ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN IN THE CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY OF ASSAM WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BARPETA DISTRICT
THESIS SUBMITTED i=OR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ARTS (POLITICAL SCIENCE) UNDER THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH BENGAL
SUBMITTED BY
.JAVA BISWAS
UNDER THE SUPERVISION Of
PROFESSOR SOUMITRA DE
DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH BENGAL DAR.JEELING, INDIA- 734013
2011 --f~ 3 l <6 • 3 ~ I 3 0 '6 ~ 0 l1 2.. CO, 6 2.\ e
250f>4J
10 MAY 2013 DEDICATED TO MY DEAREST FATHER CONTENTS
Page No.
List of Tables and Figures vii - x
List of Abbreviations xi - xiv
Preface xv - xvi
Map and Colour Plates of Field Research xvii- xix
CHAPTER- 1 01- 30 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
CHAPTER- 2 31- 92 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER- 3 93- 137 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
CHAPTER- 4 138-171 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES
CHAPTER- 5 172-209 PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM
CHAPTER- 6 210-221 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY 222-250 APPENDICES LIST OF TABLES, TEXT BOXES & FIGURES
Page No.
CHAPTER-I TEXT BOX NO.I : BLOCKWISE CHAR VILLAGES
CHAPTER-II GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Table No.1 Assam : Demography with special reference 45 to gender
Table No.2 Population of Assam and India 46
Table No.3 Progress of Literacy : (Assam) 47
Table No.4 Birth, Death and Infant Mortality Rates of 48 Assam and India (per Mile)
Table No.5 Work Participation Rate: Assam Work 54 Participation Rate (Percentage)
Table No.6 Main Workers & Marginal Worker : Assam 55 Percentage Gender Wise: 2001 census
Table No.7 Total and Women Employment in Organised 57 Sector in Assam (in thousand Nos.) till 2006
Table No.8 Women's employment in Organised sector in 58 Assam (in thousand nos.) and percentage
Table No.9 Assam Govt. Employees according to the 59 status/caste/tribes and sex as per Employees Census, 1999
Table No.10 Distribution of Assam Government 61 Employees and the percentage of Women Employees, 1999
Table No.11 Organised Sector Employment, Assam, 1999 62
Figure No.1 Women's Share 1n Organised Sector 63 Employment(%)
Figure No.2 Women in Government Employment(%) 64 LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS
Table No.12 Crimes Aainst Women in Assam (2000- June 67 2005)
Table No.13 Crimes against women in the state 68
Table No.14 States having Highest Crime Rates in the 69 Country: Percentage
Table No.15 Number of Missing Women in Assam 70
Table No.16 Gender Disparity indices in North East India 72
Table No.17 Persons killed in Assam because of 73 derogatory practice of witch hunting
Table No.18 Yearwise distribution of electorate showing 75 male/female and total in Assembly Election in Assam from 1952-2000.
Table No.19 Turnout among women: Lok Sabha Elections 76 (percent) (Assam, N.E. India)
Table No.20 Election to Assam Legislative Assembly (1952 77 to 2006)
Table No.21 Gender Advantage : Contesting Candidates to 79 the Election of Assam Legislative Assembly (1952 to 2006)
Table No.22 Number of women representatives to the Lok 81 Sabha from Assam: 1952 to 2004
Table No.23 Selected Gender Disparity Indicators: North 83 Eastern States
CHAPTER-III CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
Table No.24 Damages caused by Flood in Assam 116
Figure No.3 Total value of Damages caused by Floods in 117 Assam (Rs. In lakh)
Table No.25 Districtwise Char villages along with 120 population and Rate of Literacy, 1992-93
(viii) LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS
Table No.26 Districtwise Demographic Proflie of Char : 123, 124 Areas of Assam
Table No.27 Fund allotment for development of Char 133 areas
CHAPTER-IV WOMEN IN FAMILY-SOCIETY-POLITICAL PROCESSES
Table No.28 Demographic Profile of Barpeta District as 1 per 200 1 Census. Population and literacy as per 2001 census.
Table No.29 Muslim Population and Literacy rate in 140 Barpeta District: As per 200 1 Census.
Table No.30 Literacy Rate of Hindus & Muslims: Barpeta 141 District, As per 2001 Census
Table No.31 Social Background of Surveyed Char Villages 156
Table No.32 Women's Autonomy in Decision-Making in 157 Char Villages
Table No.33 Economic Status of Women's Members of 158 Family
Table No.34 Decision Making 159
Table No.35 Gender Discrimination in Family 160
Table No.36 Household Socio-Economic Status 162
Table No.37 Exposure to Mass Media 163
Table No.38 Level of Political Participation 166
Table No.39 Membership of Self Help Group 167
Figure No.4 Distribution Curve of Women's Political 168 Participation
Figure No.5 Distribution Curve of Exposure to mass 169 media, Women's Autonomy & Political Participation
(ix) LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS
Figure No.6 Bar Diagram of Exposure to Mass Media, 170 Women's Autonomy & Political Participation
CHAPTER-V PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM
Table No.40 Devolution Index descending order on overall 187 rank
Table No.41 Ranking of States as per Index of 188 Development Since 2005-6 to 2009-10
Text Box Formation of SHG 183 No.2
Table No.42 SHG Credit in different states of India 195
Table No.43 The State of Assam: Number of SHGs- 197 112,547. District wise summery of all SHGs of Assam.
Table No.44 Summary of all Self Help Groups of Barpeta 201 District
Table No.45 Summary of all Self Help Groups of Mandia 202 Block of Barpeta District
Table No.46 Summary of all Self Help Groups of Changa 203 Block of Barpeta District
Table No.47 Summary of all Self Help Groups of Rupsi 204 Block of Barpeta District
Table No.48 Major Activitywise Summary of all Self Help 205 Groups of Barpeta District
(x) LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AGP Asom Gana Parishad AHDR Assam Human Development Report AIWC All India Women's Conference AUDF Assam United Democratic Front BDO Block Development Officer BRAC The Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee BTC Bodoland Territorial Council CAW Crime Against Women CAWSSER Char Areas Welfare Society for Socio-Economic Research CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women CID Criminal Investigation Department CIME Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy Congress (I) Congress Indira Congress (R) Congress Reddy Congress (S) Congress Socialist Congress (U) Congress Urs. CPI Communist Party of India CPIM Communist Party of India (Marxist) DAWN Development Altematives with Women for a New Era DI Index of Devolution DRDAs District Rural Development Agencies EIMA Eastern India Muslim Association ES Economic Survey FWPR Female Work Participation Rate GB Gender Budgeting LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
GDI Gender Development Index GEM Gender Empowerment Measure GLC Ganesh Lal Chowdhury GM Gender Mainstreaming Govt. Government GU Gauhati University HDI Human Development Index HDR Human Development Report !CDS Integrated Child Development Scheme ICSSR Indian School of Social Science Research Centre IGA Income Generation Activities IIPA Indian Institute of Public Administration IMR Infant Mortality Rates LAC Legislative Assembly Constituency LEB Life Expectency at Birth MDGs Millennium Development Goals MFis Micro-Finance Institutions MLA Member of Legislative Assembly MP Member of Parliament MWCD Ministry of Women and Child Development MWS Muslim Women Survey MYRADA Mysore Resettlement and Development Agency NABARD National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development NCAER The National Council of Applied Economic Research NE North East NER North Eastern Region NFHS National Family and Health Survey
(xii) LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
NFS National Family Survey NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations NHDR National Human Development Report NWC National Women Commission OBC Other Backward Class PC Planning Commission PEAIS The Panchayat Empowerment and Accountability Incentive Scheme PHE Public Health Engineering PRI Panchayat Raj Institution PTCA Plan Tribal Council of Assam PWD Public Works Department RCPI Revolutionary Communist Party of India RGI Registrar General of India RMK Rastriya Mahila Kosh
RRBs Re~onalRuralBanks RWFP Rural Female Workforce Participation sc Schedule Caste SGSY Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana SHA Statistical Handbook of Assam SHG-BL Self Help Group Bank Linkage SHGs Self Helf Groups SIRD State Institute of Rural Development SMP Substantial Muslim Population ST(H) Scheduled Tribes (Hills) ST(P) Scheduled Tribes (Plains) STEP Support to Training and Employment Programme UGC University Grants Commission
(xiii) LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
UMF United Minorities Front UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Project UNICEF United Nations Intemational Cultural and Education Fund USA United States of America USRC Women Studies Research Centre Uts Union Territories WCD Women and Child Development WDR World Development Report WEDO Women's Environment and Development Organisation 3Fs Funds, Functions and Functionaries
(xiv) Preface
'Ilie present study has grown out of my 6efoved father's narration regarding the depfora6fe condition of char (riverine) peop{e of CBrahmaputra va{fey ofJl_ssam, particuCarfy the diar-dweCfers ofCBatpeta rDistrict which my father experienced during State CEfections in 1985, 1991and 1996 6ecause of his innumera6fe trips 6oth as a socia{ activist and as an CEfection campaigner in these inaccessi6{e and 6acftward areas of}lssam. In fact, I had the opportunity to co{fect first hand information on the first hand socio-economic condition and poU:tica{ awareness of char peop{e in genera{ and women in particuCar from my father, which in the su6sequent period has inspired and encouraged me immensefy to undertakg a comprehensive and systematic anafysis of this issue.
'Today, economic and poU:tica{ empowerment of women of any society and community 6efonging to any region. :More so in the case of the 6acftward and inaccessi6fe Char areas of the mighty river cBrahmaputra and its tri6utaries is a comp{e)( su6ject with many issues and dimensions. 'Ilie state of a{most a{{ the char dweCfers 6arring a few permanent chars depends mostfy on the currents of the river cBrahmaputra and its tri6utaries. We do not cCaim any credit for 6eing comprehensive, for we are onfy too aware ~f the U:mits of our data co{{ection in the fieUs (major portion of these fieUs are temporary 6arring a few), offices and esta6{ishments in a{{ too pafpa6Ce atmosphere of tension, anxjety and suspicion. In fact, the cBrahmaputra afOng with ffood and erosion has rendered the Char dwe{fers homefess. 7'he home{essness and foss of citizenship Ceacfs the char dwe{{ers into a nomadic Cife. We wouU 6e happy neverthefess if our stucfy {eads to an animated discussion and review 6y those who have the a6iU:ty and wi{{ to do something 6etter for these horri6fe pro6fems of these economica{{y poor and cufturally 6acftward regions.
:Now, I desire to takg the opportunity of e:{f;ending my sincere and heartfeCt thank§ to my eminent teachers, reCatives and weCC-wishers without whose hefp, support, co-operation, advice and encouragement this worft wouU not have 6een possi6Ce and compfetecf. Pirst and foremost, I sincere{y express my deep respect, reverence and thank§ to my eminent supervisor, Professor Soumitra CDe, CDepartment of {[JoCitica{ Science, 'North cBenga{ Vniversity without whose proper guidance, supervision and va{ua6fe suggestions and adm.ce this worft wouU have 6een impossi6fe. I am aCso grateju{ to a{{ the dignified teachers, staff and schoCars of the CDepartment of PoCitica{ Science of 'North cBenga{ Vniversity who have encouraged am{ fie {pet£ me in one way or tfie otfier. Otfier persons from wfiom I fiave received fie{p, inspiration and encouragement are Late )imu{ya 'l{umar CBiswas, my dearest fatfier andfanner President of VJrtP, }lssam, Sri Jagannatfi CBannan, Principa[ i/c q.L.C. Co[fege, CBatpeta ~ad; )issam, :Mr. :Nripesfi ~y, CBatpeta ~ad; )issam, Jrtr. Vtftffia6 r:.Bannan, fanner JrtP, CBatpeta Lok.g Sa6fia Constituency, Ponner President, (}oveming CBod"y, q.L.C. Co[fege, fanner JrtL)i Sor6fiog Constituency and State Secretary, CPIJrt, )issam and Jrtem6er, Centra[ Committee of CPIJrt, my co[feagues and staff ofmy Co[fege, and a[[ otliers wfiom I cannot ack,nowfetfge 6y name.
:My deepest tfiank.§ are to my fius6and; (])r. CBf:fan 'l{umar 'l{unda and my daugfiter, CBarsfia and my son, )icfitya wfio fiave not on{y encouraged me 6ut afso fiat£ patient{y 6ome out my a6sence from my pface and demanding sclietfu[e of work:. I must afso ack,nowfetfge my grateju[ness to my eUer 6rotfier, my parents, friends and Smt. Jrtanasfii (])e, wife of my supervisor and a[[ my weff-wisfiers for tfieir mora[ support ana encouragement. ']{ot tfie feast, my fiearty tfiank.§ go to Sri Su6ir (])as !Malianta for type setting andformatting tfie tfiesis. Jrtoreover, I must add tfiat any sfiort comings ofmy worftare entirety my own.
~ (l.y)·~ Jaya Biswas
(xvi) ASSAM ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS SHOWING DISTRICTS H.. Q. PARTiALLY COVERED CHAR AREAS
.... c."""'-- ,. ... "~
N. 1. .DHUBRI 2. GOALPARA 3. BONGAIGAON 4. BARPETA 5. NALBARf w E 6. KAMRUP 7. OARRANG 8. SONITPUR STATE BOUNDARY 9. NAGAON DISTRICT BOUNDARY 10. MARIGAON 11. JORHAT (MAJULf) OtSTRICT HEAD QUARTER s 12. LAKHtMPUR PARTIALLY COVERED CHAR AREAS 13. OHEMAJI 14. TtNSUKIA OIST H. Q. (CHAR) land erosion in char areas
Marshy land surrounding char areas Sugarcane production on char.
Vegetable production on char CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
1.1. Introduction:
The contribution of women in family, society and political process along with their status and role hold the key to the development of the State, its people and the economy. But, unfortunately, women in every society are severely disadvantaged and discriminated. Social discrimination, lower economic position, low level of educational status, inequity, poverty, violence and lack of political participation in political process have been identified as issues of grave concern to South Asian women though women belonging to higher class in South Asia enjoy higher position and status in comparison to other parts of the world. Thus the position of women in Assam like other parts of India is not at all encouraging, rather it is dismal. In fact, in some respects and in some areas (Char areas) the womenfolk belonging to some cultural groups of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam are even more disadvantaged. Of course, during the last three decades the role and contribution of women and their needs have begun to be recognized. Today, gender related issue has been given due weightage and attention in almost every society. Therefore, an attempt has been made by us to undertake a detailed study regarding women's empowerment in the Char areas of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam highlighting their role in family, society and political process with special reference to Barpeta District.
We have provided eight sections in this chapter including the present section. In the second section we have presented our research problem. The 3rd Section provides research gap as well as the objectives of the study on the basis of a brief review of literature. The 4th section outlines the conceptual framework. The 5th section contains research questions and hypothesis. The sixth section provides a note on Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS methodology. The 7th section provides details of our field work and the 8th section concludes the chapter.
1.2. Statement of the Problem:
"To be a woman in South Asia is to be a non-person," (Human Development in South Asia: 1997), who is forced to bear negligence and deprivation almost in all spheres of life. This is the only region in the world where women are far outnumbered by men (94 women for 100 men in South Asia, as compared to the global ratio of 106 women to 100 men), in a complete reversal of accepted biological trends (Anita Rampal: 2000). It indicates negligence and deprivation of women. Because of this gross social neglect of women and discrimination, Prof. Amartya Sen (2001), alongwith his academic collaborator Jean Dreze (200 1) proposed and popularised the concept of "missing women" - estimated to exceed 1 00 million round the world - which has given us a new way of understanding and mapping the problem. Sen estimated that 7 4 million women are simply "missing" in South Asia. Dreze and Sen ( 1996) have termed the low sex ratio in India too and according to them the number of missing women in India is estimated to be between 35 and 37 million (Dreze and Sen: 1996). In fact, sex ratio is fairly good indicator of women's status in society. Low sex ratio is synonym of lower status of women. The number of females as compared to males drastically declined throughout the 20th Century, reaching a level of 927 per 1000-1991. This means that in India's total population of 1000 million, there are at least 36.5 million few women than would be expected on the basis of gender equality. Social discrimination and neglect of women combined with less economic position and lower educational status alongwith insignificant position in political process have lowered the status of womenfolk more vigorously. Social discrimination and neglect of women is associated with less economic
2 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS position and lower educational status. In fact, more than two- thirds of women in this region is still non-literate. Women participation in decision-making process is not at all encouraging, rather, women participation in decision making process is simply dismal, (B.K. Kunda: 2006) though women belonging to higher class in South Asia enjoy higher position and status in comparison to other states of the world (Amartya Sen: 2001). Asha Krishna Kumar (2005) has rightly observed thus: "Thirty years after the United Nations' first meeting on women in Mexico City and 10 years after the historic Fourth World Conference on women in Beijing, the U.N. is yet to come to terms with the pathetic condition of women the world over. Most of the resolutions and agreement remain only on paper, and women continue to remain voiceless, powerless and faceless."
Fortunately enough, the women of NE India especially the tribal women enjoy a higher status (though not a dignified status in practice) in comparison to other states of Indian Union. They enjoy this high position because of egalitarian societies which they belong to. But the status of womenfolk of Assam is somewhat unique as vanous communities and tribes have different perceptions about the status and roles of their women. Divergent cultural and social groups have contributed to the enrichment of the beautiful social and cultural mosaic of Assam. The number of population of Assam is 26,655,528 and out of it 12,878,491 are women (Census, 2001). These womenfolk belong to various tribes and non-tribes. We can witness divergent cultural and religious groups among the non-tribal womenfolk. Thus, the status of womenfolk is supposed to vary. We would like to throw some lights on the economic and political empowerment of women in the char areas of Brahmaputra Valley with special reference to Barpeta District of Assam.
3 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
As per Assam State Char Areas Development Authority, 1997, total population of "Char Areas" was 21 lakhs covering 2089 "Char Villages" from Sadiya to Dhubri under 56 no. of Community Development Blocks of 21 Civil Sub-Divisions within 14 districts comprising 2.39 lakh hectare of land and out of these total population 13.6% were literate and 75% people in average were living below the poverty line. Mention may be made here that nearly 80% people belong to religious minority (Muslims) and around 95% people of these 80% Muslim population belong to "Immigrants Muslims". These immigrants Muslims are also regarded as "Charua Muslims".
In order to implement Developmental Schemes 1n these areas, the Govt. of Assam had set up the Assam State Char Areas Development Authority in the year 1984. Subsequently, the Authority was converted to full fledged Directorate in 1996 in the name of "Directorate of Char Areas Development, Assam." (Economic Survey, Assam: 2004 -- 2005). According to 2001 census, total population of Assam is 26655528 and the percentage of Muslim population is 30.92 and the number of Muslim population is 8240611 and it covers 6% total Muslim in India. Out of 27 districts of Assam more than 50% population belongs to religious minority in six districts including the district of Barpeta and more than 30% Muslim population (substantial Muslim population) covers 10 districts of Assam out of 27 districts and number of Muslim population of SMP districts is 6,430,924 and percent of Muslims in SMP districts is 51 (Bose: 2005). Total population of Barpeta as per 2001 census is 1647201 out of which 977943 belongs to the religious minority and major portion of these population reside in the Char areas of Brahmaputra or its tributaries. Out of these 977943 Muslim population of Barpeta district around half of the population belongs to womenfolk. Major portion of these Muslim womenfolk are residents of either the chars of Godhuni, Jailarchar, Gandhirchar, 4 Chapter-! INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
Duramari, Tarabarirchar, Kholabanda, Puthimari Char etc. under Boguriguri Mouza or the residents of Nichandir Char, Moukhuwar Char, Uzir Char, Alopati Char, Kadamtala, Dharmapur, Deuldir Char etc. under the jurisdiction of Baghbar Mouza. As the major portion of population in the Char areas of Brahmaputra valley of Assam belongs to religious minority it would be our modest attempt through this study to focus on the economic and political empowerment of Muslim women in the Char areas of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam with special reference to char areas of the Barpeta district.
