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ORNITOLOGIA NEOTROPICAL 19 (Suppl.): 415–426, 2008 © The Neotropical Ornithological Society

HISTORY OF IN THE

Catherine Levy

2 Starlight Ave., Kingston 6, . E-mail: [email protected]

Resumen. – Historia de la ornitología en el Caribe . – El Caribe es un archipiélago de múltiples nacio- nes, idiomas y culturas. Sus territorios se expanden en todo el mar Caribe, describiendo un arco desde el sur de Estados Unidos y , en el noroeste, en dirección oriental a través de las Antillas Mayores hacia las Menores, y desde las Islas Vírgenes y Antigua-Barbuda hacia el sur, hasta la costa de Sudamérica. La historia de la ornitología en el Caribe es, por tanto, tan variada como sus islas, naciones, habitantes e idio- mas. Este artículo revisa la historia de la ornitología desde épocas precolombinas, hacia los primeros asen- tamientos europeos, la época colonial y los años modernos de independencias políticas, hasta el siglo XXI. La historia está dominada por colecciones, descripciones de las avifaunas y trabajo de campo de ornitólo- gos europeos y norteamericanos, con la notable excepción de Cuba. además sobresale por su cercana relación con los Estados Unidos. Proveo ejemplos de trabajos hechos por residentes caribeños cuando es factible aunque, debido a la ausencia de grandes instituciones de investigación, limitaciones de entrenamiento en ciencias biológicas y escasa experiencia práctica en el campo, otras islas del Caribe poseen muy pocos ornitólogos locales. Los esfuerzos de conservación actuales sufrirán las consecuencias de estas deficiencias, a menos que se atiendan pronto. Abstract. – The Caribbean is a multi-national, multi-lingual, and multi-cultural conglomerate of . The territories span the in an arc just south of the , from Cuba in the north- west, eastwards across the Greater to the , from the and Antigua/ Barbuda south to the coast of . The history of ornithology in the Caribbean is thus as var- ied as its islands, nations, peoples, and languages. This paper traces the history of ornithology across the ages from pre-Columbian days, through first European settlements and colonial days, to the modern age of political independence and into the twenty-first century. The history is mainly dominated by collections, avifauna descriptions and fieldwork by European and North American , with the notable excep- tion of Cuba. Puerto Rico stands out also due to its close connection with the United States. I provide examples of work by residents of the islands wherever possible, but due to the absence of strong research institutions, limitations of training in biological sciences, and no practical experience, other islands in the Caribbean have few local ornithologists. Present-day efforts at conservation will suffer unless this is rectified. Accepted 13 November 2007. Key words: Ornithology, history, Caribbean, Greater Antilles, Lesser Antilles.

INTRODUCTION lles including due to ornitholog- ical similarities), and a network of smaller The land area of the Caribbean islands covers islands and many offshore cays and islets approximately 240,000 km2, with a total of forming a complex archipelago. For the pur- 115 islands not counting cays and rocky islets. poses of this paper, the chain is consid- This includes larger islands (the Greater Anti- ered, omitting and the

