c Podzolic soils SOILS aCD +3 +3 o CD CD 64 N IH IS) •H T: Red and yellow O CD a O ^ a 01 01 ? c Podzolic soils u •H 126 CD CD CD O cd cc Xi u CD •H Q 5H J- Lateritic eh O CQ X! d. O a soils —e3
Fig. 5 MORPHOGENETIC REGIONS
- after Peltier
Estimated Range of Estimated Range Morphogenetic Average Annual of Average Annual Morphologic Region Temperature, degrees Rainfall, inches Characteristics Glacial 0-20 0-45 Glacial erosion Nivation Wind action Periglacial 5 30 5 55 Strong mass movement Moderate to strong wind action Weak effect of running water Boreal 15 38 10 60 Moderate frost action Moderate to slight wind action Moderate effect of running water Maritime 35 70 50 75 Strong mass action Moderate to strong action of running water Selva 60 85 55 90 Strong mass action Slight effect of slope wash No wind action Moderate 38 85 35 60 Maximum' effect of running water Moderate mass movement Frost action slight in colder part of region No significant wind action except on coasts Savanna 10 - 35 25 - 50 Strong to weak action or running water Moderate wind action Semiarid 35 - 85 10 - 25 Strong wind action Moderate to strong action of running water Arid 55 - 85 0-15 Strong wind action ^ Slight action of running water and mass movement. PART TWO
APPLICATIONS OP PRINCIPLES TO SELECTED TYPES OP RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT REGIONS 73
CHAPTER IV - INTRODUCTION: RESOURCES AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT
Scire vere est per cavsas sire.
- Francis Bacon
(To understand thoroughly, we must study cause and effect.)
In the following chapters some of the applications of the principles of climatology and geomorphology, dealt with in previous chapters, will be discussed with reference to specific types of resource development regions. Perhaps a definition of natural resources, for the purpose of this paper, will help to establish the proper perspective. The writer defines a natural resource in the following way:
A potential, supplied by nature, whereby goods may be produced and human needs satisfied. By proper methods of development, some elements of this potential may be renewed after, or during use - this is often referred to as a sustained yield development and soil fertility, fisheries, and timber are good examples; other elements are exhaustive but their expenditure may hasten the - development, or increase the application of, substitute, or new elements - petroleum, some mineral ores and many animal industries (seal, beaver, etc.) are good examples; finally, some elements may be used and re-used as, in effect, they are not consumed - some aspects of water development and the production of fertilizers by fix• ation of atmospheric nitrogen are examples. Some el• ements that are so abundant that, although exhaustive in time, their decrease offers no serious problem, must also be included in this last category - localized short• ages of these elements may cause problems but on a world• wide basis, reserves are adequate for all anticipated needs for thousands of years. Coal, salt, sulfur, mag• nesium, and uranium are good examples.
The final or comprehensive picture of any region's natural resources is known as the region's resource base. In spite of the depletion and widespread misuse of the past, the 74 resource base of the Western World today is far broader and stronger than ever before. This is true because our total resource base includes all components of the earth and atmos• phere, including the energy forces supplied by nature. At any one time, however, the usable resource base will be a result of the physical, technological, and economic conditions that exist and which, in effect, establish the framework of potential or actual development. The result is that today only a small fraction of the total resources are being used.
By discovery, technology, and development, the ever-increasing demands have been met. The question, of course, is "Can this progress continue?". Wo one is able to offer a definite 'yes' or 'no', but there are ways in which the problem of sustaining the material flow from the area of supply to the area of de• mand may be attacked.
1. Prom the"3upply area" - the most obvious methods are*
(a) exploration and discovery - continued development - of new techniques (Figure 7). (b) a fuller use of known resources - technical advances make it possible to reduce physical waste. For example, over 5>0 percent of the average petroleum pool may be wasted.* The same applies to coal, copper, Iron ore, natural gas, sulfur, etc. It is simply not economically feasible to eliminate these wastes today but it may be tomorrow. (c) the use of lower quality resources - this depends again on technological advances and perhaps necess• ity. As our supply of rich iron ore runs out we have learned to use lower quality ore. (d) the renewing of renewable resources - this has been a hard lesson for the Western World to learn. Only very slowly are these techniques being adopted to save out timber, soil, water, and other resources.
* If petroleum is extracted from a reservoir too quickly, the porosity of the oil - bearing strata will fall. The reser• voir, in effect, collapses before the available petroleum can be withdrawn. 358-3P " 7&5<8 *°THE INCF
TECHNOLOGY BRING NEW- MATERIALS I TO THE FORE 2 I S' 0 U R C'El Bn UREAL't Trrr! ~\ r" 0 rF x \ Ml N E^; ISTA N fpW;. Q N S TI 1T—iU T -E 0 F j^RJETSE AF R IG G i7\ H 76
(e) the increased use of our little-used and/or abun• dant resources. Magnesium, nitrogen, copper, and aluminum are good examples. The earth's crust contains more aluminum than iron, yet we use many times as much iron.
2. Prom the "demand area" - if we can shift demands and
change the uses of our material supply a better bal•
ance between supply, demand, and availability would
be found.
(a) the shifting of demand from scarce to abundant - by experimentation, the functions of scarce mat• erials may be shifted to abundant materials. (b) many of our production and consumption habits are lavish. Much material is wasted on personal taste while performing no function. For example, the production of big, heavy cars covered with chromium. (c) the whole idea of the recovery of usable material by using scrap, is not well developed. Two world wars have indicated its importance and it is a good potential tool.
With the above pattern as a framework it is now obvious that the practical applications of climatology and geomorph• ology a,re most useful in the "supply areas". Resource dev• elopment takes place on a great many levels, and many factors combine to determine what the end result is to be. At one end of the scale is the development program working with a single phase of one resource; on the other is the vast, multiple- purpose development of many resources. Perhaps somewhere in between is a program of comprehensive (many-phase) develop• ment of one resource. These levels of development may be illustrated as follows: 77
Development of one resource (single phase) e.g. logging
Development of one resource (comprehensive) e.g. mining operation that in• cludes: - mining - processing of ore - concentrating of ore - manufacture of mat• erials - utilization of "waste" materials
Multi-purpose development of many resources e.g. the T.V.A. Increasing - specialization
In order, insofar as possible, to cover this "range" of resource development In applying these physical principles, two major areas of development will be examined. These are:
1. The Kemano-Kitimat project will be considered as an exam•
ple of the development of one resource.
2. The Lower Mainland region will be examined both as a region
of complex resource development and as a region which is
under study by a regional planning board. In this case,
the influence of a large urban area will modify existing
or create new factors to be considered. The two most important features are, firstly, the existence of a large population resulting in specific demand factors
and, secondly, the existence of a secondary and tertiary industrial complex which will, to a large degree, direct much of the primary resource development in the more remote areas. 79
CHAPTER V - THE KITIMAT-KEMANO REGION
Introduction
Today, Canada and especially British Columbia is under• going rapid economic development. Much of this progress Is based on the exploitation and development of natural resources and, because of the geographic distribution of natural res• ources, a large part of this development is in far-flung, remote areas. The result has been serious problems of acc• essibility, high development costs, living conditions and so on.
In spite of extremely difficult geographic conditions, developers are going to these areas. Why? Simply because the economic advantage of being near the resource outweighs all other considerations. Many resources exist as potent• ially developable but mean very little until a certain
"threshold" level is reached where it becomes economic to develop them.* In addition the decision to enter such an
area will not only involve extremely heavy expenditure, but the physical conditions will create problems of transportation lines, labor supply and, what Is extremely important today, living conditions. These physical factors are creating pro• blems and it is up to the planner to supply the best poss• ible answers.
* This level is the result of many factors and will vary great• ly with the particular resource. For example: it is technic- ally possible to mine almost all existing coal deposits, but more economic to use other materials (oil, hydro, etc.) which may be produced at lower cost and give better results. On the other hand, it may be more economical to substitute a new met• allic alloy in the production of a jet aircraft but technol• ogically Impossible to do so. 80
One such area which has received world-wide attention is the Alcan development in the Kitimat-Kemano region.
Location and Description
Kitimat is located 1|00 air miles northwest of Vancouver at the end of tidal, deepwater, Douglas Channel. (See Fig. 8-)..,
Prince Rupert is 70 miles to the north west and Prince George is 2^0 miles to the east. The general structure of the Brit• ish Columbia coastline is a series of drowned valleys or fiords. They are a result of glacial action and provide a very deep, tidal channel. Douglas Channel differs in one vital respect in that it ends in the delta of a wide valley
(average of £ miles) stretching J4.O miles northward. The val• ley slopes are very heavily forested and rise to mountains
1 of over 6000 .
The development of the Kitimat-Kemano region involved three main features. Firstly, at Kemano, a large power dev• elopment including a dam, tunnel, power-generating station, and transmission line (to Kitimat). Secondly, at Kitimat, an aluminum smelter with port and rail facilities. Thirdly, also at Kitimat, a new town was built.
Very briefly, the power was developed as follows: The
Nechako river, with its headwaters ten to fifteen miles'east of the Pacific Ocean, flowed to the east through a series of lakes finally emptying into the Fraser river. The Kenney Dam was built (Figure 9) to create a reservoir and, in effect, reverse the flow. The dam is the largest of its type (rock FIG. 8 82
KITIMAT - KEMANO DEVELOPMENT
FIG. 9 83 fill with a clay core), in the world and has created a 125> mile long reservoir. This great potential head (2600 feet) is utilized by a ten mile tunnel through Mount Du Bose.
(Figure 10). The effective pressure developed by the drop is 1,126 lbs. per sq. inch. The power developed (1+20,000
H.P.) is generated entirely within the mountain and trans• ported to Kitimat by a 50 mile transmission line.
Economic and Geographic Considerations
In order to bring..the region into its proper perspective, the relative importance of these vbasic considerations must be realized. Why, in spite of geographic factors usually con• sidered prohibitive to development, was the project feasable?
The answer lies in the world-side economic structure of the aluminum industry. In the first place, the availability of vast quantities of water power resources for the generation of electrical energy, great quantities of which are required in the metallurgy of aluminum production, and the suitability of Kitimat as a deep-sea port close to a transcontinental railway, were the two major locational factors. Secondly, bauxite, the common ore of aluminum, must be imported from
Jamaica. The ore is reduced, by heat, to aluminum oxide
(alumina) which is done before it is shipped from the source
(Jamaica). This saves $0 percent of the transportation costs.
The next step is the reduction of the oxide to aluminum met• al, usually in the form of ingots; this is the step that
85 requires a large amount of electrical energy. As the local markets are small, the ingots are shipped to the large mar• ket centres in the east for fabrication. Production at pres• ent is in the neighborhood of 300,000 tons annually and will be eventually increased to 550,000 tons annually. The net result: The most economical method to produce the aluminum was to take the raw material to the power. This was done despite the fact that:
- the power was far away from the source of raw mat• erials (Jamaica)-* - the power was undeveloped and great problems had to be solved before it could be developed - adverse physical conditions In the area would in• crease development costs a great deal - the markets for the product (aluminum Ingots) was a long way from the smelter*i - the labor supply that would be required was not av• ailable at the development. The nearest large source of labor supply, especially skilled labor, was Vancouver (lj.00 air miles).
Geographic factors were responsible for the fact that the power was there and could be utilized by a unique method
(which will be outlined below). These geographic factors, however, played a secondary role to the economic considerations involved. Economics made the development possible and the problems resulting from geographic factors had to be solved in the best way possible.
These problems, although secondary to economic consider• ations, were very real and resulted in serious planning imp• lications which will be discussed later. it Approximately 6,000 miles. •K^ Approximately 2,500-3,000 miles. 86
Physical Geographic Background
The physical factors, which will be outlined below, have resulted in a definite physical environmental complex.
This complex was,Sin its natural state, in intricate balance
- precipitation, runoff, snowfall, erosion, flooding, veget•
ative associations, stream hydraulics, temperature, wind -
all were interrelated and the result of their Interaction
was this balance. Naturally as man develops the area this balance will be disrupted to some extent. The Kitimat dev•
elopment is an example of an excellent, comprehensive attempt
to minimize this degree of disruption. In this attempt, hot
only have these physical relationships and their planning
implications been evident, but their very existence has made
necessary the creation, invention, and utilization of new materials, techniques, and concepts. The physical factors
which have had the greatest influence in these planning con•
siderations are climatic and geomorphic and, more indirectly,
their effects on soil and vegetation.
Climatology
The existing climate of the region* has played a major
role in both the type of development that has taken place,
and the introduction of new techniques to solve some unique
climatological problems. The base, upon which all else must
* For the purpose of this paper, the term "region" is the gen• eral area including Kemano and the Kitimat watershed which influences, or will be influenced by, the general industrial development. 87 be built, is the available climatic data. There were no long series of homogeneous climatic records for Kitimat at the time development was planned (1951-2). What data there was avail• able was restricted to two years of observation of a third order climatic station, one year of wind records, and about ten years of precipitation records. Table 1 gives some ind• ication of the inadequacy of the available data, and when
compared with Table 3 indicates that the available data was much too Inadequate and covered many large variations. To
complicate matters still further, all available data (which
covered temperature and precipitation only) was obtained at
sea level on a body of water that was never frozen. As a
result, most of the conclusions had to be based on inferences,
analogies, and the general knowledge of climatic principles.
This was particularly the case in microclimatic deductions.
The following climatological analysis will be based on
the elements and areas of study developed in Chapter III.*
Temperature - the temperature regime is generally marine with
a summer maximum. The mean monthly variation is about J4.O0
over an average one year period. Mean monthly winter temper•
atures are about 20° and the extreme winter minimum is -5°»
Mean monthly summer temperatures are about 60° with an ext•
reme maximum of 87°. Prom the standpoint of temperature
* See Tables 2, 3, and k. Much of the following climatic in• formation is based on the report of Dr. H.E. Landsberg which is included in the Kitimat Townsite Report. As far as the author has been able to discover, this report is the only source of authentic information. 88 alone, the area is well suited to human occupance. However, as one moves inland, allowance must be made for both increas• ed continentality of climate and changes with increased ele• vation. These changes have resulted in very real problems and will be discussed later.
Precipitation - the Kitimat region is a typical marine west coast climate. Generally this may be described as a warm, temperate, rainy climate. There is no distinct dry season but there is a definite summer precipitation minimum. The intensity of precipitation is the most important factor.
