Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology

greg W. Welch, ph.d. UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA-LINCOLN leslie r. hawley, ph.d. UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA-LINCOLN carina Mccormick, M.a. (Ph.D. candidate) UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA-LINCOLN Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art is grateful to the Windgate Charitable Foundation for supporting this research conducted by the Nebraska Center for Research on Children, Youth, Families & Schools.

This research serves as a reference for Crystal Bridges as the Museum develops and implements a distance learning initiative; however, it also serves as a resource for art museums, art educators, general educators, and policy makers across the country.

greg W. Welch, ph.d. UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA-LINCOLN leslie r. hawley, ph.d. UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA-LINCOLN carina Mccormick, M.a. (Ph.D. candidate) UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA-LINCOLN

© 2013, Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art 4 Introduction 6 Historical Developments in General Distance Education 9 Current Trends in Distance Education for Art 14 Distance Learning for Art: Motivation and Access 18 Distance Learning for Art: Beliefs and Pedagogies 20 Distance Learning for Educator Professional Development 23 Teaching Art in Schools: Challenges Faced in Rural and Urban Schools 28 Technology Access and Use in Rural and Urban Schools 32 The Intersection of Educational Policy and Art Education 36 Shaping a Vision for Distance Education for Art

© 2013, Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art INTRODUCTION

Though visual art has the power to evoke inspiration, transformation, and understanding, this process is oftentimes aided by trained educators or guides who seek to increase these effects. To the extent that students lack experiences in reflecting on the meaning of art or the intentions of artists, such guidance may be particularly essential in ensuring meaningful art experiences.

Art museums, along with the field of for similar educational programming lesser extent given the recent focus on museum education, have effectively designed to reach students that cannot technology-based distance education in developed and implemented programs feasibly engage in the on-site museum museum settings. to engage and educate youth and adult experience. Students in rural communities audiences from many different backgrounds are a particular focus of the report due to In order to support these comparisons while in the physical museum space. In geographic or financial constraints that may empirically, quantitative analyses a recent study investigating the potential restrict rural students’ physical access to art were conducted to compare features effects of guided museum visits to museums. Because distance and funding related to art access, art education, and Crystal Bridges Museum of American should not determine youths’ access to educational technology for city, suburban, Art, researchers documented numerous works of art, distance education can be a town, and rural schools. These analyses positive impacts of such visits on important valuable way to promote equity in access to were conducted using recent national academic and social/emotional outcomes high-quality visual art experiences. representative data collected by the (Green, Kisida, & Bowen, 2013). In this study, National Center for Educational Statistics. these benefits were particularly amplified This report is primarily grounded in an The results of the statistical analyses help for rural students. extensive literature review of museum support the results from the literature education, distance learning and distance review to show that there are substantial Museums have also increased their technologies, and art education in school differences in access to art education and offerings of distance education communities. Throughout the literature community art opportunities based on opportunities, but many questions remain review, attention was particularly focused on school locale. Throughout the report, we regarding how to best transmit informative the unique challenges and experiences of attempt to synthesize knowledge gathered and transformative visual art experiences art education in rural communities, whether from this analysis with that from the when the learners are not in the museum. provided by teachers within the schools literature. This report focuses on distance education or through distance technologies. Priority approaches employed by visual arts was given to literature collected from the To further study these issues, interviews museums for connecting with school domains of museum education, distance were conducted with individuals affiliated communities, including rural schools, learning, and art education in school with distance programming, whether outside the physical museum space. This communities, with particular focus given for art museums or distance-learning work builds upon the aforementioned to the use of web-based technologies as organizations. In addition, one participant study by the University of Arkansas and a means for providing distance-education represents the experience of a school art Crystal Bridges Museum of American opportunities. Mobile methods are also specialist who has successfully woven Art in an attempt to provide direction discussed in the report, but to a much distance learning provided by an art

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 4 INTRODUCTION

museum into her own instruction. Because Instead, the report is intended to be by art museums that required closer of the emerging and dynamic nature of a useful resource for a wide range of examination. Thus, the report addresses distance education by art museums, it was art museums and art organizations as the following key areas: deemed essential to investigate current they expand, improve, or create their own distance-learning programs, as 1 Historical Developments in General practices and beliefs within the field rather Distance Education than base conclusions solely on writings well as for schools and educational institutions that may be receiving 2 Current Trends in Distance Education that may not fully represent the scope of for Art partners of such programming. current activities within the field. This is 3 Distance Learning for Art: Motivation especially relevant given that a leading and Access Though Crystal Bridges may be situated goal of this evaluation was to highlight and 4 Distance Learning for Art: Beliefs within a more rural context than many identify strategies likely to be effective for and Pedagogies other leading American art museums, rural the described purposes, including those 5 Distance Learning for Educator communities reside beyond the boundaries Professional Development approaches that may yet need further of all cities that host art museums. In Teaching Art in Schools: Challenges development. Thus, reflections from 6 addition, increased connectedness places Faced in Rural and Urban Schools those currently utilizing the technologies nearly all students within reach of museums 7 Technology Access and Use in Rural are particularly valuable for providing a and Urban Schools around the country and the world through comprehensive picture. Where feasible, distance education. It is hoped that a shared 8 The Intersection of Educational Policy results from the interview are combined with and Art Education knowledge base for these museums, findings from the literature to more fully 9 Shaping a Vision for Distance Education in the form of this report, will promote document the relevant themes of the report. for Art quality distance-education programming Additional excerpts from the interviews will The wide-ranging topics addressed make throughout the field. This hope can be be provided in a separate section. it unlikely that any single reader will be further fulfilled through the collaborative an expert in all the topics. Rather than efforts of art museums working toward The resulting report is foremost intended attempting to construct an authoritative the goal of improving equity in access to to help inform Crystal Bridges as they and static document, this report is instead enriching art experiences. tackle ambitious initiatives to expand intended to provide a common framework opportunities to experience visual art; and promote knowledge sharing as museums Through preliminary consultation with however, the goals for the report reach far and organizations seek to provide continually Crystal Bridges, we identified several beyond a single museum. improving distance-education programs, key questions about distance education particularly for rural students.

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 5 Historical Developments in General Distance Education

What is Distance Education? The terms educational technology and instructional technology are often used interchangeably to describe the integration of classroom pedagogy with advances in the scientific development of hardware (e.g., televisions, computers, and communication devices).

While debate continues on the impact common due to technological advances narrated slideshows, databases, web books, technological advances have on learning enabling increased access to social surveys or polls, shared calendars, and web and academic outcomes in formal networking or messaging platforms. Online site links. The synchronous approach can education settings, computer technology education—defined as any learning, formal include conferencing via audio, video, or the and the Internet have had a tremendous or informal, that occurs via an Internet web; real-time chat via an Internet or mobile impact on the ability of teachers in both connection at a distance from a student’s connection; and instant messaging, white formal and non-formal educational settings personal computer—is considered a general boarding, and application sharing. to expose their students to a plethora case of distance education (Larreamendy- of information offered from outside the Jones & Leinhardt, 2006). Asynchronous delivery is a convenient classroom (Jostens Learning Corporation, method for students or instructors 1997). Technological advances such as the Asynchronous vs. requiring flexibility in scheduling. In many Internet provide an opportunity for students Synchronous Delivery settings, students are able to access to engage in an interactive learning process Delivery of distance-education learning material at their convenience similar to the experience they would have programming can be generally categorized and in a manner they deem fit. (Access in a classroom environment or real-world as involving either an asynchronous, to technological resources may still be a setting such as a museum. This process one-way communication process, or a constraint for some students.) In addition, is often referred to as distance learning or synchronous, two-way communication schedule demands of the instructors can distance education. process. Synchronous delivery is defined be more easily accommodated when as an interactive process between teacher instruction does not occur at a specified Formal distance education is an endeavor and student that occurs simultaneously; time. Since real-time interaction is not dating back to the mid-nineteenth century in contrast, asynchronous delivery is an necessary, the material presented and (Sumner, 2000; Willis, 1993). Distance interactive process between teacher and interactions that have occurred are usually education generally involves instruction that student that does not occur simultaneously. published or recorded in some fashion is provided through a technological medium Kaplan and Lynn (2003) refer to for the student to refer to as frequently as allowing communication to take place asynchronous delivery as a “different time– necessary at any point in time. A primary between teacher and student at different different place” mode and synchronous as disadvantage with this approach can be locations. This communication is generally a “same time–different place” mode. The the impersonal nature of the learning interactive, involving immediate and/or asynchronous approach can include print process. Students must also be disciplined delayed support and feedback from the materials, discussion boards, web logs to interact with the material on their own, teacher to the student. Interaction among (blogs), e-mail, recorded and streaming or an in-class facilitator must help maintain students is also becoming increasingly audio, recorded and streaming video, student focus and progress.

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 6 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN GENERAL DISTANCE EDUCATION

Synchronous delivery allows students to “correspondence study” to describe the and II. Technological advances, such as the engage in real-time discussions about primary method utilized. Correspondence radio, were considered ancillary (Bates, course material with the teacher and/or study could be considered an early form of 1991) to correspondence study until the late other students. In order to engage in the asynchronous delivery due to its reliance 1950s and early 1960s, when early forms of feedback process, however, students must on the delivery of educational materials digital media were first utilized as part of be available at times in which the teacher to the student in print form through the distance-education programming. and other students are also available. Thus, mail. The development of the printing scheduling conflicts can occur. Synchronous press, along with the mass production The second generation of distance approaches also tend to be more costly, of pens and a more efficient, reliable, education supplemented, and oftentimes particularly due to the technology needed and affordable postal service facilitated completely replaced, print material with for the student to have a quality experience. the use of correspondence study. Isaac multimedia means of presenting content, A high-speed Internet connection, as well Pitman is recognized as the first to offer including broadcast media via the television, as quality audio and/or video equipment correspondence courses in England audio and video cassettes, and to a (including software) is generally a ‘must (Verduin & Clark, 1991). In America, Anna limited extent, early computers (Nipper, have’ for students to realize the full benefits Eliot Ticknor is thought to be a pioneer 1989). The establishment of the Open of a synchronous approach. (Holmberg, 1986), founding the Society to University of the United Kingdom in 1969 is Encourage Study at Home, an organization considered to be the hallmark of the second HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS composed primarily of women seeking generation of distance education (Keegan, Technological developments have led educational opportunities during the early 1990; Sumner, 2000). Television-based to an enhanced learning experience for women’s rights movement. educational programs such as Sunrise students engaged in either asynchronous or Semester, offered cooperatively by New York synchronous programming. Prior to Internet Distance learning by larger educational University and CBS Broadcasting, were also and computer access in schools, most early institutions began to emerge in the late instrumental in defining this time period. technologies did not allow for synchronous 1800s, with correspondence studies being These courses, as well as most distance- delivery, nor did they provide access to the offered at all levels of public education learning offerings during this period, breadth and depth of information that could through formal course offerings by public failed to take advantage of the possibilities be provided via synchronous delivery. The and private institutions of higher education for providing synchronous delivery of number of students that could be exposed to educational material has also increased due to technological advances. Literature on distance education includes the contributions technological advances have made to educators seeking to implement synchronous and/or asynchronous methods to deliver quality education to students all over the world (Sumner, 2000). The following offers a brief historical perspective on the roles technological advances have played in the practice of distance education (Willis, 1994). These same institutions educational programming. Instead, in both formal and non-formal educational also offered correspondence studies asynchronous approaches were the norm. settings over the past 150 years. leading to academic degrees, including The technological advances were largely advanced graduate degrees as prestigious used to facilitate an ‘expert as teacher’ The first generation of formal distance as a doctorate (Portman, 1978). The model in which the teacher was the primary, education occurred with the rise of the correspondence form of education was used oftentimes only, voice in the learning industrial society toward the end of the to educate individuals across a variety of process. The students were relegated to nineteenth century. Distance education professional disciplines, including teachers, working on their own with the print materials at this time aligned with visions of farmers, and businessmen. Holmberg and other information offered via the democratization (i.e., increasing access to (1986) reported on the required use of teacher-chosen technological medium. educational opportunities for underserved correspondence studies in the United States By the third generation, technological populations) and utilized the phrase Armed Forces during both World Wars I advances were more fully realized and