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Caribbean coast of Central and South Amer- Man” is thought to represent a “,” prob- ica. In this paper I attempt to trace a history ably a household deity. The figure is about 89 of the ornithology in the Caribbean islands cm tall; it has the head of a long-billed from the time of the earliest inhabitants to the and the body of a human male (Handler present, with an emphasis on contributions of 1977). The closest likeness that can be attrib- residents to the regionís ornithology. Knowl- uted is that the bird was inspired by the Jamai- edge about the Caribbean avifauna is still defi- can Crow ( jamaicensis). cient because some islands in this complex lack strong research and academic 1500–1799: “DISCOVERY” AND institutions while others, like Puerto Rico and COLONIZATION particularly Cuba, have a long tradition of fieldwork and research. Reasons why orni- The age of “discovery” and colonization cov- thology in some territories has not developed ers from 1500 to the 1700s and accounts exist as strongly as these two islands are suggested. from explorers, missionaries and colonists. However, with destruction so com- Among the first was only a summary from the mon on all territories, conservation has four expeditions of Christopher Columbus, become an imperative, so it is timely that because the most detailed observations were studies of the avifauna and should be lost in a shipwreck (Keith et al. 2003). Most of paramount importance. data were anecdotal, until the report of Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdez PRE–1500: EARLIEST INHABITANTS (1478–1557) who was appointed commander of the castle of in 1535. He The earliest inhabitants of the Caribbean later returned to Spain and was appointed islands were Amerindians, such as the Taínos, Historian of the Spanish Indies. The first part Caribs, and Guana-Hatabey. Little is known of his work on the history of the period spent about their customs, beliefs, and “world in Spanish colonies appeared as Historia Ge- view,” but some artifacts provide information. neral y Natural de las Indias Occidentales (Oviedo Taíno objects often bear images of skulls, y Valdez 1535). This work is probably the ear- bats, and , and it is known that nocturnal liest – and among the better – treatment of (birds and bats) represented the souls the of , with illustra- of the dead. Examination of fossil sites and tions and excellent descriptions (Keith et al. caves provide evidence that Taíno food con- 2003). sisted of vegetables, frogs, turtles, iguanas, Early colonists often brought birds with fish, and birds (“a number of pigeons, flight- them, or introduced other species later. Dur- less birds, and shorebirds…”) (Wing ing visits to Jamaica, John Taylor (1664–?) and 2001). Some were kept captive or Hans Sloane (1660–1753) both describe birds became tame, and these could easily be trans- that are not native to the island of Jamaica. ported in long-distance migrations, particu- Taylor spent about two years and kept a larly from South America, but also from one record of his visit including descriptions of island to another (Wing 2001). In comparison flora and fauna. Among the birds he men- to other islands such as Cuba, Puerto Rico tions are introduced species such as turkeys and Hispaniola, little archaeological work has (Meleagris gallopavo), “tame of the Mus- taken place on Jamaica (Howard 1956); but covy breed” (Cairina moschata) and “plenty of one artifact discovered in about 1792 is an Guinea hens” (Numida meleagris); migrant spe- example of Taíno symbolism. The “Bird cies (mostly water birds): “shovelers” (Anas

416 HISTORY OF CARIBBEAN ORNITHOLOGY clypeata) and “widgeon” (A. americana). How- the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697, specimens and ever, he also described local species like observations were sent to , contribut- Limpkin (Aramus guarauna; called ‘Clucking- ing to collections and to the illustrations of hen’) and “multitudes of green of a Buffon’s Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux (Buffon small size and of two sorts …” and a “mar- 1770–1786). cough [macaw] … as big as an European phe- sant cock.” Taylor also writes of parrots that 1800–1849: ERA OF COLLECTING “are brought to Jamaica and sold at reason- able prices”, such as African Gray (Psit- In the first half of the XIX century the era of tacus erithacus) and Cuban Parrot (Amazona private collecting was in full swing. As the leucocephala) (Taylor c. 1686). This illustrates original inhabitants of the islands did not have how non-native species were transported to a written language and were for the most part or within the Caribbean. It is known that sail- exterminated, Europeans, and later North ors sometimes carried parrots from one coun- Americans, compiled natural history informa- try to another (Sloane 1707–1725). The tion during visits to the islands for varying introduction of exotic species continued. Lady periods. Museums in metropolitan countries Nugent (1771?–1834), the American wife of were recently established, and for a number of the British Governor of the island, wrote dur- years collections remained the property of ing her return trip to England from Jamaica in gentlemen and/or scientists until they were 1805: “Alas! One of my most beautiful sold or donated to national institutions. Some Curaçao birds died in the night …” (Nugent of the information published was the work of 1966). naturalists who may or may not have made The Englishman Hans Sloane came to the collections themselves; on the other Jamaica as physician to the Governor in hand, others – not necessarily professional 1687–1688. In those years he traveled exten- scientists – collected information and speci- sively, amassing and documenting a large col- mens during a tour of duty on the islands, lection of human artifacts, animals and, either in the civil service or the military particularly, . Doubtless his scientific (e.g., Sloane). The nationality of collecting background aided the collection of valuable expeditions and collectors in the Carib- information. Results of his expedition were bean was varied. As a result many of the published in two volumes. His extensive col- specimens of Caribbean birds are now found lections served to form the basis of the Brit- overseas, and not within the territory of ish Museum. Sloane’s descriptions of birds in origin. Jamaica provide a valuable record of species Nicholas Aylward Vigors (1785–1840), an on the island at that time, believing as he did – Irishman and first Secretary of the Zoological and contrary to many scientists of the time – Society (UK), published a list of 45 species that detailed observation, recording and inter- from Cuba (Vigors 1827). The information pretation of natural phenomena was a legiti- was based on a collection made by William mate study (Rice 2002). Sharp Macleay, a British civil servant stationed This was a prolific period in the general in Habana from 1825 until 1836. history of ornithology as, while birds of the In 1810 André Pierre Ledru (1761–1825), Caribbean were being discovered, the first a French naturalist, took part in an expedition edition of Linnaeus’ was in from which he amassed a large collection of preparation and later published (Linnaeus plants, and birds. Ledru’s work was the 1735). When the French colonized after first detailed study of the birds of Puerto Rico