In fact, in the 1990s, gender index has become a crucial criteria of assessment not only for the World Bank but also for the Human Development Report. Though Tharu and Niranjana (1994) have correctly remarked "Women are suddenly everywhere" and we can witness much celebrated success of "Women's micro-credit programmes" (Kunda: 2004) yet, we can witness through random survey that no remarkable change has been made relating to the socio economic, educational and political status of women in some char areas of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam specially in the char areas of Barpeta District. Hence, the need of the study.
Women empowerment has attracted due attention from social scientists for right reasons. Half of the population of our contemporary society is womenfolk. By ignoring the role of women in developmental issues, we cannot think of healthy society. Real economic growth can be known better through gender approach. It is argued that women's economic participation is known to be related to improved social status. Moreover, it is also through literacy, that socio-economic status may be enhanced. Improved socio-economic status enhances and widens political awareness. We propose to study these aspects and answer some related questions. In this connection, our study is also expected
5 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
to make some theoretical contributions to conceptual framework of studying women issues in the context of Char areas of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam with special reference to Barpeta District. We also propose to use constructivist approach in our study of economic and political empowerment of women in Barpeta District as a part of distinctive methodological exercise. Our problem relating to the issues of women involves critical judgments concerning governmental policies, programmes, schemes, etc. which have unquestionable practical import.
1.3. Review of Literature:
The International Women's Decade 1975-85 provided an impetus to the growth of social science literature relating to women. During the nineteen seventies and eighties the studies on women's movement in India were not at all encouraging, rather the studies on women's issues as well as movements were in the nascent stage. Shah has rightly observed that except for a few many of the studies on women's movements in India are anecdotal or written in journalistic style - written by feminist activists (G.Shah: 1990).
Since our study involves several themes such as Socio-Economic, Educational Status and Political Awareness of women in Assam with special reference to Char areas of Barpeta District, it is hardly possible to prepare a comprehensive review of literature. Yet, there have been significant academic contributions to this area, which indicate both research gaps and directions of future research that may be noted here. Scholars believe that women's movements began in India as a part of the social reform movement in the 19th Century (Shah: 1990). Social reformers like Rarnmohan Roy, Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, M.G. Ranade, Behramji Malbari, raised their voices against the prevailing religious and social customs subjugating women (Heimsath 1964;
6 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
Mazumdar 1976; Sen S.P. 1979). They influenced the British Govt. to enact certain laws against the sati system, permitting woman to remarry, abolishing the custom of child marriage, etc. Initiatives were also taken by the British Govt. to spread education among girls. Some of these issues continue to affect even today our civil society that demand empirical study. Vina Mazumdar (1976), Devaki Jain (1986), Kalpana Shah (1984), Sujata Patel (1988) interpreted the status of women raised by Mahatma Gandhi. Of course, these works failed to analyze the status of Muslim women on which we would like to throw some lights. Heimsath (1964), N. Desai (1977), Everett (1979), Shah (1984) highlighted the political rights - equal franchise and representation in legislatures for women as demanded by women leaders, who were supported by the Congress Party.
Jana Everett (1979), G. Omvedt (1978), Govind Kelkar (1984), Aparna Basu (1976, 1984), Rajani Alexander (1984), Meera Devi (1984) focused their studies on women's roles and participation in various movements alongwith the freedom movement. Shah (1984) and Caplan (1985) have shown, on the studies of AIWC (All India Women's Conference existed in the 1920s) that leaders at the local level come from the upper castes and the middle class. According to their studies these women are more educated than other women as a whole. The role of the Kisan Sabha and the Communist Party in mobilising women in various peasant struggles has also been highlighted by the several studies. But no such significant studies can be witnessed regarding the socio-economic and political status of women in the Char areas of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam.
Dr. Kunja Medhi ( 1991, 1998) has analysed women empowerment from global perspective alongwith analyzing the status of women in the context of their religio-political life. We would like to fill
7 Chapter-! INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
those gaps through our study that Dr. Medhi did not touch. Najma Choudhury (1991) analysed the role of Muslim women in politics, but she confined the analysis to Bangladesh's society. Zarina Bhatty ( 1991) explained the role of Muslim women in India. We cannot come to the conclusion relating to economic and political empowerment of Muslim women in Assam through her analysis. Banita Alius (2001) in her Mizo Nari analysed the status of Mizo women. U.A.Shimray (2004) analysed women's position in Naga society. Dr. Jimli Bora Bharali (2003) in her Ph.D. thesis analysed the political participation of women in Assam with special reference to the role of women in Panchayat without sketching the role of Muslim women in the Char areas. Sumi Krishna (2005) in her gendered price of Rice in North-East India laid too much emphasis on Gender and Rice Farming. Our study is expected to throw some light on both the economic and political empowerment of womenfolk in the Char areas of Brahmaputra Valley pointing out women's role in family, society and political processes.
The literature on women studies / issues in Assam especially in the Barpeta District of Assam is not always well-focused. Most of the works on women in Assam assumed the form of running commentaries on various issues on women like dowry, domestic violence, women entrepreneurship, women's role in society, women and development, gender discrimination etc under the general theme of women in Assam. K.K. Barman and M. Bhattacharya (1998) analysed the status of Tea Garden Women workers in Assam. Manashi Baruah Deka and Sumita Roy ( 1998) highlighted women farmers of Assam engaged in rice based farming system. R. Borah (1995, 1999) focused on rural women alongwith highlighting selected characteristics of farm women. These works, however, are somewhat dated and do not include materials on the status of Muslim women. B.K. Kunda (2004, 2006) highlighted the role of Bodo women in the Brahmaputra Valley of Assam alongwith 8 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
highlighting women's participation in Indian politics. Kunda (2004, 2006) too, has failed to analyze the status of Muslim women. N.K. Deka (2003) in an empirical study highlighted some aspects of fertility among Muslims of Barpeta District. Prof. Zoya Hasan and Ritu Menon (2003) conducted a survey in the year 2003 on "Muslim Women", which highlighted the socio-economic status and gender roles. According to Muslim Women Survey (MWS) conducted by Hasan and Menon "Muslim women are disadvantaged not because of religious conservatism but because they are poor, are women, and Muslim, which together aggravate the particular disadvantages of any one of the identities." The survey also has failed to cover the status of Muslim women the Char areas Brahmaputra Valley including the Char areas of Barpeta District of Assam. The Chief Literacy sources relating to the economic and political empowerment of Muslim women in the char areas of Assam, however, are still various unpublished documents, journalistic writings and seminar papers.
The foregoing discussion and review of literature make it clear that the question of women or the gender -related issue is a significant issue in our civil-society. Of course, gender studies got institutional recognition just two and a half decades ago. In fact, the gender became the focal point of discussion and sem1nars from the 1980s. In this connection, the role of UGC and ICSSR 1s noteworthy as both the institutions took the pioneering role in popularizing the gender - studies providing official seal and recognition. As a follow-up action, a number of universities and research institutions in our country have succeeded to upgrade the gender-study as a separate/distinct discipline from the broad frame of social sciences (Ray & Athparia: 2006). For instance, the Women's Studies Research Center, Gauhati University is UGC sponsored Research Centre under G.U., established in the year 1989. During the last 10 years it completed research 9 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS studies on diverse women related issues, conducted training programmes on Research Methodology and women's rights, organized workshops and seminars at different places, opened cells at different colleges under G.U., established ties with grass level women organizations and NGOs and also participated in policy discussions (WSRC: GU, 1997-2002). During Ninth Plan Period (March 1997- March'02) 15 Research projects were completed alongwith organizing of Seminars, workshops, and meetings on gender--related issue. But no such projectsjseminarsjworkshops were completed and organized on the socio-economic and political awareness of womenfolk in the Char areas of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam. We would like to focus on these areas through this study. Thus, gender-related issue has successfully entered into our civil society in such a way alongwith high sensitiveness that the policy makers, administrators, developmentalists, planners, sociologists, political scientists, academicians etc. are compelled to provide due weightage on this issue. Here lies the significance of study and further research highlighting the following objectives:
• To focus on the socio-economic status of women in the Char areas of Barpeta District of Assam is one of the objectives of our study. Analyzing this issue, the level of education is to be taken into account.
• To focus on the role of women of Char areas of Brahmaputra Valley in the grass-root level i.e. in Panchayat.
• To focus on the issue of political awareness/ consciousness of Women in the Char areas of Barpeta District. This issue is to be analysed maintaining the linkage of socio-economic condition and educational status of womenfolk in the Char areas of the district.
10 Chapter-I INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
• To focus on the area of the role of SHGs (Self Help Groups) formed by women folk highlighting the linkages of Banks/NGOs etc. Highlighting this area of economic empowerment, if there is any, it would be our modest attempt to focus the role of Muslim womenfolk in comparison to other womenfolk belonged to other religions in Family, Society, and Political Processes.
• To focus on organizational and managerial capacities of womenfolk in the Char areas of Barpeta District alongwith the organization of Women's Groups and Organizations.
• To focus on women's active involvement in socio-cultural activities.
• To focus on women's involvement in various economic activities leading to a decent life alongwith enhancing self-respect and self confidence.
• To focus on women's involvement as decision- makers in peace and conflict resolution as individual's and group's level.
1.4. The Conceptual Framework:
Any issue is to be studied with a proper conceptual framework. In fact, without a conceptual framework systematic analysis is not possible. Thus, conceptual framework is significant relating to analyze and explore any issue.
So far as gender Issue IS concerned the international women movements are significant and if we look at international women movements (Woman's suffrage movement in the 1840s and 1850s), we can witness three major frameworks. They are- the Marxist, the Liberal and the Radical. The Marxists trace the roots of women sub-ordination to the growth of class society. The Marxists lay more stress on socio economic structure of the society and opine that with the change of socio-economic structure through class-struggle the condition of 11 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS womenfolk would change. Thus alongwith the struggle for a change in material conditions, Marxism places great emphasis on the sustained struggle against ideas and ideologies which propagate women's sub ordination and which act as a major barrier to the achievement of women's emancipation (The Marxist: 2006). Radical feminists are 1n favor of radical change of womenfolk. According to radical feminists, there is a vast difference between man and woman in both mental and physical structures. In their view, all societies, historical and contemporary, are characterized by patriarchy, the institution, as Kate Millett ( 1969) put it, "that half of the population which is female is controlled by the half which is male" and they proclaim the need for a sexual revolution, a revolution that will, in particular, restructure personal, domestic and family life (Heyward: 1997). So, separate arrangement between the two is the utmost necessity. Liberal Feminists claim that the rights of men should be extended to women on the grounds that women are equal to men and thus should have the same rights. Despite differences in frameworks, the central focus of all the three center on the issues of women's oppression alongwith their solutions. The plight of the tribal and non-tribal women of North East India including Assam, can, however, not be analysed within any of these frameworks. Banita Alius (2001) has shown systematically how these frameworks failed to explain the Mizo social structure and the Mizo women. Recent feminist perspectives such as post-colonial and post-structuralist ones have moved beyond universalistic framing of the issues of gender, empowerment, relationship of state and gender and emphasized on the need to study local, diverse and dispersed nature of the sites of gender and state power, rights and empowerment (Pringle and Watson, 1992). The study of women's empowerment in the char area therefore needs to take into account the specifics of struggles, challenges and opportunities associated with living in such areas. 12 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
Hence, an attempt will be made to focus on the status of Muslim women in the Barpeta District of Assam independent of these three frameworks, though we would like to lay more stress on Marxist framework to understand the condition of Muslim womenfolk in the Char areas of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam with special reference to Char areas of Barpeta district.
We may begin with some theoretical prem1ses to deduce some hypothetical answers to the question asked in our study (see the next section}. First, rights and empowerment of women are affected by State's policies in regard to them. Favorable policies do help the cause of empowerment and as the current literature on feminism suggest, state 1s not universally patriarchal institution. Historical and situational differences pertaining to time and place affect both the role of the state and the extent and nature of women's empowerment and rights. Hence empowerment issues need to be seen both contextually and comprehensively. Muslim women in the char areas of Barpeta District of Assam are disadvantaged not because of religious conservatism but because they are poor, are women, and Muslim, and because they live in char areas that constitute their 'life world' as different from those of others which together aggravate the particular disadvantages of any one of the identities. Second, "Pardah-Polygamy Talaq" as the unholy trinity that restrains the social status of Muslim women is partially true; but if we look at" socio-economic" and "place to place" context probably it would explore a new dimension relating to the status of Muslim women of the District.
Today, SHGs have started playing a very significant role not only in rural development but also in shaping the socio-economic condition of womenfolk. As instances of state intervention they may be quite ,ilf effective for the empowerment of the Muslim women in the char areas
13 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS of Barpeta District of Assam. The significance of religious difference if any for reaping the benefit of this institutional change may be examined by way comparison to other womenfolk belonged to other religions.
1.5. Research Questions & Hypotheses:
We intend to answer the following Research Questions on the basis of some hypotheses deduced from our conceptual framework
1. If the Muslim Society, as alleged by the liberals, is basically conservative and restrictive because of Islamic injunctions, so far as Muslim women are concerned why the Muslim women's participation in political process is noteworthy as compared to Hindu women in the Char areas of Barpeta District of Assam?
2. The question may be asked in a different way: If the Muslim women are restrained for "social advancement" for the prevalence of "pardah - polygamy - talaq" in almost all Muslim societies why the large number of Muslim women do participate in various movements spearheaded by political parties, NGOs in the district of Barpeta?
In the light of the above, we propose to test the following hypotheses on the basis of data with respect to the above question.
a) Economically empowered womenfolk usually take independent decision of their own in family, society, Panchayat, academic area alongwith in political process. b) Socio-Economic empowerment also enhances women's autonomy. c) Socio-Economic empowerment also provides weightage to womenfolk relating to health and medical facilities. d) Economic empowerment enhances political awareness j consciousness.
14 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
1.6. A Note on Methodology:
For testing the hypotheses discussed above we had decided to adopt a combination of descriptive analysis and use of select aggregate data on a purposive basis with some case studies, participant observation, questionaire, schedules and personal interviews. Below we elaborate a little on the methodological steps.
1. We proposed to select some villages of Muslim Dominated Blocks JMouzas of Barpeta District as per Census Report.
2. We also proposed to select some wards of Muslim Dominated Town Committees/Municipal Boards, if there is any, in the Barpeta District which are contiguous areas of char areas.
3. We proposed to frame questionaire, schedules for the womenfolk so far as selected areas of our study.
4. Relating to the role of SHGs shaping the economic empowerment of Muslim women, we proposed to take into account the study on Grameen Bank (Bangladesh) popularised by Prof. M. Yunnus.
5. Participant observation, Schedules and personal interviews were to be carried out with utmost care and sincerity.
Some details on our field studies are provided below.
1.7.1 Gathering Analytical Data: Field Work in Char Areas of Barpeta District, Assam:
In the previous section we had pointed out several techniques of data collection such as interview, participant observation, survey research and so on. As far as survey research is concerned we had to look into the Char areas of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam. Since detailed information on such area is hard to come by and the last Census was held in 2001 we searched for other secondary sources also
15 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS for determining our area and sample. The important secondary sources that we relied on are mentioned under section 1.7.8. We come to know from the Census 2001 and secondary sources that three districts of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam have significant number of Char villages viz. Dhubri, Jorhat and Barpeta. In view of requirement of the repeated visits to Char areas for concluding field survey, and other practical consideration we decided to cover the Char areas of Barpeta districts for the purpose of our field study. The district alone had 277 Char villages, which presented before us a rather large universe from which an individual had to curve out on accurate sample. Naturally one had to exercise some judgment in designing the survey research.
Among the five Char Development Blocks, three were found to have more than 90 percent concentration of Char villages. These were Mandia, Chenga and Rupsi Development Blocks. Of course Mandia has the highest number of Char villages amounting to 166 followed by Chenga and Rupshi each having 42 Char villages.
Before we dealt with this problem of disproportionate concentration of Char villages between the Mandia on the one hand and the Chenga and the Rupshi on the other we had first to determine the total number of villages that we will cover in our survey. For this purpose we had classified all the 277 Char villages in three clusters, i.e.
(i) Villages having population up to 500,
(ii) Villages having population between 501 to 1 000; and
(iii) Villages having population above 1001 by way of frequency distribution of population of Char villages.
The clusters were more or less equal in terms of distribution of Char villages and therefore we selected six villages from each cluster at random, having 18 Char villages to cover through our survey. However,
16 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
in selecting the number of villages to be picked up from the three development blocks we had to choose the number of villages proportionally from each block. Given the ratio, one is to four between the block having the highest number of Char villages and that having the lowest we selected 12 villages at random from Mandia and 3 each from Chenga and Rupshi. These villages under different blocks were as follows:
Text Box No. 1 : Blockwise Char Villages
Name of the Block Name of the Char villages I 1. Mandia Development 1. Islampur Block: 2. Jahanar Ghola 3. Aligaon Pather 4. Dighir Pather 5. Balajan 6. Morabajh 7. J ahanar Gaon 8. Bamundongra 9. Todhara Gaon 10. Silashi Pather 11. Baghbar 12. Niz-Baghbar 2. Chenga Development 13. Majar Char Block: 14. Sarudia 15. Dakhin Godhuni 3. Rupshi Development 16. Char Saria Block: 17. Gulia 18. Udmari
Given the fact that these 18 villages had 3014 households altogether we had to derive a sample of households which could effectively be covered in our study.
At confidence level of 95 percent and the confidence interval of 4.8 percent the sample size was determined to be 360 number of households. For covering the sample size through our survey we picked up 20 households at random each of 18 selected villages. Finally the
'I 0 Z013 250 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
questionnaire that was used to cover the sample population was considered accurate enough in view of the fact that the worst-case percentage of 50 percent was used. To ensure the reliability and validity of survey data standard statistical procedures were used during questionnaire formulation and analysis of data.
1.7.2. The First Field Trip:
As mentioned earlier, we had selected 12 Char villages of Mandia Development Block under Barpeta District and as a follow-up action we started our first trip on 1st July 2007 because in the Char areas, the peak period of flood with several waves (3- 5 major waves) starts from the month of July and continues till the month of September. In this period the Char areas were almost totally cut off from the mainland of Assam; not only the Chars, but all other localities in the chronically flood affected areas of the State also badly suffered from lack of transport and communication facilities (A.K. Bhagwati: 2005). Of course, some changes took place relating to infrastructural and institutional facilities since the 1980's. Thus during the last three decades road network of the Brahmaputra plain has been improved to some extent in connection with connecting the inaccessible riverine areas. Because of this network we succeeded to reach Baghbar very comfortably by Maruti Car even in the month of July. In other words, we started our first trip from Barpeta Road via district headquarter (Barpeta) to Baghbar by Maruti Car. It is worthwhile to mention here that innumerable fisheries were discernible along the roadsides in between Howly (Muslim dominated areas) and Barpeta. It is to be noted that Barpeta-Satrakanara-Baghbar (29K.M.) P.W.D. road is the only motorable road which has connected Baghbar from the district headquarter Barpeta. Though country boats are being used by the Char dwellers during the summer month (July, August and September) in
18 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
order to connect the Char dwellers of nearby villages to the riverbank urban and market centers yet privately owned 'motor boats (locally called Bhutbhuti) ply regularly through the river. It is worthwhile to mention here that Md. Haris Ali of Ramapara Char village started to ply motorboat for the first time in Barpeta district in the year 1983. This motor boat is one of the significant communication machinery of Char areas surrounding Baghbar. We reached Baghbar via Mandia. After reaching Baghbar we collected some information regarding the Char villages of Todhara gaon, Niz-Baghbar, Morabhajh, Silashi Pather, Bamundongra, Jahanar Ghola, Aligaon Pather, Dighir Pather, Baghbar gaon. All these Char villages are dominated by immigrant Muslims. They are economically poor and culturally backward. The Char dwellers are compelled to change their settlement because of heavy and unpredictable erosion of the Brahmaputra River. Thus, environmental uncertainty and poverty compel them to build their huts made of bamboos and locally available building materials. It is also interesting to note here that almost all the Char villages come into existence on the basis of the names of animals, fishes, incidents, plants and trees etc. or so we were told by the local people of these villages in the first trip.