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 7 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN GENERAL DISTANCE EDUCATION utilized for providing quality asynchronous socially oriented platform where users can applications or mobile learning) to the and synchronous delivery approaches. absorb, as well as generate, information communication tools (e.g., synchronous vs. While the first Industrial Revolution and knowledge. The growth from a asynchronous). Moreover, these decisions focused on the development of new generally “read only” Web 1.0 (Cormode must be made with consideration of the large-scale manufacturing processes, & Krishnamurthy, 2008, p. 1) to a “read- technical infrastructure and equipment what is sometimes referred to as the and-write” Web 2.0 (McManus, 2005) available within the delivering and receiving second Industrial Revolution (Noble, 1995) has had a profound impact on the type of institutions. Academic institutions at the focused on computer-based technologies distance educational programming that forefront of distance education generally (e.g., email, Internet) and other related can be offered. The current landscape of have the capability to utilize their preferred communication devices (e.g., cell phones) distance-education is filled with the use of technologies for offering courses of varying to facilitate use of the information shared web-based technologies that support both formats through a course-management through the various digital communication synchronous and asynchronous approaches. system. However, publicly funded systems available (Menzies, 1996; Sumner, educational entities and publicly or privately 2000). These technologies provide The development of Web 2.0 and the vast funded organizations such as art museums distance educators access to a multitude increase in Internet usage across the United often do not have the same resources for of text-based and multimedia instructional States has facilitated the development offering a wide selection of courses across materials consisting of resources of technologies and approaches for a variety of formats. These organizations designed to enhance the learning process, disseminating educational materials in a must choose the best balance of costs and including print and/or digital textbooks distance format. Social networking (e.g., benefits of competing formats for their and workbooks and/or CD-ROMs. Thus, Twitter, Facebook, MySpace), media- particular content, goals, and context. this generation can be recognized as a sharing tools (e.g., YouTube, Vimeo), social continually developing field of computer- bookmarking services (e.g., Pinterest), Greenburg (2009) described the many mediated instructional practices. The collaborative knowledge development obstacles distance-based educations face technologies and materials available convey sites (e.g., Wikipedia), as well as creative in deploying computer-based conferencing information to students in many potential works such as weblogs (blogs) are methods which rely on technology. formats, as will be detailed in the following examples of recent developments that have Technology obstacles such as outdated section. aided in creating interactive educational equipment, insufficient bandwidth or experiences for students from afar. technology infrastructure, insufficient DISTANCE TECHNOLOGY TOOLS: Traditional approaches based on print quantities of equipment, and difficulty THE CURRENT LANDSCAPE materials, as well as instructional audio and bypassing firewalls limit the effectiveness Web-based technologies for use in instructional video tools, are also still in use. of such systems. Human resources are distance-educational practices began However, computer-mediated instruction a concern as well, with inability to afford rapidly developing in the 1990s. Since this and classroom-based videoconferencing support personnel, lack of interest on the time, web access has increased considerably systems are much more common choices part of educators/administrators, a steep for public schools and the US population for distance educators. Computer-mediated learning curve, and general resistance to in general. Greenhow et al. (2009) report instruction can take various forms including change also being examples of hurdles an increase from 35% to 100% in the computer-based instruction and computer- to classroom-based videoconferencing percentage of public schools having access assisted instruction. Computer-based systems. In addition, logistical concerns— to the Internet. According to Internet World instructional methods are effective for such as lack of dedicated rooms or Statistics (www.internetworldstats.com), presenting a multitude of educational incomplete overlap in bell schedules and over 245 million Americans (nearly 81% of materials and facilitating a tailored learning academic calendars—can be problematic. the population) use the Internet. The New process most appropriate for the situation. Once funding challenges, a focus on York Times (Wyatt, 2013) reports nearly accountability tests, and inconsistent state 98% of American homes have access to the Implementers of computer-based and district policies and standards are Internet in some form. conferencing methods and other methods also considered, these potential problems using audio and /or video technologies can seem quite daunting. Supporters of The web has changed from a read-only face several difficult decisions regarding distance education have needed to create informational and educational resource delivery of material to the learner(s). awareness of the availability, value, and comprising largely expert-generated These range from choices regarding the quality of such technologies in order to websites to an interactive, participatory, technologies employed (e.g., Web 2.0 overcome these obstacles.

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 8 Current Trends in Distance Education for Art

Traditionally, the educational reach of museums was limited geographically due to the immobility of their collections. Museum experiences were therefore limited to those who had the means to physically visit the museums. However, the Internet and distance technology now provide opportunities for museums to reach a wide variety of local, regional, national, and international audiences (Falk & Dierking, 2000).

DISTANCE EDUCATION: upon face-to-face interaction in physical 2013), and the Philadelphia Museum of Art THE MUSEUM CONTEXT space with some online or distance (Philadelphia Museum of Art, 2013). interaction. The hybrid model involves a There are many ways these technological balanced combination of both face-to- tools are used to expand exposure to MOBILE MUSEUMS face interaction in physical proximity as museums’ collections, including wide- A small number (about 17%) of museums well as interaction online in cyberspace. ranging resources as simple as digital are located in areas that have fewer than Fully on-line experiences are conducted images of objects housed in the museum 20,000 residents (AAM, 2013). To reach completely at a distance and participants or as complex as complete multimedia these communities, museum educational may never meet in person. Though mobile lessons organized around collection programming has also extended to a museums are certainly a type of distance highlights. In addition to technology-based traveling version of the art museum, termed learning, they create same-place learning art education methods, museums have “mobile museums.” This approach provides opportunities so do not fall within this utilized mobile museums, especially before an alternative method for reducing the taxonomy. such rich technology-based instructional boundaries between school students and opportunities were feasible. museums by taking pieces of the museum’s An example of the hybrid course experience collection to the student. The mobile is the Met’s professional development The type of technology-based instruction museum provides the additional benefit workshops for teachers, in which teachers implemented in the museum context of giving students a chance to physically physically come to the museum for generally fall into three forms (Din & Crow, engage with the objects and materials. In workshops then continue the educational 2009): their survey of museum administrators, collaboration online (Crow & Din, 2010). teachers, and other stakeholders, Bontempi A Technology-enhanced Videoconferencing programs are examples courses/experiences and Nash (2012) found that trunks and of fully technology-based experiences, B Hybrid, or blended traveling museum exhibitions offering courses/experiences whether individual programs or ongoing hands-on experiences were considered the courses. Distance learning through C Fully technology-based next-best thing to classroom instruction. courses/experiences videoconferencing is currently provided Museum employees believed these by a large number of art museums, such These forms are distinguished by the methods offered the chance to provide as the Amon Carter Museum of American degree to which students and teachers students with tactile stimulation, resulting Art (Amon Carter Museum of American interact in physical proximity or at a in more memorable experiences. These Art, 2013), The Cleveland Museum of Art distance. For instance, the technology- methods can have the additional benefit (The Cleveland Museum of Art, 2013), the enhanced courses typically rely primarily of promoting group- and team-building Smithsonian American Art Museum (SAAM, activities and do not rely upon technology.

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 9 CURRENT TRENDS IN DISTANCE EDUCATION FOR ART

Currently, there are several examples of Mortati (2012), the founder of the SFMM, popular mobile museums. In New Mexico, encourages museums to consider these Use of this technology by art museums the “Van of Enchantment” travels across types of exhibitions because she believes continues to be widespread. Polycom (www. the state to public events and libraries it is a fresh way to engage the public and polycom.com), an industry leader in video- (Mobile Museums, 2011). The vans visit local provides a more economical option for based conferencing methods, reports that schools, rural, and underserved populations schools and communities, as well as interactive video classes provided by the who do not normally have access to a museums, to experiment and grow. Smithsonian’s National Museum of African museum. Supported by grants since Art (NMAfA) have increased in popularity 1996, the “Van of Enchantment” provides As with traditional visits to museums, from 800 classes a year in 2011-2012 to an a chance for underserved populations to guided exploration of the works in a mobile anticipated 1,600 in 2013 (Polycom, 2013). interact and connect with cultural history. museum can further elicit educational The Amon Carter Museum of American Art Another example of a successful program interaction rather than passive viewing. in Fort Worth, Texas (Amon Carter Museum is the “Moveable Museum” in New York Whether in a marble gallery, portable van, of American Art, 2013) offers a variety of City. The Moveable Museums include or on a computer screen, viewing artwork interactive lessons aligned with national and four mobile science museums run by the alone does not guarantee a meaningful art state standards. These lessons are centered American Museum of Natural History experience, and the museum education on the Amon Carter’s collection, which (AMNH). These vehicles visit schools, staff can help promote the types of includes artists such as Frederic Remington summer camps, community centers, and experiences considered to be positive and Charles M. Russell, to tell the story of churches away from downtown New York. for students. Because objects in mobile the American West. In 2010, these mobile science museums museums usually are less valuable than had over 22,000 visitors (Mobile Museums, those securely housed within the museum Videoconferencing is also a hallmark of 2011). The Los Angeles County Museum walls, the mobile collections may provide a The Cleveland Museum of Art’s distance of Art’s (LACMA) Ancient World and Maya unique opportunity for the kind of physical learning program (The Cleveland Museum Mobile museums travel to schools within interaction typically forbidden within a of Art, 2013). Founded in 1999, this program the Los Angeles Unified School District traditional museum setting. uses video tools such as the green-screen (LACMA, 2013). These mobile museums are technology, high-resolution image bank, designed to integrate with state standards VIDEOCONFERENCING and a technical producer to facilitate a for history and science while teaching Videoconferencing is a synchronous tool guided discussion and interaction between students about the art of the ancient world. utilized by several art museums across the presenter and the audience. The Because the cost of providing a mobile the country as a method of creating Cleveland Museum of Art distance learning museum can be more than $200,000 virtual field trips for school communities. programming consists of over 40 different per year (Mobile Museums, 2011), such Traditional videoconferencing involves videoconferencing lessons on a wide range programs are often supported through grant a high-quality video camera at the of topics including math, science, art, and funding. museum site, transmitting audio and history. video of the presenter. Presenters may be On a smaller scale, organizations with professional museum educators, part-time WEB-BASED LEARNING EXPERIENCES even very limited budgets can create and instructors, or trained volunteers. Such support their own mobile projects. For equipment is designed to allow transition Initially, museums’ on-line presence tended instance, the San Francisco Mobile Museum between or combinations of video of the to serve as a static extension, primarily (SFMM) is a “pop-up” museum project that presenter and content from a computer for display, but has since developed into a is transported by one person in a car and or document camera. Artwork shown dynamic participatory experience (Crow & can be broken down into segments (Mortati, through videoconferencing is typically a Din, 2010). Museums began to build their 2012). These types of “pop-up” exhibitions high quality digital or analog reproduction, online presence in the early 1990s. By travel to local parks and events, providing though original works can be shown 2006, museums received over 500 million participants in the community interactive using the camera as well. Thus, there are on-line visits (AAM, 2013). These numbers and collaborative art experiences. The many potential styles of interacting with continue to grow as the American way of works of art included in such small portable works of art through videoconferencing. life becomes increasingly digital. The use museums need not be by famous artists The preferred format will depend on the of the museum’s website as an educational and are often created within the community museum, or perhaps even the individual resource will be discussed in more detail in explicitly for the temporary exhibition. presenter. a later section of this report focusing on art

