International Review of Education (2008) 54:475–491 Ó Springer 2008 DOI 10.1007/s11159-008-9085-0 CONVERGENCE OF MONASTIC AND MODERN EDUCATION IN BHUTAN? BRIAN D. DENMAN and SINGYE NAMGYEL Abstract – In the 1960s, the Royal Government of Bhutan began developing its modern educational system. Over time, a strategic plan was formulated to meet Edu- cation for All and Millennium Development Goals. In 2003, the Royal University of Bhutan, the country’s first university, opened its doors. This paper uses comparative analysis to describe and explore the impact on the development of The Royal University of Bhutan of the national consciousness termed ‘Gross National Happiness’. It is proposed that the university is likely to become a catalyst for development, and an influential representative of and for a cultural identity. Will it become an elite institu- tion? Will the institution offer formal degrees for all who qualify? It is suggested that the issues considered in Bhutan may be of significance for other new universities attempting to establish themselves in the developing world. Re´sume´– CONVERGENCE DE L’E´ DUCATION MONASTIQUE ET MODERNE AU BHOUTAN? – Dans les anne´ es 60, le Gouvernement Royal du Bhoutan a commence´ a` de´ velopper son syste` me d’e´ ducation moderne. Avec le temps, un plan strate´ gique a e´ te´ formule´ pour re´ aliser l’E´ ducation pour Tous et les Objectifs du Mil- le´ naire pour le De´ veloppement. En 2003, la premie` re universite´ du pays, l’Universite´ Royale du Bhoutan, a ouvert ses portes. Cet article se sert de l’analyse comparative pour de´ crire et examiner l’impact de la conscience nationale appele´ e ‘le Bonheur National Brut’ sur le de´ veloppement de l’Universite´ Royale du Bhoutan. On propose que l’uni- versite´ devienne susceptible de devenir un catalyseur pour le de´ veloppement et un repre´ sentant influent d’une et pour une identite´ culturelle. Deviendra-elle un e´ tablisse- ment d’e´ lite? L’e´ tablissement offrira-t-il des grades universitaires conventionnels pour tous ceux qui veulent se qualifier? On sugge` re que les questions prises en conside´ ration au Bhoutan puissent eˆ tre d’importance pour d’autres universite´ s nouvelles qui tentent de s’e´ tablir dans le monde en voie de de´ veloppement. Zusammenfassung – ZUSAMMENSCHLUSS VON MONASTISCHER UND MODERNER BILDUNG IN BHUTAN? – In den 1960er Jahren begann das regie- rende Ko¨ nigshaus von Bhutan damit, ein modernes Bildungssystem zu entwickeln. Im Laufe der Zeit wurden strategische Pla¨ ne zum Erreichen einer ‘Bildung fu¨ r alle’ und von ‘Jahrtausend-Entwicklungszielen’ formuliert. 2003 o¨ ffnete die Ko¨ nigliche Universita¨ t von Bhutan, die erste Universita¨ t des Landes, ihre Tore. Dieser Artikel erforscht und beschreibt mithilfe der vergleichenden Analyse den Einfluss der Ko¨ niglichen Universita¨ t von Bhutan auf das nationale Bewusstsein unter dem Namen ‘Gross National Happi- ness’. Es wird die Meinung vertreten, dass die Universita¨ t dabei ist, zum Entwicklungskatalysator und zur einflussreichen Repra¨ sentanz kultureller Identita¨ tzu werden. Wird die Universita¨ t eine Eliteeinrichtung werden? Wird sie die Mo¨ glichkeit zur Erlangung formaler Abschlu¨ sse und Grade ero¨ ffnen? Nach Ansicht der Autoren 476 Brian D. Denman and Singye Namgyel ko¨ nnten die thematischen U¨ berlegungen, die in Bhutan angestellt werden, auch fu¨ r die Bemu¨ hungen anderer neuer Universita¨ ten um Etablierung in einer sich weiterentwi- ckelnden Welt von Bedeutung sein. Resumen – ¿EXISTEN EN BHUTA´ N UNA CONVERGENCIA DE EDUCACIO´ N MONA´ STICA Y MODERNA? En los an˜ os sesenta del siglo XX, el Gobierno Real de Bhuta´ n comenzo´ a desarrollar su sistema educativo moderno. Con el transcurso del tiempo, se formulo´ un plan estrate´ gico que respondiera a los Objetivos de Educacio´ n para Todos y Desarrollo del Milenio. En 2003 abrio´ sus puertas la Universidad Real de Bhuta´ n, la primera universidad del paı´ s. Este trabajo emplea un ana´ lisis comparativo para describir y explorar el impacto que produce el desarrollo de la Universidad Real de Bhuta´ n sobre la conciencia nacional denominada Felicidad Nacional Bruta. Se proyecta que la Universidad se convierta en algo ası´ como una catalizador del desarrollo y un representante de influencia de y para la identidad cultural. ¿Se convertira´ en una ins- titucio´ n de elite? ¿Ofrecera´ la institucio´ ntı´ tulos oficiales para todos los que reu´ nan las condiciones necesarias? El trabajo sugiere que los problemas considerados en Bhuta´ n pueden ser importantes para otras nuevas universidades que traten de establecerse en el mundo en desarrollo. From myths and legends to the pursuit of truths In a landlocked country known by its people as the ‘‘land of the thunder dra- gon’’, Bhutan’s tradition of oral communication is as central as the country’s determination in building a modern education system. In common folktales such as Meme Hayhay Hayhay and proverbs such as ‘‘...a confederation of frogs can kill even a tiger’’ (Penjore 2005: online), the values are such that they justify Bhutan’s interest in preserving its history and customs. As Michael Aris, private tutor to the Royal Family of Bhutan between 1967 and 1972, said: ‘‘amidst all the legends, there is a grain of truth’’ (Aris in Norman 1981: 897). Yet the task of separating fact from fiction is not so much the subject of this paper as the proposition that both the traditional monastic system and Convergence of Monastic and Modern Education in Bhutan? 