1904, 1906, 1937-1940
Inches of Precipitation Days per Year Percentage none 199 55 trace to .09 27 7 .10 to .19 23 6 .20 to .29 18 5 .30 to .39 17 5 .40 to .49 13 4 .50 and up 68 18
TOTALS 365 100
Precipitation is concentrated in the last four months of the year and 57 percent of the days having over inch of prec• ipitation fell in these months. As precipitation amount and intensity are major determinants of runoff, flooding is most likely in this period. Twelve of the 16 two-day periods re• corded in these six years, during which more than three inches of rain fell, were concentrated in these months. Seventeen non-consecutive years of snow fall observations were available 89 and the following analysis was made:-«- a) The frequency of consecutive days with snov* during the cold season was: # of days 12345678
% of cases 51.5 23.5 10.2 7.2 3.0 1.5 2.6 .05
This shows that nearly |r of the snow storms last for 2 or more days.
b) The extreme values for snow that can be expected are:
- maximum fall in 2k hours: once in 5 years - 20 inches 11 " 10 " - 25 inches !! !? 20 " - 30 Inches
- maximum fall during several consecutive days with snow: once In 5 years - 35 inches " " 10 ' " - 1+4 inches 5 20 U - 50 inches
- maximum duration of snowfall:
once in 5 years - 6 days " " 10 ' " - 8 days 'i 1' 20 - 9 days
c) Great variation may be expected in the snowfall regime. _ In the winters of 1903-07, 1937-1+0, 1946-1+8, and 1951-52: - total amount of snowfall varied from 30" to 243" - date of first snowfall varied from October 17th to December 4th - the greatest snowfall in one day varied from 7" to 26" - the greatest snowfall In two days varied from 7" to 35".
In converting snowfall figures to equivalent precipitation,
the usual method is to consider 10" snowfall equal to 1"
precipitation. Great care must be exercised in using this
* The data was subjected to ordinary statistical reduction and missing values included by regression and synoptic- climatic methods. 90 relationship. The water content of snow may vary a great deal and is certainly much higher at Kitimat (under the influence of west coast marine climatic conditions) than, for example, at Terrace, Prince George, etc., where more continental climatic influences prevail.
Wind - from the initial (and only) records obtained in 1950
the winds are:
1. From the south and south-south west about 50 percent of the time. 2. From the north and northeast about 50 percent of the time.
This is the result of the north-south trend of the deep,
steep-sided, valley. Wind velocities have never been accur•
ately recorded but evidences indicate winds of fifty or more miles per hour occur every winter. The prevalent wind ass•
ociated with storms would be from the north.
Radiation and Cloud Coverage - the existing record (in 1952)
covered only the summer of 1951 which was considered to be
usually clear.
58 cloudless days - L6 percent 27 partly cloudy days - 21 " 36 cloudy days - 28 " 3 overcast days - 2 " 2 foggy days - 2 " 1 day of continuous rain - 1 '!
127 days 100 percent
Cloud cover may be indirectly indicated by the number of days
receiving precipitation. (See table on page 88). This table
indicates that about two-thirds of the days have little or no
rain or snowfall. This, at first glance, would seem to indic•
ate a high degree of sunshine. The prevailing pressure sys- 91 terns and their relation to topography may result in a good deal of cloud cover without precipitation. This would largely depend on the relative positions of the Aleutian Low and the Hawaiin High pressure systems. The Intensity of radiation would be fairly high with no cloud cover present.
The lack of atmospheric impurities would tend to raise the intensity while a fairly low angle of Incidence, low altitude, and marine modification would tend to lower it.
Other Factors - the climatic elements present produce a fair• ly high relative humidity. This would be a result of:
1. high precipitation 2. high evaporation due to heavy vegetation 3« the high moisture content of the prevailing air masses especially in the winter and spring Ij.. the marine influence. The relatively low temperatures, especially in the summer months, result in a fairly low absolute humidity.
Geomo rpholo gy
Kitimat i's at the end of a fairly broad valley on a mile-wide delta of gravel and silt spread by the river into
Kitimat Arm. (Figure 11). The valley itself was apparently formed by glacial action and borings have disclosed a gravel floor over i+OO' deep. Twenty miles from Kitimat Arm the river turns eastward towards its headwaters and is joined by
Chist Creek. The channel is poorly defined and as a result the major problem is flooding. The major tributaries to the
Kitimat (Wedeene, Little Wedeene, and Hirsch Creek) can all become major streams during spring and early summer runoff. 93
Evidence of past floodings in the form of meanders and nat• ural embankments, was obtained from aerial photographs and natives of the area. The river is building up Its bed in its lower section, and hence the water level rises and the flood• ing increases. This is similar to the geomorphic concept of a river "base level". A river may be in the stage of youth near its headwaters, thus degrading its channel, and approach• ing maturity near its mouth, In which case it will be build• ing up its channel. The major problem, then, is the control of the Kitimat River, not only at its mouth but along its course as well.
(a) The Kitimat River - the river is a fast moving but
shallow stream. The banks are low and heavily wooded
thus, at high flows, the river overflows its banks
into flat, forested areas. The forest is, in effect,
an emergency storage area. The flow of the river is
highly variable and was measured as follows:*
Velocity River Discharge Discharge Total ft./sec. C.F.S. over banks Discharge 6.5 21,000 21,000 7.5 33,000 33,000 9.0 5o,ooo 50,000 10.5 70,000 70,000 n.5 90,000 90,000 12.0 l+,000 110,000 13.0 106,000 8,000 11+.0 130,000 138,000 152,000 15,000. 167,000 21+, 000- 210,000 176,000 36,000 20l+,000 21+0,000
* Ross, K.W.: consulting engineer, river basin control 94
The normal high flow was estimated at 80,000 to 120,000 cubic feet per second.
(b) River Protection - when the river is at flood the
least damage will occur if all the various meander
courses are in use. This will Involve protection
of the banks, especially at bends, by stone riprap.
As a second measure it is imperative that the forest
cover be maintained. Due to lack of data the estim•
ates of floods on the Kitimat have had to be based on
a comparison with other rivers in the area plus the
physical evidence of runoff in the area. An estimate
flood of 160,000 to 200,000 cubic feet per second
per square mile of the watershed (which is 800 square
miles) as a seldom exceeded limit was made. It was
realized, however, that unusual climatic conditions
could produce extreme crests as high as 2^0,000 cubic
feet per second per square mile. By comparison with
other similar areas it was estimated that a rain of
five inches in twelve hours over the watershed area
would produce this extreme flow.
(°) Moore and Anderson Creeks - as the proposed smelter
location is to the south of Moore Creek (Figure 11),
the control of both these streams is very important.
Several schemes have been studied for this control;
the most feasible incorporating channel diversion. 95
The above discussion has been mainly concerned with the downstream aspects. River control cannot be attained with• out control over development upstream. As mentioned above, the natural watershed retards runoff and erosion is kept to a minimum by the heavy vegetation. This is every bit as im• portant as the "storage" area provided in the flood plain below Chist Creek. If the land is cleared, or put into ag•
ricultural use protected by dykes, the result would be:
1. An increase in water supplied to the river. This will
result in an increase in carrying capacity and an in•
crease in the velocity of the water.
2. As a result of number 1, the erosion of a deeper,
straighter main channel and the development of side
gullies would take place.
3. The increased capacity of the stream would not be
enough to cope with the increase in flood discharge
and the flood plain would be under water with every
flood.
All estimates were made on the assumption that the forest
cover will remain. If it does not, there are only two alt•
ernatives :
1. A complete restudy with the probable result that
roads, bridges, industrial sites, etc., will all be
re-located.
2. A control dam be built at the junction of Chist Creek
and the Kitimat. This would compensate for the valley
storage lost and reduce and maximize the flood crest. 96
Vegetation and Soil
In the previous chapter the interrelationships between climate, landforms, vegetative complex, and soils was stress• ed. The soils of the Kitimat-Kemano area may be roughly divided into:
1. Recent Alluvial - these soils extend from the townsite
up the valley to Terrace and north along the Skeena
River. They are too complex to be classified into
types and are confined to the smooth, low-lying,
valley bottoms. Drainage varies from poor to excellent
depending on compaction, permeability, grain size, and
so on. They are neutral to slightly acid in reaction
and their native fertility is quite high. They are
highly susceptible to erosion.
2. Podsolic - the dominant upland soils of the area are
polsols which have developed under the combined infl•
uence of temperature, precipitation, and natural veg•
etation. These soils extend to the timberline and are
brown in color, strongly leached, and very acidic.
They are characterized by a shallow, light grey A£
horizon underlain by a slightly compacted subsoil.
There are various soil associations within this group
and these may be identified by their native fertility,
and drainage. Although about half of the soil is po•
tentially arable much must be classed as non-arable
due to unfavourable microtopography and poor drainage. 97
The area is included in what is generally known as the Coast
Forest. It is heavily timbered*, and the principle species found are hemlock, spruce, cedar, balsam, and fir. Much of the timber is mature and capable of yielding an average of
30,000 board feet per acre.*i In general, the timber on the river bottom is scattered, poorly drained, and mostly spruce; hemlock and balsam are found on the better drained lower slopes along with some cedar and spruce. Much of this natural vegetation has shallow root systems, and 13 therefore, subject to a great deal of wind damage if solid groupings are broken by clearings. This will effect the location of highways as thin strips of trees cannot be left along them unprotected.
The tree cover that is to remain after development should be left in large blocks of perhaps 10 to 15 acres. Another fac• tor to be considered is the heavy undergrowth which makes travelling difficult. The over-mature condition of the forest in some areas has resulted in much fallen timber which makes clearing difficult.
This summary of the physical geography of the Kitimat-
Kemano region illustrates the environmental background against which the region has been developed. In the next section, some of their influences upon planning considerations will be dis• cussed.
* Due to heavy precipitation and fairly high relative humidity, the risk of loss of vegetative cover by fire is considered small.
*]_ This timber is located, in the main, on the lower slopes. The timber line is at roughly 1+500 99
Influence of Physical Factors upon Planning Considerations
Despite the fact that geographic factors were relatively
•unimportant in the decision to undertake development in the
Kitimat area, the planners had to overcome or compensate for
the problems presented by these geographic factors. The de•
cision to develop was an economic consideration but the future
success of the development, in many respects, depended on planning. The fact that the development was planned results from:
(a) the realization by industry today that, ih order to . maximize the return from a large capital investment, comprehensive planning is needed (b) Alcan was aware that they were not equipped to act as a planning agency especially with regard to town- site planning.
In an attempt to find solutions to, or compensations for,
these physical problems which obviously would deter develop• ment (for example, rough topography, adverse climate, distance
from markets, labor supply, etc.), Alcan obtained the services
of the best consulting firms available, including Clarence
Stein who became the Planning Co-ordinator for Kitimat town-
site. Stein felt that :
"The purpose of Kitimat is in the industrial success of -the plant. That success will depend on the degree that workers are content, that they like living in Kitimat. Unless the town can attract and hold good industrial workers, there will be continuous turnover and difficulty, interfering with dependable output. The workers must find Kitimat more than temporarily acceptable ... the setting for a good life must be hewn out of the un• known wilderness. Pioneers must become old timers, bound to Kitimat by enthusiastic love of their town and its unusual qualities. They must be given the utmost freedom to develop their lives and that of their community to fit their needs, their desires, and their pocket books. And so the plans of Kitimat, both operational and physical, 100
have been developed to serve as a flexible setting for good living that is open to continuous growth and expansion."30
The influence of the physical factors, presented in the preceding section, on planning concepts, decisions, techniq• ues utilized, etc., may be seen on two levels. Firstly, on the Regional level, they may be related to the broad prob• lems of location, land distribution, and interaction between various parts of the development - townsite, communication networks, power plant, etc. Secondly, their role In Townsite planning. Upon the solution of the problems they presented as Mr. Stein has said, will depend on the degree to which the workers are content, and that they like living In Kitimat.
On this, in turn, will depend the industrial success of the plant.
Regional Considerations
1. Location of the Townsite - the Kemano powerhouse is
at the head of a typical narrow coastal valley and
there is no room for both a smelter and a town. The
town was considered to be a very important part of
the total development and therefore, the best site
(topographically, climatically, etc.) had to be chosen.
The fact that the best available site was the only
available site was the result of landform patterns,
Stein, C: Kitimat Townsite Report. 1951-52, British Empire Building, New York. 101
topography, and climate (See page,91). These geo•
graphic features are also an important factor in re•
lating towns!te and regional accessibility. Kitimat,
by air, is almost equidistant from Prince Rupert,
Terrace, and Kemano, but accessibility by sea and
land is much more limited and forms almost a fixed
pattern. Economic considerations (outside of const•
ruction costs, etc.) are relatively minor as location
factors within the region. The problems of markets,
labor supply, etc. would remain fairly constant,
regardless of the location of the site.
The actual location of the town, as shown in
Figure 11, will be discussed in the next section under
Townsite Planning.
2. Transportation and Communication - the overall success
of the development, to a large degree, depends on
transport connections with the outside. In the first
place, deep water piers must be built to handle over
1,000,000 tons of incoming raw materials per year for
the smelter alone. Experience at Port Alfred, serving
Arvida, indicates that these piers may be used to han•
dle outgoing cargo such as lumber products. The cons•
truction of this pier will involve" a knowledge of geo-
ology for foundation problems, tides for breakwater,
and navigation problems, and so on. Secondly, Kitimat
must be linked by all-weather road and rail connections 102
with Terrace.* A knowledge of climatic and geo•
morphic factors will be vital for their proper
construction. This will include such factors as:
- flood levels as they effect road and rail lo• cation - topography as it effects grade and drainage - bedrock geology for foundations, bridges, etc. - snow.accumulation and its relation to potential avalanches - erosion related to areas of roadbed fill - weathering and formation of such features as talus and its relation to potential rockfall - temperatures and possible ice conditions - location of vegetative areas too important for erosion control to be removed - potential damage from subsurface water.
The regional pattern of transportation and
communication is similar, on a smaller scale, to the
pattern in British Columbia. The province has a
major urban area (Vancouver) with Its deep-sea acc•
ess, etc. and transport and communication patterns
are fixed (over most of the province) by topography,
entrenchment of rivers, etc.*]_
In addition to the economic importance of good
communications and transportation, were social con•
siderations. The provision of the best possible fac-
* A rail spur from Terrace to Kitimat is now in operation. It is lj.3 miles long and built at a cost of approximately $217,000 per mile or nearly 10 million dollars. This once more Ill• ustrates the fact that: given adequate economic reasons, tre• mendous physical difficulties may have to be overcome. Con• sequently, the problems which they present must be solved or compensated for by the planner.
*X Population distribution is also a major influence in the development of transportation and communication patterns, but this in turn, largely depends on physical factors, (distribution of landforms, etc.). As in the Kitimat re• gion, economic factors may overcome these geographic lim• itations, for example, the P.G.E. Railway. 103 ilities for travel in and out of the region provide an answer to many isolation problems.