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 10 CURRENT TRENDS IN DISTANCE EDUCATION FOR ART museums’ goals and methods for distance tends to vary by the size of the museum. from different places include webinars and learning. For instance, small museums did not instant messaging. These tools facilitate report any videoconferencing or e-learning real-time communication, interaction, and Web-based learning tools provide a programming—compared to 40 percent of collaboration on projects, presentation, or multitude of methods for museums the larger museums (Wetterlund & Sayre, meetings. There are numerous examples to provide educational materials to 2009) with such capabilities. of these tools being used by museums individuals, schools, and communities. Crow and Din (2010) outline numerous Asynchronous educational and economic benefits of the web-based use of online learning. Educational benefits delivery includes include the ability to extend educational tools such as encounters for students across the globe, blogs, wikis, an opportunity to engage with students to social networking improve online programs, and a method sites, threaded by which museums can engage audiences discussion, via digital communication. Economic and course- benefits are also important because of management the reality of cost restrictions museums systems (CMS) often face. Web-based technologies offer (Crow & Din, the chance to provide the benefits of the 2009). These museum experience on a large scale tools can be accessed at any time, and across the United States. For instance, while minimizing the direct costs to both individuals do not have to be engaged at the Denver Art Museum provides online museums and schools. Expansion of the same time to participate in activities or teacher webinars (Denver Art Museum, high-speed Internet access, coupled with discussion. Currently, many museums are 2013) in which teachers can participate in advances in web-based delivery tools, using social networking websites such as a 60-90 minute presentation by an expert allows museums to take advantage of Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr, and Instagram on a variety of topics such as enhancing financial resources by expanding the digital to connect with visitors, schools, and curriculum with online resources from resources available online, minimizing communities. However, in some instances, the Denver Art Museum, Denver Museum the cost of physical space, providing the active online communities may become of Nature and Science, History Colorado ability to keep information and resources more synchronous to the extent that Center, and Resource Area for Teaching. up-to-date, facilitating collaborations participants choose to engage in real- The Denver Art Museum’s webinars permit with multiple audiences, and increasing time exchanges. Another example of an teachers to interact via chat features and marketing opportunities (Crow & Din, 2010). asynchronous tool is the Google Art Project interactive exercises. (Google Cultural Institute, 2013), which The types of web-based tools and online provides an online collaborative platform MASSIVE OPEN ONLINE COURSES platforms continually develop at a rapid to virtually tour galleries around the world. Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) are pace. A 2009 survey of arts museums by At the time of this report, Google reports a relatively new but exceedingly popular Wetterlund and Sayre (2009) found that that museums from over 40 countries type of web-based technology that allow museums in the United States have a wide have contributed to the more than 40,000 previously unimaginable numbers of variety of online educational programming high-resolution images available on their students to complete courses on a wide ranging from online collections (54% of website (Google Cultural Institute, 2013). variety of topics. MOOCs are increasingly those surveyed), activities or lessons (64%), The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art being utilized by top universities and interactive activities and games (23%), to History (Met, 2013) is another example of a organizations worldwide to offer free online videoconferencing and e-learning (11%). dynamic, asynchronous tool that schools, learning opportunities. In such courses, a Due to the speed of growth in this area, communities, and virtual visitors can access course designer will have previously created these figures are likely higher presently. The at their convenience via the web. a full course curriculum, with lessons, Internet provides a cost efficient, flexible, supporting materials, assignments, and engaging, and effective mode of delivering Synchronous web-based tools currently assessments. Students in the courses can information to a variety of audiences, but being used to allow museum educators interact with their “classmates,” who may be the scope of activities offered by museums to engage with students at the same time located anywhere in the world.

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 11 CURRENT TRENDS IN DISTANCE EDUCATION FOR ART

Though these courses do require extensive 29). The xMOOCs are recognized as the didn’t have as many options. Today, there preliminary effort to construct, they can be standard for course offerings through are so many different options. It’s great reused to reach as many students as have organizations such as Coursera (www. but it’s also really confusing [for distance interest in the course with minimal per- coursera.org), Udacity (www.udacity.com) learning providers] to figure out what student costs for the institution. and edX (www.edx.org). These MOOCs exactly they need.” operate within the constraints of the virtual learning environment and the bounds of the For instance, there are certain strengths content covered in a specific course. and weaknesses of long-established equipment and platforms, while at the This type of delivery platform has begun same time new technologies emerge that to take hold within art museum education may have the potential to be effective tools as well, notably a program by The Museum for these purposes. It can be challenging of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City. to fully vet these nascent technologies MoMA teamed up with Coursera to offer and even more challenging to attempt a professional development course for to predict future developments. As one primary and secondary school teachers museum educator said: “The problem (Mazzola, 2013). The initial MOOC is we’re in this infancy moment. Nobody offered by MoMA included over 17,000 really knows what is going to be the main enrollees, from classroom teachers to method of communication and we don’t museum curators. MOOCs offer a great want to miss out on something.” The same deal of flexibility in either synchronous participant suggested that a solution to this or asynchronous delivery approaches. ongoing dilemma is to develop content that Although MoMA’s MOOC was not conducted could relatively easily migrate to different in real time, it is possible to consider their technology platforms while maintaining its MOOC as a synchronized experience essential components: because teachers were given a syllabus and Make sure that when you’re creating had to follow along and participate within contents [you keep] your mind MOOCs are generally offered under the a specific time frame. If the course were flexible as to the platform. It used connectivist model or the Stanford model. open-access without a timeline and content- to be when we would create content, The models differ primarily in respect related discussion forums, then it would be like when you write a book, the to pedagogy but both make use of the more appropriate to consider their course content is really married with the Web 2.0 platform and other continually asynchronous. format of the book, and it takes developing technologies. The connectivist us as educators a long time to model, referred to as a cMOOC, emphasizes INSIGHTS FROM THE INTERVIEWS understand how to create content creativity, autonomy, and social-networked Participants in the interviews shared their that’s independent of this format. learning along the lines of the synchronous recommendations and experiences about Such advice is essential in today’s distance- delivery approaches discussed above. The selecting the type of equipment and learning environment because the formats cMOOCs operate from the perspective of a platform that best suit the unique needs are constantly changing. personal learning network where learning of a museum’s planned distance learning occurs across a network of connections. program. Once a museum has selected Toward this purpose, it is beneficial if at The Open Online Experience (www. either more traditional videoconferencing least one staff member working for the ooe13.org) is an example of a cMOOC technology or fully web-based platforms, museum’s education program is able offering a connected learning environment many choices remain. According to a to maintain expertise about current and for teachers interested in professional professional who specializes in distance emerging distance-learning technologies. development focused on educational technology, expansion in options has As a participant from an organization that technology. The Stanford model, referred accelerated in the past year. Some of this specializes in using technology to expand to as an xMOOC, involves the use of a growth is due to innovative technologies art education observed: “Our lives are rigorous curriculum and assessments that allow previously incompatible increasingly digital and it’s important that without the social element involved in the equipment to connect. “It’s really confusing every organization has someone that is connectivist model (Quinn, 2012, February right now. I will tell you. Five years ago, we keeping up with it [so] you know the benefit

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 12 CURRENT TRENDS IN DISTANCE EDUCATION FOR ART to your organization.” This may be difficult for art education discussed a tendency engaging questions, they’re going to add for museum education programs already for organizations wishing to expand more flashy, poppy, crazy stuff because facing tension regarding funding for their technology to become fixated on the use kids like TV, right?” A general sentiment distance education program, but it may of a technology and allow their educational expressed by participants was that those be important to consider when planning program to be molded by the format using these technologies must constantly new programs or when asking how existing and limits of that technology. “There is be guided by their educational goals and programs might improve. this common, common problem where mission rather than relinquishing power to people are tempted to just…shoehorn a the technology itself. One museum educator offered a reflection program into the platform, where we’d from her museum’s own experience. like to look at it the other way around.” As she described, it can be tempting to Instead, participants preferred to use purchase equipment early on; instead, she the technology to serve the goals of the recommended waiting until the program’s educational program rather than allowing goals, methods, and technology needs the technology to determine the program’s have been more fully developed. In some methods. instances, a museum might purchase We try to figure out what we’re equipment only to learn that it is not trying to accomplish in each of compatible with the technology in the our programs… and then identify schools the museum most seeks to serve how the technology works for us…. or even with other equipment the museum So there’s always going to be a seeks to utilize. As a participant stated: platform out there or two [that “Have a plan in place before getting the suits our needs well…. We need equipment.” some kind of technology solutions accomplishing what we’re trying to As web-based technologies become more accomplish. pervasive, the types of learning activities As museum education programs solidify available are becoming more varied. For their goals, pedagogical orientation, and example, social media sites, group video content examples, the optimal technology chats, and media sharing sites such as for those purposes may become more Pinterest and Instagram open new doors for apparent. learner engagement. A museum educator whose museum’s distance programming This philosophy is important in developing had historically focused on a knowledge- programming as well. The current digital spreading approach has developed zeal landscape is far different than the serene for transforming the program’s goals and space of an art gallery: it is often faster, methods with new technologies. As this louder, brighter, and more cluttered. It person indicated: “we’re very excited about is in this space that art museums seek the potential of all of these different types to establish expanded arts education of technologies that we can start to [use to] opportunities. Moreover, students are interact with our audiences more regularly often more accustomed to the sometimes instead of having this sort of one way, expert frenetic style of such media than the voice. There is a lot of opportunity. This is an type of learning environment museum exciting time.” educators may consider optimal. One participant urged that distance educators Multiple participants suggested that seek to keep students engaged through organizations must not lose sight of high-quality educational practices rather their educational purposes in light of the than capitulating to short attention spans. allure of novel distance-learning tools. “I’m afraid that if they want the kids to One organization that has historically be engaged…instead of [adding] more been an innovator in distance learning

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 13 Distance Learning for Art: Motivation and Access

Background Literature: Museum Education and Access

THE EDUCATIONAL MISSION effects far beyond the study of art history (AAM) reports Museums for a New Century OF MUSEUMS or the practice of a particular technique. (Commission on Museums for a New To begin a discussion of distance education Education was also intended to elevate Century, & AAM, 1984) and Excellence and by art museums, the general mission of the character of the common man through Equity (AAM & Hirzy, 1992) firmly cemented art museums must be addressed. People discussions related to traditional ideals emphasis on education and collaboration not affiliated with museums tend to view such as imagination, beauty, grace, and between museums and schools. The AAM museums as a repository of artifacts morality. George Brown Goode of the also reports that museums currently spend (Talboys, 2011). Yet, individuals connected Smithsonian Institution encompassed the more than $2 billion a year on educational to the museum community understand early foundation of these philosophical activities with K-12 students; host visits the complex role museums play in society, ideas when he referred to public galleries as from 55 million students in school groups; particularly the educational role. In fact, the “people’s museum,” full of ideas rather and provide more than 18 million hours the educational role of the museum is than collections of objects (Zeller, 1989). of instruction via staff visits to schools, embodied in the international definition Current museum educators may note how traveling exhibits, and teacher professional of a museum. The International Council educational objectives have developed development (AAM, 2013). of Museums (ICOM) defines a museum over time along with conceptualizations as “a non-profit, permanent institution in of the purpose of art. Early educational MUSEUM ACCESS FOR RURAL the service of society and its development, programming tended to be adult-centered STUDENTS open to the public, which acquires, gallery talks and lectures (Burham & Kai Dwindling school funds make it challenging conserves, researches, communicates and Kee, 2011). for schools, regardless of location, to exhibits the tangible and intangible heritage come to the museum for on-site field trips of humanity and its environment for the In addition to the broad focus on serving (Terrero, 2012). Although schools next purposes of education, study and enjoyment the needs and interests of the general door to the museum in urban settings (ICOM, 2013).” The founding charters of population, museums also took a particular and those a hundred miles away in rural some of the nation’s oldest museums, such interest in school communities. Museums communities face similar financial burdens, as the Metropolitan Museum of Art (Met) and schools began to establish connections rural schools struggle more than others and Boston Museum of Fine Arts, explicitly in the early 1900s. By the late 1930s, to physically make it to a museum. Two of cite education as the primary purpose of the education programs in museums had the strongest barriers to both physical and museum (Zeller, 1989). expanded to include more child-centered virtual access to museums for rural students programming (Burham & Kai Kee, 2011). are the distance between rural locales The educational foundations laid out in In the last decades of the 20th century, and museums and access to high-speed these early charters were intended to have the American Alliance for Museums broadband technology. Prior to outlining