417 LEVY and the Virgin Islands (Ledru 1810). How- dents also undertook collections and descrip- ever, some of the species listed do not occur tions of birds. Because they were present year on the island (Wiley 2000). round, these pioneers provided the first data Thirty years later, on the of many species, taking into (1810–1888), English, decided to collect in account habitat, feeding and breeding. the tropics settling on Jamaica where he Among them was W. T. March (1795–1872), a remained for 18 months from December Jamaican who collected specimens and corre- 1844 to 1846 (Thwaite 2002). Two publica- sponded with, among others, Spencer Baird tions resulted from his work on the island: of the Smithsonian Institution (Banks & Hole Birds of Jamaica (Gosse 1847) and A Naturalist’s 1993). Baird published notes from his letters Sojourn in Jamaica (Gosse 1851). Although (e.g., March 1864). Although little is written most efforts at that time concentrated on col- about the role March played in Jamaica’s orni- lections of specimens, Gosse was unusual in thology, he appears to be among the first recording stomach contents, habits, measure- native naturalists of the Caribbean. Together ments and nesting. with Richard Hill (1795–1872), who assisted P. H. Gosse (Gosse 1847, 1851), they con- 1850–1899: FROM COLLECTING TO tributed to early knowledge of the avifauna of DESCRIPTION the island, and March’s notes were consulted by eminent authors such as , and A natural progression took place as collecting are still valuable today. March’s specimens are was followed by accounts with descriptive now found in various collections overseas, information. Charles Cory (1857–1921), some of them mislabeled as “W. (T.) Marsh” founding member of the American Orni- or “W. W. Marsh” (Banks & Hole 1993). thologists’ Union, made five trips to the Car- Juan Gundlach (1810–1879) came to ibbean and also sent out collectors. Over Cuba in 1839 from Marburg, Germany and, many years, Cory published several papers on except for brief visits to Puerto Rico, he Caribbean birds and, in 1889, he published remained in Cuba for the rest of his . the Birds of the , with 555 species He published species lists in 1846 (207 spe- noted and 350 described in detail; he also cies), and 1850 (222), and brought the count recorded the presence of North American up to 263 species in the first major work on species in the region, and included a bibliog- the birds of Cuba (Gundlach 1893). He also raphy (Cory 1889). contributed papers on other aspects of natu- The little known F. A. Ober (1849–1913), ral history of the island (e.g., Gundlach 1877). a travel writer, hunter, and naturalist from the Birds named after him include Cuban Vireo US, collected in the Lesser Antilles for the (Vireo gundlachii) and Bahama Mockingbird Smithsonian Institution (Steadman et al. (Mimus gundlachii). He also published on the 1997). He collected 20 new species, including birds and mammals of Puerto Rico (Gun- two named after him: Lesser Antillean Fly- dlach 1878). Most of the specimens collected catcher (Myiarchus oberi) and Ori- by Gundlach remained in Cuba and were not ole (Icterus oberi). Ober was one of the few dispersed to overseas institutions, helping ornithologists to visit St. Johns, Virgin Islands to establish in Cuba a first collection at this time, collecting 21 specimens, includ- for study and comparison (Wiley et al. in ing the type of Caribbean Coot (Fulica cari- press). baea) in 1880 (Robertson 1962). Juan Lembeye (1816–1889), a Spanish During the 19th century, a few island resi- naturalist, produced Aves de la Isla de Cuba