Smelter Location - it was quite evident before development was initiated that the smelter could not be located at Kemano. As the towns!te and smelter had to be within commuting distance, the only avail• able site was somewhere near the town. Geographic factors not only influenced the general location of the smelter but were influential in its actual site in.relation to the town. These relationships are shown in Figure 11. The smelter is located on the lower western side of the valley taking advantage of the deep-sea access and best possible rail connection, if located in any other position the mud flats of the delta would result in dredging problems for shipping and the braided pattern and flooding of the river channels would make the rail connection extremely dif• ficult and expensive. Moreover, the smelter site is the best location in the lower valley from the stand• point of foundation and drainage problems which arise from past glaciation and the present river regime.
The total picture is a smelter site which (l) is the best available for the smelter itself and (2) occupies a good position relative to the town. (Figure 11).
The two are separate yet within easy commuting distance
and the town is above the smelter, preserving many amenities. 101+
Transmission Line - the power generated at Kemano had to he shipped to the smelter either along the coast (Gardner Canal) or by the overland route through the Kemano Valley - over a 5,0001 high pass and down again. The physical problems presented were relative• ly less along the overland route but in choosing it, the developers were brought up against a great un• known - the weather.
Although some weather data was available for
Kitimat, (see previous section), this was not the case along the transmission route. Heavy snow and severe winds were expected, but what else? One of the main problems was the problem of ice loads the conductors and towers might have to carry. No one had any idea of potential damage by rock and snow slides. The relation between topography, weather conditions, and ice is little understood and, on a test span installed for two years, ice loading fig• ured many times the average used for North American conditions were found.
As a partial answer to this problem, a new type of tower was developed. It was constructed of alum• inum tubing with access ladders inside. The tower was rust free and lighter, thus it could be more effective ly anchored against climatic elements and would react more .elastically to stress than steel. A second dev• elopment was the "bridging" of the most dangerous 105
slide areas. To do this a cable was developed that
would normally require three towers. The terrain over
which the transmission line was constructed, was so
high, rough, and inaccessible, that the only means of
supply was the helicopter.* Their long and varied use
for the transport of men and materials under extreme•
ly dangerous conditions was one of the world's
greatest flying achievements.
In addition to a lack of weather data very little
was known of the terrain. There ware no reliable
maps by which to trace even a tentative route. The
physical conditions made necessary the use of two
basic planning tools - topographic mapping and aer•
ial surveys.*^ By use of these techniques the best
routes were plotted and by extensive field and lab•
oratory research most engineering problems were sol•
ved. The best transmission line possible had to be
built as it is absolutely essential that there is no
interruption in the supply of electric power to the
plant.*2 This is, again, a basic economic demand
* One of the most severe physical limits set by climatic con• ditions was accessibility. Most of the transmission route was accessible for only about three months of the year.
*1 See Chapter II.
*2 Shortly after the smelter was In operation, a snowslide knocked out three transmission towers. Although the break was repaired in about ten days, it was over a month before full operation was restored at the smelter. When the en• ergy supply is cut off the potlines freeze and must be sc• raped out - a long and costly process. 106
and involves the solution of these ph7/sical problems.
5. Dam and Powerhouse Site - perhaps the initial dev•
elopment problem was the selection of a site for the
Kenney Dam (See Figure 9). The dam had to be built
at a point where it would bring the waters of all the
upper lakes of the Nechako River to some common level.
Economic feasibility was the major consideration as
there were many other power sites on the river and
many other rivers. Once it was decided to locate a
damsite the problems of accessibility, lack of maps,
no existing data on stream flow, etc. had to be sol•
ved. These problems were difficult and very import•
ant to the future success of the development. Mr.
J.S. Kendrick, Assistant Project Manager for Alcan
revealed that "It took us two years, and cost us
$2^0,000, before we found a suitable site - on our
third try."*
The power generating station (Figure 10) has been
constructed within the Mountain. Although the main
reason for this has been given as protection from
atomic warfare (and no doubt this is a valid reason)
the writer feels the most important reason was prot•
ection from snow and rock avalanches. This is a very
* From an address to the 7th British Columbia Natural Res• ources Conference, Victoria, 1951+.. 107 real danger at the generating site as well as along the transmission line. Here again physical problems resulted in the development of new techniques and methods. For example: the construction of the tunnel from the reservoir to the powerhouse Involved complic• ated problems in hydraulics. In the transport of the water from the reservoir to the powerhouse, tremend• ous pressures are created - not only downward, but in all directions. The rock walls of the tunnel were, in effect, a pipe and therefore had to with• stand this pressure without serious leaking. As a result the walls of the tunnel were "sealed" by for• cing a newly developed, liquid cement, under pressure, into all joints.
River Valley Control - (See Figure 11). Climatic factors have been responsible, by glaciation, for the general topographic features and the gravel deposits along the valley floor. The dominant geomorphic ag• ent is running water and results in the ever present problems of flood and erosion. The basic factors important in the runoff, erosion, flooding, and other problems of the Kitimat Valley have been discussed in the previous section. To summarize them:
- high precipitation with a winter maximum - high snowfall accompanied by great variation in annual amount - a poorly defined, meandering stream channel - many tributaries with great variations in flow - possibility of rapid snow melt over the watershed. 108
The primary objective in flood control is the protection of transport routes, bridges, the smelter site, the transmission line from Kemano (which crosses the delta of the river) and the wharves and harbour facilities. These geographic considerations result in specific control measures. For example:
- bridge piers - filling in low areas - protection of river banks - dyking and drainage channels - dredging
These measures will not give maximum results if applied on a piecemeal basis. They must be a part of a comprehensive plan for the whole valley. The major consideration is watershed control including the preservation of natural vegetation and restric• tions on the use of land where drainage, soil, veg• etation or other factors are not favourable.
Other Considerations
(a) Recreation - a factor that is a direct result of
physical relationships is the recreation potent•
ial. The climate and landforms have combined to
form a beautiful setting for future recreation
development. All the usual forms of mountain
recreation are, or can be made, available. The
important factor will be land use control. There
is already indication of ribbon development of
services along the valley and, with easy access
to Kitimat from Terrace, much of the natural bea- 109 uty and recreational potential will be destroyed if controls are not imposed. Unless a strict measure of control is adopted, the opportunity to eventually develop an unsurpassed regional recreation area will be lost. As it has already been pointed out, the problems are not all physical ones. People must want to live in the area and for this reason the preser• vation and development of natural amenities must be given a high priority.
(b) Soil and Vegetation - the climatic elements of the
area have, to a large extent, influenced both the
soil complex and the natural vegetation of the
area. While some of the soils are arable, their
use, for agricultural purposes, will be limited
to a very local scale due to poor drainage and
adverse topography. Timber resources have been
estimated as adequate to support a small pulp
mill (employing perhaps 1,000 loggers.) The logs
would be taken from the Kitimat Valley, Kitimat
Arm, and Douglas Channel. The natural vegetative
cover must be retained along the valley bottom
and the headwaters of the Kitimat river and its
tributaries as a runoff control.
(c) Geomorphic and climatic factors have resulted in
some available deposits of structural materials,
chiefly gravel. The demand for them will depend
on the nature of future development. 110
Townsite Planning
The town is located on the southern slope and top of a forested gravel ridge which extends from the eastern side of the valley to the river. There is room for eventual expansion of the townsite, where this ridge strikes the eastern side of
the valley (at 350') up to 600f. (See Figure 11). The orig• inal survey indicated that about 3,300 acres of land could be cleared for residential use supporting an eventual population of 5>0,000. However, only about 2,360 acres of this figure
can be developed economically without becoming involved in
expensive drainage and sewerage problems. To this figure is
added allotments for schools, parks, and neighborhood centers, bringing the total to 2,750 acres. It is estimated that this
figure will provide living space for about 35,000 people.
Physical factors, on a regional level, played a major
role in locating the town within the region. They were also
influential in development within the town. Some factors presented planning problems while others were unimportant or
even-beneficial. The relationships between these physical
factors and planning may be illustrated by answering three
questions: firstly, what were the influences of physical fac•
tors in the formulation of the basic planning concepts used?;
secondly, what specific forms of development resulted from the
application of these concepts? (which developed from these
special physical features); thirdly, what evaluation can be
given to these planning solutions to physical problems? Ill
1. Formulation of Planning Concepts - the combination of
adverse physical factors and geographic location re•
sulted in extreme isolation and remoteness. The
planner, then, must strive to overcome this remote•
ness and create as "urban" an area as possible. As
people living in Kitimat will not have the opportun•
ity to enjoy the many amenities of the large city as
often people living in towns of similar size in other
areas, these amenities must be provided for as far as
possible.
In addition, it was realized by the original
planners that the special physical conditions would
necessitate special facilities which would be better
adapted functionally and structurally.
Thus the planners operated under these two basic
concepts: planning for remoteness and isolation and
planning special facilities in answer to special
physical conditions.
2. Specific Results - in trying to plan according to the
concepts above the planner had two main tools or
methods. In planning for isolation the "urban feel•
ing" could be created by the layout and orientation
of streets, the grouping of buildings, the types of
accommodation provided, and so on. For example,
perhaps a group of high-rise apartments will create a
more urban feeling than a random grouping of single-
family units. This is the role of the architect as he 112
manipulates space to produce form and function that
will satisfy these concepts. Some very specific
recommendations were made In this regard. Por ex•
ample :#
- the early and ample development of boating, water sports, hunting, skiing, and other forms of recreation - indoor recreation such as skating and hockey - large plots of land permitting gardening - adequate community buildings, Including hobby shops and entertainment for teen-agers - the construction of an airfield and a road to Terrace as soon as possible >- some areas for owner-built houses and perhaps partly-built houses where people may exercise their individual taste and imagination.
Physical factors, particularly climate, resulted
in unique conditions for which the Kitimat planners
made special provision in the types and location of
housing and community facilities planned for. Por
example:
- the provision of ample indoor facilities - roof covered playgrounds or open floors (at grade level) under schools, etc. - a system of covered - walks in the community and shopping centers. These walks would be widened at intersections to allow grouping of people " shelters at all bus stops - larger than normal houses as the people will spend relatively more time indoors. Houses should pro• vide cellar and attic storage space and covered terraces, etc. where children may play - homes should be equipped with indoor laundry facilities
* The following recommendations are based on the Kitimat Townsite Report, Section 6, Subsection 1. 113
Problems in planning engineering were also the res• ult of microclimatic and microtopographic features.
The precipitation is not only high but extremely
variable as noted in an earlier section. The nat•
ural result is drainage and storm sewer problems,
especially when this type of precipitation regime is
combined with fairly pronounced topographic variation.
The rate at which rain falls will determine its time
of concentration or the time required for water to
run from the farthest part of the catchment area to
the point in question. This time of concentration,
in turn, will determine potential runoff. Runoff it•
self will be controlled by:
- temperature and its variations over the watershed area which will effect evaporation, freezing, and thawing, snow accumulation, vegetative types, etc. - topography will effect concentration"times, in• filtration rates, natural storage in pools, etc. - geology will determine underground storage cap• acity and flow.
The solutions to these problems were based on what
little data was available and the great experience of
the consultants concerned. Not all the solutions
have been satisfactory, as all the variables and pos•
sibilities could not be considered. For example, in
the design of the storm sewer system there were no
"ready made" frequency-intensity curves on which to
base calculations. By using Vancouver's curve (Figure
12), and adjusting it according to what little data
was known about the area, the basis for design was 10 40 SO ' so 70 SO 90 100 no no DURATION IN MINUTES
40 so 60 70 so 90 7/0 110 r>ur*ATION_ IN MINUTER F l fi 12 115
established.* That this design was inadequate Is in
no way a reflection on the designer but rather refle•
cts the vital Importance of these physical factors In
planning. In a similar manner these physical factors
will effect the design and operation of all utilities
and services. Many other factors were studied. For
example:
- a fog was considered to be unimportant - a study of smoke drift has indicated there will be virtually none from the smelter to the res• idential areas - the growing season ranks with Canada's highest. This Is a vital aspect of urban amenity planning. - a fairly accurate estimation of hours of sunshine indicates a strong summer maximum and a minimum that compares favourably with other coastal points. - the surface winds are a result of the topography and a land and sea breeze is apparent - the combination of rain and freezing temperatures will produce snow. This will lead to snow dri• fting when the wind is at sufficient velocity. - a typical valley will produce some degree of temperature inversion. This is a layer of high• er temperature aloft which is an effective "lid" and leads to smog formation.
As a result, specific recommendations may be made.
For example:
1. Exposure on the north side of buildings will be poor, especially in winter. It may be best, therefore, to orientate homes with a view in some other direction. 2. As winds are from the north and south, buildings must be protected from driftings of snow. This might be done with a north-south allignment of streets and adequate vegetation. 3. Some air pollution is unavoidable but if scrub• bing is used it will not be dangerous particu• larly in the residential areas.
* Mr. J.F. Muir: Professor and Head of the Department of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia, Interview with the writer. 116
ij.. As much vegetation cover as possible must be maintained in the residential areas. Higher areas will be more comfortable in sum• mertime as they benefit from breezes and lower humidity 6. Climatic factors play a large role in the ac• tual design of buildings. Examination of figure 13 gives some examplesi&
3. Evaluation - the final evaluation of these planning
solutions can only be made on the basis of results
over the years. It is possible today to make only a
few observations.
As far as the writer has been able to discover,
many of the original planning decisions have not been
implemented. Going back to Stein's basic idea that
the economic success of the development depended on
the success of Kitimat as a place In which to live,
this could be considered a serious planning mistake.
The concept of maximum "urbanization" possible has
not guided planning - residential planning, at any
rate. Residential areas have been designed along the
lines of those found in large cities . Por example,
the pattern of streets and buildings is open rather
than forming enclosure. Most homes are single-family
units which has created a large amount of open space
relative to residential densities. In addition, many
special facilities, recommended as a result of climatic
* See also: Thomas, M.K.: A Method of Computing Maximum Snow - Loads, Engineering Journal, Vol. 3Q» Feb. 19£5. and A Method for Determining Winter Design' Temper• atures, Research Paper 16, Division of Building Research, Ottawa, May, 1955* 117 CLIMATIC FACTORS IN BUILDING DESIGNJ an d layou t CLIMATIC FACTORS orientation , an d wall s plannin g equipmen t Opening s basemen t Roo f Mechanica l Interio r Site , Foundatio n
Temperature X X X X X X frequencies
THERMAL HEAT Frequency of hot and• X X roid days
Degree days X X
Sunshine hours X X X Clear and cloudy X X X X days RADIATION Solar intensity X X X X
Solar height X X X
Wind direction X X X X X
WIND Wind speed X X X X
Strong winds X
Precipitation X X X X X
Snow fall X X X Excess X X X X X ATMOSPHERIC precipitation MOISTURE Rainy days X X X
Fogs X
Thunderstorms X
Humidity X X X X X
Crosses (x) are entered for those elements which are of some impor• tance for design of the particular feature.
Source: H.E. Landsberg and W.C. Jacobs,"Applied Climatology," in Compendium of Meteorology, T.F. Malone ed., Am. Met. Soc.