477 the modern education system, despite their differing approaches, may offer useful insights for Bhutan and its people. In Aris’ view, Bhutan was: to produce scholars who combine a knowledge and appreciation of its traditional heritage with the new perspectives and methodologies of our own age (Aris 1990: 27). Aris’ objective may have been that of helping to preserve Bhutan’s culture but also to assure that higher learning should evolve over time, a progressive, cul- turally relativistic notion. A monastic education encourages individuals (monks and anims1) to dissociate themselves from a world alien to them in order to seek inner enlightenment, while the university ‘‘...is supposed to capture and present the deeper philosophy of the nation, the worldview of its people, their dreams and aspirations, their imagination of perfection and goodness, the principles of national and social life, and their attempts to understand and use the possibilities opened up by science and mathematics’’ (Powdyel 2005:6). Phuntsho (2000) provides a good illustration of the differences between tra- ditional monastic education and modern education. Bhutan’s traditional train- ing may best be characterised by its focus on ‘‘introverted spirituality’’ as opposed to Bhutan’s modern education, which focuses on ‘‘...the extroverted pursuit of worldly happiness’’ (Phuntsho: online). The following list of differ- ences in traditional training and education is provided by Phuntscho (Table 1). Table 1. Illustration of differences between traditional training and modern educa- tion in Bhutan Traditional training Modern education Purpose Mainly introvert spiritual; Mainly extrovert skills for Training culminating human development in omniscience Content Religion or regligious Secular and scientific; technical oriented, liberal Approach Mostly passive reception; Mostly active innovation; static; conservative creative; progressive (aspirational) Perspective Faith, reverence, sanctity; Interest, curiosity, rationality; for religious edification for acquiring knowledge and skills Medium Cho¨ key/Dzongkha English Methodology Buddhist monastic methods Systematic Western educational of memorization, debates, techniques of critical scrutiny, contemplation, exposition, etc. statistics, experiments, etc. Source: Phuntsho, Karma (2000). ‘‘On the Two Ways of Learning in Bhutan’’. Retrieved 19 July 2007, http://www.bhutanstudies.org.bt/journal/vol2no2/v2/n2. learning.pdf,p.5. 478 Brian D. Denman and Singye Namgyel A basic question may be whether there is a common thread or complemen- tarity in these two approaches to the pursuit. Our investigation identifies a possible convergence of traditional and modern educational orientations in the openness of both to participation. Furthermore, given that Bhutan has not been tarnished by colonization or invasion throughout its history, there is a refreshing sense of mutual respect and compatibility between both systems at present. This sentiment is expressed in Bhutan 2020: A Vision for Peace, Prosperity, and Happiness: ‘‘Our religious history and monastic institutions have played a decisive role in the evolution of our nation’’ (1999: 70). A brief historical overview of Bhutan In its earliest stages of development (circa 746 CE), ‘‘Padma Sambhava’’, from the Swat Valley of modern day Pakistan, ‘‘...probably made the first major influence on the social and cultural life of Bhutanese people, particu- larly in Bumthang through his teachings’’ (Dorji 2005: 2). Around that time, Bhutanese students such as Monmo Tashi Kheudron and Mongom Hami- natha are said to have followed Padmansambhava [Padma Sambhava] to Tibet to learn dharma (Phuntsho: online). Moreover, legend has it that around 750 CE, Denma Tsemang, a translator and one of the twenty-five disciples of Padmasambhava, may have designed the now national script (druk yig) (Ibid: online). Bhutanese monks were continually sent to Tibet to learn from lama masters only to return years later to develop monastic cen- tres (Mackey 2002: 1) or to teach dharma in their own ways (Dorji