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 14 DISTANCE LEARNING FOR ART: MOTIVATION AND ACCESS these barriers, a definition of “rural” is The system assigns school district-level Art in Schools: Challenges Faced in Rural necessary. codes based on where the plurality of and Urban Schools” section in this report, students in the district attends school there is a significant pattern of differences There are no clear-cut definitions for (Strange, Johnson, Showalter, & Klein, in whether a high school had offered a determining what constitutes a “rural” 2012). If no single code accounts for the field trip to an art gallery or museum in school community. Depending on the majority of students, then locale codes the previous year—with schools in cities definition of rural, the percentage of are based on the combination of the and suburbs offering such trips more often local educational agencies (LEAs; school main category (city, suburban, etc.) and by about 10 percentage points compared districts) classified as rural can vary from subcategory. First, the largest percentage to schools in towns and rural areas. The 11 percent to more than 60 percent and of students determines the broad locale same pattern of results was demonstrated include between 2 to 25 pecent of all (city, suburban, etc.), and then the smallest for arts-related field trips outside regular public school students (Apling & Kuenzi, or most remote subcategory for the broad school hours. As importantly, arts specialists 2008). Common definitions for rural tend locale determines the individual locale code in rural schools have reduced opportunities to rely on either population density or (NCES, 2013b). Urban-centric locale codes to experience art museums in person. Art distance from an urbanized area, but some use geocoding information (i.e. precise specialists in rural elementary schools definitions combine the two metrics. In location of schools based on longitude rated their participation in viewing original particular, the National Center for Education and latitude) to differentiate rural school works of art in galleries or museums as Statistics’ (NCES) coding scheme, urban- districts located just outside an urban area significantly less frequent than those in city centric locale codes, use the Census (fringe) from those that are located in more schools. To the extent that art specialists’ practice can be shaped by interacting with NCES’s Urban-Centric Locale Categories NCES's urban-centric locale categories works of art in museum settings, these Locale Definition City differences may affect the art education Large Territory inside an urbanized area and inside a principal city with population of 250,000 or more their students receive. Territory inside an urbanized area and inside a principal city with population less than 250,000 and greater than or equal to Midsize 100,000 Small Territory inside an urbanized area and inside a principal city with population less than 100,000 Rural students often face geographical Suburb Large Territory outside a principal city and inside an urbanized area with population of 250,000 or more boundaries for them to get to school, let Territory outside a principal city and inside an urbanized area with population less than 250,000 and greater than or equal to Midsize alone to a museum. For instance, a New 100,000 Small Territory outside a principal city and inside an urbanized area with population less than 100,000 York Times article detailed the lengthy Town school day of rural students in Utah due to Fringe Territory inside an urban cluster that is less than or equal to 10 miles from an urbanized area Distant Territory inside an urban cluster that is more than 10 miles and less than or equal to 35 miles from an urbanized area long bus rides (Dillon, 2004). Additionally, Remote Territory inside an urban cluster that is more than 35 miles from an urbanized area Howley, Howley, and Shamblen (2001) Rural Census-defined rural territory that is less than or equal to 5 miles from an urbanized area, as well as rural territory that is less compared school bus experiences between Fringe than or equal to 2.5 miles from an urban cluster rural and suburban children in five states Census-defined rural territory that is more than 5 miles but less than or equal to 25 miles from an urbanized area, as well as Distant rural territory that is more than 2.5 miles but less than or equal to 10 miles from an urban cluster and found that rural students were more Census-defined rural territory that is more than 25 miles from an urbanized area and is also more than 10 miles from an urban Remote cluster likely to spend thirty minutes or more on

Source: NCES, 2013c the bus and travel over unpaved roads. Given these types of conditions for rural Bureau’s designation of urban areas at the distant or remote areas (Apling & Kuenzi, students to get to their schools, it is census tract level to create a code for each 2008). Compared to other rural taxonomies, conceivable that travel to the closest art school district by accounting for proximity the NCES urban-centric codes permit policy museum is even more time consuming. to an urbanized area and population decisions or research conclusions to be The analyses described in the section of size. These locale codes classify schools made at the school district level. the current report titled “Teaching Art in and LEAs into four major categories— Schools: Challenges Faced in Rural and city, suburban, town, and rural (NCES, AAM (2013) reports that approximately 17 Urban Schools” showed that rural and 2013a). Within each main type are three percent of museums are located in rural town schools were less likely than city and subcategories based on the population and/ areas consisting of fewer than 20,000 suburban schools to offer a field trip to an or distance from an urbanized area. The residents. In contrast, approximately one- art museum. The isolation, large distances following table details the NCES urban- third of our nation’s schools are defined between areas, and sparse populations are centric school locale codes. as rural by the urban-centric locale codes characteristics of rural schools that effect (NCES, 2013). As reported in the “Teaching the cost of transportation, types of extra-

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 15 DISTANCE LEARNING FOR ART: MOTIVATION AND ACCESS curricular activities and classes offered, Beyond focusing on rural communities inhibit the ability to hire and retain teachers, surrounding the museum, distance and limit general access to goods and education can easily reach schools services (Malhoit, 2005). Interviews with throughout the country and world, rural teachers have revealed that teachers providing additional benefits of exposure believe lack of resources for field trips and and collaboration across this space. One students’ lengthy bus rides are some of east-coast art museum discussed the need the rural school and community factors to expand its coverage to more areas: “Our that hinder them as teachers (McCracken & goal is to fill up the whole country evenly, Miller, 1988). rather than continue to reach primarily the east coast, with a pretty strong showing on the west coast, then a sort of gap in the to those technologies to be able to help us Goals and Practices: middle of the country.” One museum that is continue to do that in new ways.” Insights from the Interviews currently developing its distance education program discussed the desire to extend Thus, the goals of distance learning THE EDUCATIONAL MISSION OF the reach of the museum’s educational need not be seen as separate from the DISTANCE EDUCATION programming internationally as well: museum’s mission as a whole, though the steps taken towards that goal may look As described in the previous section, one What we hope to do is expand our very different than traditional elements of goal of distance education provided by art educational programming so that we its programming. One way to increase the museums is to provide access to high- can take the museum to school groups continuity between distance and in-museum quality museum experiences for those that would never have the opportunity to education programs is to emphasize the with limited access to the museum using come here. And we have had discussions museum’s permanent collection in both traditional mechanisms. This sentiment with our people—our educators in other formats, as will be discussed in the next was expressed clearly in the interviews. In areas and other countries—about the section. particular, the participants discussed how possibility of doing linkages between modern technology is increasing their ability classrooms and educational programs to meet this goal. One individual involved across great distances. the uniqueness of the with a museum’s distance-education collection It is intriguing that in this quote, the program summed it up well: “What can One of the most consistent themes across participant used the phrase ‘take the we do for visitors that cannot be here? the interview participants was that each museum to school groups’ rather than Museums have been thinking about that for museum has a unique and valuable role thinking of a virtual field trip in which a long time, but now we’ve got technology to play in national distance education students virtually come to the museum. that can help us do that in new ways.” An because of the specific works housed in Though the distinction is subtle, it suggests expert in distance-education technology each collection, which by the nature of different ways of thinking about distance echoed the sentiment that technology original art cannot simultaneously belong to education. is allowing museums to more easily and a second museum as well. One participant effectively provide educational services to discussed the idea that each museum has One participant discussed how distance rural areas: works that other museums do not as part of education perfectly complements the the rationale for the partnership between I think also with all these new software- existing educational programming of teachers and museums: based technologies coming out, there’s the museum and the museum’s overall going to be a rise in more affordable mission. That is, this participant discussed We’d want to bring it back to the object. content for some of the smaller and how technology is allowing the museum to So, how is the gallery unique? Why rural schools, but also for the smaller engage more viewers and learners: would this classroom, or this teacher and rural museums, they are going to “Our goals have not changed, our over- be interested in doing some sort of play now. arching goals. In the end, we want to offer distance learning with [this particular access, in as many ways as possible, to as museum]? Well, I would guess that it is Given the concern documented throughout many different types of learners as possible, probably our collection, mostly. the report about funding and art education to our collection and what we do here….Now in rural schools, this content is likely to be A second participant discussed the that technology is changing, we’re looking particularly beneficial. contribution that museums can provide in

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 16 DISTANCE LEARNING FOR ART: MOTIVATION AND ACCESS terms of understanding and appreciating but some of the museums that we’ve seen the objects in their collection and spreading have been able to really creatively capture those qualities to a wide audience. This the experience.” The challenge of distance participant believed that distance education learning for museums is to do much more can be implemented in a way that provides than allow individuals to ‘see’ the works valuable interaction with the object even but rather experience and learn from them though the learner is not in the museum: as well through well-designed and well- implemented programming. We have these amazing artwork collections, one of a kind. That’s what makes us unique as museums, I think. And I think most of us on site still realize the unique beauty and … the importance of the original object, and we don’t want to deflect from that. But I think there are ways to be inspired by the original object, to inspire ideas, and help people have meaningful experiences off site as well, but with that original object in mind. Another participant mentioned international distance learning as consistent with the museum’s goals. As this participant explained, a major component of the museum’s strategic plan “is Globalization, and clearly distance learning is a great way to have a global reach.”

Though museums are free to draw from digital images in the public domain to create connections to their collection, it appears likely that museums will focus programming on their permanent collections. One participant explained, “We wanted to be focused on our permanent collection and highlight those objects that are unique to us.” Because of this, the value of distance education for art museums is not limited to those who cannot easily visit a museum. The fact is, visiting all the major art museums in the country—let alone the world—is a lofty and nearly unachievable goal, even for those whose lives focus on art museums. An interview participant who is involved with expanding online educational opportunities for diverse learners worldwide emphasized this point: “Obviously, it’s not feasible for most people to be able to travel to the best museums in the world and see the great pieces of art,

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 17 Distance Learning for Art: Beliefs and Pedagogy

As anyone who has had to rush through an art museum due to time constraints knows, attempting to view many works quickly can reduce the full museum experience by favoring quantity over quality.

SELECTING CONTENT could be thought of as distinct audiences resonated with the recommendations of and content selected accordingly: “… museum education views, such as those of As anyone who has had to rush through an we need to think of the offsite visitor as Rika Burnham and Elliot Kai-Kee. In these art museum due to time constraints knows, a different audience almost and create practices, learners are active participants attempting to view many works quickly can programming for that purpose.” In contrast, in constructing their own meaning from reduce the full museum experience by an expert in distance learning said that art rather than passive recipients of expert favoring quantity over quality. Perhaps each parallel programming is an effective way knowledge. One participant shared, “I reader of this report has a unique strategy to provide quality experiences to both in- really like the idea of students driving for a one-hour visit in an encyclopedic museum and distance audiences: “There’s their learning and being responsible for museum in a new city. Similarly, there is no problem with taking what you are already their learning and finding out what they a need to deliberately favor quality over doing for onsite visitors and developing that want to know.” That is, even the goals of quantity in art museum distance education. into outreach videoconferencing because the exchange are dynamic and can be One participant described feeling like you’re not going to hit the same people.” shaped by the students rather than fixed at presenters sometimes try to cover too the outset. Depending on the orientation much because they know museum access Whether in-museum and distance of the school, some students may be is limited for the audiences: “They feel like audiences are seen as two separate types unaccustomed to this teaching style: “The these kids are never going to come to the of audiences or two formats for reaching students may be surprised to learn that museum and so they need to see as much the overall target audience, it is important they are not just listening to an expert, but of the collection as possible.” Instead, to balance the two methods. A participant they’re actively engaged in either figuring thoughtful selection of content can be an from a well-established distance-learning out a problem or working cooperatively with important and meaningful professional program described this ongoing trade-off: their classmates on something—or doing experience for museum educators, “Who and where is your audience? How more than viewing art.” analogous to curating a new exhibition: much are you serving your online audience “the unique opportunity that we have with or your potential audience versus your However, the distance format requires our mode of distance learning is that I current in-person audience, and what is the additional effort to accomplish this. An get to curate a show every time I make a balance between those two things?” experienced distance-learning educator presentation.” described efforts to continue to be learner centered despite being separated from Participants differed on the relationship BEST PRACTICES TRANSCEND FORMAT the students and perhaps having few between in-museum content and distance- background details: “To be learner centered education content. For example, one The pedagogical practices discussed by you have to be able to really diagnose the participant said the two types of learners interview participants from museums