Boston, 1951, p. 982. Fig# ±3 118
factors, have not been fully provided, (systems of
covered walks, roof covered playgrounds, etc.).
The north-south alignment ,;of streets to minimize
snow drifting has not been carried out. (Figure 11).
This situation is absolutely unrealistic and ignores
all the geographic considerations developed on the
above pages. Kitimat has not completely succeeded as
a place in which people "want to live". It is true
that a lack of data resulted in planning problems but
this is no defence in this case. Thus, here is the
situation where geographic information is available
(effecting the alignment of streets, structure of
buildings, etc.), but is not being utilized by the
planner.
As Canada, and especially British Columbia, con•
tinues to exploit and develop its natural resources,
many more similar types of development will take place
in remote regions under difficult physical circum•
stances.-"- The experience and knowledge gained through
the Kitimat-Kemano development should facilitate high•
er standards of development and success in these new
regions.
-* See Institute of Local Government, Single Enterprise Comm• unities in Canada, (Central Mortgage and Housing Corporation, 1957), for a description and analysis of the problems faced by the communities in remote areas of the country. TABLE I
Month 13 Year Average in inches
January 9.73
February 5.75
March 5.52
April 1+.99
May 3.51+ June 3.53 July 2.33 Augus t k November III-. 30 December 11.34 TOTALS 87.1+9 Monthly precipitation averages for 13 complete years covering 1902-7 and 1931-1+3. TABLE 2 Monthly Mean Temperature 3 KEMANO J F M A M J J A S 0 N D 1952 20 30 35 36 50 53 62 62 55 49 36 31 43 53 22 34 36 44 52 56 60 61 54 46 37 35 45 54 19 30 36 37 50 54 5^ 61 M M 42 34 M 55 31 30 29 42 47 56 60 58 54 42 25 18 41 KITIMAT J F M A M J J A S 0 N D 1952 23 32 35 38 47 51 60 61 54 51 35 30 43 53 19 34 36 42 50 57 61 61 54 46 38 36 44 54 20 30 35 37 49 53 56 61 M M 44 33 M 55 30 30 31 41 47 56 60 58 54 42 24 18 41 M -Missing TABLE 3 Monthly precipitation and altitude of station KEMANO - Altitude 190* J F M A M J • J :.A S 0 N D 1952 10.25 5.80 6.46 11.39 .15 2.94 .57 2.64 9.66 7.20 8.62 13.92 53 12.25 4.62 5.04 2.05 1.55 .59 .71 1.92 16.51 16.83 15.80 15.12 54 9.54 12.85 1.64 3.61 .77 2.35 1.93 1.30 M M 13.12 15.12 55 6.03 5.33 4.43 3.18 . 2.12 .892 .23 2.29 3.26 12.02 3.84 4.71 Years - 1952 - 79.60 1954 - M 53 - 92.99 55 - 50.33 KITIMAT - Altitude 55' J F M A , M J J A S 0 N D 1952 16.00 6.51 10.58 13.00 .98 4.59 1.54 4.89 8.92 10.37 79.79 15.04 53 14.58 9.23 10.96 4.59 3.69 1.67 2.07 2.50 9.09 26.78 16.60 20.60 54 13.31 19.32 2.82 9.73 2.75 3.81 2.74 1.26 10.23 17.39 M 24.59 55 12.11 7.92 5.71 . 6.20 5.77 2.07 1.82 5.10 4.87 23.99 11.37 8.55 Years - 1952 - 102.21 1954 - M 53 - 122.36 55 - 95.48 H ro TABLE 4 Monthly Extremes of Temperature and absolute maximum and minimum a" KEMANO o ct J F M A M J J A S 0 N D CD 1952 41 43 52 55 73 90 94 83 64 46 40 94 i 7k 53 39 44 49 61 79 80 90 94 79 63 48 45 94 -9 20 20 28 36 41 45 46 42 36 29 29 «9 54 40 45 55 55 84 79 81 81 M M 50 47 94 -1 6 19 19 28 41 44 47 M M 34 18 -9 55 44 48" 52 64 65 88 94 82 80 60 54 37 94 12 4 -2 18 34 36 40 42 38 28 6 -5 -9 > KITIMAT § ct J F M A M J J A S 0 N D CD 1952 ,41 46 48 53 68 71 87 85 73 59 45 40 87 -4 9 24 25 30 34 43 46 41 38 22 20 -4 53 38 40 46 61 77 83 86 82 74 59 48 46 87 -5 22 25 29 34 45 48 50 40 33 30 30 -5 54 44 51 54 49 71 76 . 74 80 74 M. 60 47 87 -1 1 24 20 29 39 45 50 M M 31 10 -5 55 49 48 57 61 72 86 92 80 75 54 53 41 92 3 4 -2 27 33 37 42 44 37 29 3 -5 M - Missing Source; Tables 2, 3, and 4 - The,, Climate of British Columbia, Department of Agriculture, H Province of British Columbia, Victoria, 1952-1955. ro ro 123 CHAPTER VI - THE LOWER MAINLAND REGION Introduction The Lower Mainland Region (See Figures 8 & 1I+) is essentially the lower valley and delta of the Fraser River. The region is the economic focus of British Columbia and its major urban area (metropolitan Vancouver) is the dominant influence within the region. Vancouver is the site of one of the world's finest, ice- free harbours and the terminus of both Canadian transcontin• ental railway systems. As a result it is the focal point of the province both for distribution and wholesale trade and manufacturing. It draws on the rich primary industries and resources of the whole province and, with the development of secondary industries based on these resources, has become one of the most important general manufacturing areas in Canada. The Lower Mainland has no primary resources* except agricul• ture, but is, In a sense, an area of complex resource develop• ment as: 1. It exercises major control over most of the province- wide primary industries. 2. It is the industrial machine which utilizes many pri• mary products and therefore "keeps most of the pri• mary industries in business". The Lower Mainland Region was selected for study for two major reasons: * With the exception of some structural minerals, e.g. clay, granite, sand, and limestone. These are important as they produce the raw materials for several large manufacturing and construction industries e.g. brick and tile, cement, etc. 125 1. The influence of a large urban area within the region 2. The existence of a Regional Planning Board Physical Geographic Background The relationships between physical geographic factors and planning will be discussed mainly in this regard. Before this is done, however, the major physical factors in the region will be reviewed to "set the stage". These factors have played an important role in the form which present dev• elopment has taken and are likely to play an important role in the future. Climatology The region, on the whole, enjoys a maritime climate with continental modification to the north and east. The climate is remarkably uniform with a very low annual temperature range and a very well defined seasonal precipitation variation (Figure 15).* A detailed analysis of climatic elements and controls will not be made as this is beyond the scope of this paper.-x^ Instead, some of the most Important climatic fea• tures of the region will be listed; it will then be possible to see their relation to the existing patterns of development, and more important planning-wise, to the potential patterns of development. * In this diagram the values "too hot", "too wet", etc. are purely arbitrary and for illustrative purposes only. #1 For a more detailed study of this topic, the reader is referred to The Climate of British Columbia. J.D. Chapman, University of British Columbia, 1952. 127 1. The annual range of temperature over the region is small - about 27° variations* among all recording stat• ions. This range increases with distance from the ocean. 2. The average winter temperature over the region is 37° with a summer average of 63°. 3. The extreme minimum is 0° with an extreme maximum of 82°. 4. As a result of points 1 and 3, a favourable frost-free season is established. This ranges from over 225 days In White Rock to 180 days along the north side of the Fraser River. 5. The precipitation pattern is closely related to the topo• graphic' pattern. The result is an increase In precipit• ation to the north and east. MEAN ANNUAL STATION ALTITUDE PRECIPITATION South to North White Rock 401 36.69" Vancouver Airport 22' 39.80" Vancouver City . 65' 57.11" Brockton Point 20' 59.03" Hollyburn 35' 63.66" Seymour Falls 627' 11+6.60" West to East Vancouver Airport 22' 39.80" New Westminster 55' 55.89" Agassiz 52» 62.63" Hope 126? 60.27" Source: The Climate of British Columbia, J.D. Chapman, University of British Columbia, 1952. * * These and the following figures are, of course, averages, but they do indicate the general situation. 128 The air masses cannot flow horizontally to the mountains and then rise. It must start rising before the slopes are reached and the result Is increased precipitation over level ground when moving toward these topographic barriers. 6. The second main feature of precipitation is a winter max• imum and summer minimum. The percentage of the annual precipitation total falling In July and August is below 7 percent. Although yearly totals are high this regime causes critical shortages of water at times, within the region. 7. Relative humidity is high during the winter months but may drop to about 60 percent in July and August. This is a dangerously dry condition particularly with respect to forest fire possibilities. 8. Fog usually occurs in the fall and winter months during cool, clear weather. It is of the radiation type, and is usually below l60! 9» The winds are a reflection of the pressure gradient and the general distribution of the pressure systems through• out the year. Most winter weather is the result of the so-called "mid latitude lows". Originating near the Al• eutian Islands, they proceed down the British Columbia coast and swing inland over the Lower Fraser Valley. In the summer the high pressure systems from the south are responsible for most of the weather. Modifications are 129 caused by occasional outbreaks of polar continental arid tropical continental air masses from inland areas. These respectively result in cold snaps and very ho"t weather. East and southeast winds predominate throughout the year with northwest and west winds more frequent in the sum• mer. Except for the northwest summer winds the average maximum speed is about 10 miles per hour. 10. As a result of the precipitation regime, there is a def• inite summer maximum of sunshine and winter maximum of cloud coverage. Vancouver has roughly 1,800 hours of sunshine per year - this compares favourably with the sunniest stations in Canada (usually Calgary or Leth- bridge) who average around 2,300 hours. The foregoing is a list of the major climatic features of the region. Before examining some of their effects, the role of the geomorphic processes must be examined in relation to climate and, in turn, the interrelationships between these two physical aspects and the characteristic soil and veget• ative complex present, will be discussed. G e omo rpho1o gy The region, geographically speaking, is almost a perfect unit. (Figure 11+.). It is a low lying area with an extensive amount of rolling land. Elevations over the lower delta range from sea level to l+OO feet and much of the land is dyked agai• nst the sea or river waters. The uplands south of the Fraser River have rolling to fairly level upper surfaces and are 130 largely composed of glacial deposits which have been dissected by stream action. To the north of the Fraser River are sev• eral upland areas made up of glacial deposits and bedrock outcroppings covered with a thin layer of glacial material. These upland areas rise to around 1,000 feet. The mountain areas to the north and east have little value for agricultural purposes because of rough terrain, but are valuable for rec• reation, forestry, and water storage. The Lower Mainland region contains the highest proportion of land with favour• able soils topographically suited to agriculture. As a res• ult, the region is the most extensive farming area in British Columbia, and is the most important single agricultural area. Specific geomorphic processes dominant in the region are those associated with running water. The intensity of pre• cipitation Is not usually excessive except close to the moun• tains to the north and east. Severe erosion has taken place over much of the upland areas to the east and north partic• ularly in areas where vegetation has been entirely removed. However, the general regime plus the winter runoff of snow melt can be very important. The Fraser River has somewhat the same problem as the Kitimat but the fact that man has had more data, time, and cause for action, has led to a greater meas• ure of control on the Fraser. Local drainage conditions vary greatly within the area. Some of the upland soil types have open porous substrata, and these are excessively drained. Others are underlain by imp• ervious material which makes drainage necessary under some 131 topographic conditions. At the present time the delta is building out into the Strait of Georgia at the rate of about 10 feet per year. This is only one of the many deltas of the Fraser. In the past the Fraser has entered the strait through Burrard Inlet, Boundary Bay, and Bellingham Bay. Since the retreat of ice from this area, the river has found successive lower and lower outlets. It changed its course and construc• ted river terraces at each drop in sea level. ^Eighteen miles to the SSE of Point Grey is Point Roberts which rises to the same elevation as does Point Grey. Point Roberts at one time formed an island about ten miles from the mainland but as a result of delta building now is joined to the mainland by low-lying deltaic material. Point Roberts and Point Grey may have been one contin• uous moraine at the time of formation. Geologically the Fraser River delta area consists of a synclinal structure consisting of Eocene deposits of sandy conglomerates, sand• stone, and. shale, underlain with granitic intrusive rock of Jurassic age. At the northern edge, this granitic rock re• aches the surface forming the Coast Range batholith mountains which, in places, reach an elevation of over 6,000 feet. In the central portion the Jurassic is down warped and overlain with about 1^,000 feet of Eocene deposits. These Eocene de• posits are covered with a thin mantle of Pleistocene glacial drift which, in places, has been eroded and covered with re• cent deltaic deposits. Each of these recent deposits has its own characteristic elevation throughout the valley. The 132 recent deltaic deposits are found at near sea level or in some cases in a dyked area below sea level. At elevations of between 50 and 150 feet are found the deltaic deposits assoc• iated with the former channels of the Fraser River while the glacial material forms an almost level but dissected upland at an elevation between 300 and l+OO feet. These glacial de• posits are typically sands and gravels overlain by till. Geologists estimate that during the latter part of the Pleis• tocene period the sea level was 700 to 800 feet higher than at present. The till contains rounded boulders and weathers into the pseudostratification of water lain material. Eviden• ce of these changes in shorelines may be found in old shore lines with their wave cut cliffs. On the whole, the geomorphology of the region is the result of: 1. The geologic history of the region; 2. The activities of the Fraser river; 3. The climatic regime of the region, particularly pre• cipitation and temperature. Soil3 and Vegetation The landforms and depositional materials established the parent material available for soil. As climatic factors sup• plied the processes for soil formation, the natural vegetative complex in the region was established and it, in turn, influe• nced soil types. The bulk of the soils in the Lower Mainland region may be broadly classified as either alluvial or brown podsols. The former types, plus scattered groups of peat and 133 muck soils are found in the low-lying areas. The latter groups are found in the uplands. As stated earlier, the only primary resource development in the region is agricul• ture which is closely related to the nature of the soils. The following factors determine the agricultural potential of the soil groups In the region: 1. The moisture holding capacity - some of the upland soils are poor in this respect and are therefore considered submarginal for cultivation. 2. Soil drainage - some soil series, found chiefly on the upland terraces, are subject to excessive soil drainage which is a severe disadvantage during the summer dry period. Production, therefore, is rest• ricted to crops that mature before the dry season, e.g. strawberries and early vegetables. 3. Clearing costs - large areas of the upland, have soils superior to the above soils in moisture-holding capacity, but clearing is often difficult and exp• ensive. When carefully managed, small blocks of this land may produce vegetables and other garden crops, but it is usually considered marginal at best. 14-. Sub-drainage - somewhat smaller tracts, of the upland areas are characterized by restricted sub-drainage. These soils are silt-loams and, although they are ad• aptable to mixed farming, the heavy capital invest• ment and fertilization required has restricted their development. 131* In general, the best agricultural soils have developed in the better-drained parts of the region at elevations between 25 and 150 feet. They are clays and loams and support mixed farming, fruit growing, and dairy enterprises. Finally the cool, moist climate and the poor drainage conditions in parts of the region are ideal for peat formation, and scattered patches of bog are found throughout the region in low-lying areas. The crops usually grown on peat soil are clover, rye, oats, and other green feeds. Some of the bogs have been developed for the supply of commercial peat moss and peat products. There are two important vegetative regions and all have been the result of differences in climate, topography, and soil. 1. Puget Sound Lowland - the vegetative associations present are hemlock, fir, and cedar and heavy smaller growth inc• luding maple and dogwood. 2. Coast Forest - the vegetative associations present are spruce, hemlock, cedar, cypress, fir, and pine with an extremely heavy undergrowth of maple, alder, ferns, and devil's club. The major differences between these regions are a result of topography and climate. The Coast Forest region begins with the increase in altitude along the Coast Range mountains and is characterized by much greater precipitation and a some• what smaller temperature range. 135 The Influence of Physical Factors, upon Planning Considerations It has been pointed out in Chapter V that physical fact• ors, although secondary to economical, political, administra• tive, and technological influences in many cases, are never• theless, important planning considerations. Furthermore, it was suggested that the influence of these physical factors could be seen on two levels - regional and urban. In order to present as close a parallel as possible throughout Chapters V and VI, the influence of these physical factors upon plan• ning considerations will be discussed, again on this basis with respect to the Lower Mainland Region. Regional Considerations 1. Regional Delimitation - it seems fair to state that were it not for the existing combination of physical factors, the Lower Mainland region would be of no greater Importance than, for example, the Skeena River Valley and its urban area would be a small, unimportant coastal town. The patterns of landforms within the region has largely been the result of geo• logic history and it establishes a good basis of re• gional delimitation. This Is illustrated by Figure 11+.. The river valley forms the central part of the region while mountains to the north and east, the ocean to the west, and the Canada-United States bor• der to the south (the only boundary that is arbitrary), delimit the region. 