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This electronic thesis or dissertation has been downloaded from the King’s Research Portal at https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/ The anatomy of the middle and lower pleistocene hominid femora. Kennedy, Gail E The copyright of this thesis rests with the author and no quotation from it or information derived from it may be published without proper acknowledgement. END USER LICENCE AGREEMENT Unless another licence is stated on the immediately following page this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ You are free to copy, distribute and transmit the work Under the following conditions: Attribution: You must attribute the work in the manner specified by the author (but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work). Non Commercial: You may not use this work for commercial purposes. No Derivative Works - You may not alter, transform, or build upon this work. Any of these conditions can be waived if you receive permission from the author. Your fair dealings and other rights are in no way affected by the above. Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact [email protected] providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 09. Oct. 2021 I THE ANATOMY of the LEORPLE I STOCENE HOMINID FEMOP f,'1tf' by Gail E. Kennedy Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anatomy St. Thomas's Hospital Medical School University of London April, 1973 2 1.1: ABSTRACT: Although the femur is the most commonly preserved post-cranial bone of the fossil Hominidae it has seldom been the subject of detailed comparative investigations and has never been com- prehensively investigated using the range of analytic and computational techniques now available. More- over, recently discovered fossil hominid femora from east Africa have considerably increased the study sample, which has also included material from China, Java and South Africa. The basic comparative sample was formed from 100 Romano-British femora. In addition, a small number of modern Bushmen and several fossil femora of Upper Pleistocene age were included; femora from Pan, Goriila and Pongo com- pleted the comparative sample. The femora included in this study have been investi- gated through a variety of analytic and statistical methods. A number of earlier workers have suggested that certain non-metric features of the fossil hominid femur differed either in their incidence or development from modern Homo 8apieno. Such suppositions needed to be tested against a large comparative sample and an investigation of five non-metric traits formed one part of this study. Second, the bones were measured externally, using some techniques of earlier workers, 3 but including a number of new parameters formulated for this study. The most revealing information in this study was derived from the third part of the analysis. Radiographs were made on all femora included in this study and the metric evaluation of the radiographs has provided the clearest evidence of the alterations in the hominid femur through the Pleistocene. The features and morphological complexes revealed in these investigations have been analyzed anatom- ically and biometrically and evaluated through univariate and multivariate statistical techniques. The changes recognized in the internal and external examination of the femora are clearly of biomechan- ical significance and delineate an integrated total morphological pattern of the femur of the fossil Hominidae at at least two grades of organiza- tion. 4 1.2: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: A study such as this in- evitably requires assistance and advice from many quarters. First, I would like to acknowledge, with great gratitude, the help of my supervisor, Professor M.H. Day. It was his work with the Olduvai Hominid 28 material which stimulated my own interest in the femur and eventually led to this work. During this study he has unfailingly and patiently been a source of advice and assistance. Miss Theya Molleson, of the Sub-Department of Anthropology, British Museum (Natural HIstory) has given of her wide knowledge and experience with x-ray equipment and techniques and a major part of this study would have been very difficult indeed without her help. Mr. Don Brothwell, also of the Sub-Department of Anthropology, British Museum (Natural History) has provided both encourage- ment and helpful discussions throughout this study and has kindly allowed me to have access to the Museum's collections which have provided a major part of my comparative material. My appreciation is also due to Dr. Alan Walker, Department of Anatomy, University of Nairobi, for many helpful discussions and to both Dr. Walker and his wife 5 for their kind hospitality during my stay in Nairobi. The technical staff in the Department of Anatomy, St. Thomas's Hospital Medical School have been of invaluable and skilful assistance in many ways. Mr. James King, Mr. John Fenton and Mr. Alan Pache have been especially generous with their time and help. Thanks must also go to the various people who have allowed me to examine the fossil material in their care. Mr. R.E.F. Leakey, Director of the National Museums of Kenya, has been particularly kind in this regard in allowing me to examine a number of specimens which, at that time, were unreported. Dr. D.H. Hooijer, of the Rijksmuseum voor Palaeontologie, Leiden; Dr. Irwin Scollar, of the Reinisches Landes- museum, Bonn and Professor Twiesselman of the Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique have all generously allowed me to examine material in their care. Funds to examine the material in east Africa were provided by the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropo- logical Research. Finally, I would like to thank my children, for trying to understand, and my father whose encouragement and confidence in me have influenced me more than he knows. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION 1. Abstract 2 2. Acknowledgements 4 3. Table of Contents 6 4. List of Tables 7 5. List of Diagrams 9 6. List of Plates 10 7. Introduction 11 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 1. The Femur In General 15 2. Osteometry (i) Techniques in Stature Recons truct ion 93 (ii) Techniques in Osteometry 97 3. Palaeontology (i) China 116 (ii) Java 144 (iii) South Africa 165 III. METHODS AND MATERIALS 1. Materials (i) Comparative Sample 179 (ii) Fossil Sample 179 2. Osteometric Methods (i) External Osteometric Techniques 195 (ii) Radiographic Procedures and Internal Osteometric Techniques 200 (iii) Non-Metric Analysis 212 3. Analytic Methods 217 IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1. Non-Metric Investigation 226 2. Metric and Radiographic Investigation 236 (i) Comparative Sample 245 (ii) Fossil Sample 253 3. Statistical Results 285 V. CONCLUSIONS 1. General 305 2. Taxonoinic Implications 314 VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY 328 VII. TABLES 354 VIII PLATES 378 7 LIST OF TABLES I. Comparative Osteometric Data for Peking Femora 185 II. Technical X-Ray Data 203 III. Non-Metric Data: Shape of the Popliteal Surface 227 IV. Non-Metric Data: Development of the Hypotrochanteric Fossa 228 V. Non-Metric Data: Development of the Hypotrochanteric Crista 229 VI. Non-Metric Data: Continuity of the Linea Aspera 230 VII. Non-Metric Data: Development of Third Trochanter 231 VIIl. Chi 2 Values for Ancaster Series 232 IX. Comparative External Shaft Data: Platymeric and Pilastric Indices 354 X. Comparative External Shaft Data: Minimum Breadth Index, Sub-Pilastric Index 356 XI. Comparative External Shaft Data: Popliteal Index • 357 XII. Comparative External Shaft Data: Head Diameter, Head-Neck Axial Length 358 XIII. Comparative External Shaft Data: Head/Neck Index, Neck/Shaft Index 359 XIV. Comparative External Shaft Data: Shaft Bowing 360 XV. Comparative Internal Shaft Data: Sub-Trochanteric Cortical Diameters, Medial and Lateral 361 XVI. Comparative Internal Shaft Data: Sub-Trochanteric Cortical Diameters, Anterior and Pos tenor 362 XVII. Comparative Internal Shaft Data: Mid-Shaft Cortical Diameters, Medial and Lateral 363 8 XVIII. Comparative Internal Shaft Data: Mid-Shaft Cortical Diameters, Anterior and Posterior 34 XIX. Comparative Internal Shaft Data: Sub-Pilastric Cortical Diameters, Medial and Lateral 365 XX. Comparative Internal Shaft Data: Sub-Pilastric Cortical Diameters, Anterior and Posterior 366 XXI. Comparative Internal Shaft Data: Sub-Trochanteric Cortical Indices 367 XXII. Comparative Internal Shaft Data: Mid-Shaft Cortical Indices 368 XXIII. Comparative Shaft Data: Cortical Robusticity Index 369 XXIV. Mahalanobis' D 2 Values for Ancaster, "erectus" Pan, Gorilla and Pongo 370 XXV. Coefficients of Correlation: Ancaster 371 XXVI. Group Means 373 XXVII. Mahalanobis' D 2 Values for Ancaster, "erectus" "australopithecus", Pan, Gorilla and Pongo 376 9 LIST OF DIAGRAMS I. Plot of Canonical Axes I and II: Ancaster and terectustt 288 II. Plot of Canonical Axes I and II: Ancaster, "erectus" and "australopithecus" 290 III. Relative Chronology of the Lower and Middle Pleistocene Honiinidae 293 Iv. Plot of Canonical Axes I and II: Ancaster, "erectus", Pan, Gorilla and Pongo 294 V. Plot of Canonical Axes I and III: Ancaster, "erectus" Pan, Gorilla and Pongo 295 VI. Plot of Canonical Axes I and II: Ancaster, "erectus", "australopithecus" Pan, Gorilla and Pongo 301 1.0 LIST OF PLATES I. Radiograph of Neandertal Femur 378 II. STS 14 379 III. Peking, Femora I, IV and V 380 IV. Radiographs of SK 82: Anteroposterior and Lateral Views 381 V. Radiographs of SK 97: Anteroposterior and Lateral Views 382 VI. Radiograph of an Ancaster Femur Without 383 Ward's Triangle, Radiograph of a Pongo Femur With Ward's Triangle VII. Radiograph of Trinil, Femur I 384, 385 VIII. Radiograph of Trinil, Femora 111 IV and V 386 Lateral View Ix. Radiograph of Trinil, Femora III, IV and V 387 Anteroposterior View. 11 1.7: INTRODUCTION: Analysis of the locomotor behaviour of the early hominids is a field of study which could reveal important information regarding the development and diversification of the Hominidae.
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    TAXONOMY OF THE STERKFONTEIN FOSSIL CERCOPITHECINAE: THE PAPIONINI OF MEMBERS 2 AND 4 (GAUTENG, SOUTH AFRICA) Jason L. Heaton Submitted to the faculty of the University Graduate School in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Anthropology, Indiana University November 2006 Accepted by the Graduate Faculty, Indiana University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Doctoral Committee ______________________________________ Travis R. Pickering, Ph.D. ______________________________________ Kevin D. Hunt, Ph.D. ______________________________________ Nicholas Toth, PhD. ______________________________________ Kathy D. Schick, PhD. October 16, 2006 © 2006 Jason L. Heaton ALL RIGHTS RESERVED To my wife, Alison “Wheresoever she was; there was Eden.” Mark Twain (1904) – The Diaries of Adam and Eve ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This analysis originated on a trip to South Africa in 2000 and evolved into what you see before you. Along the way, its path was modified and forever altered by those individuals with whom I came into contact. Without those interactions, I must say this analysis would not be what it is today. First and foremost, I thank my committee, Travis Pickering, Kevin Hunt, Nick Toth and Kathy Schick. I was fortunate to have a group of individuals that truly provided the materials that I needed to succeed. Nick and Kathy are the reason that I went to Indiana to study paleoanthropology. I am grateful to Nick for writing a letter of recommendation for grad school, which undoubtedly facilitated my entrance into IU’s program. I enjoyed the many seminars that I took with Nick, Kathy and Kevin which shaped much of the way I view the prehistoric world, today.