We continued our first trip for gathering information regarding the Char villages of Charsaria, Udmari, Galia that fell under Rupshi
Development Block. We started our journey as a part of first trip on 2nd July 2007 from Barpeta Road via Sorbhog to Kalgachia. Kalgachia is one of the oldest immigrants Muslim dominated village of Barpeta District. At present, Kalgachia is undeclared small Muslim dominated town of Barpeta District. One can reach from Barpeta to Kalgachia through the Barpeta-Sorbhog-Kalgachia-Moinbori (71 KM from Barpeta to Moinbori) by motorable road. Kalgachia is bounded by Sorbhog in the North, Baghbar Hillock in the South, District Headquarter-Barpeta in the East and Abhayapuri in the West. The historical importance of 19 Chapter-! INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
some of the villages of Rupshi Development Block is immense. For instance, Kalgachia, Chakchaka, Bheragaon, Guinalguri, Jania, Chapra, Chanpura are famous villages of this Block. Apart from this, Langla, Udmari, Sarcharia, Guileza, Galia, Barbhita, Janata Bazar, TND, Balajan, Balikuri have also been playing a very important role for the production of Jute, Mustards, Corns, Vegetables etc. The surveyed Char villages of our study under Rupshi Development Block, such as Sarcharia, Udmari and Galia are heavily affected because of flood and erosion of the Beki - the tributary of the mighty river Brahmaputra. During the last few years, huge areas have been washed away because of severe flood and erosion under Kalgachia Revenue Circle of the district. As per our observation as a part of first trip flood and erosion have become a great menace to the people of this block and circle. If adequate steps are not taken at the appropriate time probably very beautiful small town Kalgachia and it's nearby Char villages will be washed away in the near future.
We continued our first trip in order to gather information regarding Char villages under Chenga Development Block. We started our journey on 5th July 2007 by Maruti Car from Barpeta Road via Howly and Barpeta. Barpeta-Chenga-Bahari (23 KM) is a motorable road through which one can reach Chenga and Bahari. Tarabari-Bahari was a significant river port and a big market place of Barpeta District. During 1959-62 the famous Tarabari market was totally engulphed by the mighty river Brahmaputra. We collected our first hand information regarding the Char villages of Sarudia, Dakhin Godhani and Major Char after reaching Bahari.
In this connection it is worthwhile to mention here that the main objective of our first trip was to select the appropriate methods of data collection such as interview, identification of SHG's etc. along with
20 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
preparation for pilot survey. After visiting the Char villages of these three Developments Blocks of Barpeta district it is our observation that the socio-economic life of char dwellers particularly the lives of womenfolk are very deplorable. In fact, major portion of them are below the poverty line and naturally almost all of them are living under very deplorable condition. Lack of proper means of communication, population problems, health and hyginic problems are common problems of Char dwellers. Apart from these, the pure drinking water is still in their dreams. In fact, the Char dwellers are living with unlimited problems. Along with these problems both the mighty river Brahmaputra and its tributary Beki have rendered the people homeless every year. Even the question of doubtful citizenship has made the genuine Char dwellers spend sleepless nights. In other words, lakhs of permanent settlements, landlessness loss of citizenship have turned the people of Char areas into nomads. After carrying out and conducting interviews with some people of these villages it can be concluded that the complexity and contradiction of the problems of Char areas need deeper and detailed study. Here lies the significance of our study.
1. 7 .3. The Second Field Trip:
We started our second field trip in the month of October 2008. We selected the month of October, because the Char-Dwellers start preparing land for the cultivation of rabi crops like wheat, lentil, black gram, mustered, rapeseed, sesames and a variety of vegetables. In fact, just after the recession of flood and leading a troublesome miserable life during July to September, to some extent a new life of Char-dwellers start with the preparation of land for the cultivation along with blossoming of 'Kahua' (S. Spontaneum) which has certainly broadened the beautification of Char villages which we wanted to enjoy. Rabi crops
21 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
and a variety of vegetables as well as Kahua add to the scenic beauty of the Char villages.
Of course, the objective of our second trip was to conduct pilot survey along with finalizing the questionnaire. We started our pilot survey at Islampur Char village under Mandia Development Block. We faced a lot of problems in connection with conducting pilot survey on the basis of our proposed questionnaire. The womenfolk of almost all Char villages were not easily accessible as they hesitated to take part discussion. In fact, we have failed to bring them to take part in our discussion in the first attempt. Naturally we changed our technique to know about their socio-economic and political awareness and recruited some youths who were very much acquainted with their culture customs. As a result we succeeded to complete our pilot survey 1n between November and December 2008 in all the 18 Char villages of three Development Blocks.
1. 7.4. The Third Field Trip:
After completing our pilot survey we prepared our final questionnaire and on the basis of the final questionnaire we started to conduct final survey during July and September, 2009. In fact, it was very difficult to conduct survey during Rainy Season particular in the Char areas. We selected this period in connection with experiencing the flood-affected people. Even after recession of flood, Char-dwellers faced land erosion, which were to be analyzed in the subsequent discussion. Their dwelling houses were damaged due to flood and erosion. Their landed properties were also damaged. Even before the arrival of high flood the Char dwellers prepared themselves to stay temporarily over the embankments or in the raised platforms built under the initiative of the State Government. At times, the Char dwellers were compelled to stay over the boats or banana rafts either inside or close to the house 22 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
for days together along with the animals during the flood days as observed by A.K. Bhagabati (2005). We had the opportunity to witness these problems of Char dwellers on a number of occasions. Because of all these, we selected this period (Rainey season) for finalizing our survey. But, our attempt failed. Thus, we launched our third trip again during October - November 2010 in connection with undertaking our survey and after spending 70 days we succeeded to finalize our survey which will be reported in a subsequent chapter.
1. 7.5. Interviews
The role of womenfolk in family, society and political process to some extent is same because of patrilineal societal linkages of social structure of South Asia barring a few matrilineal communities in the Southwest and Northeast of India. It is also equally true that economically empowered womenfolk can take independent decision on their own family, society, academic area along with in political process as a number of studies have reported. We have surveyed 18 Muslim dominated Char villages under three Development Blocks of Barpeta District and carried out interview with a number of Muslim women in the Char areas. After conducting interview it has come to our notice that the major portion of the people belonging to char areas are living below the poverty line. Some women stated that they did not know about the SHG movement. Of course, some members of SHG stated that they could not be economically empowered through the formation of SHGs unless the State Government came forward in connection with selling the products. As no SHGs had yet been formed in some of the surveyed Char villages how could we expect that the empowerment and self-confidence of women would raise. Even some of the women stated in the negative regarding the activities of SHGs. The women of Char villages did participate in the protest meetings
23 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
organized by political parties along with casting their votes with great vigour and enthusiasm. During the campaign of last Panchayat Election Central Committee Member and Former State Secretary, CPIM, Mr. Hemen Das, reported in an interview that Mr. Das was surprised at Muslim women participation in political meeting at Baguriguri Pather under Barnagar Circle of Barpeta District. In an interview with Muslim womenfolk of Char Area it was found that they did participate in the political process for economic benefit and redressing of poverty and hardship. In this connection the observation of Bina Agarwal noteworthy as she rightly observed thus:
"Economic necessity is leading many women to challenge social norms either explicitly or implicitly. For instance parts of northern rural South Asia, purdah norms require that women do not seek empowerment outside the home, especially not in the fields of others, but poverty compels many women to do precisely that. In doing so, they break purdah norms and so implicitly challenge those norms. However, group solidarity and collective action appear critical for explicitly and effectively contesting such norms" (Bina Agarwal: 2000). Bina Agarwal (2000) has also beautifully illustrated the experience of women members of the NGO, BRAC (The Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee) in Bangladesh and she has remarked that on the one hand, economic want compelled women to seek outside work and challenge restrictive purdah norms; on the other hand, groups solidarity within BRAC has clearly strengthened women's ability to effectively alter the norms. She has also cited the report of BRAC women that, as a result of their economic contributions and group strength, their husbands are now less opposed to them joining BRAC, less physically and verbally abusive, more willing to allow them freedom of movement, and more tolerant toward their interaction with male strangers in work contexts. In other words there has been a loosening of restrictive social norms 24 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
both within the home and outside it (Ibid: 2000). In the Char villages of Barpeta District too, the strengthening of SHGs should be encouraged not only for breaking social norms but also for broadening socio economic status of womenfolk which would certainly enhance the confidence of poverty striken womenfolk along with raising political awareness.
We have also witnessed many Muslim women at the time of the counting of votes in the last Panchayat Election (January 2008) that shook their hands with winning male candidates and political leaders. It is also noted that major portion of Muslim women of Barpeta District like other Muslim dominated districts of Assam cast their votes with great vigour. In an interview some of the Muslim women did admit that they cast their votes for fear of deleting their name from the electoral rolls and as a follow-up action they would be treated as 'foreigners'. We remind them that non -casting of votes do not necessarily mean deletion of names from the electoral rolls and non-citizens. Yet, heavy turn out of Muslim women can be witnessed during polls whether it was Panchayat or Assembly or Parliamentary in companson to Hindu womenfolk as per record of the Election Department.
We have also interviewed a large number of womenfolk of Char villages to know their political process together with women's economic independence and autonomy. It has come to our notice that Muslim womenfolk belonging to char or rural areas are more conscious about their status and position than the urban women of the District. It is noted that so-called educated Muslim women of several towns (e.g. Howly, Bahari, Kalgachia, Barpeta Road) of Barpeta district are not at all interested in participating actively in the political process. They are simply reluctant so far as politics is concerned. Even they are indifferent about their status and position both in the family and
25 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
society. They abide by the religious stricture too. But on the other hand, as per our interview and discussion Muslim women belonging to char areas (rural) of Mandia, Chenga and Rupshi Development Blocks under the district of Barpeta are much more conscious about their rights, role, position and status in the family, society and political process. Lesser-educated and low-and-insecure earners both within and outside the family do play a significant role for egalitarian and democratic society, as there has been a loosening of restrictive social norms for the rural and char dwellers/womenfolk both within the home and outside it.
1.7 .6.0bservation:
After conducting First, Second and Third Trips in the Char villages of three Development Blocks, carrying out interviews and participating in discussion with a number of Muslim women in various towns as well as 18 Char villages and rural areas of Barpeta District it has come to our observation that Muslim women are poor, illiterate and less politically conscious. It is also our observation that low level of education has reduced women's earning prospects and possibilities of economic independence. Major portion of womenfolk of these areas do not have any land in their names, but they feel that 'right to property and joint land patta' is utmost necessity for economic empowerment. Polygamy is prevailing in the char areas. Major portion of womenfolk abide by religious MullasjDewanis. Lack of education also forces them to lead superstitious lives. Thus, the size of family is large because illiterate womenfolk assume that the children are the gifts of God i.e. 'Allah' for which they are reluctant to adopt family planning. Even some of them remark that they are ignorant about family planning devices. Of course, it has come to our notice that one of the most significant reasons for not adopting family planning in these areas is poverty. They
26 Chapter-I INTRODUCTORY REMARKS prefer 'sons' as they would contribute to generating resources of the family in due course of time. Some women of these char villages remark that by being members of SHGs they bring no significant changes in connection with socio-economic status. Some however said that through the SHG movement the self-confidence of some women members had been raised. They achieved the courage to meet Block Development Officer in connection with constituting SGHs. They also achieved the courage to discuss with the Bank Managers regarding opening up of Bank Account on behalf of concerned SHG. Though economically not yet empowered in the stricter sense of the term through the SHGs, yet it is our observation that a change is to be witnessed in the char areas of our surveyed villages too like other rural areas of Barpeta District. Of course all the selected surveyed Char villages do not possess the same characteristics regarding women SHGs, as the primary activities of SHGs are dissimilar in nature.
Womenfolk of Char villages are conscious regarding health and medical facilities although due to inadequate medical facilities they are very much dependent on 'Kabiraj' or 'Quake'. It is also found that the major reason for the low work participation of women in our surveyed char villages for their restricted engagement in agriculture. As
earlier, both ownership of property and land have '""'""''U'-'·'-" economic independence and autonomy to womenfolk. It has ultimately stood as a stumbling block in connection with decision-making process. The residential place of the Char dwellers is highly backward and their dwelling roofs are made of locally available thatch and grasses with a steep slope along with walls made of either bamboos or dry jute. Except for the matabbors (Dewanies or Group leader) who have two to three relatively good houses sometimes with tin roofs, all other families reside in single thatched houses along with a small open shed for housing the domesticated animals as rightly observed by A.K. 27 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
Bhagabati (2005). Dwelling houses are damaged by flood and erosion every year completely or partially. During flood and natural calamities womenfolk and children of these Char villages become the worst victims. After conducting interviews and carrying out field survey we could experience a gloomy picture relating to the socio-economic, educational and political consciousness of the Muslim women which will be explained in the subsequent analysis. The question of womenfolk in the Char villages is not the question of sod-economic and political status rather the question of 'survival'. Probably, the question of survival has compelled the womenfolk in our surveyed char areas to caste their votes with great vigour and enthusiasm making the election a great festival.
1. 7. 7. Documentary Research:
Our study was also based on documentary evidences which were not readily available such as Party Manifestoes of several political parties, Assembly Proceedings and Governor's report together with resolutions of Annual Conferences of political parties. Apart from these, our study depended on Census Reports of 1991 and 2001, Government of India for facts and figures regarding demographic profile, literacy rate, gender gap in literacy etc. of our surveyed Char villages along with the District of Barpeta and Assam. In order to undertake our study we were very much dependent on Socio-Economic Survey Report 1993-94 of Char areas of Assam and Socio-Economic Survey Report 2002-03 of Char areas of Assam, prepared and conducted by the Directorate of Char Areas Developments, Assam that served documents as important sources.
28 Chapter-1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
1. 7 .8. Secondary Research:
Our work was also largely dependent on a number of articles presented in an 'International Seminar' on "The Problems and Prospects of Char Areas of Brahmaputra with special reference to lower Assam" held in the year 2004 and organized by "Char Areas Welfare Society for Socio-Economic Research (CAWSSER)" an NGO m collaboration with Luitparia College, Alopati Major Char, Barpeta. Assam Human Development Report 2003, Economic Survey Assam 2004 - 2005 and 2007 - 08 have also provided vital information regarding our study. Along with these, CAISHA - a souvenir, published on the occasion of Assam Sahitya Sabha's Kalgachia Special Annual Session 2002, BALICHANDA - a souvenir, published on occasion of Brihattar Char-Chapari Baghbar Sahitya Sanmilan 1997 and Smaranika published on the occasion of first death anniversary of Gulam Osmani, 2009 have provided huge information relating to our work Several issues of Char-Chapori research journal relating to Assam's Char-Chapori together with several survey reports and studies as well as books on Muslim Women have contributed a lot to our work as a part of secondary research. Human Development Reports of several years prepared and published by United Nations Development Project, World Development Reports of various years as well as India 2009 -A reference annual also provided huge materials in connection with conducting our study.
1.8. Conclusion:
The question of women or gender-related issue is a significant issue in our civil society. Though women play an extremely important role in every society, yet they are deprived of rights and dignity along with facing gross negligence and discrimination as we have highlighted in the earlier analysis. Social discrimination and negligence of 29 Chapter-I INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
womenfolk along with lower economic position and educational status together with insignificant role in political process have attracted due attention not only from social scientists but also from policy makers, planners, developmentalists etc. for which the question of women's economic empowerment and political empowerment is to be considered as significant and crucial issue. This vital issue would be highlighted in the context of Char areas of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam with special reference to Barpeta District.
30 CHAPTER- 2
GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
2.1 Introduction
In this Chapter we have tried to provide a general perspective on gender and development through seven sections. The second section provides a global perspective on gender and development. The third section provides an Indian perspective on gender and development covering its economic and social dimensions under two sub-sections. The fourth section focuses on the gender and development dimension in Assam covering its economic, social and political dimensions under three separate sub-sections. The fifth section looks at gender disparities 1n Northeast India and the sixth section considers the specifities of Char areas relating to gender, community and development. The final section is the concluding section.
2.2 The Global Perspective
The United Nations since its emergence has been throwing lights on the question of women as it is committed to achieve the goal of equal rights for all men and women as proclaimed in the Charter and in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Charter Preamble sets forth the principle of "the dignity and worth of human person" and of "equal rights of men and women" and lists in Article-! among the United Nations purposes and principles the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms without distinction as to sex. A number of measures designed to raise the status of women have originated from the Commission on the Status of Women, a functional commission of the Economic and Social Council, established by the Council in 1946. The functions of the Commission are: Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
"to prepare recommendations and reports to the Economic and Social Council on promoting women's rights in political, economic, civil, social and educational fields. [to] make recommendations to the Council on urgent problems requiring immediate attention in the field of women's rights with the object of implementing the principle that men and women shall have equal rights, and to develop proposals to give effect to such recommendations" (United Nations Publications: 1973). Though the Commission on the Status of Women adopted its own resolutions and recommended draft resolutions for adoption by the Economic and Social Council yet the United Nations (UN) held its first official conference on women in Mexico City 1.97 5 and the conference launched women (1976-85). It is said that because of women organizing worldwide that the UN has put women's issues on its agenda (J. Ann Tickner: 2008). In 1979, the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) adopted by the UN General Assembly was the significant milestone regarding the question of women .. We can witness second UN World Conference on Women in Copenhagen, Denmark. During the UN Decade for women (1976-85), womenfolk from both the North and the South took initiative in organizing themselves on global economic issues. Thus a network of Southern women known as Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era (DAWN)l was established in 1984. DAWN is not only engaged in political advocacy. Using feminist knowledge, it also publishes analyses of the impact of global economic policy on Southern countries, focusing on Southern women (Ibid: 2008). In 1985, under the above circumstances, the UN conference was held in Nairobi, Kenya to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the UN Decade for women.
It is worthwhile to mention here that in the Nairobi Conference, the progressive women organizations have succeeded to raise the issue 32 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT of advancement of women's status along with their resource and political empowerment as primary objectives. Their method was to create political 'pressure' and also the advancement of women's status in legal way. It is also observed in the last part of 1980's that development- related Non-Governmental Organizations and Women Organizations not only participated regularly in the international political arena specially in the UN -sponsored conferences but also played significant role. The objectives of their movements were to achieve the recognition of Gender-related approach along with holding position in different States and also in getting position in international association with the initiative of Government for the rights of women. During this period largest group of women's organizations took birth. For example DAWN (Development Alternatives With Women for a New Era) as mentioned earlier and WEDO (Women's Environment and Development Organisation)2; they placed proposals and put pressures in Rio Conference of 1992 (Environment and Development), in Cairo Conference of 1994 (Environment and Population), in Copenhagen Conference of 1995 (Social Development) and in the Conference of Beijing, 1995 and it is noted that after the Beijing Conference of 1995 they were very much active in presenting proposals and creating pressure in international conferences (Sofi Charliye & Elen Riqmunch 2004, Translated from Bengali).
Pressure from women's groups was important in getting the United Nations to disaggregate its data, such as its quality of life indicators, by sex. The availability of data is important in getting issues on policy agendas. Adoption of the Gender Development Index (GDI)3 by the UN Human Development Programme in 1995 was an important step in helping to formulate policies to improve women's well-being and another important step towards gender equality was the adoption by
33 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
the UN and other international intergovernmental organizations of a policy called gender mainstreaming (J. Ann Tickner: 2008).
In the year 1996, Gender mainstreaming4 was adopted as official UN policy by the UN General Assembly and in the year 2000, Women 2000: emphasizing on Gender Equality, Development and Peace for the 21st Century which is also known as 'Beijing + 5', was held at UN headquarters, New York, USA. Forty Ninth Session of United Nations was held in New York in 2005 to Review and Appraisal of the 1995 World Conference on Women in Beijing and Beijing + 5 and Commission on the Status of Women. Al these efforts on the question of women from global perspective can be considered as significant achievements order to formulate polices and programmes adopted by different national governments. District Human Development Report Bankura, 2006 has rightly observed thus:
"The debate on 'women and development' had begun to take shape in the decades of 1970s and 1980s (UN Decade for women 1975- 85) and the issue came at the center stage in the international arena in 1995 because of the United Nation's Fourth International Conference of Women at Beijing as well as United Nations Social Summit Conference at Copenhagen in March in the year 1995. The central message which United Nations Development Project (UNDP) laid stress on its Human Development Report 1995 was "Human Development If not Engendered is Endangered." Accordingly UNDP's suggested construction of gender related development index (GDI) and gender empowerment measure (GEM) have been considered as the significant agenda of almost all the Governments". (District Human Development Report Bankura: 2007).