418 HISTORY OF CARIBBEAN ORNITHOLOGY

(Lembeye 1850). He lived in Cuba from the Botanical Gardens on a ridge at a height of 1830s to the 1860s and discovered the Cuban 1374–1676 m a.s.l. (Eyre 1966). In 1879 he Solitaire (Myadestes elisabeth) and Yellow- collected 22 specimens, the last birds collected headed Warbler (Teretistris fernandinae); he is in the wild (Imber 1991). also honoured in the Cuban Gnatcatcher An incident of note during this period was (Polioptila lembeyei). the introduction in 1872 of the invasive indian At this time, few islands had institutions mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) into Jamaica to devoted to the study of natural history, so control rodents and snakes (Scott 1903). most collectors shipped specimens back to From the original nine brought into Jamaica, their country and institution of origin. Cur- some offspring were sent to other islands in rently, the Field Museum of Natural History, the Caribbean. Before 20 years had passed, Chicago, holds over 15,000 specimens of Car- concern was being expressed about the effect ibbean bird species, including over 3000 from of this in Jamaica. A committee was set Bahamas; 2911 from , up in 1890 by the Governor, Sir Henry and the majority of Cory’s collections. Mean- Blake “to enquire fully, whether the mon- while the Museum of at Cambridge goose is destructive of , and University has about 1500 Caribbean speci- other useful creatures, and whether it is expe- mens (e.g., 760 from Jamaica, 153 from dient that measures be taken to reduce the , 120 from , 103 from number of the mongoose...” (Anonymous Bahamas; mostly from the Strickland Collec- 1891). At this enquiry Mr. Herbert T. Tho- tion and ). mas, Inspector of Constabulary for the parish Cuba is an exception as in 1839 the Cuban of St. Thomas, declared “I am informed that zoologist Felipe Poey y Aloy (1799–1891) they have extinguished the Booby ” (i.e., founded the “Museo de Historia Natural” Jamaican Petrel). In an insightful conclusion, and, with Fernández de Castro, assisted in the the report suggested, “that a law should be creation of the first Academy of Science (nat- passed prohibiting the introduction and turn- ural, physical and medical) in 1861. Nearly ing loose of any animal which might, as in the half of the specimens collected in Cuba have case of the mongoose, become a scourge to remained there, particularly those of Juan the country, and so disturb the equilibrium of Gundlach. The Instituto de Ecología y ... .” This comment predates Wet- Sistemática, Academia de Ciencias de Cuba more’s remarks (1927) regarding the introduc- currently holds 3200 bird specimens, of which tion of exotic birds in Puerto Rico (Wiley 63 are type specimens. 1996). Several Englishmen, including Gosse, and W. E. D. Scott (1852-1910) visited Jamaica later Alfred Newton (1829–1907) of Cam- from November 1890 to March 1891 and he bridge University, were prominent collectors spent most of his time in the parish of Port- primarily in the British colonies of the Carib- land (Scott 1903). His copious notes on over bean. Newton collected on a number of the 180 species included food items and nesting islands (Jamaica, Hispaniola, Cuba, Virgin seasons, a result of prompt preparation of the Islands, Lesser Antilles) and requested Will- specimens collected. Of particular interest is iam Nock to collect specimens of the Jamai- his reflections on species described or listed can Petrel (Pterodroma caribbaea) in the Blue by others but not found by him, comments Mountains of Jamaica. Nock, from the Royal on apparent depredation by the mongoose, Botanic Gardens at Kew, in Britain, visited and an account of a fruitless search for the Jamaica in 1874 and was assigned to Cinchona Jamaican Petrel (Scott 1891).