136 In any form of regional planning it is essential that the region is well defined on the basis of suitable criteria. These will vary depending on the purpose of the regional concept, but geographic factors may play an important role, for example in defining regions of water• shed control. The Lower Mainland Region, in a sense can be considered a true "natural" region, and therefore it would seem to form a suitable basis for regional planning. 2. Regional Activity - physical factors have played an im• portant role in the development of the various patterns of activity, both on a provincial level and within the Lower Mainland region.* Firstly, on a provincial scale, physical factors have resulted in: (a) A distribution of resources over a wide and div• ersified area (b) Various landform.regions such as the Okanagan Valley, Central Plateau, etc. The result of these two factors*i has been the present distribution of population and the establishment of the Lower Mainland region as the most important area in the province. The only large areas of level land with fav• ourable climate are in this region. As the transport network is related to the landform pattern it is limited * Some of these patterns of activity are illustrated by Figure IJ4.. *]_ Aided by historical settlement patterns. 137 therefore, to a few major valley routes, which converge on the Lower Mainland. Although the population and development of other areas in British Columbia are growing, the increase is higher in this region and shows no signs of slowing. This would seem to bear out the trend that a major region (that is, a region with a large urban influence within It) will tend to grow because of the simple fact that it exists. In other words the existence of a large, organized system of collection, manufacture, and distribution of goods will have more attrac• tion than an undeveloped area. Secondly, within the Lower Mainland itself, patterns of activity have been influenced by geographic considerations. It is important that the planner, in attempting to guide the future development of the region, understand the role of the various factors which have resulted in the present activity patterns - land use, transportation, settlement, etc. Some of these activities in which physical factors have been Im• portant considerations are: (a) The Lumber Industry - climatic and soil factors have been largely responsible.for the range of species that may be exploited. Accessibility is largely governed by topographic features and the existance of water, which may be used to transport logs. In the Lower Mainland region, climatic factors and soil have produc• ed large stands of timber which are easily accessible. In some areas where this is not the case, advances in technology may overcome geographic limitations. 138 Geographic and technological factors must operate within an economic framework which will produce the demand for lumber products. The Lower Mainland region is essentially a processing region with the significant logging areas confined to the Pitt, Stove, and Lillooet River valleys. Almost all the logging areas are cover• ed by public working circles, sustained-yield units, and applications for forest management licenses. Sev• eral trends are apparent: While the demand for timber is still increasing it is levelling off. Recent rises in production costs, wages, and a more corapetetive mar• ket have resulted in a cutback in expansion programs. New sources of supply are being developed at greater distances from the region and in many cases the new processing plants have been established in these remote areas near the supply. Within the industry as a whole, the trend is towards fewer, larger firms undertaking a wider range of production - this is the natural result of more complete utilization of timber resources. As the region is almost at the maximum allowable cut the only real expansion will be in the field of manufactur• ing and processing. The final result will probably be a more stable operation of the industry with a definite decrease in its importance in the region, (b) Agriculture - topographic and climatic features have been major influences in determining the type and pattern of . 139 agricultural activity. They have been considerably modified by the growth of a large urban market in one end of the region (Metropolitan Vancouver). This market will influence the type of agricultural prod• uction and attract agricultural activities that may locate very near the urban area. Por example, truck gardening and dairy farms will locate within a few miles radius and market gardens, etc. may locate in• side the metropolitan area. Agricultural uses account for Sk- percent of the 700 square miles of arable land in the Lower Mainland region* (excluding land over 15 percent slope). The basic physical factors which effect agriculture have been discussed in the opening section of the Chapter. Agriculture is in a somewhat unique position in its relation to urban expansion. This will be discussed in the next section, (c) Transportation - many of the same geographic factors which help delimit the Lower Mainland region are respon• sible for the transport patterns. Topography has es• tablished the major east-west trends of ground travel and topography and climate control, to a large degree, the location of airports. The Fraser River forms an inland waterway and its degree of utilization is Inf- * The Lower Mainland Looks Ahead, The Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board, November, 1952. 11*0 luenced by many physical factors. For example: - climatic factors influence high runoff periods when logs cannot be towed against the current - geomorphic principles of river erosion and de• position effect the navigability of the river - the amount of erosion over the watershed effects the rate of delta construction at the river's mouth. Any system of transportation should serve two purposes. Firstly, it must be adequate for the economical dist• ribution of goods, services, and people. Secondly, it should be constructed with future land uses in mind. The major drawback of most transport systems is that they were constructed before, or without regards to, land use. Consequently, there was little chance of them being adequate. As physical factors are major considerations in future land use within the Lower Mainland region, they will have application to the future transportation patterns. Many other regional patterns within the Lower Mainland have been influenced by physical factors. The location of many of the urban settlements in the valley has been the re• sult of available level land, proximity to the Fraser River, an area of good agricultural soil, access to deep-sea shipping, and so on. Patterns of industrial location, while chiefly governed by economics, are related to geographic factors as they are influenced by accessibility, transportation costs, energy sources, etc. 141 Urban Considerations - the Vancouver metropolitan area By virtue of her harbour and geographic position both within British Columbia and world-wide, Vancouver is the natural point of shipping and transcontinental transport. With the wealth of the province, as well as larger areas, to draw on this has resulted in the growth of a considerable secondary industrial complex. The abundant supply of power, room for industrial expansion, available raw materials, and established patterns of transportation, virtually guarantee continued industrial growth in the Lower Mainland region. Thus geographic factors have helped to create a great trans• shipment center which, in turn, has generated other activities as well as a complimentary relationship between a large metropolitan area and a rural hinterland. The most important planning problem, which is the con• cern of both urban and regional planners, is the problem of land use in an expanding urban area. This "rural-urban con• flict" seems to be the core of most planning problems. Before discussing this problem further, a few of the geographic fac• tors and their influence on urban growth and development will be examined. 1. The geographic factors that have helped shape the present growth of the urban area have been largely dealt with under the section on physical background. Of major importance were: 11+2 - the Fraser River and the formation of the delta. This has provided the area with an excellent source of agricultural products and room for re• sidential and industrial expansion. - past climatic and geomorphic conditions have been largely responsible for the deep-sea harbour. - regional landform patterns have established the urban area as a natural regional focus. - climate, topography, vegetation, and glacial de• position have been responsible for providing a good water supply. The uplands and mountains which border the Lower Mainland region to the north and east, provide a reservoir which can supply anticipated needs by gravity. The Greater Vancouver -Water Board supplies much of the Lower Mainland region and maintains strict control over its watersheds. 2. The general distribution of landforms will largely control the direction taken by future growth of the urban, area. (See Figure 11+). By limiting this future growth to essentially one direction an eventual elongated urban area will be the result (assuming continued growth). This type of area may pose unique planning problems in comparison with, for example, Calgary and similar cities which are relatively free to expand in any direction. These planning problems would arise, for example: - in planning an urban traffic system - in the distribution of services and amenities in• cluding utilities - In planning relationships between place of work and residential areas - a very interesting planning problem would be the structure of a metropolitan system of government. Presumably this would have to be different from, for example, Metropolitan Toronto. 3. Geographic factors, largely climate and, to a smaller extent, landforms have resulted in a highly "desirable" 114-3 place in which to live. A moderate, year-round climate, luxuriant vegetation, proximity to the ocean, mountain scenery, etc. have created a beaut• iful site for an urban area. The "desirability" may lead to social effects the planner should be aware of. In planning for an area of certain physical characteristics there may well exist a correlation between these physical characteristics and the family structure, income, recreational interests, and so on. For example, these social considerations may be quite different going from Vancouver to Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. The point the planner should consider is that one reason may be the great difference in geographic factors present. The combination of physical factors in the urban area will, in many cases, lend itself to aesthetic con• siderations. Topography, view, land and water dis• tribution, a wide range of vegetation, etc. may be used to advantage by the planner. In the Vancouver area these features exist on such a large scale they may be utilized over large areas. Finally, physical factors are very important over a wide range of , what may be called, planning engin• eering problems. The important climatic features have been covered in previous sections and need not be re• peated. Foundation problems are generally fairly good for the most part, the glaciomarine sediments are less than 25 feet thick and rest directly on till.-::- The exception is the delta area where severe compaction may take place on loading, which presents serious problems to the present in• dustrial development in the area. Drainage on most of the upland areas is hampered by impervious till formations near the surface. This keeps the ground water level near the surface and results in sewage problems particularly if septic tanks are used. A knowledge of river bank and bottom deposits is para• mount in order to combat flooding problems by dyking and dredging. Most problems in this respect are due to the construction of dykes oh permeable sand. Consequently, when the river is In flood the water level is higher than the land behind "'the-vdyke. The resulting pressure forces water through the sand causing severe seepage and possible dyke failures. Most of the stream flow from the Coast Mountains is over fair• ly Impervious till or bedrock which allows an extremely fast runoff. Very serious flooding occurred in. 1955 following ex• cessive rainfall. The importance of vegetative cover in these areas is vital for the protection of parts of the urban area as well as the river valley. Slides and washouts have occurred on steep slopes when excessive rainfall and removal of veget• ation have rendered soil conditions unstable. As a result of * The following is adapted from J.E. Armstrong, Superficial Geology of Vancouver Area, Geological Survey of Canada, Department of Mines and Technical Surveys, Ottawa, Paper 55-1+0, 1956. glacial and marine deposits the area enjoys an abundance of good gravel and sand which is produced at very low cost. These physical considerations may be very important in construction, for example: - foundation requirements of some types of development may exclude it from certain areas. - the problems of snow loading, wind resistance, proper drainage, water supply, sewage, ice conditions, etc., may render specific locations unsuitable. - the siting of buildings (including residential buildings) - some areas may be rendered unsuitable due to steep slopes, lack of sunlight on the north-facing slopes, potential erosion, etc. Planning and the "Rural-Urban Conflict" As any growing urban area expands it occupies rural land for urban uses. The result is the familiar picture of urban encroachment on agricultural land and consequent con• flict of land uses. This is a world-wide problem. The Lower Mainland region is perhaps particularly susceptible to this problem as geographic factors have limited the direction urban expansion can take, thus focusing the problem of land use conflict into a smaller area relative to the size of Metropolitan Vancouver. Regional geography endowed British Columbia with very little agricultural land while placing the best agricultural land within the Lower Mainland region. This agricultural land, close to a large urban market, has become extremely valuable in the food production essential to the urban population. At the same time it is this land that is being taken out of agricultural use. 11+6 In an address to the British Columbia Divisional Con• ference of Community Planning Association, Dr. J. Lewis Robinson* made this point very clearly. "At the Community Planning conference in Vancouver in 1950 I emphasized the danger in the trend of expanding residen• tial settlement onto the good agricultural land of Lulu Island, in the Fraser River delta. Every year, 100 to 200 acres of excellent dairy or truck garden land dis• appears into the non-productive classification of houses. Already Vancouver's agricultural hinterland in the Fraser Valley cannot supply sufficient food for the urban met• ropolis, and yet we continue to allow agricultural land to go out of production, and therefore increase our food costs. There might be some arguments for this trend, in terms of the space needed for productive commercial or industrial workers, if it were not for the fact that large empty areas still exist in Greater Vancouver, located on non-productive, upland glacial soils. Greater Vancouver is, therefore, not using its area properly. On a region• al basis, housing should be placed on non-productive land, leaving the good soil to feed the growing population." The Report of the British Columbia Royal Commission on Milk also discusses this rapid loss of agricultural land. "Nature has endowed this Province with ample land which is ,completely useless and unproductive from an agricultural point of view but which is entirely adequate and valuable for the building of factories and houses and there is plenty of that land available in the immediate vicinity of Vancouver. Thus it is distressing from an economic point of view to see some of the finest agricultural land in the world being used for low cost housing development when there are equally good building-sites equally close at hand." The point made by these two sources is that while urban expansion must take place, it should do so by developing un• occupied areas within the metropolitan area which have no * Dr. Robinson is Chairman of the Division of Geography, Department of Geology and Geography, University of British Columbia. 11+7 agricultural use (due to poor soil, topography, etc.). It ought not expand into the best agricultural areas, creating, in many cases, land uses much less economic than agriculture. This uneconomic land use has been termed "urban sprawl" which is defined by the Lox^er Mainland Regional Planning Board* as a transition between true agricultural development (which has a density less than .3 people per acre) and sub• urban residential development (with a density greater than 3.5 people per acre). A number of reasons have been sugges- ted as major causes of sprawl areas. The most important are: - complete lack of control despite zoning, etc. - increasing mobility of the average family - the availability of municipal services - the speculative subdivision of land. Areas of sprawl are not only unsightly but also provide few of the amenities urban residents enjoy. In addition they create a fantastic expenditure in municipal funds in relation to their tax return. Studies have shown that over time these low density areas do not "fill in" to any appreciable extent, but continue to spread.*i The considerations above raise some very basic and dif• ficult planning problems - many of them cannot be definitely answered and the planner must attempt to weigh the relative value of various land uses. This must be done on more than * The following discussion on "urban sprawl" is based on Economic Aspects of Urban Sprawl, Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board, May 195°. *! Ibid., pp. 8-10. 