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 18 DISTANCE LEARNING FOR ART: BELIEFS AND PEDAGOGY needs of that class within the first five to convey the same emotional power through than repeat facts they have learned. One ten minutes of meeting them. You have to a screen. presenter reflected on lessons learned figure (that) out by what you ask them and There are some people who think that from distance learning and said “I have what they’re saying. You have to figure out it lessens the experience or it weakens learned how hard it is to ask a good their personal level of knowledge, then the museum experience for a child question. It really isn’t easy, and it’s really adjust what you’re going to teach.” The if they’re not standing in front of an important to ask good questions with very nature of inquiry can take somewhat original work of art. I would agree that video conferencing, because you have of a different meaning. One participant it is not exactly the same experience, such a short time together.” Students also explained that in inquiry-based learning, but I think that some of the things …can need to feel comfortable responding to a “the idea is very much connecting an (nevertheless) be gained in viewing art presenter they have never met. To build audience with an object in a personal way, (remotely)… the personal experience, this learning context, it is beneficial to start (creating) multiple points of entries so that the emotional experience that a person with a question that “is welcoming and you’re never tapping only the visual.” has in being able to see something encouraging, and giving (the students) that was of museum quality created by the time that they need to be able to think CHALLENGES AND someone else. I think that while it may through that question and come up with a OPPORTUNITIES OF DISTANCE be not quite as perfect as actually being response that’s relevant to the artwork and LEARNING in the museum itself, I think you can what they’re doing in the class.” There are unique challenges in transforming still have those personal connections at the museum experience to a distance a distance. However, there are also unique benefits format, and the optimal process might not of emerging distance technologies and Though accomplishing this might not be be immediately apparent. Namely: “How web-based platforms. In particular, web easy, it may be seen as essential for art can you take onsite programs and adapt technologies that promote participant museum distance learning. those to be delivered successfully over this interaction and learning from each technology? You can’t hand that artifact to other may be quite different than some the student, but what can you do instead?” traditional teaching approaches. At first, Technological limitations, such as low some individuals or institutions might be resolution, camera angles, microphone uncomfortable with relinquishing control positioning or quality, or the light level in the and expertise, but the effect on learning can classroom, can impair the educator’s ability be powerful. As this participant described: to perceive subtle student characteristics “Technology is also helping us see things in and emotions. For example, if the new ways. We might not ever have imagined, classroom lights have been dimmed to before, having conversations with visitors or better see the video feed, it makes it more allowing the non-expert voice to become difficult for the educator in the museum part of the conversation. And I think that’s to notice details about students’ level of something that museums are opening up to engagement or frustration. The technology more and more now.” and distance can create a context in which “you’re missing all of the social cues that Diverse content provided by a wide range people are most comfortable with,” thus of museums can allow for partnerships increasing the challenges of active learner between museums to the benefit of all engagement. learners. Because distance learning increases appreciation for works in other Skilled distance educators can overcome museums, it “allow[s] us to have a shared the challenges of the format to provide understanding of these objects that exist valuable and authentic learning. In and these collections and the importance of particular, some of the emotional power of a them in our culture.” This participant then A key component of inquiry-based work of art may come from standing in front added, “I’d like to see that done right.” Doing learning is the presenter asking open- of it, in its actual size, accurate colors, and distance education ‘right’ is more possible ended questions that allow the students detailed texture. An art museum educator than ever with the technologies described. to creatively express themselves rather working in distance formats attempts to

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 19 Distance Learning for Educator Professional Development

The educational benefits of web-based and mobile delivery methods are not limited to students: teachers also benefit from the collaborative environments created by the use of these tools with school communities.

DISTANCE LEARNING FOR that could easily be adapted for future to use these works of art, and at TEACHERS OF ART applications. Since the launch of their the same time, providing them with workshops, the museum has continued to One of the roles of a museum educator resources that the museum has offer multi-week blended programs and is the education of teachers and student produced, so that it makes it as easy single-session webinars, with over 500 US teachers (Talboys, 2011). In order to as possible for them to do that, and and international teachers participating by accomplish this goal, museum educators to put that into practice. 2010 (Crow & Din, 2010) and many more in must first demonstrate to teachers that This comment emphasizes the recent years through ongoing programming. museum resources can enhance their development of a teacher’s self-efficacy teaching and instruction. Some museum along with their knowledge and skills. In an interview for the current report, a programs specifically target distance- Ideally, teachers can be transformed in the representative of the Met described how learning programming at teachers. way they approach teaching art or teaching the museum’s philosophy about distance with art such that their increased self- education for teachers is consistent with its The Met offers a blended (online and efficacy along with their knowledge and in-museum program for teachers, as well as in-person) professional development skills makes them more effective in the the museum’s overall mission: workshop for elementary school teachers classroom. (Crow & Din, 2010). In developing their Our guiding principles for teacher professional workshops, Crow and developing this webinar for teachers Interestingly, this same sentiment was Din (2010) reported challenges in shifting is that we really, honestly draw repeated by a representative from Art21: their thinking from traditional lesson plans upon the same goals that we’re “I think instead of teaching teachers how to instructional design that incorporates looking at for our on-site programs to teach kids, what we want to do is inspire interactive multimedia experiences. They for teachers. We want teachers to teachers to find how they could translate also note the challenges of being initially leave the workshop or the webinar their own interests and curiosities and overwhelmed by the potential possibilities, empowered with the skills and passions in curricular topics that they need tools, and formats. The first workshop, the confidence that they need to address.” Art21 has a long history of using which went live in 2007, took over six to integrate works of art in their various media to improve the teaching months to develop and involved a high teaching; whether they are visual of art. Part of their program includes indirect cost to the museum in terms of arts teachers, or social studies an extensive, long-term professional staff time. Expenses other than staff time teachers, or general education development collaborative. In speaking in were relatively low, and the initial time teachers. We’re often trying to our interview about the development of investment paid off by producing materials incorporate strategies for teachers distance-learning technologies to

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 20 distance learning For educator proFessional deVelopMent improve how art is used for instruction, development show a limited emphasis on promotes or compromises access to art an Art21 representative emphasized that developing skills and understanding in the experiences for students. the teachers learn most when they can practice of art, increasing understanding learn from each other, not just the content of art topics, and research about art and Specialists were also asked to rate the provider. Thus, these connections between student learning. Across the locale types, benefi t of these professional development teachers across the country or world are roughly half of respondents said they had sessions on their instruction. Despite another benefi t of distance learning for not received any training in these categories. the differences in the pervasiveness of teachers of art. For this to be possible, professional development topics between however, the organization needed to select Specialists in rural and town schools were the locales, there were few signifi cant a platform that facilitated these goals. By less likely to participate in professional differences between locales in participants’ emphasizing the collaborative and active development emphasizing developing ratings of the benefi ts of the professional role of teachers in the learning process, their knowledge about visual art. This development they received. Among the their professional development program may be an area of educator professional professional development topics addressed has become reshaped into something more development for which art museums could in the survey, the topics of incorporating dynamic and valuable than just teaching provide particularly valuable programs. state and district standards and student educators about teaching art: Similarly, specialists in rural schools were assessment had the lowest ratings across the least likely to participate in professional each locale type. (These differences in now i really talk about building development emphasizing integrating ratings between topics were not evaluated a community in practice … kind technology into visual arts instruction. for statistical signifi cance.) Thus, the of passionate and curious about With the ever-increasing richness of digital most common topic of professional the same kinds of ideas that we resources for use in visual arts instruction, development—training about standards— are, so that we kind of collectively this gap may also be important to reduce was seen as substantially less valuable to construct this community….i really through distance education in order to art specialists’ practice than professional don’t talk about it as a program ensure rural students have equal access to development about art topics, for which like a professional development arts resources online. professional development was more experience. i talk about it as ‘come join our community.’ We defi nitely As the table to the right indicates, there is facilitate that community and kind hours of professional development a clear shift in professional development emphasizing selected topics in the of nurture it in different ways. towards the topic of standards, integration previous year As museums envision their goals and with other subjects, and student methods for distance education, these assessment. Across the locale types, issues are essential to keep in mind when incorporating state and district standards programs are targeted at educators. into art instruction was the most common professional development topic, with pROfessIONal DevelOpmeNT at least 75 percent of respondents fOR aRT speCIalIsTs: participating in such development. COmpaRaTIve aNalyses By Respondents in city schools were most lOCal Type likely to be exposed to this professional The selected analyses reported in this development topic. This result is consistent section were completed using data with the growing emphasis on the from the Survey of Elementary School integration of content standards with art Visual Arts Specialists, completed by the instruction. Respondents in rural and town National Center for Educational Statistics schools were signifi cantly less likely to (NCES) during the 2009-2010 school participate in professional development year. The survey was completed by visual emphasizing connecting visual arts with arts specialists in elementary schools other subjects. These fi ndings suggest the nationwide. The following results describe need for further research to more closely participation in selected professional examine how visual art and other content development topics in the previous areas are being integrated in the different year. The reported topics of professional locale types and whether such integration

Bridging the gap: expanding access to the Visual arts through distance technology 21 distance learning For educator proFessional deVelopMent limited. These results suggest that there school or district for visual arts teachers, may be a demand for additional training it appears that teachers in rural and town opportunities expanding art specialists’ schools have less opportunity. Schools in knowledge and skill in teaching art, rather towns and rural areas offered workshops than academic content integration and with professional artists or arts groups, standards. When comparing specialists’ and in-school seminars specifi cally for ratings on the topic of incorporating state visual arts teachers signifi cantly less than and district standards across locale types, schools in cities or suburbs. Though the specialists in city schools indicated doing so differences were not signifi cant for off- would be most helpful for their classroom site seminars for visual arts teachers, the teaching. This rating was signifi cantly higher pattern remained the same, with towns and than for towns or rural areas. It would rural areas offering such programs less appear that there is additional pressure in than cities or suburbs. Again, the results city schools to support other content areas support the thesis that rural areas are in through their visual art instruction. particular need of additional programming for art instruction, in this case, professional Additional analyses were completed using development for visual arts teachers. data from the Secondary School Arts Education Survey: Fall 2009, conducted by NCES. The surveys were completed by high school principals nationwide regarding arts programming in the school. In terms of professional development offered by the to what extent do you believe professional development in [topic] improved your classroom teaching?

professional development opportunities offered by the school or district

Bridging the gap: expanding access to the Visual arts through distance technology 22 Teaching Art in Schools: Challenges Faced in Rural and Urban Schools

ATTRACTING AND PAYING well, teach only part time, or travel between Many believe that certain provisions of the SPECIALIZED TEACHERS IN RURAL several school communities. reauthorization of the Elementary and SCHOOLS Secondary Education Act, more commonly A 2003 report by the American Association known as No Child Left Behind (NCLB), Art education in schools is typically provided of School Administrators and Appalachia have increased rather than ameliorated by, or at least coordinated and supported Educational Laboratory surveyed this inequity. Under the original language by, trained and qualified art specialists. administrators of rural school districts to of the law, every teacher would have been These art specialists not only have extensive document special challenges they face required to meet the definition of a ‘highly art and art history knowledge, they (Schwartzbeck, Prince, Redfield, Morris, qualified teacher’ by having full certification, specifically have background in the unique & Hammer, 2003 ). A primary struggle in a bachelor’s degree in the subject he or she pedagogies required to appropriately teach providing specialized instruction in rural is teaching, and demonstrated competence art. In particular, art specialists in schools schools is attracting teachers. This survey in knowledge of the subject and/or of can be seen as blending some of the showed that, in particular, administrators of teaching, typically through an exam such characteristics of traditional content area smaller districts found attracting qualified as those in the Praxis series. However, it is instructors with the specialized knowledge teachers difficult, with 41 percent of common in rural schools for teachers to of art that many in the art museum world administrators in districts with less than teach more than one subject. In 2004, the have as their background. Therefore, the 250 students saying it was “very difficult” Department of Education provided alternate availability of dedicated art specialists in or “extremely difficult” to attract teachers. methods for being considered a ‘highly schools can be a tremendous benefit for Leading reasons superintendents cited qualified teacher’ for rural teachers who student learning in art. for challenges in attracting teachers were teach multiple subjects. lower salaries, geographic and social However, schools vary in their ability to isolation, and lack of adequate housing. The Department of Education wrote sufficiently provide qualified art specialists Over half the superintendents in very small that it modified the requirements in to the extent that these benefits can be districts cited the need to teach multiple recognition of the special challenges realized. Rural schools face particular subjects as a reason teachers did not want faced by rural schools. In discussions with challenges in attracting teachers and in to start working in that particular district. teachers, administrators, and parents from providing funding to support dedicated With a current emphasis on core tested rural schools, the Department officials art specialists. It may be particularly subjects, it is not clear how much emphasis “frequently [had] heard that the highly challenging for a small rural school to administrators of small schools could place qualified teacher provisions of the No recruit, hire, and pay a dedicated art on attracting talented art specialists, even if Child Left Behind law don’t adequately specialist, so it is likely that teachers of art funds were available. accommodate the special challenges in rural schools teach other subjects as