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1900–1939: FIELD EXPLORATIONS become the International Institute of Tropical Forestry. Stuart Danforth (1900–1938) lived Field explorations took prominence from in Puerto Rico for 16 years, where his father 1900 onwards. Thomas Barbour (1884–1946) was professor of biology at the College of of Harvard University took a particular inter- Agriculture at Mayaguez. Later he continued est in Cuba, where he collected many speci- fieldwork with an emphasis on ornithology, mens with the assistance of Fermín Zanón and also undertook research on other islands Cervera (1880–1945), Spanish, a well known of the Caribbean. His legacy includes the Los hunter. The Zapata (Ferminia cerverai) Pájaros de Puerto Rico (Danforth 1936), the first bears both his names. In Barbour (1943), two popular work on birds in Spanish (Allen local scientists are mentioned, Brother León 1939). He also spent a summer on Jamaica and Dr. Carlos de la Torre, who were training and listed 88 species, with brief notes on dis- students in natural history studies. Of interest tribution, behavior and some stomach con- are remarks about Cuba’s “participation in a tents (Danforth 1926). convention for nature protection throughout One of the best-known authors within the the and the establishment of Caribbean, James Bond (1900–1989), made reserves for the preservation of the fauna and his first of many trips to the islands in 1927 to flora”. study the birds of Haiti, and later the Domini- Alexander Wetmore (1886–1978) visited can Republic. The first edition of his Birds of Puerto Rico for nine months between 1911– the West Indies was published in 1936, which 1912, and within four years published The included descriptions of habitat, nesting and Birds of Porto Rico (Wetmore 1916). An song (Bond 1936). Though not written as a expanded version, which included the Virgin field guide (Parkes 1989), the book soon Islands, contained valuable observations and became the main reference for anyone inter- became part of the 1919–1940 Scientific Sur- ested in birding or ornithology of the region. vey of Puerto Rico (Wetmore 1927). He also Before this publication, knowledge about the studied the avifauna of Hispaniola and pub- birds of the Caribbean was the special interest lished, with B. H. Swales (1879–1928), a land- of naturalists and ornithologists, too few of mark book on the birds of Haiti and the them native to the islands. His Checklist of the Dominican Republic (Wetmore & Swales Birds of the West Indies first appeared in 1940, 1931). Hispaniola provided much fossil with supplements and later editions reflecting remains of birds for study when, in 1925, a growing knowledge and analysis of the zoo- the mammalogist Gerrit Miller, Jr. (1869– geography of the Caribbean avifauna (Bond 1956) commenced investigations in middens 1940). and caves that were being explored. Wetmore was the first to undertake a study of avian 1940–1969: GROWTH OF LOCAL of the islands, becoming an INTEREST authority on the extinct Pleistocene birds of the Caribbean. He also did extensive work in As political awareness and cohesion grew . among the residents of the islands, conscious- Puerto Rico became an unincorporated ness of the natural world began to stir. territory of the United States in 1917. The Towards the late 1950s, urbanization, popula- growth of institutions of biological investiga- tion growth and natural resources exploita- tion was enhanced by the creation in 1939 of tion experienced a dramatic increase. As a the Institute of Tropical Forestry, later to result, the landscape was reshaped quickly.