34 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
2.3.1 Indian Perspective
Though the Constitution of India has provided certain special privileges for the women since its first adoption in the Parliament incorporating some articles contained in the chapter of Fundamental Rights5 and Directive Principles of State policy6 together with adopting various plans and programmes in order to improve the socio-economic and political status of women-folk yet it can be stated from the observation of various World Development Reports and United Nations Development Project Reports that the Gender Development Index and Gender Empowerment Measure of our country is not at all satisfactory in comparison to other developed and developing countries. For instance, as per UNDP-Human Development Report 2005 India's Human Development Index rank is 127 out of 177 countries and so far as Gender related Development Index is concerned she ranks 96 out of 140 countries. According to UNDP Human Development Report 2007/2008 India ranks 128 out of 177 countries and as faT as Gender related Development Index is concerned India ranks 113 out of 157 countries and areas.
Recently, to mark the International Women's Day, the Govt. of India and the UNDP launched summary of a Report that uses India Specific gender-related development indices and estimate the country's score card on gender equality.
Titled, "Gendering Human Development Indices: Recasting the Gender Development Index and the Gender Empowerment Measure for India", the report by the Ministry of Women and Child Development recasts the global gender-related indices first introduced by UNDP globally in 1995, making its more relevant for India.
According to the report, the level of both human and gender related development indices have gone up between 1996 and 2006 but 35 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
gender-based disparities continue to exist. While the estimated Human Development Index {HDI) increased from 0.584 in 1996 to 0.648 in 2006, the Gender Development Index (GDI) score for India has remained lower than the HDI score over the 10 - year period. GDI scores have increased from 0.568 in 1996 to 0.633 in 2006, implying that progress has been made. The report also ranks India's Union Territories (UT) and States in order of their respective HDI and GDI scores. The UT of Chandigrah has overtaken the Southern India State of Kerela to record the highest HDI and GDI scores in 2006 at 0.801 and 0.781, respectively. Kerela which had the highest score in 1996 came to second. The States with the consistently low achievement on both HDI and are Bihar (lowest in the country), UP, MP, Rajasthan, Orissa. The States that accomplished the largest gains on HDI over the Decades were Uttarakhand and Jharkhand. These states also had the largest improvements in GDL
The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM), which is intended to measure women's and men's ability to participate in economic and political life and their command over economic resources, was also calculated. The aggregate score for GEM for India was 0.413 in 1996 and 0.451 in 2006. Though this is higher than the GEM Scores for India estimated by the UNDP in 1998, the values attained still reflect the existence of sharp disparities low in gender empowerment. The score also reflect that women in India have particularly lower power over economic resources.
Though the Gender Development Index of India as per UNDP Human Development Reports is dismal yet it is equally true that a number of plans, programmes, schemes along with some Acts have been undertaken by the Government of India in order to improve the socio economic condition of womenfolk of the country as has been
36 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT accepted in The Vision of Ministry of Women and Child Development7 thus: The vision of Ministry of Women and Child Development is "Ensuring overall survival, development and protection of women and children of the country to enable them to lead productive and wholesome lives as citizens." The Ministry has evolved policies, plans of action, legislations, programmes and schemes for advancement of women and children and has been implementing these with the support of State Governments, other Government agencies and voluntary sector (India 2009, A Reference Annual: P. 992-993). According to D. Mukhopadhyaya (2006) from the First Five Year Plan the planning strategies on Women and children was changed from, 'Welfare' to 'development' to 'empowerment' and he has rightly observed that Eight Five Year Plan (1990-95) tried to ensure that 'benefits of development from different sectors do not bypass women and special programmes are implemented to complement the general development programmes.' If we look at Ninth Plan ( 1997 -2002) we can observe two significant changes relating to women: One is 'Empowerment of Women' and another is Women's Component Plan'. It is noted that the 'National Policy for Empowerment of Women' was approved {2001) and 'Women's Component Plan' attempted to convergence existing services, resources, infrastructure and manpower available in both women specific and woman related sectors. In the Tenth Five Year Plan (2002- 2007) three Working Groups were formed: (a) Working Group on Empowerment of Women; (b) Working Group on Child Development and (c) Working Group on Improving Nutritional Status of Population with special Focus on Vulnerable Groups. The main recommendations of the Working Group on Empowerment of Women are as follows:
37 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
1. Impact or 'market driven forces' should relate the expectations of women.
2. Designing strategic investment plans to enhance social gmns m terms of good health, education and capabilities for empowerment of women.
3. Step-up investment to social sectors and to focus on strategies to optimize the scarce public resources to increase gains for larger numbers of women and men.
4. The planning process for the development of women has evolved through 'welfare' to 'development' to 'empowerment' to 'participation'. But even then gender discrimination is big challenge.
5. Life expectancy of women, literacy and representation in the local self-governing institutions have increased. But it can be strengthened by grass roots level leadership from among women.
6. The 'Approach to the Tenth Five Year Plan for the development of women should be based on the prescriptions of the National Policy' for Empowerment of Women.
7. The Tenth Plan on women should essentially be in the nature of an Action Plan and should set certain measurable goals in different social sectors.
8. The development of women should be in accordance to the prescriptions of the National Policy for Empowerment of Women.
9. The Tenth Plan should set certain measurable goals in different social sectors in tune with the National Policies in the related fields. (Ibid:2006)
38 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
2.3.2. Schemes relating to economic empowerment of women
In consistent with various plans a number of Schemes for the development and advancement of women are in vogue in the country. One of the significant Economic Empowerment Schemes for women is STEP which means Support to Training and Employment Programme for women (STEP). It was launched as a Central Sector Scheme in 1987. It has made a significant impact on women in traditional sectors by upgrading skills and providing employment on project basis by mobilizing them into viable groups, arranging for market linkages, support services and access to credit and the Scheme covers traditional sectors of employment such as agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Dairying, Fisheries, Handlooms, Handicrafts, Khadi and Village Industries and Sericulture. The scheme is being implemented through Public Sector Organizations, State Corporations, DRDAs (District Rural Development Agencies) Co-operatives, Federations and registered Voluntary Organizations, which have been in existence for a minimum period of three years (India A Reference Annual, 2009).
Another important integrated scheme, which has been considered as Economic Empowerment Scheme for the development and empowerment of women is Swayamsidha. The long-term objective of the scheme is to achieve all round empowerment of women, especially, socially and economically, by ensuring their direct access to, and control over, resources through a sustained process of mobilization and convergence of all the on-going sectoral programmes. The immediate objectives are establishment of self-help groups, creation of confidence and awareness among members of Self-Help groups regarding the status, health, nutrition and education of women, sanitation and hygiene, legal right etc. strengthening the savings habit of rural women and their control over economic resources, improving
39 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
access to micro-credit, involving women 1n local planning and convergence of services of Ministry of Women and Child Development and other departments (Ibid: 2009). The scheme was launched in 2001-02 covering 650 blocks in the country including 238 IMY blocks in 335 districts and each block consists of 100 Self-Help groups in 31 States/Union Territories. The programme is being implemented and SHGs are formed by the ICDS machinery in most of the states (Ibid: 2009). Over 69,156 Women's Self-Help groups have been formed under the scheme covering 10.02 Lakh women members. An amount of Rs. 149.87 crores have been saved by SHGS formed under the scheme 64,935 SHGs have accounts in banks 35,042 SHGs (80%) constituting over 6.17 Lakh women are engaged in Income Generation Activities (IGA). 42,395 SHGs (65%) have created over 4339 community assets. The scheme has come to an end on 31.3.2008 (Ibid 994).
2.3.3. Schemes Relating to Social Empowerment of Women
A number of schemes relating to social empowerment of womenfolk are going on in the country. The Swadhar Scheme was launched in 2001-02 as a Central Sector Scheme for providing holistic and integrated services to women in difficult circumstances, such as destitute widows deserted by their families in religious places like Vrindaban and Kashi, women prisoners released from jail and without family support; women survivors of natural disasters who have been rendered homeless and are without any social and economic support etc.
Another scheme is short-stay Homes which was launched in the year 1969 with the objective to protect and rehabilitate those women and girls who are facing social, economic and emotional problems due to family stress, social ostracism, moral danger etc. Family counseling centre is another scheme, which has been working since 1984, which
40 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
seek to provide preventive and rehabilitative services to women and children who are victims of atrocities and family mal-adjustments. Condensed courses of Education of women and Awareness Generation Programme for Rural and poor women are other two significant schemes, which are covered by social Empowerment schemes. Condensed courses of Education of women is the scheme which aims at facilitating social and economic empowerment of women and providing them with education and relevant skills and the scheme is designed to help dropouts and failed candidates to complete their school education and the beneficiaries under the scheme is women of the age of 15 years and above. Awareness Generation Programme for Rural and poor women is the scheme which seeks to create awareness in the community on issues relating to status, rights and problems of women. Registered voluntary organizations eligible to apply under the scheme (Ibid: 2009)
Apart from this, a number of initiatives have been taken for the development of women. One of such initiatives is prevention of Trafficking in women and children. As a follow up action, the Ministry of Woman and Child Development has formulated a National Plan of Action to combat Trafficking and commercial sexual Exploitation of women and children in 1998, with the objective to mainstream reintegrate the women and child victims of commercial sexual exploitation in society. The Ministry has issued guidelines to the states for the implementation of National Plan of Action and as a result Central and State Advisory committees have been formed and the ministry of WCD (Women and Child Development) has taken comprehensive approach to cover "Trafficking in persons" for any purpose. Today an integrated plan of action to prevent and combat Human Trafficking with special focus on children and woman is on
41 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
going plan and programme of the Ministry of Women and Child Development.
A new scheme 'Ujjawala' - a comprehensive scheme for Prevention of Trafficking with five specific components- Prevention, Rescue, Rehabilitation, Reintegration and Repatriation of victims of Trafficking was launched on 4th December 2007 (Ibid: 2009).
Gender Budgeting is one of the significant initiatives taken by the Ministry of Women and Child Development. In fact, Gender Budgeting is the application of gender mainstreaming in the budgetary process and it encompasses incorporating a gender perspective at all levels and stages of the budgetary process and paves the way to translating gender commitments to budgetary comtnitments and carrying out on assessment of the budget to establish its gender differential impact.
2.4.1. Gender Profile of Assam:
It is believed that the progress of a community is judged by the position/ status of females in society. No region/ area can develop if the females are neglected. In population growth control strategy, it is the female status and female education, which are considered as crucial. It is said that they are a neglected lot and suffer in traditional society a lower status. This has greatly contributed to low female literacy rates, early marriage, high fertility, high infant mortality, high maternal mortality and declining sex ratio. In rural areas females are usually discriminated from the birth as in a traditional family a boy is preferred. Malnourishment of a girl child is another glaring instance of female negligence. Lack of health-care and proper nutrition are due to an extent of sex-specific discrimination. The neglect of female child may be due to economic and social factors such as dowry and bride price. Sex ratio is a good indicator of female status in society. Low sex ratio means lower status of women. The sex ratio - the number of women per 42 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
1,000 men in the country's population has been very low throughout the 20th century, reaching a level of 935 per 1000- 2001. Thus, it has developed the concept of "missing" women. It has also served to focus attention on certain basic social, economic and cultural dimensions in Indian society, which perpetuate and perhaps even deepen the discrimination against women (K. Nagraj: 1991). This decline in the sex ratio is a matter of concern. The socio-economic discrimination against women in society is to be highlighted systematically if we analyze the demography of a particular society.
2.4.2. Demographic Profile of Assam with special reference to Gender
North East India comprises Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, Maghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura. With a geographical area of 78,438 sq.kms, Assam accounts for about 2.4 percent of the country's total geographical area. Major portion of the population of the state lives in the lush and verdant valleys of its two major river systems in the twenty-two districts of the Brahmaputra valley and the three districts of Barak valley. Less densely populated are the two hill districts of Karbi Anglong and North Cachar hills, set in the low-lying hills that separate the two valleys. For administrative and revenue purposes, the state has 27 districts including the newly Kamrup urban district and four districts under the newly created Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) areas viz. Kokrajhar, Baksa, Chirang and Udalguri (Economic Survey; Assam 2004-05).
According to the census of India, 2001 the population of Assam stands at 2,66,55,528 of which 1,37,77,037 are males and 1,28,78,491 females which is shown in Table No. 1. The sex ratio of state's population like the country's population, defined as the number of per 1,000 males, has always been adverse to females. The sex ratio of
43 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Assam is below than the all India ratio during 1901 to 200 lexcept 2001. The literacy rate of Assam as per census 2001 comes to 64.28 percent with 71.93 percent for males and 56.03 percent for females. It also indicates gender bias. Almost half of our women-folk are illiterate which also indicates the lower status of women.
The literacy rate of Assam which has been shown in Table No. 2 & 3 as per 2001 census is 64.28 percent which is also below the country's literacy rate though female's rate of literacy of Assam is slightly above the country's female's literacy rate. Assam ranks 14th in size of population among the states of India as per 2001 census, but the state ranks 18th in sex ratio and 24th in rate of literacy among the states of India.
The data obtained from the Sample Registration Bulletin published by the Registrar General of India depicts some idea about the trend in the birth and death rates and infant mortality rate in the state. Accordingly, in most of the years 1991 to 2002 birth rates, death rates and infant mortality rates were found to be higher in the state than that of the country as a whole although there is a trend of gradual declination. During the year 2006, the birth rates, death rates and infant mortality rates of Assam have been 24.6, 8.7 and 67 per mille as against 23.5, 7.5 and 57 per mille respectively at all India level. The Table No. 4 shows the birth, death and infant mortality rates of Assam and India from 1991-2006.
44 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Table- 1
Assam: Demography and gender.
Item Unit 1971 1981 1991 2001 Urban Population: Lakh 13.27 20.47 24.88 33.88 Total Male Lakh 7.59 11.58 13.54 18.04 - Female Lakh 5.68 8.89 11.34 15.84 Sex ratio Female /1 OOOmales 749 768 837 878 I Urbanization Percentage 8.87 10.29 11.10 12.90 I
Birth rate Per 1000 persons* 31.0 24.50 23.60 1 15.5** Death rate Per 1000 persons* 9.5 7.20 6.70 6.6** Rural Population: Lakh 1136.31 178.50 199.27 232.48 I Total -- Male Lakh 71.26 93.10 103.04 119.83 Female Lakh '65.04 85.40 96.22 112.65 Sex ratio Female I 1 OOOmales 912 917 933 940
Rural I Percentage 1 91.13 89.71 88.90 87.10 Population I - Birth rate Per 1000 persons* 39.3 35.60 30.40 27.8** Death rate Per 1000 persons* 18.7 12.50 10.70 9.8** Total Area 000 Sq.km. 99.61 78.44 78.44 78.44 (Assam)
Population: 1 Lakh 1 149.58 198.97 224.14 266.38 Total I "------Male Lakh 78.85 104.67 116.58 137.87 Female Lakh 70.72 94.29 107.56 128.50 Sex ratio Females I 1 OOOmales 896 900 922 935 Birth rate Per 1000 persons* 38.5 34.70 29.50 26.8** Death rate Per 1000 persons* 17.8 12.10 10.20 9.5** 1. Source: CIME, 1997. 2. Statistical Handbook Assam: 2002 *3. Basic Statistics NER: 92 **4. Economic Survey, Assam: 2004-05
45 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Table No.-2 Population of Assam and India
1991 Census 2001 Census Particulars Unit Assam India Assam India 1. Population Lakh 224 8463 266 10270 2. Sex- Ratio Females per 1000 923 927 932 933-1 males I _j 3. Literacy Percent 52.89 52.21 64.28 65.381 I -- I4.Urban Percent 11.10 26.13 12.90 27.28 1 ~population I 5.Rural Percent 88.90 73.87 I 87.10 72.22
J Population 1 I ___ __j L_ I -- Source: Economic Survey, Assam, 2004-05
In the Table No. 2 a comparative study of population of Assam and India has been depicted depending on the Census data of 1991 and 2001. The total population of Assam in 1991 was 224 lakhs (22.4 M) while the total population is India was 8463 lakhs .. (84.63 M). In 2001 the population of Assam has been increased to 266 lakhs (26.6 M) and population of India has been increased to 10270 lakhs (102.70 M) i.e. population of Assam during the last decade (1991 - 2001) has been increased by 18.92% whereas at the national level the population has been increased by 2 1.34%. Sex ratio of Assam was 923 in 1991 and with a little increase in 2001 were 932. The sex ratio at the all India level was 927 in 1991 and has been increased to 933 in 2001 Census. The literacy rate of Assam was a little high than the national literacy rate according to 1991 Census but in 2001 the national literacy rate has been increased to 65.38 while the literacy rate of Assam lies below at 64.28%. In Table No.3 it has also been shown that the rural-urban distribution of population in both the state and national level was unequal. 46 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Table No.3 Progress of Literacy: (Assam) Literate Population
Population (Lakh) % of population
1971 1981 1991 2001 1971 1981 1991 2001
I Urban: 7.79 X 16.98 25.91 67.02 X 79.39 85.76 Total
Male 4.90 X 9.91 14.51 72.57 X 84.37189.88
/Female 7.06 11.40 59.35 X 73.32 I 81.02l 2.89 ~X I Rural: ! 35.17 X 178.19 117.37 31.26 X 49.32 60.90 1 Total
24.43 X 48.36 68.74 X 58.66 69.02 ~ 41.10 1 Female I X 29.82 I 48~0.23 X 39.19 52.2::J ._____ 1104 1 Total: I , ----+ 142.96 X 95.16 143.28 34.60 X 52.89 ' 64.28 (Assam) -- Male 29.33 X 58.28 83.24 44.31 X 61.87 71.93
Female 13.63 X 36.89 60.03 23.52 X 43.03 56.03 __j '------
Source: 1. Data of 1971, 1991 CIME, 1997: 2. Data of 2001; Basic Statistics of NER, 2002. In 1981 census was not held in Assam and hence literate population & rate of literacy could not be worked out.
47 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Table No.-4
Birth, Death and Infant Mortality Rates of Assam and India (Per Mille)
Infant Mortality Birth Rate Death Rate Year Rate Assam India Assam India Assam India
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ~------~------4------+------+------~------r------. 1991 30.9 29.5 11.5 9.8 81 80 __I 1997 28.2 27.2 9.9 8.9 76 80
1998 27.9 26.5 10.0 9.0 1 76 72
1999 27.0 26.1* 9.7 8.7* 1 76 10 r---2-00_0_-+-----26-.-9-+---2-5-.8--t--9-.6-.--+---~--- 75 68 1------+----·----+-- 2001 26.8 25.4 9.5 8.4 73 I 66 l
2002 26.6 25.0 9.2 8.1 f------1------70~~ 2003 26.3 24.4 9.1 8.0 67 60 ~------r------~------~------~------+------+------2004 25.1 24.1 8.8 7.5 66 58
2005 25.0 23.8 8.7 7.6 68 58
2006 24.6 23.5 8.7 7.5 67 57 ~=-~~~~~~-~------~~~~---L-----~~--~-~------* Excludes data for Jammu and Kashm1r and Nagaland (Rural)
Source: Sample Registration Bulletin, R.G.I. New Delhi as quoted in Economic Survey Assam, 2007-08. Table No. 4 shows differences between some of the important population statistics, (such as birth rate, death rate and infant mortality rate) of India and Assam since 1991. It can be seen from the table that all the indicators of population statistics are higher in Assam than the all India level. The birth rate of Assam in 1 991 was 30.9 as compared to 29.5 of all India level. Through out all the years from 1991
48 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
to 2006 the birth rate of Assam was higher than the birth rate of India. It indicates that the people of Assam are less conscious about the family planning or there are some other reasons such as religious, lack of education etc. behind this difference between the national level birth rate and state level birth rate. The highest gap is calculated in the year 2003, which is from the table we also draw the same conclusion about death rate and also infant mortality rate of the state and the national level. The causes behind these differences are divergent. Lack of medical facilities, health programme for children, number of PHE are very low in the state. In the 1991 the death rate of Assam is 11.5 and it has come down to 8.7 i.e. only 2.8 percent in 15 years. According to 2006 economic survey of Assam the infant mortality rate is 67 whereas it is 57 at the all India level. Though infant mortality rate has been declined from 81 in the year 1991 to 67 in 2006 the rate is very high.