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 23 teaching art in schools: challenges Faced in rural and urBan schools faced by teachers in small, rural districts.” provide information that can be used to visual arts specialists in elementary schools Therefore, the modifi cations of the inform important decisions about access nationwide. It is important to note that this ‘highly qualifi ed teacher’ requirement to art in different types of areas. Details survey does not address art instruction by allows rural multi-subject teachers to of the statistical approaches utilized as professionals other than those designated demonstrate qualifi cations in their primary well as general statistical terminology are as visual arts specialists. To the extent area of teaching or training, then follow a provided in the sections titled Research that non-specialists provide visual arts simplifi ed route to meeting requirements Note 1 and Research Note 2. Referencing instruction in elementary schools, and for other subjects. In addition, middle these sections is not necessary for a to the extent that the prevalence of this school teachers with training focusing on complete understanding of the results practice differs across locale types, the kindergarten to eighth grade—another given the thorough discussion provided following results may not fully refl ect the key feature in rural education—could be in the narrative. Signifi cant differences in visual arts instructional experiences of considered qualifi ed if the state deemed locale types are indicated with ‘greater than’ elementary school students. their training appropriate for the content and ‘less than’ signs in the column for each they teach. On the other hand, these locale. Whenever those comparisons are Across all four locale types, approximately modifi cations can create a disparity in present in the table, the difference between 90 percent of the responding visual arts access to qualifi ed art specialists if teachers the two locales was found to be statistically specialists had a major or minor in visual in other locales are held to higher standards signifi cant. Detailed results are provided arts or visual arts education. There were than those in rural schools. for readers more familiar with statistical not large differences in these percentages. methods. Not surprisingly, specialists in rural schools The 2003 rural superintendent survey reported viewing original art at museums also investigated how the original NCLB Elementary Education or galleries signifi cantly less than those in requirement would have been likely to The following analyses were completed city schools. This is relevant as museums affect the availability of teachers in their using data from the Survey of Elementary consider how to best provide teachers with schools (Schwartzbeck et al., 2003). School Visual Arts Specialists, completed the experiences that would help them Based on these results, it appears that by the National Center for Educational better include art works in their instruction. this change in the law truly was needed. Statistics (NCES) during the 2009-2010 This work showed that there was an school year. The survey was completed by association between school size and the number of subjects taught by one teacher, with teachers in smaller schools teaching progressively more subjects as the size decreased. A majority of districts with fewer than 250 students rely on multi-subject teaching, according to this survey. One respondent described the trade-off between requirements for teacher qualifi cations and the availability of teachers, given rural districts’ limited per-student funding: “They are wonderful teachers, who know their subjects extremely well, but just cannot be expected to jump through hoops for everything they teach, and still be expected to remain a rural teacher.” aRT IN sCHOOls: COmpaRaTIve aNalyses By lOCale Type In order to provide empirical comparisons related to art education according to locale type, federally collected data were analyzed. These empirical comparisons

Bridging the gap: expanding access to the Visual arts through distance technology 24 teaching art in schools: challenges Faced in rural and urBan schools

Secondary Education The following analyses were completed using data from the Secondary School Arts Education Survey: Fall 2009, conducted by NCES. The surveys were completed by high school principals nationwide regarding arts programming in the school. The results of the data analyses reveal some important distinctions between the locale types in arts education in high school and visual arts education in particular. In other ways, though, there is a surprising degree of continuity across the four locale types. It appears that overall suburban schools have the most desirable profi le of results. Though city schools and rural schools have their unique areas with less favorable arts access, these types of communities also demonstrate specifi c advantages, as will be discussed.

First, the results showed that nearly all In all locale types, approximately 60 percent There were intriguing differences across high schools surveyed include visual arts of specialists reported that they had not locales in perceived support for arts instruction during their regular school taught visual arts through virtual fi eld trips instruction. Specialists in rural areas hours, though the amount of instructional in the past year. This value was highest for indicated that they had signifi cantly more time per student is not evaluated in this specialists in city schools, but due to the support from both parents and community item. Comparing the percentages of schools structure of responses, a signifi cance test organizations in their efforts, compared to teaching visual arts, rural schools do show was not performed for these comparisons. those in city schools. Parental support was the lowest percentage (84%), but this was There is clearly room to expand the use also rated signifi cantly higher in suburban signifi cantly different only from suburban of virtual fi eld trips widely, with a majority schools than in city schools. Although other schools. City schools were not signifi cantly of elementary visual arts specialists not analyses in the current report, as well as arts different from any of the locale types in the accessing this potential resource in the education literature, suggest that there are percentage of schools teaching visual art. surveyed year. fewer opportunities for support from arts organizations in the community, visual arts Across the locale types, a similar Specialists in rural schools reported specialists receive strong support from the percentage of schools—approximately 70 signifi cantly less adequate technological community in rural schools. This indicates to 80 percent—reported having written support for teaching visual arts than in that despite some disadvantages in rural arts curriculum guides for visual arts. Again, only suburban schools, but not signifi cantly education, there is a potential to increasingly the difference between suburban schools different from city schools. There were no utilize partnerships with community and rural schools reached signifi cance at signifi cant differences across the locale organizations in rural areas. There were the .05 level. types in the degree of emphasis specialists no signifi cant differences between locale reported giving to addressing the learning types in specialists’ perceptions of students’ Collaborations and partnerships are also a goal of students using technology to gain motivation to do well, with all locale types potentially valuable resource for schools’ knowledge and skills in visual arts. having high ratings for student motivation in arts programs, and in this area rural their visual arts classes.

Bridging the gap: expanding access to the Visual arts through distance technology 25 teaching art in schools: challenges Faced in rural and urBan schools

schools in particular seem disadvantaged for collaborations with individual artists to integrate technology into arts instruction compared to urban schools. When asked or craftspeople, it was not found to be than city schools or suburban schools. about schools partnering with groups to statistically signifi cant. Similarly, rural schools were signifi cantly help meet the school’s arts education goals, less likely than city or suburban schools respondents in rural schools reported such Respondents were also asked about to have been developing or expanding partnerships with cultural or community features of their arts education programs. partnerships with community organizations organizations, as well as with museums In each locale, approximately 60 percent to support arts instruction. or galleries, signifi cantly less often than of respondents indicated that their schools respondents in city schools. Rural schools integrated art with other academic subjects, Signifi cantly fewer rural schools than were also signifi cantly less likely than with this value being (non-signifi cantly) suburban schools offered arts-related fi eld suburban schools to have partnerships with higher in city schools than rural schools. trips outside of regular school hours. This museums. While the pattern is consistent Rural schools were signifi cantly less likely question includes art-related activities other

Bridging the gap: expanding access to the Visual arts through distance technology 26 teaching art in schools: challenges Faced in rural and urBan schools

than visual art (such as plays or concerts). areas such as music.) Ratings of student to partnerships for arts education. Also Though the pairwise differences in the interest or demand for arts instruction was especially relevant to the topic of the report, percent of schools who had sponsored signifi cantly higher in suburban schools rural schools may particularly benefi t fi eld trips to art galleries or museums was than rural schools or schools in towns. from programs directly aimed to increase not signifi cant, rural schools and schools Parent or community support for arts the integration of technology into arts in town were less likely to have sponsored instruction was rated as signifi cantly lower instruction since this was another signifi cant such trips than city schools or suburban in city schools than in suburban schools, but difference in the fi ndings. schools, with the difference between rural rural schools were not signifi cantly different and suburban schools being statistically for this item. There is also a need to improve access to signifi cant. professional development for visual arts In general, the reports of these analyses specialists in rural schools and schools in The following set of analyses examines indicate that city schools have signifi cantly towns. Visual arts specialists working in funding and resources for arts instruction, less material resources for arts instruction rural schools or in towns were less likely as well as student and community beliefs than the other locales. Rural schools seem than those in city or suburban schools about arts instruction. City schools had to have relatively more material resources to have an opportunity to participate in signifi cantly lower ratings for funding available for arts instruction, but responses school or district sponsored workshops with for arts instruction and arts instructional to other questions indicate that students professional artists or in-school professional materials than did schools in any other and visual arts instructors in rural schools development in visual arts instruction. locale type. City schools also had may not have full access to other important signifi cantly lower ratings for arts instruction features of high-quality visual arts education facilities than rural schools or schools in programs. towns. Rural schools lag the other types in building There were no signifi cant differences in the partnerships to support arts instruction. In ratings of the availability of arts specialists particular, this difference was substantial or arts professional development in the for collaborations with art museums, different locale types. (These two questions suggesting that distance education from are not limited to visual arts and may be art museums may bridge an empirically infl uenced by the presence of content demonstrated gap in this kind of access

Bridging the gap: expanding access to the Visual arts through distance technology 27 TECHNOLOGY ACCESS AND USE IN RURAL AND URBAN SCHOOLS

For many years, questions of equity in Internet access had focused on whether schools were wired with the Internet.

INTERNET AND BROADBAND Stenberg et al. (2009), North Dakota, South 2) technical infrastructure to deliver and ACCESS IN SCHOOLS Dakota, Appalachia, and parts of Montana, connect IVC labs statewide; 3) support Minnesota, Missouri, and Oregon have centers to train, evaluate, and support Now that nearly all schools have Internet particularly poor quality Internet speeds. e-teachers; and 4) statewide support and access of some kind, equal access When policymakers prioritize broadband coordination for distance learning (ACCESS, relates more to the speed of the Internet access though, even highly rural areas can 2013). Some of the courses made available connection and the prevalence of hardware increase the availability of this resource. For statewide through ACCESS are the state’s for students to use. Though schools may example, it may be surprising that some required arts survey courses in dance, technically have Internet access, limited quintessentially “rural” states like Nebraska, music, visual arts, and theater as well as download speeds or obsolete equipment Kansas, and Vermont have relatively high foreign languages and advanced subjects can impair learning opportunities for broadband access “suggesting that policy, (Hartigan, 2011). students. Therefore, one must be cautious economic, and social factors can overcome in interpreting figures about access to common barriers to broadband expansion” Access to broadband is expected to technology because potential differences (Stenberg et al., 2009, p. iii). change during the next few years because in quality between schools may not of funds made available by the 2009 always be clear. In particular, there are Rural schools vary in access to high- American Recovery and Reinvestment Act documented differences in access to high speed Internet access, a prerequisite for (The Recovery Act, 2009). Based on this speed Internet, a.k.a. broadband, for rural multimedia distance learning for art. For mandate, the Federal Communications communities, and “broadband Internet instance, Nebraska’s statewide distance- Commission (FCC) delivered a National access has become the crux of today’s education network has one of the nation’s Broadband Plan to connect the nation policy debate on equal access among highest percentages of fiber-connected with fast, affordable Internet (National urban and rural communities” (Stenberg, districts and high bandwidth rates to rural Summit, 2010). Additionally, President 2009, p. i). Further, outdated definitions areas (40Mbps – 100Mbps) (Distance Obama’s ConnectED initiative is designed of what constitutes broadband may not Education Workshop, 2008). Alabama’s to bring high-speed Internet connections reflect the demands of today’s multimedia ACCESS program is an example of a state to K-12 schools across the nation in environments. with an extensive statewide distance- an effort to connect 100 percent of learning network to equalize education American students to broadband (National Broadband Internet access for rural areas access across the state (ACCESS, 2013). The Telecommunications & Information tends to be related to a combination ACCESS distance-learning plan has four Administration, 2013a). of factors such as poverty in the state, key components to provide: 1) web-based population density, and even the Interactive Videoconferencing (IVC) courses; Urban schools face similar barriers as ruggedness of terrain. As documented by