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The 1940s to 1960s witnessed the genesis tion and wildlife conservation that appeared of local interest in natural history in some ter- in 1970 (Bond 1971). ritories, as evidenced by the formation in There was a strong development in uni- 1940 of the Natural History Society of versities in Puerto Rico that encouraged stud- Jamaica at the Natural History Division of the ies in natural sciences. Graduates of these Institute of Jamaica (Levy 1996), with many universities remained in, or returned to, the local bird observations and articles published island and further enhanced the development (e.g., Natural History Society of Jamaica of ornithology. The Caribbean Journal of Science 1940–55). In 1945, the Wildlife Protection began publication in 1961. Act was promulgated to address hunting and A new arrival in the Dominican Republic fishing concerns. in 1964 was Annabelle Dod who studied and Informal meetings of a group of bird helped to popularize resident bird species enthusiasts in the mid-1950s culminated in with the book Aves de la República Dominicana the formation of the Gosse Bird Club of (Dod 1978). Her efforts stimulated research Jamaica in 1963, which published the on several species, though researchers came Broadsheet, and today, 47 years later, it mainly from metropolitan countries, except still exists. Over a number of years, Lisa David Wingate from the Bahamas, who stud- Salmon (1904–2000) wrote extensively on ied Black-capped Petrels (Pterodroma hasitata) nature for local newspapers, describing (Latta et al. 2006). bird behavior and commenting on conserva- In the 1960s concerns grew about forest tion issues. She became the ‘doyenne’ of and natural habitat loss in the Caribbean. The local birders and the earliest local conserva- Breeding Bird Survey was initiated in 1966 to tionist (Gosse Bird Club 2000). In 1989 she monitor the populations of North American was honored by the Society of Caribbean migrants. This had the effect of stimulating Ornithology. project funds being made available for the Bird banding was undertaken by Charles study of North American winter migrants in Henry Blake (1901–1981) in Jamaica between the Caribbean. 1953 and 1956; subsequently, in 1975, a per- mit from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1970–1989: GROWTH OF THE was granted to the Gosse Bird Club to band CARIBBEAN MOVEMENT migrant birds, with Robert Sutton (1943– 2002) name as Master Bander (Levy 1989). After a quiet period in the 1940s–1950s, work Unfortunately, the banding program did not in Puerto Rico accelerated from the late 1960s expand and was sporadic with few studies or onward, with new field studies and remark- results ever published. able findings, as the discovery of a new spe- The University of the West Indies initiated cies, the Elfin-woods Warbler (Dendroica courses in Jamaica in 1948 and commenced angelae) (Wiley 1996). teaching zoology, with little emphasis on stud- Although alarm had been raised about the ies of native species, and no permanent terres- status of the Puerto Rican Parrot (Amazona trial research station to date. vittata vittata) as early as the late 1940s, a Virgilio Biaggi (b. 1913) accompanied detailed study was carried out beginning in Danforth in his fieldwork and became author 1953 by José A. Rodríguez-Vidal (Rodríguez- of many papers from the 1950s, including his Vidal 1959). In 1968 a parrot conservation Las Aves de Puerto Rico, with sections on the program was set up, focusing on survival of history of Puerto Rican ornithology, migra- the wild populations, and studies on the spe-

421 LEVY cies biology (Snyder et al. 1987). This program tats. Recent figures indicate that population continues to make progress today. Many numbers range from 250–300 individuals. research projects have been undertaken by This successful campaign became a model for North American researchers in Puerto Rico, other projects on some Caribbean islands, including a long-term bird banding study in including St. Vincent, Dominica, the Bahamas the Guanica Forest (Faaborg & Winters and Jamaica. 1980). To date, research has been copious in David Lack undertook field explora- Puerto Rico, notably by Herbert Raffaele, tions of land birds in Jamaica, examining David Belitsky, James Wiley, Raúl Pérez- the of the avifauna, which Rivera and Frank Rivera-Milan (Wiley 1996). resulted in the landmark book Island Biology In 1983, Raffaele published the first edition (Lack 1976). Also, Alexander Cruz stud- of A Guide to the Birds of Puerto Rico and the Vir- ied the Jamaican (Melanerpes gin Islands, with a revised edition in 1989 radiolatus) (Cruz 1977). Thirty years after (Raffaele 1989). The influence of the U.S. the first book on Jamaican birds authored by Fish and Wildlife Service and cooperation a Jamaican had appeared (Jeffrey-Smith with the Departamento de Recursos Natu- 1956), Audrey Downer and Robert Sutton rales de Puerto Rico has been important in published a new guide (Downer & Sutton the development of ornithology at this island. 1990). Nevertheless, as Wiley (1996) notes, basic In the winter of 1986–1987, cooperation information of preferred habitat, feeding began between Bird Studies Canada and ecology, and breeding biology on most spe- Cuban ornithologists to study migrant cies is still lacking. birds. Other ornithologists such as Orlando In the late 1970s the Ornithological Soci- Garrido, Arturo Kirkconnel, and Professor ety of Puerto Rico was formed due to the Orlando Torres (University of Habana) carry leadership and energy of Jorge Moreno. His on the strong scientific and ornithological continued efforts resulted in the first meeting tradition of Cuba. Garrido is remarkably one of the Society for the Conservation and Study of the most prolific Caribbean authors work- of Caribbean Birds (formerly Society of Car- ing in a range of topics including , ibbean Ornithology) in 1987. The Society’s biogeography, and natural history (Wiley publication El Pitirre (now Journal of Caribbean 2000). Ornithology) commenced in 1988. In the mid-1970s, a conservation program 1990–2000s: CONSERVATION for the St. Lucia Parrot (Amazona versicolor) began, as it was found that its wild population In the 1990s and into the new millennium, numbered about 100 birds. The Jersey Wild- fieldwork engaged more local persons. For life Preservation Trust (UK) and the local instance, in Jamaica, a study of the breeding Department of Forestry combined to try to biology of the Black-billed Parrot (Amazona increase awareness about the species status agilis) was done by Susan Koenig using a num- and threats (led by Paul Butler and the late ber of residents as assistants (Koenig 1999); Gabriel Charles). The campaign involved and research staff of the International Insti- government and private sector participants, as tute of Tropical Forestry visited the Domini- well as education and public awareness. The can Republic and worked mainly on migrant parrot was declared the National Bird in 1979 species, using local assistants as much as pos- and legislation was updated to protect this sible (Latta & Wunderle 1996). and other species as well as for wildlife habi- The real successor to Bond’s Birds of the