2.4.3. Economic Dimension
Apart from this, marginalization of women and Feminization of Poverty are the Central issues of women-related issues. This arises from the increasing proportion of women among the poor due to several factors. These factors are insecured land tenure, poor access to basic social needs like health and education and effects of various forms of discrimination against females. World Bank study entitled Gender and poverty in India ( 1991) documented the significant role of females in Indian Economy. It had to focus the close relationship between Gender and Poverty. Female labour force participation and their relative contribution to total family income are higher in house holds with lower economic status. The poorer the family, the more it depends on the earnings of its female members. Thus the economic productivity females are critical to households, which live below the poverty line. World Bank advocated for the creation of employment opportunities for
49 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
poor women and to increase the productivity of female workers particularly in the primary sector.
It also focused on the health nutrition and education status of females and drew links between these and their economic situations. If we analyze the data on mortality, morbidity and nutritional status we will able to come to the conclusion that womenfolk of Assam have disadvantages at all stages of the life cycle. High female child mortality usually reflects a cultural preference for male child. The consequent lower literacy among women is both an outcome of their disadvantage and major contributor to its perpetuation. Preference for male child, higher female child mortality, lack of access to appropriate health care, low social and economic status, lack of access to schooling and low level of literacy, all contribute to the continuing high reproductive rates of our females.
Improving females work productivity is an essential element of any strategy to reduce their poverty.. Changed perception of female economic value will change resource allocation in the families. Increasing female capacities to learn and earn will have a significant impact on family status and well being. Great investment to female literacy and skill development and health and right to reproductive needs will enable them to improve their productivity their poverty level. In this context the observation of Assam Human Development Report, 2003 is noteworthy regarding the position of women in Assam's society.
Assam Human Development Report- 2003 has rightly observed: "Through the ages, women have played an extremely important role in Assamese society. History is replete with tales of courage and of extraordinary achievement. Martyrs such as Kanaklata were at the forefront of the struggle for independence. In today's world, women
50 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
have attained levels of emmence and distinction, as educationists, doctors and technologists, contributing to the growth of the state, and to the strength and uniqueness of its social fabric. Contributing at work and at home women their status and their role -hold the key to the advancement of the state, its people and the economy.
There is, however, an uncomfortable incongruity. For women even today, asymmetry and inequity are unfortunately a fact of life. Despite their contribution, they continue to be severely disadvantaged, and even discriminated against. In most fields of professional endeavour, women have had to struggle to reach the top. In the process combating indifference, occasionally even obstruction and hostility. At the other end of the economic scale, women are deprived access to basic services, and relegated to subservient yet physically demanding roles. In this context the position of women in Assam is no different from that of women in other regions of the country. In fact, m some respects, women in Assam are even more disadvantaged."
Though women's participation in economic activity is significant yet it is a fact that the womenfolk cannot easily control the income. It is said that women's labour burden has increased under the changed economic scenario yet it is equal true that this is not reflected in their share of the income. Women also get lower wages corresponding work by men. Much of women's labour is non waged since it categorized as household labour , even when it is for market consumption and as a result of which women's share of work is larger in most of the societies yet their share of income is lower. (AHDR: 2003)
Desai and Thakkar have rightly observed that the complexity of the issue of women's work is such that even the census data does not capture the accurate rate of women's work participation (Desai and Thakkar: 2001). Though we cannot come to conclusion regarding the
51 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
rate of women's accurate work participation with the help of census data yet we cannot summarily reject the data as these data may show some light on women's socio-economic status. Apart from this it can also indicate relating to the enhancement rate and decline rate of work participation, which will ultimately contribute to highlight the employment scenario of womenfolk. An analysis relating to women's work in Assam from a feminist perspective shows that invisibility of women is a reality. As work is defined in terms of activities perform for pay or profit so many activities that remain outside the domain of work for which women's work remains uncounted and unreflected in the Census (Ibid: 2001) at least prior to the 1991 Census. Methodological changes took place from the 1991 Census and the socially productive role of women and their contribution to the economy has been given a degree of formal recognition in the official data system. In Assam, as in other states, the impact of this change certainly raised the contribution of women to economic activity. As a result, in the state of Assam, the Female Work Participation Rate (FWPR) rose from 4.66 percent (1971 Census) to 21.61 percent recorded by the 1991 Census though it is noted that FWPR in Assam included both main and marginal workers (AHDR - 2003). But the Female Work Participation Rate as per 2001 Census is 20.80, which is less than 1991 Census. Rural Female Work Participation Rate has also decreased from 23.27 (Census 1991) to 22.28 though FWPR in Urban Assam has been enhanced from 7.52 (1991 Census) to 10.29, which has been shown in Table No. 5. If we analyze the main and marginal workers as per 2001 Census, which has been shown in Table No. 6 it is found that much fewer women were employed formally in the agricultural sector than man. In 2001, 9.68 percent of women were classified as main workers while 42.35 of men where classified as main workers. Only 7.58 percent of men worked in a marginal capacity (both rural and urban), while 11.12 percent women 52 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
worked as marginal workers, which has implications for the respective Income shares and the control over resources within the family (Ibid: 2003)
It is also worthwhile to mention here that "gender disaggregated data on the rural-urban distribution of main workers confirms that most women work in the agricultural sector on family farms and for no wages and a majority of women workers in the rural sector (51 percent) work on their own land - land that belongs to their family, to which the won1en are unlikely to have title or rights. They receive no wages for this work but contribute to the family income. Marketing of produce is mostly in the hands of men, and rarely do women have access to the income earned. Amongst some communities, and in some areas, women do play an important role in marketing. Even in these cases, the income received is pre-empted for household expenses, and the common pool, and is not available for asset building by the women, or for their own needs." (AHDR- 2003}
It is interesting to note here that though a large proportion of women are engaged in agricultural activities, agriculture is perceived as a male activity. In fact, ADHR - 2003 has rightly observed that traditionally men are the owners of land though as per laws women have the right to own and inherit property. But practice, women rarely do inherit land. Social taboos against women during certain agricultural tasks like ploughing bar women from farming on their own, even if they posses land. Patrilocal marriage systems make impractical women's inheritance or management of such inherited landed property. Without possession of land women cannot get credit from banks. Most government programmes related to agriculture such as extension services and special training are directed at men. Women's presence in the workforce has been recognized in the official data system, yet they
53 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
are still deprived of the economic rewards of participation and this is largely attributable to traditional customs and attitudes. (ADHR- 2003)
Table No.5 Work Participation Rate: Assam Work Participation Rate (Percentage)
2001 1991
Total : Persons 35.88 36.09
Female 20.80 21.61
Male 49.93 49.46
I Rural: Persons 36.46 36.73 ' 22.28 23.27 ~emWe __ e 49.77 49.31
1 Urban:Persons 10.29 7.52 I --· Urban· Person I 31. 30.92 ______s __ __J ______9_8______+------Male / 51.03 50.52 I Source: Assam Human Development Report, 2003
Table No. 5 depicts the work participation rate of Male and Female in rural and urban areas of Assam in the year 2001 and 1991. In 2001, work participation rate has been declined to 35.88. As per 1991 Census work participation rate of Assam was 36.09. Number of Female workers has come down to 20.80 from 21.61 whereas number of Male workers has increased from 49.46 in 1991 to 49.93 in 2001. If we classify total number of workers in rural and urban workers from the table it has been found that Female workers participation rate in the urban areas has been increased from 7.52 in 1991 to 10.29 in 2001 whereas in rural areas female workers participation rate has been declined from 23.27 in 1991 (as it is in 1991) to 22.28 in 2001. 54 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Table No.6 Main Workers & Marginal Worker: Assam as per 2001 Census (Percentagewise)
Main Workers Marginal Workers
Total: Persons 26.59 9.29
Female 9.68 11.12 I
Male 42.35 7.58 II I Rural: Persons 26.15 10.30 I
Female 9.86 12.42
---~· " -- 41.46 8.31 1--- i -·--. §f~------Urban: Persons 29.62 2.36 I tFemale- 8.40 1.89 I I 2.77 1 Male I 48.26 j Source: Assam Human Development Report, 2003
Classification of workers on the basis of Main and Marginal in the year 2001 has been shown in Table No. 6. In the year 2001 total number of main workers in Assam were 26.59 percent and total number of marginal workers were 9.29 percent. Among them only 9.68 percent were female workers working as main workers and 11.12 percent as marginal workers whereas percentage of male main workers were 42.35 percent. If shows the gap between male and female main workers are very high in the State and we can easily conclude from the above data that until and unless women work participation rate becomes higher they will not be able to economically empowered. In fact, in both the rural and urban areas the gender wise participation rate is very low.
55 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
2.4.4. Women Employment in Organized Sector
In the 1990s the employment of women in the organized sector as a proportion of total organized sector employment was around 30 percent and the employment of women in organized sector of the State during the same period revolved round 301.2 thousand to 350.0 thousand as has been shown in Table No.7 and Table No.8. But the employment of women in organized sector of Assam was 380.7 thousand during 2006 accounting for 34.0 percent of the total employment. In the public sector, women constitute a little less than about 15 percent of the employee workforce which includes women workers in the State and Central Government service, in Quasi Government employ, and in establishments in the private sector (AHDR - 2003) which has been shown in Table No.9 and in the Figure No. L
56 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Table No.7 Total and Women Employment in Organized Sector in Assam (in thousand Nos.) till 2006
2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999
~ 519.7 524.5 525.1 528.o 530.4 525.9 535.11534.0 I
r----t----·-+----+---·-1-----+-----+------+----- _ _j
J I 81.8 81.5 77.3 77.4 77.4 75.4 I 78.9 75.8 I ...... (.)
I ~ ~ 1_4-37_._9-1--4-4-3--tl-447.8 I 450.6 I 453.0 I 450.5 456.2 458.2 -~
I l~ -+--~r=r' ------··-f----~ 599.7 605.2 572.0 551.1 553.7 605.0 575.8 547.4
I ~ I 299.0 I 268.4 255.6 I 241.1 244.5 I 286.6 I 214.2 278.6
~-~---+-----+------1------f----_l--·-----+--·------t-----1
I ~ 3oo.7 336.8 316.4 310.o 309.2 318.4 301.6 268.8
r----+--+----+----~~----+------+------r------+------+-----~
1119.4 1140.0 1097.2 1079.1 1081.1 1131.0 lll0.9jl08L4
380.7 350.0 332.9 318.5 321.9 362.0 353.1 354.4
738.7 790.0 764.3 760.6 762.2 769.0 757.8 727.4
Source: 1. Economic Survey, Assam: 2005-06 2. Economic Survey, Assam: 2007-08 57 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Table No.8 Women's Employment in Organized sector in Assam (In thousand nos.) & Percentage
Public sector Private Sector Pub. & Pri. Sector Percentage share in Year Organized Women Total Women Total Women Total sector
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 --· 1993 67.0 521.3 234.3 529.3 301.2 1050.7 28.7 ------~----+------~------~------+-----~------1994 69.0 526.4 301.5 636.3 370.5 1162.7 31.9
I 1995 71.4 536.0 256.4 576.8 327.8 1112.8 29.4
11996 72.9 540.0 303.7 647.7 376.6 1187.7 31.7 L ---- t--·------I 1997 70.9 I 531.7 256.9 573.6 327.5 1105.3 29.6 I 1998 N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. ~
1999 75.8 534.0 278.6 I t-----r------t-- _5__ 354A_ 1 1081.4 32.7 __j ·------4_7.~ 1 1-;ooo 78.9 535.1 I 274.2 353.1 __ ! ~---· + -~:5.8 I ~-1110.9 +---~1.8 I 2001 ' 75.4 525.9 ~ 286.6 6o5.o · 362.o I 113Lo . ~ 2002 77.4 530.4 244.5 553.7 321.9 1084.1 29.7 I 1--~------r---·-··-r------· 2003 77.4 528.0 244.1 551.1 318.5 1079.2 30.0_~
2004 77.3 525.1 I 255.6 572.0 332.9 1097.2 30.0 I ------j------+----+------+------;------,- . ------i 2005 I 81.5 524.5 268.4 605 350.0 1:_14o.ot _3o~7 ____ ~
2oo6 81.8 519.7 299.o 599.7 38o.7 j1119.4 I 34.o 1 Source: 1. Economic Survey, Assam: 2005-06 2. Economic Survey, Assam: 2007-08
Table No.7 depicts the poor percentage of women employment in Assam. It shows the employment percentage of women in organized sector of Assam since the year 1999 to 2006. The percentage of women employment in organized sector in the 1999 is 32.7, which has been declined to 31.8 in 2000 and again it was declined to 29.7 in 2002 and 58 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
then increased to 34.0 in the year 2006. Organized sector is divided into public sector and private sector. It is clear that the percentage of women employment in public sector is very low in Assam. In the year 1999 employment percentage of women in public sector is only 14.19 percent and it has been increased to 15.73 in the year 2006 and the increment of 1.54 percent during seven years is not at all a significant change.
2.4.5. Distribution of Assam Govt. Employees
As per the latest data available from the Assam Govt. Employees Census, the number of employees stood at 3.26 lakh as on 31st March 1999 as against 3.04 lakh as on 31st March 1994. Thus the number of employees has recorded an increase of 7.24 percent during the period from 01-04-1994 to 31-03-1999. The Table No.9 shows the distribution of Govt. employees according to the status/ caste/tribes and sex as per Employees Census, 1999.
Table No.-9 Assam Govt. Employees according to the status/caste/tribes and sex as per Employees Census, 1999
ST (H) ST (P) OBC " Others ToT :-1 0 0
Class-! 433 so 118 34 585 68 1490 200 4995 490 7621 842
Class-!I 458 44 74 21 512 61 2049 300 5026 680 8119 1106
c~~~u 12069 2516 3872 1674 21373 4851 61666 16142 100768 25127 199748 50310
Class-IV 5932 718 1729 142 5310 365 16175 1148 24921 1875 5406 4258
Total 18892 3328 5733 1871 27780 5345 81380 17800 135710 28172 269555 56516 L-----~ ____J_ ____ L_~~----J_ ____~ ____l_ ____ ~ ____J_ ____ ~ ______L_ ____ ~------Source: Econom1c Survey, Assam: 2005-06, 2007-08.
59 Chapte:r-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
The Table No. 9 also depicts the percentage of employment both male and female on the basis of status (Grade) caste, Tribes in the year 1999. At first we like to analyze the status of female workers in Class-I category. Number of total female employees in Class-I category is 842 of which 50 female workers are from SC, 34 from ST(H), 68 from ST(P), 200 from OBC and 490 from others which include General caste too. As compared to women employees the number of male employees are rnuch more higher in all the cares. In Class-II category it is shown that the total number of female Government employees is 1106 and number of male employees is 8119. The percentage of women employees is simply dismal as it is only 11.98%. In the other two categories i.e. Class-III and the position participation rate of Female employees show the same picture. Thus it is seen that female employees accounted only about 17% of the total employees in the year 1999.
As per the Assam Government Employees Census, the proportion of different categories of employees by status as on 31st March 1999 were, Grade I - 2.5 percent, Grade II - 2.8 percent, Grade III - 76.7 percent and Grade IV- 17.9 percent. It is noted here that the female employees accounted for about 17 percent of the total employees, as on above-mentioned date and Table No.lO and Table No.ll show the distribution along with percentage of women employees.
60 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Table No. - 10 Distribution of Assam Government Employees and the percentage of Women employees - 1999
Percentage of Category Total Women Women employees.
Class- I I 8463 842 9.95
Class- II 9225 1106 11.99 1 Class- III 250058 50310 20.12 I
Class- VI 58325 4258 7.30 -- Total 3,26,071 56516 17.33 I -- Source: Statistical Handbook and Economic Survey, Govt. of Assam (2004 & 2005).
From Table No.lO it is found that in 1999 there were 3.26 lakh State Government employees in the aggregate women formed 17.33 percent of the employees and most of these women employees were in class III level jobs Secretarial Jobs in Government Offices and teachers in provincialised schools. Figure No. 2 has also been shown in support of our analysis relating to women's lower proportion in Government Employment in the State of Assam.
61 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Table No. 11 Organized Sector Employment, Assam, 1999 Number of Employment Employment Total establishments of men of women employment Central 300 76,411 4,863 81,274 Government
State 3,601 257,768 49,445 I 307,213 Government
~iCentral 993 66,324 10,020 76,344 j Government ~~--~----~--~~------Quasi State I 1
G~~-e_rn_~~_en_t__ '----~--4-9_5_____ ! 46,949 II 9066 56,015
Local Bodies ~09_i_ 10,688 _ 2,451 13,139
Total public --~.-~ 498 458 140 75,845 533,985 Sector ' ' f------l------l------1------f------
. ~~~lishments L~83-~~---2--6_o__ '_8_3_9--t---2--7-7_,5_9 __ o_ --+---5-3_8_,4-2-9---1
Small 625 8 007 1,010 9,017 Establishments ' f------+------i------+------1------Total Private 1,708 268,846 278,600 547,446 1 Sector
,__ T_E __~--~_;_o_y_m __ e_n_t ____ ~---7-,_20_6____ _L __ 7_2_6_,9_8_6 ___ ~1 __3_5_4_,_44_5_~I_- __1_-~~~j
Source: Assam Human Development Report, 2003
62 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Figure No.I
Bar Diagram of Women's Share in Organized Sector Employment(%) in Assam
All employment Total Private Sector Total Public Sector Small establishment Large Establishment Local Bodies Quasi State Govt Quasi Central Govt State Govt. Central Govt.
0 100000 200000 300000 400000
Source: Assam Human Development Report, 2003
63 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Figure No.2 Bar Diagram of Women in Government Employment (%) in the State of Assam
25 ~------. 20 I
10+-~~---~~~~~~-~~~~~~~ ~ ~~ 5-r-~~~~-~~~~~.~~~~~--~~~~~-~~~~r-1 I 0 +-~~~~--=~~-r,--~~--~~~~_,--~~~4II t l Class - I Class - II Class - Ill Class - VI Total
Source: Assam Human Development Report, 2003
2.4.4. Social Dimensio.n
The NFS-2, conducted during 1998-1999, also revealed some other interesting and important data about the condition of women and children of Assam. The NFHS-2 has prepared a report that 27% of women are under nourished. Nutritional deficiency is particularly serious for illiterate women and women living in household with a low standard of living. Women who are under-nourished are likely to have children who are also under-nourished. Overall, 70 percent of women in Assam have some degree of aneamia, the highest in the country. The
64 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT effect of all 1s 36 percent of children under 3 are under-weight, 50 percent is stunted and 13 percent are wasted. NFHS-2 has also revealed that poor nutrition is a serious problem in Assam.
NFHS-2 also admits that if women in Assam are not using family planning, it is not due to lack of knowledge about contraception. About 98 percent of currently married women do know at least one modern family planning method but in spite of this only 43 percent of women use contraceptive methods. This low use of contraceptive methods is indicative of poor service delivery by family planning workers. Another factor is low exposure of women in the mass media. During the three years preceding the NFHS-2, only 18 percent of births in Assam, were delivered in a medical facility. Exposure to mass media is also low in Assam. Two-thirds of all women in Assam have not heard of AIDs. Awareness about the fatal disease is particularly low among women in areas, particularly those with low standard of living, Muslim Women, illiterate women and women not exposed to the media. Slightly more than half of currently married women report some types of reproductive health problems.
The life style indicators collated by the report (NFHS-2) says that 32 percent of men and 3 percent of women smoke, 28 percent men and 11 percent of women drink alcohol and 48 percent of men and 25 percent of women chew tobacco. All these indicators, except smoking among women, are higher than the national average. As per NFHS-2 report there is widespread acceptance of domestic violence with two thirds of women accept at least one of the six reasons as a justification for a husband beating his wife. This is of course, an interesting finding. One out of every six married women has experienced beatings or physical mistreatment since age 15 and most women have been beaten or physically mistreated by their husbands.