148 an economic basis as land use value may also be measured in terms of social, institutional, recreational, and service needs of the people. This measurement may not arrive at a cash value as many intangible values are Involved. In other words, as a planner changes the eoonomic and physical aspects of environment he may change (and possibly harmfully) the social environment. For example: In deciding between a new industry or a park as potential users of a site, it is relat• ively easy to calculate the value of the industrial use (tax returns, payroll, attraction of linked industries, etc.). It is harder to calculate the recreational, and aesthetic value of the land as a park. Too many planners are paying "lip service" only to the latter consideration and a typical result is the lack of green areas within and around our cities. Certainly the planner is (or should be) interested in the solution of the"urban sprawl" problem. No matter what the eventual use of the land will be, if it is left to the forces of the free market much of it will eventually be of little economic value. Some measures proposed in this regard are: 1. Active encouragement of compact, self-supporting residential areas 2. A system of agricultural zoning* through minimum acreage subdivision requirements. This would tend to stabilize land uses and values * The municipality of Richmond has authorized a system of ag• ricultural zoning. The areas of heavy peat bogs, waterfront, etc. were zoned agriculturally in minimum plots of 5 acres. This effectively preserves the larger holdings as people can• not afford to buy 5 acres of expensive land on which to erect one dwelling. In 1954 the Vancouver firm of Desmond "Muirhead and Associates submitted a land use study of the area to the Richmond Council who zoned development "as it was". Since (Con't. p. 149) li|9 3. The development of new residential zones in these areas should be restricted to a realistic size - that is a size capable of being filled to urban densities within a relatively- short period, for example, 5 years. I+. Provincial Government legislation should require municipalities to prepare zoning schemes that allow for not more than 5 years normal residential growth at any time. This would help promote maximum econ• omy and efficiency in developing and servicing these areas. In addition to corrective measures that should be applied to these non-economic* uses of land, the planner must concern himself with the application of measures that will promote the highest use of the land In an economic sense. To do this he must evaluate geographic and economic considerations at the urban, regional, provincial, national, and international levels. For example: (Gon't. from p. II4.8) the establishment of a planning department a year later, this zoning has been refined and modified to permit some develop• ment. The basic concept behind the zoning was to preserve the right to choose the best ultimate land uses which were by no means known at the time. This information was obtained from V.J. Wieler, Assistant Planner, Municipality of Richmond. * These areas are non-economic in the sense that as density decreases, municipal expenditures Increase. When these expenditures exceed revenue, the areas become non-economic. i5o 1. On the basis of these considerations, it may be felt that agriculture is the best use of the land as the cost of importing food may exceed the income from residential and industrial uses. If this is the case the planner is justified in preserving these lands and restricting other uses to other areas. 2. On the other hand, many factors may result in greater returns than agricultural use and make it feasible to import agricultural products - other agricultural areas within the province may be developed, better transportation facilities, development of large in• dustrial areas resulting in increased purchasing power, etc. If this is the case the planner should plan for non-agricultural uses while, at the same time, preserving agricultural land from non-economic uses; thus keeping it as long as possible. In the case of the Lower Mainland region, the writer feels the latter situation is more realistic. Geographic fac• tors have provided the potential land use but economic factors usually control the changes in land use. The guiding economic principle of land allocation to various uses Is the concept of marginal revenue*. It seems inevitable, then, that the * As the application of labor and capital (inputs) to land is increased a maximum level of(outputs) production is reached. Beyond this level, the application of more inputs will yield smaller outputs. Marginal revenue, then, seeks to equate all additional units of input in all land uses in terms of productivity. 151 agricultural areas will be replaced by "higher" uses. The use of social values as planning criteria (as discussed on page II4.7) has, generally speaking, been lacking or over• ruled by economic considerations. Surely if planning is for people then social values are important. The planner's role is more than asking the questions - he should look for the information that the social scientist has not been able to supply. Por example, the creation of a new subdivision provides a fairly specific environment. Does this environ• ment result in specific social effects? Can these social relationships be used to judge the adequacy of the planner's design? The Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board Under Section 717 of the British Columbia Municipal Act,* the Councils of two or more municipalities may petition the Lieutenant-Governor In Council, who may declare any area, including unorganized territory, within a region, a planning area and define the boundaries of the area. Where a planning area is so designated the Lieutenant-Governor in Council shall establish a board under the name of "The Reg• ional Planning Board". The Board shall consist of one member of Council appointed by the Council of each municipality with• in the area and one member appointed by the Lieutenant-Gov- 1 ernor in Council. * British Columbia Municipal Act, Queen's Printer, Victoria, 1957, Section 717. ~ 152 Under Section 718* of the Act: "It is the duty of the Board to prepare community plans -applicable to the planning area and for this purpose may appoint or employ such planning engineers or con• sultants and such other persons as may be necessary, whose salaries . . . shall be paid from the general funds of the Board. The Board may also undertake community planning work for a member municipality on such terms and conditions as are mutually agreed upon." Under Section 720*i of the Act, the Board may, by a two-thirds affirmative vote of all its members and approval of the Lieutenant-Governor in Council, adopt as the official community plan any community plan prepared under Section 7l8. In 1950 the Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board was established under this provision of the Municipal Act.-:^ The Board consists of representatives of the municipalities and unorganized, areas in the Lower Mainland Region and a representative appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor in Coun• cil. It has a professional staff (including a geographer) and is financed by its member municipalities and the provinc• ial government. The existence of a Regional Planning Board in the Lower Mainland is a unique feature and is a powerful potential * Ibid., Section 718. Ibid.i, Section 720. *2 In actual fact the Board was established by the Minister of Municipal Affairs under the authority of the Town Planning Act. The provisions of the new (municipal) act, however, are essentially the same. 153 planning tool - particularly in view of the problems facing the region, which were outlined on the previous pages. The Board will be discussed as follows: Firstly, as this paper is concerned with planning applications of physical factors, to what extent the Board has considered these factors in its planning work and the effect these considerations have had on resulting policy and recommendations. Secondly, as planning, to be effective, must have means of implementation, the powers of the Board to carry out planning policy will be discussed. 1. Consideration of G-eographic Factors Perhaps the first major problem of the Board was the delimitation of its region. It has considered the Lower Mainland region to be the region outlined above under Region• al Considerations. "The region is almost a natural geographic unit since -.mountains and the sea bound it on roughly three sides, while the International Boundary, though not a geographic barrier, is nevertheless, a very real one. "31 The next Important point is: Has the Board, which should consider all important factors, really done so? Surely if the basis for delimiting the region was largely geographic, geographic considerations are very important to the planner. With this question in mind, the writer examined The Lower Mainland Looks Ahead, Revised Edition, November 19^21 154 examined eight reports published by the Board.* In summary: - 3 reports (The Lower Mainland Looks Ahead, Airports for the Lower Mainland, and Parks, Schools, Arterials) deal, in part, with physical geographic factors that may effect planning considerations. - other reports, for example, Outlook on Industry, do not deal with physical geographic factors. No mention is made of climatic Influences (fog, ground water supplies, etc.), topography, foundation problems, and so on. The writer is not able to suggest why these physical factors have not been more fully considered. In studies in which the Board has considered physical factors, and their relative importance with respect to economic, social, polit• ical, and administrative factors, they have been influential in recommendations made. For example, drainage, topography, wind, fog, etc. were considered important-criterion for selecting airfield sites (See Airports for the Lower Mainland). In this case economic factors play a "secondary role to exac• ting physical requirements. The Board has done some very valuable work in connection with the problem of "rural-urban conflict", outlined in the preceding section. The Board has published a regional land *"* A Preliminary Economic Study of the Proposed Rosed ale-Aga• ssi z Bridge, September 1952. The Lower Mainland Looks Ahead, Revised Edition, Nov. 1952. Airports for the Lower Mainland, September 1953. The Greater Vancouver Metropolitan Community, A Preliminary Factual Study, April 1954. Parks, Schools, Arterials, District of Surrey, British Col-, umbia, December 1955. Economic Aspects of Urban Sprawl, May 1956. Metropolitan Parks - A Challenge", May 1956. Outlook on Industry, December 1957. 155 use plan* which includes: - existing and proposed industrial areas " " " other urban " " 11 institutional" '! ? airports 11 " " parks " " " roads " railways 'J - land.over 15 percent slope - land to be kept for agriculture where possible. In this report the Board noted that priority in land planning must be given to basic Industrial needs. Industry is becoming larger and their space requirements are growing. As a result geographic factors play an increasingly import• ant role as the site must be on level ground, capable of carrying the weight of buildings and machines, well-drained and accessible by road, rail, and often water. As a region matures its industrial base moves from a dependency on pri• mary resource development to one dependent on secondary and tertiary manufacturing. The industrial base of the Lower Mainland region is slowly but steadily moving in this direc• tion. The most important industries are still those util• izing forest resources, but the trend is to wood fabrication and other uses that technology is developing. The production of a wide range of iron and steel products to meet the expan• ding needs of primary resource development in other areas is growing rapidly. The arrival of new forms of energy (oil and gas) has led to the establishment of chemical industries; * The Lower Mainland Looks Ahead, Revised Edition, November 156 The continued growth and spread of population will produce ever-increasing demands for more tertiary or service facil• ities. Recognizing this trend, the Board also feels that it is wrong to sacrifice the region's best agricultural land by residential use when more suitable land is available for that purpose. Among the report's final recommendations the following are made with certain geographic considerations: - a Metropolitan Park Board should be established to dev• elop and administer large parks in the rural area - in developing future water supplies, valley municipal• ities should consider utilizing the services of the Greater Vancouver Water Board - a Metropolitan Airport Board should be established - a long range plan is needed for the development of a regional system of airports - the possibilities of rural zoning should be studied - programs of education and demonstration in conservation methods should be increased - a study of climate. This could be correlated with soils and ground water survey and should Include additional meteorological stations throughout the Lower Mainland region. 2. The Board's Powers of Implementation Although the Board has become a very effective mechanism by which planning problems may be recognized, solutions offer• ed (and at times accepted-"-), it is not an effective instrument for local or regional planning. There are no powers of imp- ••i An example of how few these "acceptances" are is the problem of airport sites in the Lower Mainland region. In 19i}-6 a warning was given that very few potential sites were avail• able. In a 1953 report, the Board pleaded that the situation was critical. Since then much damage has been done and, es• sentially, the problem remains. (Con't. p. 157) 158 lamentation given the Board under the Municipal Act. The power to implement plans must stem from some level of government and a regional planning board must be on arm of and responsible to that level of government. The natural level of government, in this case, seems to be provincial as, by legislation, it has created the Board. Until the Board is given the powers to implement its plans and is clearly co-ordinated from the executive level of government (possibly by establishing a Ministry of Planning), it is in danger of becoming a consulting agency for interested member municipalities. This trend is evident if one looks at the majority of the reports published by the Board. They are, in the main, technical or popular reports on specific problems. While some of these problems are regional in nature, there is no existing framework or regional plan into which they may be fitted; thus the Board cannot fulfill Its regional fun• ction. For example: (Con't. from p. 157) Some recommendations made by the Board have been accept• ed, by some municipalities, and attempts made to implement them. For example, a system of agricultural zoning, enlarge• ment of the Greater Vancouver Water and Sewage Board, etc. The Board noted in 1952 (The Lower Mainland Looks Ahead), that some form of metropolitan government and eventually a regional government was needed (basically to control met• ropolitan and regional services). Today this recommendation, considered critical by the Board, is finally under serious study by the Committee on Metropolitan Government. 159 - the Board has no power to take control measures to avoid silting in the Fraser River - a vital geographic and planning problem - the Board has no control over the location of major highways. This again is an absolutely vital aspect of regional planning. Finally to "add insult to injury", it seems some planning functions that are primarily the concern of the Board are being performed by other agencies. A good case in point is the Metropolitan Highway Planning Committee established to study the metropolitan highway problem. It was established by the Provincial Department of Highways with most of the planning and engineering staff provided by the City of Vancouver. The writer does not intend to offer solutions but is more concerned with raising questions. Perhaps if the Municipal Act charged the Regional Planning Board with preparing regional instead of community plans, the Board might operate at the regional level. The situation seems to be the result of an unsympathetic provincial governmental attitude and short-sighted provincial governmental policy. There does not seem to be much.hope for better planning implementation within the present provincial structure. For the sake of argument, the writer suggests the following "restructuring"; 1. Creation of a Provincial Department of Planning - Planning in Canada is still largely a permissive fun• ction of local government. Municipalities may org• anize for planning purposes thus placing the onus for 160 actually devising and implementing plans directly on the municipality. This Initial planning problem might be solved by giving this Department the auth• ority to require incorporated areas to prepare and submit a plan within a specified time. Regional Planning Division - Within the Provincial Department of Planning a Regional Planning Division would function to co-ordinate all Regional Planning Boards. The Regional Planning Division would be the final level of appeal against Regional Planning Board decisions. Regional Planning Boards - A board would be estab• lished on request of municipalities or by the dec• ision of a Regional Planning Committee, composed of directors of existing Regional Planning Boards. These Boards would be required to submit a plan which, if adopted by the Regional Planning Committee and approved by the Minister of Planning would become the official Regional Plan for the region. Municipal Planning Boards - Where local Planning Boards exist they would be required to submit a plan (with the approval of Council) to the Department of Planning, which, with approval of the Department and the Minister would become the official Community Plan. Where local planning boards do not exist, the Regional Planning Board concerned will undertake the local 161 planning. If neither a Municipal or Regional Planning Board exist, the area would be required to establish a Municipal Planning Board. 