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West Indies was published in 1998, a fully illus- THE FUTURE trated guide. The book contains the most up to date information on distribution of birds in Vuilleumier (2003), in his review of the his- the West Indies (omitting Trinidad and torical and current state of Neotropical orni- Tobago) (Raffaele et al. 1998). A smaller field thology recognized the contribution of El guide based on the 1998 work was issued in Pitirre, published since 1987 by the Society for 2003, with basic information for identification the Conservation and Study of Caribbean along with the illustrations from the larger Birds (formerly the Society of Caribbean edition (Raffaele et al. 2003). Updated field Ornithology), for Caribbean ornithology. guides specific to particular islands are now Also, he stated that “ever larger numbers of available for Cuba (Garrido & Kirkconnell ornithologists, especially younger ones, carry 2000), Lesser Antilles (Bénito-Espinal & Hau- out research on Neotropical birds, and more tcastel 2005), the Bahamas and Turks and of them than ever before are native to and Caicos (Hallett 2006), Hispaniola (Keith et al. resident in .” But, is this true of 2004, Latta et al. 2006), Dominica (James et al. the Caribbean? Without strong academic 2005), the (Bradley 2000), preparation this is difficult to achieve. Fur- and Haiti (Sergile 2006). All these guides make ther, without the assurance of a career that information on native avifauna more readily will maintain these young people, there is no available for residents. certainty that those trained will not take jobs The Society for the Conservation and in other endeavours or in other countries. Study of Caribbean Birds has fostered partici- Today, the noticeable lack of native pation of islanders and helped develop orni- on some islands is demonstrated in the num- thological and conservation skills. Due to the ber of research projects that are still carried exchange of information and expertise, a out by overseas scientists. Can individual number of projects have resulted from meet- islands support specialist biologists? At ings of the Society where island biologists present, there are severe limitations of train- meet counterparts from and ing, little guidance in field studies, and almost , for example, the West Indian no practical ecology experience. In territories Whistling-Duck and Conservation with a limited economic base, non-govern- Project, and the annual Caribbean Endemic ment organizations find it difficult to survive. Bird Festival. Further, BirdLife International Smaller islands in the archipelago, such as the projects address conservation of birds at risk Lesser Antilles, suffer considerably the same through the identification of Important Bird syndrome, worsened by not having a research Areas on all of the Greater Antilles (D. Wege institute or university within the territory. pers. com.). However, a few positive signs are emerg- Alarmed at the growing loss of biological ing. The Sociedad Ornitológica de la His- diversity, many Caribbean countries signed pañola (established in 2001) is the only the Convention on Biological Diversity Dominican institution whose members are (CBD) in 1992. Although ratification may not fully trained and capable of conducting always be reflected in direct action by Carib- research on the local avifauna. La Société bean governments, nor in their policies, it has Haïti was established in 2003, influenced the work of international conser- named after Jean-Jacques Audubon (1785– vation organizations and brought cooperation 1851) who was born in this island; it works with local government departments or non- mostly on education issues with some surveys government organizations. included (S. Latta pers. com.).