65 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
The incidence of cnme and violence against women has registered a sharp upward trend in almost all the states together with the country as a whole. That is, women are not at all safe both at work place and at home. Unfortunately, Assam, which had been a relatively safer for women in the not-too-distant past, has also witnessed a spurt in violence against women in the last one-decade or so. According to the latest survey conducted by the National Women's Commission (NWC), the state has recorded an alarming 36 percent increase in crime against women. While cases of kidnapping, molestation and rape have swelled, the number of women affected by dowry and domestic violence has also raised, something that was thought to be alien to the Assamese social ethose until recently. Though statistics does not speak always true, nevertheless we can sketch a picture with the help of these statistics. From the year 2000 to June 2005, 24,942 cases of crime against women (CAW) were registered by the Police in Assam. Crime includes molestation, kidnapping, and rape cruelty by husband and dowry deaths, which are shown in Table No.12.
66 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Table No. 12 Crimes against women in Assam (2000-June 2005):
Cruelty Dowry Year Molestation Kidnapping Rape by Total death Husband
~ 2005* 338 535 613 1089 35 2590
758 1238 1036 1843 74 4949 -- l~ 2003 772 1271 1049 1737 60 4889 I 2002 984 1278 903 1694 70 4927
2001 I 850 1070 785 I 1248 I 59 4o12 I ' I -- 2000 777 1101 669 978 50 15I 3575 I I I I *upto June 2005. Source: Assam tribune: Oct 2/2005
Table No.l2 depicts the crime against women in Assam during 2000 June-June 2005. Crimes, which include rnolestation, kidnapping, rape, cruelty by husband and dowry death. The highest number of cases of molestation have taken place in the year 2002. The highest number of kidnapping cases were registered in the year 2002 too. Rape cases were the highest in the year 2003 and cruelty by husband and dowry death were the highest in the year 2004. In the table number 12 it is shown that in the year 2005 the number of crimes against women has declined to a large extent but from the Table No.l3 it is found that these numbers have increased at the end of the year 2005 and 2006.
The figures available with the state Central Investigation Department (CID) for last five years indicate that women in the state continue to face violence within their houses as well as outside which is shown in Table No.l3. 67 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Table No. 13 Crime Against women in the State of Assam
Cruelty Year Rape Kidnapping by Others Total husband
2005 1217 1456 2206 1159 6038
2006 1203 1150 2378 1141 5872 Source: (Assam Tribune: 9th April/2007)
A senior police official talking to the Assam Tribune pointed out that one of the main reasons for increasing alarmingly the number of crimes against women is the growing presence of consumerism in the state making the lives people more money oriented. The official also added that women unemployment is another driving forces behind such menaces. (Assam Tribune 9th April 2007). According to Mridula Saharia, Chairperson of Assam State Commission for Women the ongmng Insurgency and other political problems complicating the prevailing situation 1n many parts of North-Eastern States has intensified the violence faced by Women. Probably she has rightly observed in the following manner:
"Although all the members of communities are affected by the armed conflict, the impact on women girls greater because their status in society and their sex" (Mridula Saharia: 2007). Thus more active role of legal bodies against violence against women is the utmost necessity as Assam is one of the five states having highest crime rates in 2004 as compared to earlier years are shown in Table No.14.
68 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Table No. 14 States having Highest Crime Rates in the Country: Percentage
States/UT 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
All-India 14.1 14.0 14.1 13.2 14.2
Delhi 17.3 22.1 16.6 15.4 24.1 -1 Andhrapradesh 18.9 21.8 24.5 23.6 24.0 ~ Madhyapradesh ~ 22.3 24.1_~__ .6_-+-_23_._0_-t---_ 23.5 I
Rajasthan +-~~-t--=-1.6~~.7 19.9 21.7 I Assam / 14.2 _ 15.9 / 18.7 ~--19.2 _I 20.2 J Source: 'Yojona': Oct/2006
The Table No. 14 has been shown the crime rate of some of the Indian states during the years 2000 - 2004. In the year 2000 the average crime rate India was 14. L But it is seen that the crime rate varies so far as different states are concerned. In Delhi the crime rate was as high as 17 in the year 2000 and it was raised to 14.1% in the year 2004 when the all-India average was only 14.2 in the year 2004. In the year 2004 the highest criminal incidents took place in Rajasthan (24) and the lowest in Assam (14.2). But the rate was decreasing in Rajasthan during the years and in 2004 decreased to 21 . 7 whereas the rate was increasing Assam and it was 20.23 in the year 2004. In Delhi the highest crime took place in the year 2004 and again it was the lowest in Assam (20.2), Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh were in the second and third place.
Another disturbing situation relating to women folk in Assam is the issue of missing women. In fact, no civil society can ignore such situation when the number of missing females, both adult and children, are going high alarmingly.
69 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
According to data, prepared by Police Department 3,903 females went missing in the state between 2000 and 2004, which is shown in Table No. 15.
Table No. 15 Number of Missing Women in Assam: I 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004J
I t Missing female adults 442 459 210 270 347 I
~I I Missing female Children 547 528 382 369 349 I I I Traced female adults 235 60 78 I 275 ~59 I ------~ Traced female Children 298 259 69 125 118 ' I I ~Untraced female adults 207 184 I 151 210 269 I j Untraced female children 249 269 313 244 231 I I Source: The Assam Tribune, April 23/2006.
From the Table 15 we can draw a disturbing scenano of women population in state Assam from the year 2000 to 2004. A large number of women population was missing in the state and also most of them remain untraced. It is seen from the table that in the year 2000 total number of Missing female adults was 442 and female was .547 giving a total number of 989. In the year 2001 the total missing female adults and children were 987. In 2002 and 2003 the total number of missing female population were decreased to a small extent but again it was increased to 696 in 2004.
For the state the growing number of missing females has implications, which go beyond effects on family and friends. The trend could be perceived as a clear violation of human rights, if female children fall victims to trafficking. Similar is the case if adult females are compelled or induced to enter into prostitution. (Assam Tribune: 23 April 06). Human trafficking is turning out to be major problem for 70 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT Assam and according to records available, more than 7000 females and female children were reported missing from different parts of the state in the last 10 years, of which 3184 were adult females and 3840 were female children. The problem is so acute that the Assam police organized a seminar cum workshop on the issue in collaboration with the Bureau of Police Research and Development in 2006. The findings of the Seminar was that the North East region became more vulnerable to trafficking as it shares international boundary with Bhutan, China, Myanmar and Bangladesh, which resulted in easy operations in human trafficking. The report prepared in the Seminar also adds that free flow of narcotics, persistent armed and ethnic conflict, stagnating economy etc. are also contributing factors for the growth human trafficking in the region. It is a matter of great concern that the traffickers carried out drives to "recruit" women from Kokrajhar relief camps where nearly two lakhs people used to live as internally displaced people without proper shelter and food. The State Police indicate that on an average, three or four hundred females and about same number of female children are reported missing from different parts of Assam. It is certainly a gloomy picture so far as social status of womenfolk of Assam is concerned.
As mentioned earlier, the disadvantageous position that the women in Assam find themselves is reflected in the gender-related equality and development indexes. It is important to remember here that gender inequality often lies at the root of atrocity and violence on women. These gender indexes reveal areas of concern like adverse sex ratio, low female life expectancy rates, high fertility rates, literacy, etc. where women are left prejudicial position compared not only to men, but to their counterparts in most other states of the country as well. Even today, women's access to health care, education, employment and political process continue to be alarmingly low in the state. The failure to bring down fertility rates and infant and material mortality rates in 71 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
spite of incurring huge expenditures on family welfare and population control measures is attributable, to a great extent, to the low female literacy rate and the low level of women education. In the Gender Equality Index, Assam is ranked a miserable 29th among 32 states and Union Territories. The precarious position that our women are confronted with should be evident from the fact that even among the seven North-Eastern states it is well behind Manipur, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Nagaland (Assam Tribune: 2006) which is shown in Table No.l6.
Table No. 16 Gender Disparity Indices in North East India: ·--, I ,______Year I ~/Country 1981 1991 -- al Pradesh 0.537 0.776 I
Assam 0.462 0.575 I
Manipur 0.802 0.815
Meghalaya 0.799 0.807
Mizoram 0.502 0.770
Nagaland 0.783 0.729 ·-----·------· Sikkim 0.643 0.647 I -- Tripura 0.422 0.531
India 0.620 0.676 Source: 1. National Human Development Report 2001. 2. Planning Commission Govt. of India Women In Assam enjoy a higher status as compared to the Greater Indian Society. Social evils like dowry, child marriage, bride burning etc. not at all deep-rooted in Assam's society though the society is not totally free from these evils. In fact, practices like dowry, 72 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
child marriage, and bride burning are rampant in most parts of India. Of late, dowry and bride burning are being practiced in the Assam's society. Along with this we can witness a derogatory practice of 'witch hunting' in the civil-society of Assam. In fact, more than 50 persons were killed in Assam in different incidents of witch hunting in the four years, which has proved that the incidents of witch hunting are increasing in the state, which is very disturbing phenomenon. According to records available with the CID of Assam Police, the number of incidents of witch hunting 1s increasing over the years, which has been shown Table No.l7.
Table No.17 Persons Killed in Assam because of derogatory practice of Witch Hunting ~------=---~------:1=====~N~_o-_.~o~~-P_e __ r_:_o_n~s~_K_i;_l_e~d---~~-
1 -~- :::: ---~~-----~---~--~~--:--~-~::_~_--_-~:_28~3~~~--~-~-~--~-~~-~------l
~ 2006 till Aug, 13 20 -- L_ Total 56 ------'-- Source: The Assam Tribune.
It is worthwhile to mention here that the Assam Police launched a 'Project Prahari' in 2001 to eradicate this derogatory practice of witch hunting from the society. But the increasing number of killings branding them as the witches has certainly proved that the govt. and other concerned agencies have miserably failed to eradicate this social evil and decrease from the civil society of Assam. Though the practice is prevailing in the interior parts of 'tribal' society yet the civil society must take the responsibility in connection with eradicating the social evil. 73 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
2.4.5. Political Participation of Women
The UN child agency's latest report (2006) on the "State of children" has remarked "Empowering women has positive impact on Communities."
Thus, the UN has suggested steps like providing quota for the fair sex in legislatures in order to eliminate gender discrimination. According to UN Report on "The state of children" Gender Equality gives 'double dividend', benefiting both women and children and is pivotal to the health and developments of families, communities and nations suggesting steps help attain gender equality, the report stressed on spending more on and creating conducive atmosphere for girls' education as also reserving quotas for them in legislative bodies to enable them to participate in political decision making.
In this respect, UNICEF's Executive Director Ann M. Veneman's observation note worthy who has observed thus: "If we care about the health and well-being of children today and into the future, we must work now to ensure that women and girls have equal opportunities to be educated, to participate in Government, to achieve self sufficiency and to be protected from violence and discrimination" (Assam Tribune 12Decj2006).
Though women of Assam have been playing major roles in the society, since the 1921 freedom movement till date, their role 1n decision-making has been nominal and insignificant. The Table Nos. 19 to 22 show the sample of the trend of increasing number of women voters in the several elections to the Legislative Assembly and gender bias in the proportion of women representatives to the Assam Legislative Assembly and the Lok Sabha.
74 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Table No. 18 Year wise Distribution of Electorate showing Male/Female and Total in Assembly Election in Assam from 1952-2003 P.C. of Years Total Voters Male Voters Women Voters women voters 1952 41,41,720 N.A. N.A. N.A.
1957 44,95,359 N.A. N.A. N.A. --- J 1962 49,42,816 27,20,916 22,12,900 44.77 I ~--1967 54,49,309 29,52,629 24,96,676 45.82 -- I 1972 + 62,96,198 I 33,93,829 29,02,363 46.10 ~---+--7-9-,6-2-,-6-45--4--4-2-,9-9-,-3-7-7-4---36-,-6-3-,2--68 46.00 j r-;;1983 86,82,138 N.A. N.A. N.A. 98,82,648 52,9970~~5,82,979 46.37 ~=1985----- 1 l 1991 1,18,92,170 63,71,265 1 55,20,905 46.42 I ---r------1996 I 1,21,19,12~~;:88,955 57,30,170 47.28 L I + ·-- 2001 1,44,39,167E0,492 I -~9,28,675 47.99 2003** I 1,45,92,788 75,90,272 I 70,02,516 47.99 (01-01-03) -- 2009* 1,74,94,302 90,46,541 84,50,761 48.31 - ---,-- -- 1. Source: Assam Tnbune, 17 March/2006 2. **Excluding Electors of Khumtai: LAC under Golaghat District; Source: Statistical Hand Book of Assam, 2004 3. *Hindu 27 March/2009.
In Table No. 18 we have shown the number of Male and Female voters in Assam from 1952 - 2009. It is seen from the table that during all these years the percentage of women voters was less than 50% but not below 45%. It is also seen that numbers of women voters during these years were in an increasing trend and it was 44.77% in 1962, and enhanced to 48.31% in 2009. So it can be said that participation of 75 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
women in political process was upward trend which contributed a lot to broaden political awareness.
Table No. 19 Turnout among women: Lok Sabha Elections. (Percent) (Assam, N.E. India) I rs_t_a_t_e;_c_o_u_n_t_ry~ __1_9_8_9-r_1_9_9_1-+-l-9_9_6~~1-9_9_8-+-l-9_9_9~--2-0_0_4-+-A--verage I
All India 57.3 50.6 53.4 57.9 55.6 1 53.5 54.7 Assam * 73.3 76.5 59.5 1 69.5 64.9 68~ L------~----~-----~------+------~----~-----+------1 Manipur 70.4 69.9 73.8 55.9 64.0 53.3 64.5 l -----"1I Meghalaya 49.7 49.6 61.0 74.9 53.3 52.0 ' 56.7 i
j Mizoram j 56.1 j I .9 69.2 63.1 61.5 63.4
IN agaland +75. 7 ! 78.2 +·-8_5_.5_---!i--4_3_.1--+_75__ ._3-+-_9_0_._3 -+--7 4_._7_---l-
1 ~;ea;t!'al I 56.0 ~ I 52.5 I 57.8 75.4 55.2 57.5 --=--~~~.;-r-~~-6 ~-7~7~.5=:~~=8=0=.5~:~==6~5=.1=:~=6=3~.5~=:=~7-_1-.7-----ll ISikkim 167.7 I 47.9 I 73.9 62.5 83.3 76.0 ___6_8.5 I *Election was not held in Assam in 1989. Source: CSDS, data unit, EPW, 18-24 Dec/04 Vol. XXXIX No. 5L
In Table No. 19 we have shown the percentage of turnout among women in the North-East India. It is found that though the literacy rate of women in Assam is low but the women-folk are much aware of their voting right as it is observed partiCipation of women in a large number in the Lok Shabha Elections during last few years. The National percentage of women voters is below 60 percent whereas in Assam it is always more than 60 percent barring 1998. In 1998 the percentage of women voters was 59.3 just a little below of 60 percent. Among the North-Eastern States Tripura showed the highest turnout of women voters in the Lok Shabha Elections during the years 1989 - 2004
76 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT including the year 1999 when women's turnout was highest in Sikim though womens' turnout among seven sisters states was Arunachal Pradesh. In Assam, the highest turnout was in the 1996 Lok Shabha Elections. Among the States of North-East Meghalaya is the State where the average turnout of women was the lowest. The highest average turnout of women in the Lok Shabha Election was in Nagaland, which was 74.7 percent. After average turnout of Naga women-folk Tripura and Assam's women occupied the position of second and third in respect of average voting turnout.
The Gender Bias:
A very slow improvement 1n the proportion of women representatives in Assam Legislative Assembly Election has proved Gender Bias. Table No. 20 Election to Assam Legislative Assembly (1952 to 2006) No. of Total No. of %to the women I __ j_ Year Seats Total ~I members j 1952 108 2 1.85 ------1--·------~------~Second 1957 108 5 4.60 Third 1962 105 4 3.80 I -- I Forth 1967 126 5 3.90 '--· -- Fifth 1972 114 8 7.00 Sixth 1978 126 1 0.79 I Seventh 1983 126 2 1.58 Eighth 1985 126 4 3.17 Ninth 1991 126 5 3.96 Tenth 1996 126 8 6.34 Eleventh 2001 126 10 7.93 Twelfth 2006 126 9 7.14 Source: Rao & Hazanka (1983) & various reports ofElect10n Deptts.
77 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
The Table No.20 depicts the dismal picture of women representative to the Legislative Assembly of Assam from 1952 - 2006. The first Assembly Election in Assam is held in the year 1952. The total number of constituencies is 108 and number of women members is only 2, the percentage being 1.85. In the second Assembly Election though the number of women members has been more than doubled as it has raised 5, yet the percentage is 4.60. In 1962 the number of seats decreased to 105 and number of women members are 4. In the fifth Assembly Election i.e. in 1972 the number of women members has raised to 8 being the percentage 7.00. But surprisingly, in the Assembly Election 1978, though the number of seats has been increased to 126 the number women members has come down to just 1 and the percentage being 0.79. In the table has been shown that in the Eleventh Election held in the year 2001, the number of women members were the highest as it raised to 10 and the percentage of women members to the totai number members is 7.93%. The last (12th) Assembly Election was held in the year 2006. The number of women members were 9 and the percentage is 7.14 which a little lower than the previous election.
78 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Table No. 21 Gender Advantage in connection with success rate to the Election of Assam Legislative Assembly (1952 to 2006)
Total Total of Male Women %of %of Year No. of Contest Winning Wining Seats ants Contested Elected Contested Elected 1952 108 458 452 106 23.45 6 2 33.~ 1957 108 312 302 103 34.00 10 5 50.~ I 1962 105 409 405 101 24.94 4 4 10o.oo I --1------__j 1967 126 487 478 121 25.31 9 5 55.56 I ---- ~ 1972 114 476 464 106 22.84 12 8 --~6~~j I 1978 126 I 938 918 125 1 I 13.61 20 1 5.oo --i -~--- - ~---~ 11983 126 - - - - - I ------: ;-~~ !I985 126 1153 1124 122 10.85 29 4 I 13.79 --- 1991 126 1657 1607 I 121 7.53 50 5 10.00 I ~-- -·-
I 1996 I 126 1228 1183 119 I 10.06 45 8 . 17.77l 1------i I 2001 126 1019 964 116 12.3 I 55 10 __ 18.~ 2006 126 992 924 115 12.45 68 9 1 -- ~ Source: Rao & Hazarika (1983) and various issues of the Assam Tnbune & Records of Election Deptts.
The Table No. 21 analyses the Gender advantage in connection with success rate with male counterpart in Assam during different elections to the Legislative Assembly of the State. In the first election held in the year 1952 after 5 years of Independence for total number of 108 seats. Total number of contestants was 458 being male contestant was 452 and got elected 106, and the success rate was 23.45%. On the other hand, the number of women contestants was 6 and elected 2 being the success rate of 33.33%, which was almost 10% higher than male contestants with respect to success rate.
79 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
It 1s to be pointed out that in the 3rd Assembly Election the number of women contestants was 4 and elected all the contestants 4 i.e. success rate was 100 percent. On the other hand, in this election out of 405 male contestants 10 1 got elected and the percentage was only 24.94. But in the following elections particularly since 1972 it is seen that though the number of women contestants has been enhanced to a small extent unfortunately they are not able to keep up their wining momentum and as a result of which percentage of success rate fell down although in comparison to male counterpart the success rate of women-folk was always better and higher than the success rate of male. In the 6th Assembly Election (1978), one woman representative was elected out 20 women contestants. The 12th Assembly Election was held in 2006 and out of 68 women contestants only 9 members were able to win their respective seats. Out of 924 male contestants 117 were elected. Thus it is seen from the table that the success rate of women-folk always higher than male counterpart barring the 6th Assembly Election, which was held in 1978.
Like the Assam Legislative Assembly the number of women representatives in successive Lok Sabhas from Assam has remained between 1 and 2 ever since the first general elections (see Table 22) though the success rate of women these elections too was always higher than the male counterpart. fact, the dismal presence of women in both the legislative bodies has not only failed to protect issues concerning women's rights but also failed to ensure more vigorously women's participation in the political arena of the State.