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 28 technology access and use in rural and urBan schools rural communities in their ability to access urban census tracks. In particular, when 2005). Statistics reported by the Economic both the physical and virtual museum examining areas with very low population Research Service (ERS) section of the US offerings. The technological divide within density, access to high download speeds Department of Agriculture (USDA) indicate urban school districts such as Chicago can was remarkably lower than other types of that the 2010 poverty rates of people living be quite vast between schools (Pandolfo, locales. NITA’s national broadband map in nonmetropolitan (rural) areas was higher 2012). Income barriers for both schools of the rural vs. urban divide shows that than those from metropolitan (urban) and individual students are pervasive and ten states have a greater than 10 percent areas, 16.5 and 14.6 percent respectively detrimental to the ability to connect to difference in speed availability between (USDA, 2013). In fact, the majority (340 museums whether children are living in the the two locales (NITA, 2013b). Some of the of 386 counties) of the nonmetropolitan city or in rural areas. largest gaps between rural and urban are counties were classifi ed as persistent- found in Arizona, Wyoming, New Mexico, poverty counties. Counties are classifi ed as HOme INTeRNeT aCCess and West Virginia. persistent-poverty if 20 percent or more of There is even more variability in Internet the population have lived in poverty over the access and connectivity speed at the home When it comes to home Internet access last 30 years (USDA, 2013). The joint factors level for school-aged students. A smaller (including non-broadband access), of poverty and distance may place particular percentage of nonmetropolitan (one type prevalence seems largely tied to income strains on counties with high poverty rates of rural classifi cation) households have levels, with very little gap between urban and low population density. Such factors access to broadband, high-speed Internet and rural households with the same income must be thoughtfully considered when that facilitates the use of data-intensive level (Stenberg et al., 2009). However, developing distance-learning programs that programs or activities, compared to broadband access is limited for even higher target these communities. metropolitan households (Stenberg et al., income rural households. Thus, there is an 2009). Of those households with Internet, additional relationship between broadband Results from the Analyses there is a gap between metropolitan and access, distance from a metropolitan nonmetropolitan communities in the area, and income level. Even high-income INTeRNeT & TeCHNOlOGy aCCess percentage of users with broadband access. nonmetropolitan households report less In order to provide empirical comparisons The National Telecommunications & than 85 percent access to broadband about technology use and access and locale Information Administration’s (NITA) analysis (Stenberg et al., 2009). types, we completed a series of analyses showed, based on current data from 2013, using the data from the Educational that while 71 percent of people living in Although poverty is a limiting factor for Technology in U.S. Public Schools, fall census tracks identifi ed as rural had access high-speed Internet access in both urban 2008, survey conducted by NCES. (For to at least basic broadband service (defi ned metropolitan and rural nonmetropolitan more detail about the method of analysis, as 3 Mps download speed), such access areas, the majority of the poorest counties see the Research Note.) This survey was was nearly universal in urban census tracts in the US are from rural areas (Malhoit, completed by school principals nationwide. (98%) (NITA, 2013c).

Some of the largest differences between access in rural and urban areas are in the highest download speeds available (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2013). Measures of download speed provide more detail than questions of whether a community has broadband access and thus can better illuminate differences that exist in high- speed Internet access. Analysis by the NITA (NITA, 2013c) revealed startling gaps in access to higher-speed Internet (10 Mbps or more). Among individuals living in rural census tracts, just 15 percent had access to these types of connections, compared with 70 percent of individuals living in

Bridging the gap: expanding access to the Visual arts through distance technology 29 technology access and use in rural and urBan schools

In many ways, principals in city schools DIffeReNCes IN Use Of DIsTaNCe likely to use Internet access for two-way seemed to be the most dissatisfi ed with leaRNING interactive videoconferencing than urban technology in their schools. Principals in schools, with about a third of rural schools Statistics from the U.S. Department of city schools had the lowest ratings for their reporting such use and only a quarter of Education (DOE) also demonstrate a districts’ commitment to giving priority city schools doing so. However, a majority divide between large and small districts to technology, as well as the adequacy of of schools in all locale types reported using in the percentage of public school technology infrastructure, compared to the Internet to provide high-quality digital districts enrolled in technology-based the other locale types. For nearly all items, content, without signifi cant differences in distance-education courses. Districts with ratings were signifi cantly more favorable in the percent of schools using technology for enrollments less than 2,500 have less than rural schools than city schools. It is not clear this purpose. 55 percent of students enrolled in distance from the results whether the differences education courses compared to 74 percent in ratings are prompted by concrete A separate survey asked more detailed of students from districts with enrollments differences in the availability of technology questions about distance learning. The greater than 10,000 (DOE, 2013). or infl uenced by different perceptions following analyses were completed and expectations for what technological using data from the Distance Education The types of distance-learning technologies resources should be provided. Courses for Public Elementary and most commonly used also varied by locale Secondary Students: 2009-10 survey type. The Educational Technology in U.S. The vast majority of schools now have conducted by NCES. The survey was sent Public Schools survey also addresses the Internet access of some kind. Beyond the question of Internet availability in general, wireless network access is a valuable resource for distance-learning programs incorporating newer portable technologies such as tablet computers and smartphones. Principals were asked to select the most appropriate descriptor of the availability of Internet access in their schools. In each locale type, about 40 percent of schools had wireless network access available through the whole school, the most common response for each group. This result is to district superintendents nationally, and use of network connections for distance encouraging for programs considering superintendents were asked to select the learning. The use of Internet for distance the use of innovative technologies in their most appropriate individual(s) within the learning was signifi cantly more prevalent distance-education programs. Among the district to complete the questions. in rural schools than urban schools, with locale types, city schools were most likely about half of rural respondents saying it to report no wireless network assess of Across all locale types, asynchronous online was provided in their schools, compared to any kind, with a quarter of principals in city distance learning was used much more than about a third of city and suburban schools. schools selecting this descriptor. synchronous online instruction. There were Rural schools were signifi cantly more no signifi cant differences between locale types in the extent of use of synchronous distance learning, but asynchronous distance learning over the Internet was used far less often in rural schools than in the other locale types. In contrast, interactive two-way video was used in far greater percentages of rural schools than in the other locale types. Moreover, two-way interactive video was rated as being used substantially more often in rural areas than any other locale type, particularly compared

Bridging the gap: expanding access to the Visual arts through distance technology 30 TECHNOLOGY ACCESS AND USE IN RURAL AND URBAN SCHOOLS to cities. Within city schools, one-way prerecorded video was reported as being using slightly more often than two-way interactive video, whereas in rural schools, one-way prerecorded video was used much less often than two-way interactive video. (These differences were not tested for significance.)

To what extent were the following technologies used for the instructional delivery of distance education courses? (1 = Not at all to 4 = A large extent) City Suburban Town Rural F p-value Mean Sig Diff Mean Sig Diff Mean Sig Diff Mean Sig Diff Internet courses using 1.96 1.80 1.88 1.95 1.12 0.339 synchronous instruction Internet courses using 3.57 > Rural 3.47 > Rural 3.40 > Rural 2.95 < All 24.53 <.0001 asynchronous instruction Computer technologies 1.71 1.62 1.64 1.62 0.31 0.816 other than internet Two way interactive 1.28 < Town 1.46 < Rural 1.70 > City 2.23 > All 43.33 <.0001 video < Rural < Rural One way prerecorded 1.54 1.53 1.40 1.42 1.81 0.144 video

There are also major differences in the purposes of distance-learning programs across locale types. The most striking pattern of differences is that rural schools had the highest importance rating for providing courses not otherwise available, while city schools had the highest importance rating for providing opportunities for students to make up for classes they failed or missed. Specifically, within rural schools, the importance rating was the highest for providing courses not otherwise available; in addition, between locale types for the importance of this purpose, rural schools had significantly higher ratings than other locale types.

Similarly, within city schools, the importance rating was the highest for opportunities to make up classes; in addition, between locale types for the importance of this use, city schools had significantly higher ratings than the other locale types. This is especially intriguing as art museums consider expanding distance-learning opportunities to rural schools due to limited access to art opportunities within the schools. These results are consistent with such a framework and rationale.

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 31 The Intersection of Education Policy and Arts Education Background from the Literature

COMMON CORE STATE STANDARDS foundations and lifelong goals, artistic explicitly structured to support connections AND ART processes and creative practices, anchor with other content areas such as history, As the Common Core State Standards and performance standards that students science, and technology (CCSS, 2010a); (CCSS, 2010a & 2010b) are implemented should attain, and model cornerstone thus, connections to artistic content areas across the country, arts education, like all assessments by which they can be are natural parallels. As in the Common education, is poised for a turning point. measured” (National Coalition for Core Arts Core, anchor standards in specific grades These common standards are a departure Standards, 2013, p. 2). A major component provide more specific information about from a system of disparate content and of the art standards is the direct link to expectations for student knowledge and expectations across states in favor of a assessment of student knowledge and skill. The deliberate parallels between these consistently rigorous listing of knowledge skills. Further, the contexts for learning sets of standards allows for more direct and skills students need. For providers of progress continuously from early childhood connections between them to increase distance education, common standards education to grade 12. The authors of the student learning by integrating artistic across states allows for greater integration art standards readily admit that some of the processes into content instruction as well into the existing curricula of the schools learning outcomes are unlikely to be widely as providing the opportunity to integrate as those curricula become more similar. met anytime soon, but instead provide Common Core learning goals into arts In addition, because these shared core aspirational goals for guiding change. The instruction. standards were designed to promote standards are “built on a balance between higher-order thinking and problem solving, the existing structure of American schools To evaluate these links, the College Board arts instruction may provide exposure to and a reasonable aspiration to what the compared the Common Core standards to experiences that expand children’s minds structure could be and should be” (p. 8). It the proposed arts standards (College Board, rather than simply encourage drilled and is the hope of many that these standards 2012). This evaluation noted a substantial routine practice. will lead to better practices in arts education number of explicit references to artistic and in arts-integrated academic content disciplines in the Common Core standards, Following the lead of the Common Core instruction. such as references to text illustrations and State Standards in Language Arts and scripts of plays. The use of multimedia Mathematics, the National Coalition for These draft art standards emphasize sources is encouraged throughout the Core Arts Standards has sought to provide the artistic processes, such as creating, standards. In particular, visual arts are a unified set of standards for art as well. performing, responding, and connecting, strongly represented in the knowledge “These new, voluntary National Core Arts for each arts discipline (National Coalition and skills students should are expected Standards are framed by a definition of for Core Arts Standards, 2013). The English to master. Because the arts standards are artistic literacy that includes philosophical Language Arts Common Core standards are still undergoing review, we will not repeat