5. Concentration and Division of Authority - The Munic• ipal Planning Board, with the approval of Council, will have the authority (by zoning, subdivision, and replotting control, capital works, budgeting, etc.), to control development within its incorporated area. On matters concerning regional development (highways, airports, etc.), it must secure the approval of the Regional Planning Board concerned, if one exists, or the Department of Planning. Many means of planning implementation are scattered throughout a great deal of legislation. For example: redev• elopment, control of beaches and navigable water, material specifications, licensing, parks, and so on. Ideally, from a planning point of view, these measures should be concentr• ated under planning legislation. Practically, they cannot be, as too many Interests, agencies, government departments, etc. are concerned. However, the establishment of planning as an executive government department would help to bring these various int• erests together. The probable result would be more favour• able, comprehensive, and faster planning action. 162 CHAPTER VII - CONCLUSIONS Introduction In the final analysis, our physical resources are the basis of all economic life. The importance of geographic distribution of resources throughout the world has been modified by continual technological advances. Many resources are classed as non-renewable, that is they cannot be re- grown, replaced, or recovered after use to any great extents (See Chapter IV). As these resources are exploited, the available reserve drops and either (1) more must be found or, (2) something must take their place. To date, man has been able to do this - especially the latter (See Figure 7)« Other resources are classed as renewable and, if produced on a sustained-yield basis, are not depleted. Historically, the problem has been that with a large demand for these resources, they have been exploited much beyond sustained- yield level. Increases in technology have had two effects in the case of renewable resources. On one hand, they have led to their depletion by producing the means by which large scale operations are possible (logging, fishing, etc.). Such equipment in the hands of private enterprise operating under little or no governmental control has led to widespread des• truction in many areas. On the other hand, increases in technology and scientific information have made techniques and methods available by which renewable resources may be more fully utilized without exceeding sustained-yield levels. 163 As pointed out in the Introduction, man is faced with ever-increasing demands by a rapidly increasing population, and technology alone, while providing the tools, will not solve the problem. The greatest technological advances have been made in the more advanced* countries and will probably be of little benefit to the rest of the world for many years. The solution to this problem seems to lie In increasing the carrying capacity of the land in order to prevent des• truction through improper use and to realize some of the tremendous potential which exists at present (See Figures 1 and 2). Despite the claims advanced by many writers that there is "enough for all"*i the fact remains that population pressures are presenting a serious problem. This paper has made no attempt to discuss demographic trends or solutions of demographic problems. The control of population is a com• plex subject and faces much opposition on political, cultural, and religious grounds.*2 Although measurable progress is being made in this field, the writer feels that drastic con• trol measures will not be attained in the foreseeable,future. This leads us to the inevitable conclusion that until man is * In an industrial and scientific sense. *], For example: Mather, K.F.: Enough and to Spare, Harper and Brothers, New York, 19UJ4-- *2 For an excellent discussion of the problems of overpopu• lation the reader is referred to: Karl Sax, Standing Room Only, Beacon Press, Boston, 1955. 16k able, if ever, to control his numbers, he must Increase his ability to support his growing numbers at higher standards of living, on a world-wide basis. The most enlightened approach to the. problem of increas• ing the carrying capacity of the land is national planning of resource development on a regional basis. If our gener• ation is entrusted with today's economic well-being, and res• ponsible for passing on to the next the greatest prospects for continued well-being, then our obligation to plan ahead as best we can is clear. In developing land for any purposes, man faces certain physical limitations. The two most obvious and important are climate and landforms. This study has attempted to develop and apply certain principles of climate and landforms in the planned use of natural resources on a regional basis. Since regional development also involves urban building, some re• ference is made to the applications of these principles to this phase of planning as well. The focus of the study has been the examination of two "case study".regions - in effect, to test these principles. Before the conclusions are presented,; the writer would like to stress once more that the planned use of natural re• sources does not only depend on the application of our know• ledge of physical (and other) factors. Political, economic, administrative, technological, and social factors are equally or, in many cases, more important; but these considerations have been discussed in this study only in passing. 165 Conclusions HISTORICALLY, MAN HAS BEEN UNABLE TO UNDERSTAND THE BALANCE FORMED BY THE INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF PHYSICAL FACTORS. Some of the results of this lack of understanding have been presented in the introduction to this paper. The dis• ruption of this balance, by man's activities, has been in• fluential in the rise and fall of civilizations and political ideologies. Only in the 20th Century has man begun to re• alize the importance of these physical relationships. Today roughly two-thirds of the world's population do not know "freedom from want". PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS FORM THE ENVIRONMENTAL BACKGROUND AGAINST. WHICH DEVELOPMENT MUST TAKE PLACE. As this development should be planned, these geographic factors are important considerations of which the planner must be aware. In this regard, the planner need hot be a, physical scientist. The most important role of a planner is that of a synthesist - like the geographer, he must consider the parts in relation to the whole. Physical factors must be weighed and evaluated relative to economic, political, tech• nological, social, and other applicable considerations. However, the planner must go further than the geographer in that after he establishes the relative importance of these considerations, they are used as a base upon- which planning policy and programming may be built. 166 THE TWO BASIC PHYSICAL FACTORS MAN MUST CONSIDER IN THE DEV• ELOPMENT OF RESOURCES (CLIMATE AND LANDFORMS) ARE CLOSELY INTERRELATED. These interrelationships, and the resulting principles applicable to planning resource development, have not been fully recognized. It was pointed out in Chapter III that most work being done in the field of climatic-geomorphology is on a high academic level and has not resulted in very many practical applications. The summary of principles and areas of study and application (Pages 67-72), may be useful to the planner on this "practical level". THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHIC CONSIDERATIONS, IN ANY DEVELOPMENT, WILL VARY GREATLY. HOWEVER, WHERE THEY ARE IMPORTANT, THEY MAY RESULT IN NEW PLANNING CONCEPTS AND METHODS. The relative importance of physical factors in a specific resource development was illustrated In Chapter V. Physical factors resulted in two important locational advantages (power and deep-sea harbour). However, the decision to de• velop this physical potential resulted from economic consid• erations. Although economic factors outweighed all other con• siderations, physical factors were important and resulted in the new planning concepts and methods discussed on pages 110 to 118. Many of the planning implications resulting from the Kit• imat experience will have applications to similar types of development. This will be especially true of Canada, for ex• ample British Columbia and the Canadian Shield, but will apply 167 to areas throughout the world. They may be of special sig• nificance in underdeveloped areas where planning might be faced with problems of intense heat, unfamiliar disease, and so on. IT MAY BE ADVANTAGEOUS TO CONSIDER PHYSICAL FACTORS FROM TWO LEVELS - (1) REGIONAL AND, (2) LOCAL OR URBAN. THIS SEEMS TO PRESENT A. BETTER PICTURE AS SOME PHYSICAL FACTORS ARE MORE IMPORTANT OVER THE REGION WHILE OTHERS HAVE MORE INFLUENCE LOCALLY. This approach was taken for both "case studies". For example: (a) Physical factors may be influential in such regional considerations as: - the type of agriculture within the region. These factors have helped establish a well developed dairy and poultry industry in the Lower Mainland Region. - the transport patterns (See Figure Ik). - regional recreations and potential recreational areas. (b) Physical factors may be influential in such local (urban) conditions as: - the allignment and orientation of streets and buildings (Kitimat is a good example). - the provision of utilities. - the preservation of open spaces. Microclimatic and microtopographic influences on the con• struction of engineering projects may be important and should be recognized by the planner. Results from both the Kitimat- Kemano and Lower Mainland regions Indicate the importance of physical factors in, for example: - the selection of dam sites - the location of airports 168 - industrial location (foundations, water supply, etc.) - highway construction - waste disposal and stream pollution - bridge construction - construction of transmission lines. BEFORE DEVELOPMENT PROCEEDS, THE APPROPRIATE PHYSICAL ELEMENTS SHOULD BE STUDIED. THIS CANNOT BE ADEQUATELY DONE UNLESS ENOUGH DATA.IS.AVAILABLE. The reliability of the results (and the planning based on these results) will depend to a great extent on the rep• resentativeness, completeness, and length of available data. The Kitimat-Kemano experience indicates that even the best engineers and planners must have adequate data to plan comprehensively. " . . . if we could have known more about the science of - meteorology ... It would have been of great help ... our own planners assumed an extremely high value for the flood flow in the river, which cost us a lot of money ... Some of us felt that the planners were un• necessarily conservative, but since no one knew, there was not too much point in arguing."32 Industry, today, is spending great sums of money on re• source development and seeks some assurance it will not be wasted. The importance of survey to planning cannot be under• estimated, for it is upon the analysis of the survey that planning is built. Without an adequate survey, planning may not be flexible enough to cope with the unexpected. 32 Kendrick, J.S.:"Research and the Kitimat Project", Address to the 7th B.C. Natural Resources-Conference, Victoria, 1951+. 169 IN CERTAIN AREAS A COMBINATION OP PHYSICAL FACTORS MAY RESULT.IN AN APPROPRIATE BASIS FOR REGIONAL DELIMITATION. These physical factors may also establish various pat• terns throughout the region (transportation, agricultural areas, etc.). These patterns will probably be modified to a varying, degree by other factors (mainly economic, political, administrative, and settlement pattern). The Lower Mainland region has been cited as a "natural region". There are many fairly distinct regions in British Columbia and, over a period of time, the influence of physical factors has helped to create distinct economic and social patterns within each area. Two of the most important problems facing the planner in regional analysis are: 1. defining the boundaries of the region whether they be lines or zones. 2. establishing a regional core. In many cases it seems reasonable to apply physical criteria to the first and socio-economic to the second. THE GEOGRAPHIC PATTERNS OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES WILL INFLUENCE THE TYPE OF DEVELOPMENT FEASIBLE OR POSSIBLE. Canada, and especially British Columbia, is undergoing rapid economic development, much of which is based on the exploitation of natural resources. Because of the distrib• ution of these resources, physical factors, although usually secondary to economic considerations, have presented planning problems. 170 Many potential resources exist but cannot be developed until a favourable combination of many factors exists. Geo• graphic position may influence the economic feasibility of development by its influence on markets, development costs, etc. The Lower Mainland region is a good example of an area in which resource distribution has effected development pat• terns (See Figure lk). For example: - the distribution of. soil types has influenced the agricultural pattern - the distribution of vegetation has effected the pattern of forest use - the distribution of topographic features has influenced the transport patterns and accessibility. The planner must consider these distributions as (1) they will effect the economic feasibility of development (distance accessibility, etc.) and (2) if development is initiated, each resource may involve specific planning pro• blems such as industrial location, new towns, transportation facilities, etc. SOME OF THE MOST IMPORTANT EFFECTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITIONS ON RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT ARE THE-SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS INVOLVED. THIS IS INDICATED BY EXPERIENCE IN CONSTRUCTING NEW TOWNS. The typical large-scale development activity may involve thousands of workers. ..The average worker today, unlike that of 30 years ago, is married and often has a family. A new town, serving a resource development project, must be a place in which these people will want to live* or the project may not be successful. This may mean more than the provision of homes, comm• unity centers, churches, schools, etc. If physical condit• ions present problems (poor climate, isolation, etc.) the planner must try to overcome or compensate for them by des• ign and the provision of special facilities. These physical problems will vary or, in some areas, may be unimportant. Chapter V has outlined some solutions offered by the Kitimat planners but the same thinking should apply to other situations as well. If planning measures, resulting from physical factors, are used to create a physical environment (a residential subdivision for example) they will also create a social en• vironment. Perhaps the resulting social relationships may be used to judge the adequacy of the planning and, therefore, the importance to planning of the original physical factors. The Kitimat experience seems to indicate some correlation between the adequacy of planning and the resulting social effects. Many of the original suggestions, resulting from adverse physical factors, were not implemented. The result has definitely been injurious to social relationships (see page 116-117). * See Page 99 for Clarence Stein's concept of Kitimat. 172 The planner, therefore, should be aware that physical and social environments are interrelated. It is probably impossible to obtain direct measurements but these relation• ships should be considered if only by talking about them. AS AN URBAN AREA EXPANDS, PLANNERS ARE USUALLY PACED WITH A CONFLICT OF LAND USES IN WHICH PHYSICAL FACTORS MAY BE IMPORTANT.. In a region containing a large urban area, physical factors are important in the development of a complementary relationship between the urban area and its hinterland. As the urban area expands it occupies rural land for urban uses. The planner is faced with the problem of urban encroachment on agricultural land and the resulting conflict of land uses. Physical factors have been influential in establishing the agricultural patterns around the urban area and may con• trol the directions on which the urban area can expand. They should, therefore, be given consideration as the planner attempts to resolve this problem. This might be done in the following manner: 1. How physical factors have effected present patterns of activity. For example, in the Lower Mainland region: - landforms have influenced land use by providing harbour, river valley, and delta, etc. - by directing the urban growth, physical factors have limited the available land supply (relative to a city free to expand in all directions). This has intensified the land use conflict. 2. What their effect' may be on future development. - the amount of non-agricultural land available for expansion - the potential of extended development of the Fraser River 173 - the availability of water supply - physical factors may be locational attractions for future industrial development. This was the case in the Kitimat-Kemano region with power and harbour available. THE ROLE OP THE PLANNER SEEMS TO VARY A GREAT DEAL DEPENDING ON THE DEGREE OF DEVELOPMENT (IF ANY) WITHIN A REGION. In a new development planning may face many complex problems but the opportunity exists to plan comprehensively, thus (in theory) reducing problems as development grows. The Kitimat type of development is a good example. Once the problems of accessibility, construction, etc. have been solved and the development is in operation, the planner is able to fit future development into largely predetermined patterns. In the case of a large, established, complex region (for example the Lower Mainland region), the planner is faced with many conditions he cannot change and problems he cannot fully resolve. Patterns of land use have become established and involve too much investment to undergo major changes. His role in this case is to guide present development and to plan the best possible patterns of future development. IN ORDER TO PLAN FOR, CONTROL, AND DIRECT THE PHYSICAL (AND OTHER) FACTORS WHICH EFFECT REGIONAL AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT, THERE:IS A.NEED FOR A REGIONAL PLANNING AGENCY. Regardless of where, or on what basis, regional bound• aries are drawn, a Regional Planning Agency should be est• ablished. Whatever its precise administrative and political 174 structure, this Agency would be responsible for the overall planning and development of the region. A Regional Planning Agency should be so politically and administratively structured so as to provide it with ad• equate powers of implementation. It should be recognized that physical, economic, and social planning are in separable and should all be vested in one Agency. As a case in point, the Lower Mainland Regional Planning Board has been discussed in Chapter VI. Although the Board is potentially a strong planning tool and has recognized (at times)-«- the important role of physical factors, it has no power to implement its plans. Perhaps this may be a reason why it has not given more consideration to these physical factors. Some of these factors, such as the location of major highways and river channel control, are important parts of regional planning. The political climate under which planning must operate is very important. It should provide not only adequate plan• ning legislation but governmental policies must be flexible, allowing for changes as the region changes. In order to be in a position to influence government policy, planning, ide• ally, should be on the executive level of government.