80 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Table No. 22 Number of women representatives to the Lok Sabha From Assam: 1952 to 2009
G> en t1l bl)en bl)en bllen ....,en ....,en- cu ....,.c c:l G> c:l G> cu cu.O ....= ...., G> .... ~ ...... , cu:s ...., cu ....,"d ...., t1S G> G> G> cu en'tl en'tl Cll ~ c:l rll~ rll en Year G> .... ~ .... .2 G> ...... ,.,G> ....,'tlcu -....,., -..a G> -..a -.!id cu c:l cu c:l cu 0 c:lc:t- c:t c:t J! c:l c:l a ...., 0 ....,_ 0 cu cu 0 cu a 0 0 t1S ...., 0 0 I 0 c:l oo:S oo&! I Eo-tOO ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Eo-! ....
~1952 38 2 40 1 9 10 --i--- - 1957 29 2 31 2 8 10
1962 38 3 41 2 10 12 --
1 1967 45 2 47 1 13 14 I ------t------11971 75 3 78 i 1 13 14 1 1977 37 3 2 12 14 r------40 ·--i -- L_1980 5 2 7 Nil --L----~- -~ 1985 1 1 106 Nil 14 1 14 I
1989 - - - Nil 14 14
1991 - - - Nil 14 14
1998 - - - Nil 14 14
I 1999 --- - - I 2 13 14 -----r------1------~- 2004 116 - - Nil 14 14
2009 - - - 2 2 14 *Two seats for Lok Sabha election were held only from Barak Valley in 1980.
Source: Election Department's Reports & The Assam Tribune (Various issues).
81 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
2.5. Gender Disparities in NE India
Preet Rastogi (2003) has shown systematically a wide range of gender indicators using state Wise and gender disaggregated data across Indian states. According to Rastogi these indicators cover demographic factors, women's health, education, econom1c participation, decision-making and security. Based on her analysis and supplemented by that of Kishor and Gupta (2004), Sumi Krishna selected II significant gender indicators relating to the analysis gender related study of North-Eastern States which has been shown Table No.23.
82 Table No.- 23 (") Selected Gender Disparity Indicators: Northeastern States 1:1' ------~"' (I) Table 12: Selected Gender Dispari\v Indicators: North Eastern States. ';t ty T ~ States I Demographic, Survival factors I Health Anaemia I Education I Rural Female work Private Decision Making Percent Crimes against women listed in , . . Partlclpabon ( 1 I I ---~--~--- ~-~ (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) . (F) (G) i (H) (I) (J) (K) poverty level) Freedom to ~ to the Freedom to de~ide 9 _ about own earnmgs rk 9 t 1998 1999 ma 1998-1999 Mizoram 19.5 971 932 12.8 35.2 4.6 31.7 44.0 73.2 642 26.4 r----- Manipur 7.1 I 21.7 I 18.2 I 30 8 25.3 43.3 286 59.0 I ~- Nagaland 9.7 27.8 1 99 ttt6 44.1 ' 69.4 17.3 17.8 Aru"""' ~.5 "' "' 11.9 ~.• "·' - --;,,, '" I --_7o_.o_-_-+--+------+------l-----468 46.4 148 Meghalaya 33.9 975 974 29.9 33.0 5.7 49.3 -~~---t- 78.9·--+-----r-----+-----~46.5 40.7 25 00 w Tripura 34.4 975 947 16.3 43.0 16.1 27.4 37.7 1------1-----+---+---t------tl---+l----j--1 12.8 I 7.3 I 51.2 Assam 36.1 964 926 26.5 43.2 15.9 15.1 65.1 13.2 40.0 r---~----~----~------+------+------+------+--1-5._9 __ ~-----l-----~------+------+------~ Sikkim 36.5 989 858 23.8 37.3 15.3 19.8 24.1 60.2 38.2 69.8
All india 26.1 927 934 16.7 35.0 24.5 32.8 29.9 516 31.6 41.1 __j______-L,._ ~ Notes: Figures in bold font indicate negative divergence, italics positives divergence from national average, except where indicated. 10 !Column A percent of population Below Poverty Level, Planning Commission, CSO, 2001. ~ Column B Child Sex ratio [no. of females per 1000 males in population below six years), calculated from Census of India, 2001. ~ ~old Font most unfavourable ratio among north-eastern states, italics indicates improved ratios over the previous decade. ~ ------4 t:l irolumn C Sex ratio in population above six years (No. of females per 1000 males), census of India 2001. ~ ~ olumn D and E percent of women with severe and moderate Anaemia [taken together); and Mild anaemia, National Family Health Survey - 2, 1998-1999 0., ------~ ~olumn G and H Rural Female Work force Participation Rate (Population of total workers among population above six years)., ; ~alculated from National Sample Surveys 50fu and 55"' rounds, 1999-2001 ~ -----" Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
Column H Bold font indicates decline, italics indicates increase in RFWP rate over the previous decade. Column I, J, and K percent of ever married women (aged 15- 49) involved (with husbands/family) in decisions about their own health; who do not require permission to go to market; who are free to take independent decisions on their own earnings, National Family Health Survey - 2, 1998-1999. Column L Crimes against women; number of cases per million populations, National Family Health Survey- 2, 1998-1999. Column M Estimated from on the basis of B to L. Source: Derived from Rustogi (2003), Kishore & Gupta (2004) and Sumi Krishna (2005). EPW. Vol.XL.No.25, June 18-24, 2005.
Thus it can be stated as per Table No. 23 Column (A) except Mizoram all the states of North-East have miserably failed to eradicate poverty because the percent of people below the poverty line barring Mizoram is above all-India average. Though poverty ratio of Assam has come down from 5L21 percent in 1973-74 to 36.1 percent in 2001, it is much higher than all-India average of 26.1 percent. The child sex ratio (Column B) is a significant indicator of female discrimination and fortunately enough, all the states in the region are in a better position than the all-India average. The sex ratio above six years as per Census 2001 shows that Manipur, Meghalaya and Tripura are in a better position than all India average and the position of other states of the region is below than the all India average. The National Family Health Survey - 2 conducted in 1998-1999 and according to NFHS - 2 one out of two women in India suffer from severe, moderate or mild aneamia; it clearly indicates women's undernourishment. According to survey conducted by NFHS- 2 Assam, Meghalaya and Sikkim have high levels of severe and moderate aneamia (Column D) as these figures are above the al India average and so far as high level of mild aneamia is concerned we can witness in Arunachal, Tripura and Assam. The
84 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
gender gap in literacy rates is another area of female discrimination in our society and as per Column (F) all the states of North-Eastern region are in a better position than the all-India average. Of course, Assam ranks 5th among the North-Eastern states in regard to reducing gender gap in literacy. Fortunately enough Mizoram, Nagaland and Meghalaya have occupied the position of five lowest gender gap in literacy in India.
Women's economic participation is known to be related to improved social status and the rural female workforce participation (RWFP) rate 1s very significant 1n relating to analysis of women's participation 1n productive activity. As per National Sample Survey between 1993-94 and 1999-2000, the all India average RWFP rate declined except Nagaland, Mizoram, Sikkim, Punjab and Gujrat. The RWFP rate in Manipur, Tripura and Assam was below than the all India average and this rate in Meghalaya and Arunachal was above the National average.
Women's autonomy relating to take decisions with respect to (i) what to cook; (ii) obtaining healthcare with her own; (iii) purchasing jewellery; (iv) staying with family; (v) spending money and freedom of movement with respect to (a) go to market and (b) visit relatives are relatively recent indicators relating to measurement of women's autonomy and power. NFHS-2 conducted in 1998-99 shows that an average 85 percent of women in India can decide about cooking. About one in two adult married women in India (with husbands/families) can take decisions about their own health as per column (I). Women's status/position in society can also be judged in analyzing women's freedom of movement. One in three women in India takes permission to go to the market and those who do not need such permission has been shown in Column J. Both Assam and N agaland lag behind the national average. Women's autonomous position can also be analyzed taking
85 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
into consideration independent decisions on one's own earnings (Column K). In this respect, Sikkim and Manipur have advantageous position than the national average. Assam's position is below than the national average. One of the significant indicators of gender disparity is crime against women both in home and public places. Among North Eastern states Mizoram has the highest record of crime (178) cases against women. Arunachal Pradesh with 148 cases and Assam with 138 cases also show higher level of crimes against women comprising molestation, rape, kidnapping and adduction etc. Low level of crime against women is to be witnessed in Nagaland, Meghalaya and Manipur, which are shown in Column L.
Thus, it is seen that there is gender disparity in all the states of North-East India and after analyzing these indicators of gender disparity Sumi Krishna (2005) has rightly prepared for a composite gender rank (Column M) and the composite gender ranking indicates that the North-Eastern region gender-disparity is least in Mizoram and less in Meghalaya while it is greatest in Assam (Ibid: 2005)
2.6. Gender, Community and Development Specificities of Char Areas:
United Nations Development Project (Here after UNDP) Human Development Report-2005 has observed thus:
The percentage of underweight women IS four times higher in South Asia than in Sub-Saharan Africa, and deficiencies in nutrients and vitamins linked to child death are far greater. South Asia has lower levels of poverty and higher average incomes than Sub-Saharan Africa but South Asia's child malnutrition rate is 20% higher than Sub Saharan Africa's. Half of the world's underweight children live in South Asia. These human development deficits are strongly associated with gender inequalities. 86 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
In fact, gender inequality 1s one of the most powerful impediments on human development as UNDP- Human development Report-2005 has rightly observed that life chances in any country are constrained by complex layers of inequality. Disparities m opportunities for health, education, income and political influence are to be found in every country, in varying magnitudes; inequalities linked to wealth, gender, location, race and ethnicity, along with other, markers for disadvantage. They interact to create dynamic and mutually reinforcing cycles of disadvantage that are transmitted across generations. Breaking these cycles is one of the keys to accelerated progress towards the Millennium Development Goals (henceforth MDGS) (UNDP HDR-2005).
It has been observed from various studies that (Muslim Women Survey conducted by Zaya Hassan and Ritu Menon) the socio-economic status and political awareness of Muslim Women in India 1n comparison to other cultural groups/ communities is not at all satisfactory. Even the location or area is to be taken into account as crucial criterion relating to the question of gender development of a particular community. That is why we have specifically selected some 'Char' (Reverine) areas of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam highlighting the economic and political empowerment of womenfolk of 'Char' areas of Barpeta District. In this connection it is also worthwhile to mention here that almost all the 'Chars' of Brahmaputra Valley along with 'Chars' of Barpeta District are Muslim dominated. Hence, we would like to focus economic and political empowerment of womenfolk belonging to Muslim cultural groups in the subsequent analysis as Chandra Mohonty ( 1998) has rightly justified that women's subordination must be addressed within their own cultural context, rather than through some universal understanding of women's needs. In fact, the several studies of Post-colonial feminists should not be underestimated as they 87 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
(post-colonial feminists) suggest that women's subordination must be differently understood in terms of race, class and geographical location, and that all women should be seen as agents rather than victims (J .A. Tickner: 2008).
Selecting the socio-economic and political empowerment of women in the 'char' areas of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam highlighting the Muslim women as dominant cultural groups of 'char' areas of Barpeta District of our study, probably it would be a right direction.
2. 7. Conclusion
After analyzing the issue of Gender and Development from Global perspective clear that the United Nations Organization has given stress on the question of equality between men and women and the United Nations Organization adopted a lot of steps and as a result of which gender related Development Index (GDI) and Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) have been considered as significant indicators for calculating Human Development Report of several countries.
It has been also observed from the earlier analysis that the Government of India since the last few years focused on achieving legal, social, political and economic rights for women being participated in the convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) in 1979. Today like other countries, the Government of India too, calculates the Human Development Report emphasizing on Gender - related Development Index along with highlighting Gender Equality Index. After analyzing of gender profile of Assam it can be observed that there is huge disparity between Human Development Index and Gender related Development Index in the various districts of Assam and it is also seen that this gap is bigger and
88 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
sharper amongst the Muslim dominated districts of Brahmaputra valley where major portions of 'Chars' are observed and located.
Notes and References:
1. Development Alternatives with woman for a New Era:
DAWN was formed in 1984. It was an attempt of a group of Feminists as a preparatory measure before the Nairobi conference. The objective of this association was to show how the four inter-related disasters-famine, credit, war policy and funda mentalism had damaged the lives of poor Southern women, along with indicating alternative policy. From feminist perspective, DAWN was concerned with holistic analysis of development and the root of that analysis would be confined to experiences of womenfolk and its inspiration would be provided to women's joint planning and tactics. In this way, they would inspire global exponents relating to development.
Source: Sofi Charliye & Elen Riqmunch (2004: Translated from Bengali)
2. WED 0- Women's Environment and Development Organization was an international Organization formed in 1990. The objectives of Organization were:
(a) The women should be involved in economic and political decision-making process with equal status.
(b) Such solutions of development to be worked out which are considered beneficial for women, community and whole universe.
(c) Awareness to be grown relating to the issues that how globalizetion has shattered the hopes of women, their family,
89 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
community, environment along with call for economic equality for women.
Source: Sofi Charliye & Elen Riqmunch (2004: Translated from Bengali).
3. Gender development index:
The Gender Development Index (GDI) measures states' development using the Human Development Index (HDI) indicators: literacy, life expectancy, school enrolment, and 1ncome disaggregated by gender, to illustrate a state's development, adjusted for degrees of gender inequality. This
..... ~.~,..~.'-'.L>. takes as its central assumption that the larger the degree of gender inequality, the more this has a negative effect on states' quality of development. The GDI also shows that states high on the HDI may have high degree of gender inequality.
Source: Ann Tickner (2008).
4. Gender mainstreaming:
Gender mainstreaming was established as a global strategy for achieving gender equality in the Beijing Platform for Action ratified by all UN member states. It has been adopted as the official policy of the United Nations, the European Union, the Organization of American States and a number of other governmental and inters-governmental organizations. Gender mainstreaming prescribes the review and revision of policy processes in all sectors of government, with an eye towards eliminating gender-based disparities in policy formulation and implementation.
Source: J. Ann Tickner (2008).
90 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
5. Constitutional guarantees to Indian Women through fundamental rights:
Article 14 provides that "The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India."
As per Article 15 ( 1) "The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, cast, sex, place of birth or any of them".
As per Article 15 (3) "Nothing in this article shall prevent the state from making any special provision for women and children'.
As per Article 16 (2) "No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, residence or any of them, be ineligible for, or discriminated against in respect of, any employment or office under the state."
6. Directive Principles of State Policy relates to Indian Women:
As per Article 39 of the Constitution of India "The state shall, in particular, direct its policy towards securing
(a) that the citizens, men and women equally, have the right to an adequate means of livelihood;
(b) that there is equal pay for equal work for both men women;
(c) that the health and strength of workers, men and women, and the tender age of children are not abused and that citizens are not forced by economic necessity to enter avocations unsuited to their age or strength".
91 Chapter-2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
As per Article 42 of the Constitution of India "The state shall make provision for securing just and human conditions of work and for maternity relief."
7. Earlier a separate Department of Women and Child Development was functioning as a part of Ministry of Human Resource Development since 1985 to look into matters related to Women and Children. Keeping in view its importance, a separated Ministry of Women and Child Development came into existence from 30th January 2006, vide Government notification dated 16- 2-2006, all subjects relating to Child Welfare j Protection like the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act 2000, Central Adoption Resource Agency (CARA) and adoption which were under Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment have been transferred to the newly created Ministry of Women and Child Development. (India 2009- A Reference Manual: 992).
92 CHAPTER- 3
CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
3.1 Introduction
In this Chapter we have tried to focus on Char areas of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam through four sections. The second section provides Char area development in the political history of Assam covering the question of developments before the formation of the Char development Authority and also Char Development Authority phase movement together with highlighting 73rd Amendment of the Constitution vis a vis Char areas under four sub-sections. The third section focuses on physical aspects, social demographic aspects and socio-economic aspects under three sub-sections. The fourth section is the concluding section.
3.2.1 Char Area Development in the Political lHistory of Assam
As mentioned earlier, barring a very few almost all the 'Char' areas of Brahmaputra Valley are Muslim dominated. So the question of development of Char Areas is naturally linked with the people belonging to religious minority in the history of Assam. It is worthwhile to mention here that without apprehending the role of the Muslims in the civil society of Assam, it would be difficult to analyse the question of Char area development the history of Assam. M. Hussain (1993: 197) has rightly observed that the Muslims of Assam are not a single homogenous community; rather they are groups of several identifiable distinctive ones and Hussain categorized the Muslims of Assam into four groups: (i) Asamiya Muslims, (ii) Na-Asamiya Muslims, (iii) Muslims of the Barak Valley and (iv) North Indian Muslims living in Assam (Hussain: 1993). At the same time it is equally true that such kind of categorization in regard to the Muslims of Assam is not made by the Census Reports. It is also noted here that major portion of Asamiya Muslims or Thalua Musalman, meaning the local Muslims or Garia1 are Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY absent in the Char areas. The second category of Muslims in Assam are known as Na-Asamiya Musalman meaning Neo-Asamiya Muslims and in Assam, they are also known as Pamua Musalman (the farming Muslims), Charua Musalman (the Muslims of river islands or banks seasonally sub-merged into river waters), Miya Musalman and Mymensinghia Musalman (Muslims from Mymensingh district of erstwhile East Bengal, now Bangladesh) (Ibid: 1993). Some scholars used the term 'Immigrant Muslims' and some called them 'Bengali Muslims' too. Whether the terms specifying this group of people is appropriate or not and whether the nomenclature identifying this community is right or wrong, the most important question is that their role in the contemporary Assam cannot be underestimated. According to Hussain ( 1993) the demographic strength of this second category of Muslim population would be around 18% of the total population of Assam. Major portion of this category of population are living in the char areas of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam too. As mentioned earlier, they migrated from Mymensingh, Pabna and Rongpur districts (from Erstwhile East Pakistan now Bangladesh) in the first half of 20th century. Hussain (1993: 201) has rightly observed regarding the migration of this category of Muslim population to Assam thus:
1) severe feudal oppression by landlords under the zamindari system and its resultant poverty and perpetually near famine conditions of peasants of East Bengal,
2) very high pressure on land in a feudal agrarian social structure,
3) comparatively less oppression in Assam by the earlier landed aristocracy, composed of both the high caste Asamiya Hindus and a section of the Asamiya Muslims in a semi feudal agrarian social structure within a colonial system,
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4) operation of the relatively les oppressive ryotowari land tenure system in Assam,
5) abundance of land and very favourable land-man ratio in Assam, and the obvious reluctance of Asamiya peasantry to use waste and char lands,
6) encouragement given by the provincial government headed by the Muslim League, in he late thirties and early forties,
7) patronage received from Marwari traders and even Asamiya Mahajans and landlords, and
8) the colonial policy of augmenting land revenue in Assam which was very meagre compared to other Indian provinces (Husain: 1993, P- 201). In fact, all these factors were responsible during colonial rule for the Muslim migration in Assam.
It noted here that in view of the increasing number of migrants the pre-independence era, the officials of Nowgong district in 1916 devised an administrative measure to restrict the indiscriminate settlement by immigrants in the Assamese inhabited lands. This system is known as 'Line System' (Bhuyan & De: 1978). The system was first put into action in 1920 in the Nowgong district and the Barpeta sub-division in the Kamrup district. With the introduction of the Line System; however, land was classified into the following categories:
(i) those in which immigrants might settle freely;
(ii) those in which they could not settle; and
(iii) where a line was drawn, only they could settle on one side of it (Ibid: 1978).
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B.J. Dev and D.K. Lahiri (1985: 23) rightly observed regarding the introduction of Line System thus:
"The 'Line System' was a short title for the system by which Muslim immigrants from Bengal, especially from the district of Mymensingh, were required to settle in certain definite areas of the Assam valley district and were not allowed to take settlement of land under the Government in other areas. It was, in fact, a device to segregate the Bengali Muslim from the indigenous population including the tribal and backward classes. Thus it was originally intended to be a protective measure against the indiscriminate settlement of immigrants for the ostensible purpose of avoiding social conflicts and tensions. The device originated entirely with the district officers and was not adopted in execution of the orders of the Government. However, the Government did not interfere with the system which gradually developed although not on parallel lines in all the lower Assam districts, except Goal para".