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 32 THE INTERSECTION OF EDUCATION POLICY AND ARTS EDUCATION

rushed and lacks the creative dynamic of the true artistic process. Lack of instructional time may influence classroom teachers to emphasize simple and brief projects despite their lack of fine art principles or opportunity for self-exploration. However, classroom teachers often lack the professional training to attempt more ambitious artistic exploration. A consequence of this type of practice is that specific findings from the report because of arts integration into the curriculum may although students are going through the the arts standards may have changed since be put on the shoulders of art teachers motions of making a picture, etc., it lacks the College Board report was drafted. more than classroom teachers. Chapman the meaning, creativity, and development However, the evaluation uncovered (2005) also discussed how the reported of understanding that art is intended many direct links between the two sets lack of time for collaborative planning on to illicit. According to Bresler (1998), of standards that will facilitate quality the part of arts specialists severely limits when works of fine art were included in exchanges across the curricula. opportunities for ongoing interdisciplinary instruction by classroom teachers, the integration. opportunity for students’ creative growth is ARTS INTEGRATION POTENTIAL often similarly thwarted. “Remaining on a AND RISK In Chapman’s report (2005), though 88 surface, perceptual level, the interactions As described, trends in education policy percent of classroom teachers reported with fine art rarely involved explorations of encourage the integration of art with integrating art with other subjects, their the artwork or the construction of personal other (typically, tested) academic content. reported activities do not seem to fulfill meanings; … [or] reflections on what made Particularly as this practice expands, the ideals of high quality arts integration. the artwork interesting or innovative” (p. 5). it is important to examine teachers’ However, Chapman appeared to believe It is hoped that museum-provided distance arts integration practices. Chapman that classroom teachers can learn to use education will promote the understandings (2005) compiled results from surveys of art more effectively in their content area of the deeper meanings of fine art while elementary classroom teachers about instruction. “If it is true that classroom encouraging exploration on the part of the art instruction. Results presented in the teachers are well-poised to illuminate student. current report include some analyses that connections between the arts and other are based on updated data from visual arts subjects, there can be no doubt that most There are many issues to be aware of specialists. The Chapman paper, however, classroom teachers lack the knowledge, when attempting collaboration between compares visual arts specialists with regular skill, and compensatory support museums and schools to facilitate classroom teachers. One striking finding necessary to ensure that art learning is integration of art with academic content. was that among visual arts specialists, sound in content, standards-based, and Museums may prioritize connections with 79 percent had received professional systematically assessed” (p. 131). and understanding of their art, while some development regarding integrating art with classroom teachers may expect the art other content areas, but only 46 percent of Bresler (1998) described distinctions to serve more as a glorified visual aid to regular classroom teachers had received between the types of art produced or content instruction. “School educators professional development addressing viewed in schools. Much of the art is tended to view works of art as examples integration of art into their own teaching. what she called ‘child art,’ which is art of an idea or theme, whereas art museum Findings such as this indicate that the goal produced by children but that typically is educators saw works of art at the core of

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 33 THE INTERSECTION OF EDUCATION POLICY AND ARTS EDUCATION characterized by the principals as positive that conclusions about how study results LINKS TO THE STANDARDS: development for arts instruction in their can be interpreted and generalized often INSIGHTS FROM THE INTERVIEWS schools” (p. 6). Moreover, in their study, went beyond those justified by the design Demand for links to curricular standards this approach was more likely to be used and analysis in stating the effects of art on and recently, the Common Core standards, in schools with higher concentrations student achievement. These concerns have is apparent in museums’ interactions of poverty. Worse, art teachers were been eloquently made by arts education with schools. The interview participants sometimes forced to directly teach to state figures such as Winner and Cooper (2000) frequently discussed how important it was tests rather than their own designated and Eisner (1998). As Eisner described, it is to link the museums’ distance-education area while the instructional time would dangerous when “arts educators who know programming, as well as in-museum still be counted as arts classes. Therefore, what the arts have to offer [try] to give the programming, to the jurisdiction’s relevant as Mishook and Kornhaber pointed out, consumers what they want, whether or not curricular standards. For example, in though there would appear to be no on- there is evidence to support it. Too often we collecting evaluations about distance paper reduction of arts course offerings, promise more than we can deliver, a practice programs that schools completed, one the true effect of the practice reduced the that by definition leads to disappointment” museum education leader found that “most amount of art that was taught. “Although (p. 8). of the feedback was about the links to integrating the arts with other subjects can standards.” be a positive learning experience in both Despite their admonitions against the arts and other areas of the curriculum, claiming causal evidence where no such Due to the heavy emphasis on critical integration that places arts as secondary evidence exists, it is common to find bold thinking, inquiry, and evaluation in the to ‘academic’ tested subjects does not generalizations about the power of art Common Core State Standards, museum serve the children’s needs for a rigorous, to improve student well-balanced educational experience” (p. outcomes based on Mishook & Kornhaber, 2006). research that does not support cause-and- Digital technologies are especially suited effect interpretations to expand exposure to high-quality arts (e.g. Arts Education integration, particularly as public support Partnership, 2013). Many for teaching critical thinking increases, claims appear to be especially through the adoption of the reiterated from a widely CCSS. “Americans are optimistic about the cited publication called power of the imagination and believe this Critical Links: Learning is a critical skill needed to deal with the in the Arts and Student challenges of the present century” (Choi & Academic and Social Piro, 2009, p. 29). As Chio and Piro (2009) Development (Deasy, describe, students’ digital interaction 2002). In that report, with works of art serves a dual purpose of it is often difficult for engaging students’ creativity and teaching a general reader to them critical technology skills for the 21st discern nuances between findings that show educators may find that their current century. “The arts, traditionally regarded as simple association and findings that more practices may easily link to the learning a subject with a high disposability quotient, strongly suggest a causal relationship, and outcomes called for in the new standards or may acquire new significance when paired this ambiguity continues to be perpetuated in many states’ pre-existing standards. As with technology” (Choi & Piro, 2009, p. 32). throughout the literature. Consequently, one museum educator pointed out:

it is very difficult for individual readers to Even if we think it’s not a content CRITICALLY EVALUATING THE know how to interpret the claims made standard, almost all of our standards IMPACT OF ART ON ACHIEVEMENT from research findings about the effects have behaviors that we want to see, of art on student achievement. We would In preparing this report, we reviewed whether they’re investigative behaviors, recommend that for important purposes, dozens of studies of advocacy papers or critical thinking behaviors, or the users of research findings track down the examining or describing claims regarding 21st-century skills. We know through original publication and carefully examine the relationship between arts education and that kind of process if we’re engaging academic achievement. However, we found the methods and results.

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 34 THE INTERSECTION OF EDUCATION POLICY AND ARTS EDUCATION

them in... inquiry, that they’re doing some critical thinking and hopefully some creative thinking. They’re making meaning of the images together, that we’re not just telling them what they’re looking at.

A museum educator described how this museum’s distance learning program, which is aimed at teachers, has changed as a result of the Common Core State Standards.

It’s a new way of thinking about our work, but over the past couple of years, we have been integrating Common Core State Standards in all of our work. Typically, because at the moment there are no Common Core Standards for art, we’re often drawing on the anchor standards from the Common Core that come out of speaking and listening skills, or English language arts, and thinking about visual works of art as text, and making those alignments between the skills.

As the College Board evaluation demonstrated, potential links between the Common Core State Standards are prevalent.

A distance-learning expert described ways to effectively link art content to the standards: “I call it active curriculum engagement. You’re taking the curriculum a

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 35 SHAPING A VISION FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION FOR ART

Art museums in America have always had a strong educational mission, and distance learning is an increasingly available method for realizing this goal by bringing art to more people.

Regardless of the physical location of On the other hand, presenters must be don’t have the money to sustain a distance students and school communities, an cautious to not create frenetic graphic learning program without charging some overarching goal of videoconferencing, web- displays that draw attention away from the sort of fees.” Securing ongoing funding may based technologies, mobile museums, and works of art. Rather than making elaborate continue to be a major issue in the field, other distance learning programs is to extend presentations with technology, museums with free access obviously having the largest the reach of the museum to communities educators are encouraged to remember, potential to increase access to art education. who are unable to visit the museum in I choose to work in a museum, and person (O’Leary, 2011). Some traditional Though distance has become less of a then our mission at this museum is to limitations of distance and technology barrier to education, museums continue share American stories through art. are crumbling as access to high-speed to hold up walls between effective Then the art should be what’s it about, internet expands and new technological collaboration. A starting point would and even though I could make a very innovations provide easy access to things be digital collaboration through more sexy presentation, the point of our previously thought impossible. An individual consistent documentation of their digital time together isn’t creating this flashy who has tracked developments in distance collection and physical collection, such experience. It’s engaging kids with the technology concluded that “technology has as a more universal labeling scheme. artwork that we have. made possibilities limitless….The only thing “Museums don’t historically have a tradition that is the limiting factor now is time zone.” of having systems that talk to one another.” The prevalence of these digital technologies As described, since each museum has its brings with it an abundance of available In the context of the digital age, it is unique collections, different museums information, which varies widely in quality important to remember that the tools and might be better seen as partners in a shared and accuracy. It is in this context that technology are not the goal of the museum mission rather than competitors. In addition, museum distance learning programs initiatives (Crow & Din, 2010). Rather, they art museums have a unique role, perhaps may struggle to show the value of the are the vehicle to encourage discussion and even responsibility, in the educational programming if they seek to charge for interaction with the works of art. Further, it landscape. access to it. Shifts in the pervasiveness of is not enough to show the art to learners of information in society have changed the It’s really our view that museums have even to just explain the art, relegating the value that consumers place on receiving a special place, in terms of being very learner to a passive role. The respondents content. “There is a sense in the world – object-focused and object-oriented, and in the interviews repeatedly described the [the millennial] generation, particularly our collections are really where we draw desire to provide “authentic” and “engaging” - that information are to be free… And the our uniqueness, and our strength…. learning experiences using distance challenge here is that most institutions Think about what is it that you are technologies. uniquely equipped to offer that other

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 36 SHAPING A VISION FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION FOR ART

organizations, or even higher age level, duration, etc. Each museum is By working together to expand distance, education, art education programs in likely to reach different combinations of perhaps museums can turn the whole universities that they may be able to answers to these questions. Thus, each country into an art museum without walls, offer very similar things online, but program will become unique, just as each thereby spreading the educational benefits what is it that museums in particular, museum itself is unique. Despite these that museum educators cherish. can really offer. differences, art museum’s distance learning programs share the mission of engaging Working together with schools, policy diverse learning in authentic art experiences makers, and communities, there is great – whether understanding, creating, or potential for the effects of widespread teaching about works of art – in an audience distance learning provided by art museums. beyond those who step foot in the museum.

The distance and in-museum education For museum educators making decisions programming can work in tandem as about their nascent distance education museums strive to fulfill their educational programs, the scope may seem daunting. missions in today’s rapidly changing However, in today’s environment, there are environment. far most opportunities than limitations. In talking to one such individual, the We look towards the day where there’s excitement was readily apparent: “The just going to be a continuous connection possibilities are so great. I have lots of big between online and onsite for people dreams.” A representative from a museum who are interested in engaging with in a similar position echoed the sentiment art. It’s really fulfilling the idea of a that even understanding the possibilities, museum without walls. It’s not going let alone choosing the best course, takes to replace the real museum visit but time: “We’re really in an exploratory stage it’s going to be complementary to it of determining what’s possible, what’s and part of the spectrum of ways that practical, what’s needed by audiences that museums fulfill their educational will never come to the museum.” mission that doesn’t necessarily require people to be in the space. Art museums will continue to balance questions of audience, method, media,

Bridging the Gap: Expanding Access to the Visual Arts through Distance Technology 37 ReseaRCH NOTe 1 intended to be compared. For example, for research contexts in which the difference For readers who may not be familiar with between city schools and urban schools is interpreting results from such analyses, particularly of interest, then the results may we will provide very brief statistical demonstrate signifi cant differences more background. For the analysis used, the often when such error rate control is not column labeled ‘F’ towards the right of the required. table is a measure of how strong a pattern of differences exists between the data for each locale. The far right column labeled ‘p-value’ indicates whether this pattern of differences was statistically signifi cant, by comparing the result to a cut-off of .05. When the ‘p-value’ is below .05, then the results are considered statistically signifi cant; if it is above .05, the results are not considered signifi cant. However, for analyses like these that compare more than two groups, the researcher needs to perform follow-up tests to determine which groups are signifi cantly different from each other. Therefore, we have also indicated which locale types were signifi cantly different from each other with greater than and less than signs in the column for each locale. Whenever we include those comparisons in the table, it indicates that the differences between the two locales was found to be signifi cant.

ReseaRCH NOTe 2 For consistency within the current report, each analysis was completed as a general linear model. We have included summary data and key statistics in the form of tables. The authors intend to apply for an additional grant to complete additional analyses and prepare peer-reviewed journal articles fully describing the expanded results. These articles would also allow for more nuanced application of statistical methods on an item-by-item basis.

Follow-up comparisons between locales utilized the Tukey-Kramer method of family-wise error rate control. The use of family-wise error correction was appropriate since all four locale types are reported; however, it may be overly conservative in contexts where only two locale types are

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