•»]_ Here it would be able to influence policy decisions on, for example, -* See Pages 153-155. *x See Pages 159-161. 175 the questions of metropolitan and regional government. The results of this paper are not offered as "blanket" solutions to other similar types of planning problems. However, the writer feels they may provide the planner with some insight into problems arising from physical factors and thus better equip him to deal with them. The theme of the paper is not to "beware of the physical environment", but to discover it - relate it to other factors, weigh its import• ance, then if it is important, make it a part of planning. Some day man may control his environment, but until then he must live with it. APPENDIX A Specific Elements of Climate Relating to Regional Resource Planning I Temperature - annual regime - mean maximum - mean minimum - absolute maximum - absolute minimum - durinal range - inter-durinal range - annual range (mean) - annual range (extreme) - monthly range cyclical range - dates of - start of frost free period end of frost free period - accumulated temperatures (degree days) - anomolles of temperature - vertical temperature gradients - rates of heat transfer II Precipitation - annual regime - mean maximum - mean minimum - absolute maximum - absolute minimum - type - rain snow - hail occult precipitation - depth of snow - time of first lasting snowfall - time of last lasting snowfall - intensity of precipitation - anomolies of precipitation III Wind - annual regime of velocities - average annual wind velocities - mean maximum velocities - mean minimum velocities - absolute maximum velocities - wind rose (direction) - destructive winds - other phenonema associated with winds 177 IV Radi atlon - average intensity - maximum (mean) intensity - minimum (mean) intensity - angles of incidence (solar height) - amount (sunshine hours) V Cloud Coverage - monthly number of hours with various cloud forms - total cloud (in tenths of sky covered) by hours - number of hours (per month) with obstructions to vision and 1) visibility measured.in miles (horizontal) 2) ceiling measured in feet (vertical) obstructions should include: - fog , !- ice-fog - blowing dust or sand - smoke - haze - snow VI Relative and Absolute Humidity - annual regime - mean maximum - mean minimum - absolute maximum ~ absolute minimum VII Evaporation and Transpiration - there are some rates that are useful especially in connection with erosion and natural vegetation problems. Note: Some elements included here are not very important in a regional sense. They are, however, important in a local sense and are therefore Included. 178 APPENDIX B Elements of Aerial Photo Interpretation Part I Physical A Topography - relative relief and relief features may be located by: 1. Identification through shadows 2. Identification through vegetation 3. Identification through, drainage [j.. Identification through roads and railroads 5. Identification through cultivation. B Physiographic Features 1. Fault lines may be identified by: a) soil b) drainage displacement c) visible scarps 2. -Anticlines may be identified by: a) radial drainage b) streams following bedding planes 3. Alluvial fans may be identified by: a) soil tone may define characteristic shape b) found in areas of sharp relief where there will be a suddening flattening of grade c) braided stream channels may be visible. In a similar manner the following physiographic features may be identified:* Sedimentary rocks 5. Sinkholes 6. Kettleholes 7. Stream capture 8. Ravines 9. Moraines 10. Outwash plains 11. Drumlines 12. Eskers 13. Youthful and mature surfaces G Drainage 1. Water Bodies - except streams a) flat uniformity of tone b) shoreline distinguished by a sharp change in tone and color o) waves and breakers may be visible d) vegetation texture may change near shore. * This does not mean the following features are identified by the same criterion, as in most cases different criterion apply. 179 In a similar manner the following drainage features may be identified: 2. Rivers, streams, creeks 3. Rapids and falls I+. Braided streams 5. Flood plains 6. Bank lines 7. Oxbow lakes and meander scars 8. Canals 9. Dams and similar constructions 10, Soil drainage D Soils - broad generalizations about soils are possible but no detailed classifications should be attempted on this basis alone. Vegetation associations and a knowledge of climatic conditions may also give some clue as to soil nature - for example, a damp soil will show darker than a dry soil in the same area, marsh and swamp vegetation Indicates peat and muck, etc. E Mineral Resources - air photos are used by experienced personnel to determine geologic structure as reflected in surface features. The petroleum industry is a good example where drainage, soil textures, etc. are used to identify oil-bearing strata. F Coasts and Shores - unless a water surface is light struck (whijte) it photographs dark with the tone varying with depth. On this basis, submerged forms can be identified by their shape and position. 1. Submarine deltas 2. Spits, bars, reefs, submerged terraces, etc. 3. Mud flats !(•• Beaches 5>. Sand dunes 6. Sea cliffs and bluffs. G Plant Life - the delimitation of vegetation zones is one of the most important contributions of aerial photography to geographic inventory. 1. Hardwoods a) billowy light and dark tone b) texture is "salt and pepper" In a similar manner the following may be identified: 2. Conifers 3. Mixed hardwoods and conifers k* Estimates of stand 5. Swamps 6. Marshes 7. Grasslands 8. Brush 9. Burns 10. Cutover areas 180 Part II Cultural A Rural Buildings - among the chief characteristics of occupance are buildings which are immediately recognizable on photographs. The problem of interpretation is the determination of the function of the structures, generally by means of associative keys. Indications as to use may be gathered from a study of the surroundings of the buildings under:consideration. The factors to be considered are: 1. The shadow of the structure, which will give information as to the form of the building, its height, and structural characteristics. 2. The tone of the ground surrounding the structure. 3» The surrounding buildings, piles of materials, communication lines, etc. k. The site, position and situation, including spacing of the structures with reference to the lot and neighboring structures, 5>. Any other helpful associative characteristics. Specific types of buildings may include: a) rural schools b) rural churches c) farmhouses d) barns e) lumber mills f) cottages g) hunting shacks h) abandoned buildings B Rural Production - identification of cultivated land is immediate because of the regularity of pattern and texture it exhibits, in contrast to the coarser textures, Irregular outlines, and more homogeneous tones of forest, grassland, or brushland. Some specific elements are: 1. field lines 2. cultivated land 3. crop types k. circular plowing and harvesting 5>. orchards C Transportation - the following may be identified on the basis of color, texture, regularity, association with other cultural features, etc. 1. trails 2. roads 3. railroads fords across bodies of water 5. transmission lines 6. airports 7. docks D Urban Forma - the city lends Itself more readily to Interpretation than does the rural landscape. Some patterns have become so standardized they are easily recognized. The use of shadows and associative keys is of particular importance. The following features are very useful and the function they perform important 1. trees 2. railroads 3. oil, gas, and coal storage Ij.. industrial buildings 5. streets 6. commercial core 7. commercial zones 8. apartments 9. public buildings 10. schools 11. house types 12. suburban areas 13. parks and cemetries II4.. recreational areas. 182 APPENDIX C Effects Produced by Various Geomorphic Agents GEOMORPHIC AGENT TYPICAL RESULTING EFFECTS CRUSTAL DEFORMATION Large ranges of mountains, geosynclinal basins, faults. IGNEOUS ACTION Volcanic cones, volcanic debris, soil formations after weathering, etc. WEATHERING The rock mantle, soil, etc. depending on chemical or mechanical origin. MASS WASTING or Talus slopes, rock streams and glaciers, GRAVITATIVE TRANSFER landslides, raudflows, collapse, solifluction, etc. RUNNING WATER River valley systems, sheet-flood erosion, rainwash, arroyos, and other landforms found in arid regions, fans, deltas, bars, etc. SNOW and ICE Continental and alpine glaciers, land- forms associated with glacial action, e.g. cirques, glaciated valleys, hang• ing valleys, moraines, fjords. WIND Sand dunes, loess deposits, rock pillars, natural arches, escarpments. SUBSURFACE WATER Basins, solution sinks, and valleys, cavern systems, cliff caverns. WAVES Beaches, sea cliffs, bars, spits, lagoons, submarine canyons, reefs. ORGANISMS Coral reefs, beaver dams, anthills, activities of man (farming, mining, building dams and cities, etc.) 183 APPENDIX D Thornwaite's Classification of Climates Instead of employing single temperature and precipitation values to establish boundaries, the concepts of temperature efficiency and precipitation effectiveness are used. These concepts cannot be expressed in ordinary climatic values, and therefore must be thought of as zones. Thornwaite was the first to introduce mean monthly values instead of annual values. In his latest system (1914-8) he regards vegetation as a "physical mechanism by means of which water is transported from the soil to the atmosphere". In the classification, the "precipitation effectiveness" of the area is the key factor. There is no suitable mechanism at present for measuring evaporation so it was related to temperature. The evaporation from the soil surface added to the transpiration from plants was called the "evapotranspiration rate" and was computed as a function of the - temperature• Precipitation efficiency index = 12 1G/c 115 n-1 T-10 where P = monthly precipitation T - mean monthly temperature in °P. Based on the above, five humidity provinces are distin• guished, each of which appears associated with a vegetation type. CHARACTERISTIC HUMIDITY P/E INDEX VEGETATION PROVINCE 128 4- Rainforest Wet 6ij. - 127 Forest Humid 32 - 63 Grassland Subhumid 16 - 31 Steppe Semiarid Under 16 Desert Arid Trewartha, G.T.; An Introduction to Climate. McGraw-Hill • Book Co. Ltd., Toronto, 1954, PP. 225-230. These five humidity provinces are subdivided into four sub• types based on the concentration of precipitation: r - rainfall abundant in all seasons s s rainfall deficient in summer w a rainfall deficient in winter d s rainfall deficient in all seasons. A further refinement is added, based on temperature efficiency. TEMPERATURE P/E INDEX PROVINCE 128 -h A1 - Tropical 6t|. - 127 B1 - Me sothermal 32 - 63 C1 - Microthermal 16-31 D1 - tiaga 1 -.15 - tundra 0 P1 - frost Theoretically, 120 combinations of these three elements are possible. In reality, Thornwaite recognizes only 32. The above system of classification was included for illustrative purposes only and is not considered by the writer to be the most applicable in all cases. 185 APPENDIX B Man as a Geological Agent* Throughout history but especially in the 20th Century, the activities of man have been responsible for many changes in his physical environment. Many writers are beginning to classify the works of man along with the other physical forces that are responsible for the patterns of landforms and other environmental factors. Most of man's geological activities are as an agent of denudation. This includes almost all forms of mining and, more indirectly, the destruction of vegetation which leads to changes in climate, erosion, and so on. Some of the additional activities of man resulting in physical changes are: .- disturbance of natural ground water flow - changes In the course of rivers and smaller water channels - the filling of lakes - theccreation of new lakes - the checking and/or promotion of erosional processes - modification of climate Most of these processes are erratic and concentrated at specific points with the result that their effects are hard to estimate. Man's engineering works are so many and of such a variety that it is almost impossible to see their cumulative effect on nature. The only possible way, then, to try to estimate these effects is to do so on a regional basis. As, in addition, the region must be one in which many and accurate records are available, the British Isles is a good example. There are at least seven major areas into which these human activities may fall. 1. Excavation - this area will include material from mines, quarries, etc. and material from rivers, canals, etc. obtained from dredging. 2. Attrition - (abrasion). Included in this area is material used for road building and some forms of mining. 3» Subsidence - may be the result of subsurface and subaqueous mining or extraction of such materials as oil, brine, water, etc. The major effect of subsidence is the disruption of surface drainage. TOTAL EXCAVATION IN GREAT BRITAIN (1922 estimate) Activity Cubic Yards mines 19,692,000,000 quarries and pits 15,500,000,000 railways 3,030,500,000 * Much of the following is adopted from R.L. Sherlock. Man as a Geological Agent. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., London, 1930. 186 canals 2^3,500,000 road cuttings 62l+,000,000 docks and harbours 100,000,000 buildings and streets 500,000,000 TOTAL 39,699,000,000 1+. Accumulation - of all the products of man's activities. These may take many shapes and sizes and have many effects. Such things as garbage dumps and mine tailings are examples. 5. Alterations of the Sea Coast - the deposition and removal of material is the major causative factor. Some examples are: - planting or removal of vegetation - drainage of dyking - sea walls, spits, etc. - reclamation of land - docks - dredging 6. Circulation of Water - some activities of man have interfered with the natural circulation of water. Some examples are: - land drainage - irrigation - water supply for domestic and industrial use - water pumped from workings, mines, etc. - modifications of natural drainage - stream pollution - increasing natural runoff by removal of vegetation - decreasing natural runoff (and therefore erosion) by dams and reservoirs. 7. Climate and Scenery - the effects of man's activities on both are fairly obvious. Por example: - the effect of vegetation on climate is important especially when it is removed. Floods and increased erosion are the result. - the removal of vegetation may also increase the concentration of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Grassed Soil Bare Soil Slope 10° 20° 30° 10° 20° 30° 13.9 1+1.6 50.8 83I+.8 2368.1+ 3101.1 The above table shows the weight of detritus, in grams, removed by rains and melting snow, per square metre of surface, over a period of one year. As slope increases the erosion increases, but even more marked is the increase in erosion on bare soil, as compared with grassed soil. Trees with underbrush are even better than grass. 187 - the destruction of forests effects the temperature. When vegetation is present the evaporation of water from it creates a lower temperature. With the removal of vegetation, and'consequent temperature rise, erosion may start. This may, in turn, raise the temperature by: a) facilitating drainage, and therefore drying the soil b) allowing cold air to drain away. - in many areas man's activities have destroyed or enhanced the;scenery. Conclusion The work of man resembles that of natural agents that are known to have acted with exceptional power at Intervals in the earth's history. For example: the action of Ice through the Pleistocene epoch. The marked characteristic of man, as a geological agent, is intermittency. A process that produces rapid denudation may only last a few years. For example, most of Britain's canals were built by 1800 when the railways started to replace.-them. These had their own effects on the physical environment and today are almost as extensive as they will ever be. Instead of producing flat, smooth surfaces as nature's processes do, man makes holes, mounds, terraces, and other uneven shapes - much like glacial action. Natural denudation removes the softer rocks with the result that they form the valleys and the harder rocks form the hills and plateaus. Man may excavate hard or soft rock and in many cases prefers hard. For example, roadbeds, quarries, etc. Sherlock has estimated the total amount of material exca• vated by man in Britain to be It-0,000 million cubic yards. This Is equal to a depth of 5>.2lj." over the entire surface area of Britain (except Ireland). To compare this with natural erosion, Sir Archibald Geikie* estimates the rate of plantation of the British Isles to be 1 foot In 8,800 years. In spite of variations in the mode of attack, it seems that the rate of human denudation, on the whole, has been Increasing rapidly until the present time. An interesting question asked is: "Will the rate continue to increase, or decrease In the future?" * Sir A. Geikie: Text Book of Geology. 2 vols., £th Edition, 188 BIBLIOGRAPHY Addison, H.: Land. Water and Food. 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United Nations, Statistical Yearbook. United Nations Publications, New York, 1950-56. U.S. Monthly Weather Review, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington, D.C. , 196 U.S. Natural Resources Committee, Drainage Basin Problems and Programs, Washington Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C, 1938. U.S. Natural Resources Committee, Regional Factors in National Planning and Development, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C, 1935. Visher, S.S.: Climate and Geomorphology, Journal of Geomorphology, Vol. !(., p. 3>4-. Visher, S.S.: Climatic Maps of Geological Interest, Geol. Society of America, Bull. 56, p. 713. ABSENCE REPORT Please report holidays in terns of days and sick leave in hours. Please do not report periods of less than a half hour. DIVISION - WEEK ENDING SATURDAY LEAVE WITHOUT NAME SICK LEAVE PAY VACATION APPROVED Division Head.