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It must be acknowledged though that phia, Pennsylvania. without the research and publications of Bond, J. 1971. Review of “Las aves de Puerto European and North American institutions Rico” by Virgilio Biaggi. Auk 82: 207–208. and universities ornithology would still be in Bradley, P. 2000. The birds of the Cayman Islands. its infancy on many islands in the Caribbean. BOU Checklist No. 19, British Ornithologists’ Union, British Ornithologists’ Club, & The Natural History Museum, Tring, UK. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Buffon, G. L. L., comte de. 1770–1786. Histoire naturelle des oiseaux, avec la description du Thanks are due particularly to James W. Wiley Cabinet du Roy. Imprimerie Royale, Paris, for his succinct advice and generous assis- France. tance; to Herbert A. Raffaele for his contin- Cory, C. B. 1889. The birds of the West Indies, ued interest in the Caribbean and his efforts including all species known to occur in the to stimulate local participation, and to both Bahama Islands, the Greater Antilles, the Cay- for their insightful comments on this paper. mans, and the Lesser Antilles, excepting the Also to Susan Koenig for valuable comments islands of Tobago and Trinidad. Estes & Lau- and clarifications and for making the oral pre- riat, Boston, Massachusetts. Cruz, A. 1977. Ecology and behavior of the Jamai- sentation at the symposium. Special thanks to can Woodpecker. Bull. Fla. St. Mus. Biol. Sci. Juan Freile for his guidance and infinite 22: 149–204. patience. Danforth, S. T. 1926. Birds observed in Jamaica during the summer of 1926. Auk 45: 480–491. REFERENCES Danforth, S. T. 1936. Los pájaros de Puerto Rico. Rand McNally & Co., New York, New York. Allen, G. M. 1939. Stuart Taylor Danforth. Auk 56: Dod, A. S. de. 1978. Aves de la República Domini- 362. cana. Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Anonymous. 1891. Report submitted by H. A. Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. Blake on the Mongoose Commission Downer, A., & R. Sutton. 1990. Birds of Jamaica; a appointed to enquire fully, whether, as is repre- photographic field guide. Cambridge Univ. sented the Mongoose is destructive of poultry, Press, Cambridge, UK. game and other useful creatures. Jamaica Legis- Eyre, A. 1966. The botanic gardens of Jamaica. lative Council, Kingston, Jamaica. Deutsch, , UK. Banks, R. C., & R. Hole, Jr. 1993. W. T. March’s Faaborg, J., & J. Winters. 1980. More returns from birds collected in Jamaica. Gosse Bird Club the Guanica Forest, Puerto Rico. J. Field Orni- Broadsheet 60: 7–9. thol. 51: 368. Barbour, T. 1944. Cuban ornithology. Nuttall Garrido, O. H., & A. Kirconnell. 2000. Field guide Ornithological Club Memoirs 9, Nuttall Orni- to the birds of Cuba. Comstock Publishing thological Club, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Associates, Ithaca, New York. Bénito-Espinal, E., & P. Hautcastel. 2005. Les Gosse, P. H. 1847. The birds of Jamaica. John Van oiseaux des Antilles et leur nid: Petites et Voorst, London, UK. Grandes Antilles. PLB Editions, Grosier, Gosse, P. H. 1851. A naturalist’s sojourn in . Jamaica. Brown, Green and Longmans, Lon- Biaggi, V. 1970. Las aves de Puerto Rico. Editorial don, UK. Universitaria, Universidad de Puerto Rico, San Gosse Bird Club. 2000. Citation to Lisa Salmon. Juan, Puerto Rico. Gosse Bird Club Broadsheet 75: 2. Bond, J. 1936. Birds of the West Indies. Academy Gundlach, J. 1877. Contribución a la mamología of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. cubana. Monteil y Compañía, La Habana, Bond, J. 1940. Check- of the West Cuba. Indies. Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadel- Gundlach, J. 1878. Apuntes para la fauna Puerto-

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