In fact, the introduction of "Line System" failed to check in1migration though it helped to develop communal turn between the migrants and the Hindu Asamiyas and the outcome of it was the politics of tension and the political divergence as observed by Rao and Hazarika (1983: 255), S.U. Ahmed (1999: 25), Dev and Lahiri (1985: 22-23) have also observed rightly thus: Maulana Bhasani's relentless fight against the Line System led to he political mobilisation of Muslim immigrants in Assam.
According to M. Hussain (1993: 205-206) the British colonialists who introduced the Line System to regulate the inflow of the Muslim peasants later introduced another device in 1928, which virtually amounted to the negation of the Line System known as Colonization Scheme. The colonization scheme was first introduced in Nowgong
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district m 1928, and thereafter in Barpeta sub-division of Kamrup district and the Mangaldai sub-division of Darrang district. A family was to be provided with about 20 bighas of land on payment of premium under the new scheme.
The British colonialism created a contradictory situation wherein they forced the push factor in one region and the pull factor in another region. If contingency demanded, they would also surprisingly impose restrictions only to remove it again, whenever it was necessary in the interest of maintaining colonial hegemony (Hussain: 1993).
Probably M. Kar (1990) has rightly observed regarding both the schemes in connection with facing the problem of immigration. According to him "The Line System and the Colonization Scheme, the only steps taken by Government, did not solve the problem but only perpetuated it by the gradual induction of communal, racial and political questions into it (M. Kar 1990). In the subsequent period it is found that the immigrants, as the Muslims in general, more and more veered round the Muslim League (Ibid: 1990) at least during the pre independence period as Syed Mohammad Sadulla though an Asamiya Muslim, under the banner of Muslim League, formed the Provincial Government for five times in seven years between 1938 and 1945.
Thus, during pre-independence period very few Muslims Assam were sided with the Congress party and its ideology. Of course, the attitude of the Muslims had changed after the independence as B.J. Dev and D.K. Lahiri (1985) have rightly observed thus:
"The creation of Pakistan on the basis of two-nation theory and the coincidence of post-independence Assam politics with Congress monopoly in the corridors of power had demoralizing influence on the bargaining potential of the Muslims of Assam, many of whom, also, felt
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let down by the failure of the Muslim League to ensure Assam's inclusion in the Pakistan Zone. This was clearly reflected in the dramatic political developments preceding the First General Election in Assam when a staunch Leaguer of the stature of Md. Sadulla communicated to the Provincial Congress chief Siddinath Sarma on 30 Aughust 1951, the final decision of the Muslims to join the Congress en masse."
In fact, in the post-independence period the immigrant Muslims and their leadership not only sided with the Congress party but also extended their desire to assimilate in the Assamese society. Election to the Legislative Assembly of Assam was held in 1952, 1957, 1962, 1972 in which Congress obtained people's mandate and Congress-led ministry was installed in 1952, 1957, 1962, 1967, 1972. But in the year 1978, the Congress failed to obtain majority in the Election of State Legislative Assembly. Thus the Congress-Muslim alliance, which came into existence since 1952, continued unbroken till 1977 as large sections of Muslims during this period constituted a vote-bank the Congress. In the sixth general elections to the Legislative Assembly held in 1978, the Congress was defeated. No party secured an absolute majority in the Assembly and the party-wise seats are as under Janata- 53, Congress (R) 26, .-5, C.P.M. 11, Independents--IS, R.C. P.T.C.A. - 4, Congress (I) - 8, a total of 126. We would like to analyse the result of Sixth Assembly Election in the subsequent analyses.
3.2.2 Development in Char Areas before the formation of Development Authority
According to M. Kar (1990) discontent of the Muslims with their new allies, however, became evident from the proceedings of their Gauhati Convention of February 1975 held under the inspiration of the
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then Parliamentary Affairs Minister, Syed Ahmed Ali and the support of Moinul Haque Choudhury as Ali presided over the open session of the Convention highlighting the 'problem faced by 40 lakh Muslim population of Assam'. The Convention also pointed out the obstacles to Muslim participation in all spheres and branches of life and the speakers opined that their condition had allegedly gone down since independence particularly in respect of employment, representation in public bodies, nationalized banks, co-operatives, public undertakings, universities and Islamic education. Thus, the convention decided to form a "Muslim Parishad" with Syed Ahmed Ali as the President for safeguarding and promoting Muslim interests (M. Kar: 1990). The Parishad was formed only as a handmaid of the ministers, as alleged by a section of the Muslims in connection with strengthening their own position yet some scholars (e.g. M. Kar) opined that it was suspected as a Congress stooge. The Pari shad was dissolved in 197 5 by the President without any cogent justification (Ibid: 1990). As mentioned earlier, the congress-Muslim alliance in Assam continued till the elections of 1977. According toM. Kar (1990) "Following the Congress debacle in the Lok Sabha Election of 1977, a section of educated Muslims gathered at Haji Musafir Khana, Islampur, Gauhati on 8 May 1977 and the meeting was presided over by Mr. Ajmad Ali, Advocate, Ex-Vice President, Assam Provincial Muslim League and Ex-M.P. and attended by delegates from all over Assam. The speakers were of opinion that there was chaos and confusion in the political field. After a frank discussion, a perfect unanimity was reached about the urgent necessity of a party which alone could look after their political and economic interests (M. Kar: 1991)." The meeting unanimously decided to form a new political party under the name of Eastern India Muslim Association (E.I.M.A.). And on the eve of the Assembly elections of
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1978, selected Muslim leaders met at Gauhati and decided to form the Progressive Democratic Front, which consisted of the E.I.M.A., Kamata Rajya Parishad, Janata Congress, Yuva Linguistic Minority Committee and the Citizens Democratic Front. Though the front fielded seventy one independent candidates including twenty-one Muslims from almost all the districts of the state yet the front did not fare well in the election. Eastern India Muslim Association was formally dissolved and merged in the Indian Union Muslim League in October 1977 re-emerge as the Eastern Zonal Muslim League.
In fact, no significant Muslim Groups or Forums can be witnessed and no movement was launched by the Muslim leaders in connection with ventilating the grievances of the socio-economic condition of the people of Char-areas before the origination of Char Area Development Authority in 1983-84. Even the Muslim Parishad and Eastern India Muslim Association failed to highlight the socio economic problems of the people of char Areas of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam.
3.2.3 Development Authority led Development
The Government of Assam constituted "Assam State Char Areas Development Authority" in the year 1983 during Saikia regime. According to B .J. Dev and Lahiri (1985) some of the decisions of the Saikia Ministry have restored the morale of the Muslims of Assam. The decision to create a Char Development Authority for the development of 1100 Chars of Assam predominantly peopled by immigrant Muslims is one such example. The decision of the Ministry to reserve 24 percent of the Government posts for the Muslims of Assam is another example, which raised the eyebrows of the caste Hindus delaying ultimately the process of implementation of the
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promise ...... The Governmental decision to create a separate and a full-fledged Police force consisting of the minorities is equally viewed with alarm in some circle but this is only intended to combat communal riots (B.J. Dev & D.K. Lahiri: 1985). As mentioned earlier no significant movement was launched by the Muslims of Assam in general and the people of char areas in particular yet the decline in the popularity of Congress amongst the Muslims in 1978 Assembly Election can be discernible. In the 1978 election out of 28 Muslim MLAs only 11 belonged to Congress. The position, however, changed December 1980 when the political situation took sudden turn as a result of defection and 19 Muslim MLAs then owed their loyalty to the Congress, 18 with Congress (I) and I with Congress (U) (Ibid: 1985). It is worthwhile to mention here that socio political instability can be observed in Assam during 1978-1985 because of All Assam Students' Union and All Assam Gana Sangram Parishad led anti-foreigners' movement. We can witness four Ministries during 12-03-78 to 18-03- 1982 as the Ministry of Golap Chandra Barbara (12-03-78 to 04-09- 79), as the ministry of Jogendra Nath Hazarika (9-9-79 to 12-12-79), as the Ministry of Syeda Anwara Taimur (6-12-80 to 28-6-81) and as the Ministry of Keshab Chandra Gogoi (13.01.82 to 18.3.82). Politics of defections can also be observed during this period. Assam during this period was under President's rule in several times. Due to the disturbed conditions arising out of the anti-foreigners' movement and to avoid constitutional crisis, the Election Commission of India announced on 6 January, 1983 that bye election to the 12 Vacant Lok Sabha Seats (vacant since 1980 as Lok Sabha Election was not held in 12 seats of Brahmaputra Valley because of disturbed social unrest) and the general elections to the State Legislative Assembly would be held at the end of President's rule. Elections were to be held on the basis of 1979
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revised electoral rolls and the scheduled dates of elections were 14, 17, 20 and 21 February, 1983 alongwith two phases. Except Congress (I), Congress (S), PTCA (Plain Tribal Council of Assam), Independents and the Left Parties, all other parties and forums boycotted the elections because of intense pressure pursued by the agitationists of Assam Movements. Thus, before and during elections massacre took place in several places of Assam. In Nellie near Jagiroad of Marigaon district, a largest number of innocent Muslims were brutally killed (S. U. Ahmed: 1999). Nagabandha, Dalimbari, Samaria, Kashimpur, Gohpur, Bhabanipur, Bijni, Kharupetia, Chawlkhowa, Silapathar, Sarupathar etc. were also badly affected as rightly observed by S. U. Ahmed. After the elections, the Congress (I) came to power in Assam and the party obtained 91 seats out of 109 seats for which elections were held and in the subsequent period 6 independent MLAs joined Congress (I). Thus, it rose to 97. Though Mr. Hiteswar Saikia formed the Govt. yet the Saikia Govt. faced strong social boycott from the mainstream Asamiya Society. According to S. Ahmed (1993) 32 Muslims were elected in the Assembly Election of 1983, of whom 22 belonged to the Congress. He also maintained that the cabinet of Saikia was consisted of 29 Ministers, of whom six were Muslims and two of them belonged to Cachar and one each to Goalpara, Kamrup, Darrang and Nowgong and Sheikh Chand Mahammad from Kamrup was elected Speaker Assembly. It is undeniable that the minorities had unflinchingly voted in favour of Congress (I) in 1983 election to Assam Legislative Assembly though innumerable people belonging to minorities were massacred before and during election as mentioned earlier. Probably, Hiteswar Saikia wanted to restore the morale of the Muslims of Assam and as a follow-up action Char Development Authority took birth in 1983 alongwith perpetuating the support of the Muslim voters, which was
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eroded 1n the 1978 Assam Legislative Assembly election. The observation of B. J. Dev & D. K. Lahiri is also noteworthy who rightly observed thus: "Besides any precipitate action also encourage the swing of the Assam Muslims towards isolationism to seek refuge under the Muslim League, Jammat-e-Islam and Tablige Jammat. The killings of the Muslims at Nellie had provided these organizations a platform for their political and propaganda activities. The Muslim sentiment cannot be easily brushed aside for they constitute about 30% of the total population of Assam. An additional reason for Congress (I) wooing the Muslims is to combat the possible growth of extremism banking on discontentment and neglect. A significant development in Assam politics has been the recent allotment of Home Portfolio to a Bengalee Muslim from Cachar which is something unique in Post Independent Assam" (B. J. Dev & D. K. Lahiri: 1985). Another achievement of Mr. Hiteswar Saikia was the enactment of Illegal Migrants (Determination by Tribunal) Act, 1983 as along with Mr. Abdul Muhib Mazumder probably Saikia succeeded to manipulate the Government of India in order to enact the said Act for the protection of minorities.
Of course, Assam Accord (1985) changed the scenario of Assam politics. Asom Gana Parishad led Government a regional party development of post-Assam Accord under the Chairmanship of P.K. Mahanta came to power. The United Minorities Front- the regional party belonging to religious and linguistic minorities is also the development of Post- Assam Accord. It is interesting to note here that the Muslims, who traditionally supported the congress barring 1978 Assembly election, were not interested in this party after the Assam Accord. Out of 17 wining seats 13 Muslim candidates belonging to United Minorities Front came out successful to the election of 1985 Assam Legislative Assembly whereas Indian National Congress (I)
103 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY succeeded to send only 5 candidates from the Muslims community. It is also noted here that the United Minorities Front in its Election Manifesto relating to Assam Election, 1985 contained a number of proposals before the electorate in Assam alongwith highlighting the problems of char areas. Though it contained a number of economic proposals yet it is observed that it focused the problems of char areas thus:
(i) The problems-legal, social and economic- of the peasants in riverine (char) areas shall be enquired into and adequate steps shall be taken for the development of the char economy.
(ii) A fair and equitable representation of all communities in Government services including police forces shall be made (Election manifesto of UMF: 1985). In the subsequent period both the AGP and UMF had to split. In the Assembly Election of 1991, Congress (I) under Mr. Hiteswar Saikia came to power in which 15 seats won by Muslim candidates within Congress (I) fold out of 66 won by Congress (I) and 36 members of Saikia Ministrj included 8 members belonging to religious minority. The survey on char areas also started during Saikia regime (1991 - 1996) as it is found if we look at the socio-economic report of the Director, Char Area Development, and Assam 1992-93. Of course, survey on Char areas also started during AGP regime (1985-90) too in which Mr. Golam Osmani, leader of UMF taking part in the Assembly said: "In char areas people are generally displaced because of erosion and there are facts of life and nobody deny this fact. The congress party, which was at the healm of affairs in this state did not make any survey for the last three decades. We welcome the proposal of the present Chief Minister of Assam to survey the Char areas .... No settlement was made in Char areas by the then party in power. There are lots of anomalies. If an enquiry is made it will be revealed that right
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from the Mondal to the highest position there is a chain of vested interest who made gains from irregularities. Now if it is found by survey that 15 to 20 lakhs of people are inhabitating in the Char areas of Brahmaputra Valley as encroachers our honourable Chief Minister will have to think twice before evicting them. In the forest areas mostly tribal people have been occupying land. The Janata government with which I happen to be associated had to face the problem of such encroachment. The then Janata Government took a decision that up to 1978 whoever occupied Govt. land will not be evicted and later on Hiteswar Saikia's Government made 1980 as the date line. So about land policy the UMF demands that the people living in the Char areas must be given the pattas and permanent settlement. Mr. Osmani also said let there be an Accord, the UMF is willing and they do not say no and no to any other point of view (Osmani's Speech, Assam Assembly, Vol. I No. 4, 21.0 1.1986).
Though AGP contains one sentence in its Elections Manifesto of 1991 Assembly Election regarding the welfare of Char areas yet it is found that the party gave more impetus in its Election Manifesto to the Assembly Election of 1996 regarding the char areas. The AGP emphasing on char areas along with electoral understanding with CPI, CPI (M) and United Peoples Party of Assam succeeded to form the Government in Assam in the year 1996.
Congress (I) came to power in Assam agmn 1n 2001 and 2006 under the leadership of Mr. Tarun Gogoi. On the eve of the Assembly Election of 2006 Assam United Democratic Front took birth under the leadership of Md. Badduddin Azmal in which erstwhile leaders of United Minorities Front had taken active part. It is noted here that the constitution of AUDF recognizes the Char Parishad as one of the Fifth
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Frontial Organisation of the Party and some of objectives of the Party are:
• Permanent solution for infiltration problem.
• Flood and erosion problem and control of Brahmaputra.
• Rehabilitation of displaced person affected by flood and erosion.
• Survey of Char land areas and execute permanent pattas.
• To protect the rights and interests of the minorities and to respect their aspirations etc. AUDF succeeded to capture 10 seats to Assam Legislative Assembly and Congress (I) securing 53 seats compelled to form coalition government making understanding with Bodoland Peoples' Front during the post poll scenario. Thus almost all the parties since the 1980s had to highlight the problems of the religious minorities particularly of char dwellers and without whose support the formation of stable government would not have been possible though it is undeniable fact that no organized significant movement could be witnessed relating to the problems of char areas even during authority (Char Area Development Authority) phase. Of course, some non governmental organizations (For instance, Char Areas Welfare Society for Socio-Economic Research) and political parties (For instance, United Minorities Front) organized seminars regarding the socio-economic problems of the char dwellers in which academicians, journalists, intellectuals, social scientists, politicians actively participated in those seminars and raised the problems in depth.
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3.2.4 73rd Amendment of the Constitution Vis-a-vis Char Areas
Assam is one of the most leading states in India Union, which had passed "The Assam Panchayat Act 1948" immediately after India's independence. Nevertheless, the state has not succeeded to institutionalize participatory democracy at the local level even after passing of six decades. Of course, the problem of institutionalizing participatory democracy is not only the problem of Assam as UN Human Development Report- 2002 raised some significant questions about "true democracy and voice" which Jayati Ghosh (2002) rightly pointed out and stated that HDR- 2002 did not go for enough in identifying some of the major obstacles to democracy in the world today, or the means to achieve it. Some scholars, like Niru Hazarika (2005) has mentioned regarding "traditional Villages" in Assam which worked as essentially democratic institutions on the basic of social customs and traditions. Of course Niru Hazarika's traditional villages are not covered the Muslim dominated 'Char' villages. Though V.V. Rao (1967) does not agree witrh S.K. Bhuyan who termed 'Namghars' edstablished by Shankara Deva as "Village Parliaments" yet ii cannot be denied that rural community life veered over the 'Namghars' and 'Gaonburas' through which a code of humanism, morality and selflessness were imbibed and discernable among the rural people of Assam and Niru Hazarika (2005) has rightly justified about these moribund and decaying condition of democratic institutions at this present juncture. It has been found that during that period the villagers had the enviable spirit of unity, discipline along with social Consciousness. But now probably even after 73rd Amendment of Indian Constitution and passing of Assam Panchayat Act, 1994 on the spirit of 73rd Amendment the very spirit of true participatory democracy i.e. deepening democracy has not yet developed and matured in Assam in
107 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY general and 'Char' areas in particular and as a result of which the problem of institutionalization has cropped up. It has been observed that the Government of Assam has also failed to take sincere effort with regard to paying respect to people' participatory democracy as even after passing of Assam Panchayat Act, 1994, Panchayat elections were not held (which was scheduled to be held in 1997) till 2001. 'Gram Sabha' has indeed played a significant role in connection with peoples' participation at the grassroots level together with governerce and development in some states of Indian Union i.e. Tripura, West Bengal, Kerela, Rajasthan etc. But it is unfortunate that being a homeland of traditional democracy (excluding all the immigrant Muslim dominated Char Villages) the peoples' participation at the grassroots level of Assam particularly in the 'Char' areas of Brahmaputra Valley is in a nascent stage although last Panchayat Elections in Assam were held in four stages covering the 'Char Areas' starting from the 31st Dec/2007, culminating in January 2008.
3.3.1 Physical Aspects
Assam with a geographical area of 78,438 sq. km., which accounts for about 2.4 percent of country's total land area. In terms of both area and population, Assam ranks 14th among the states of India as per 2001 Census. The state divides itself into two distinct natural divisions, viz. the Brahmaputra Valley comprising 22 districts of plain area and 2 districts of hill areas with a total area of 71,516 sq. kms. and Barak Valley comprising three districts with an area of 6922 Sq. Kms. At present, the state has 27 districts including the newly created Kamrup urban district and 4 districts under the newly created Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) areas viz. Kokrajhar, Baksa, Chirang and Udalguri and all these newly created districts have fallen in the Brahmaputra Valley (Economic Survey Assam: 1996-97 & 2004-
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05). The state has 49 Sub-divisions, 219 Blocks as on 31-3-2004 and 155 Revenue Circles, 2624 7 villages along with 1188 uninhabited villages including 125 towns as per 2001 Census; the state has also 2489 numbers of gaon Panchayats as on 31-08-2004 (Statistical Handbook of Assam: 2004). B. K. Kar (2002: P.17) has rightly divided the region of Brahmaputra Valley into three sub--regions - Western Brahmaputra valley, Central Brahmaputra Valley and Eastern Brahmaputra Valley Comprising 18 districts of Assam including 4 districts of BTC; Western Brahmaputra Valley covers Dhubri, Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Goalpara, Barpeta, Nalbari and Kamrup; Central Brahmaputra Valley comprises Darrang, Sonitpur, Morigaon and Nagaon and Eastern Brahmaputra Valley includes Lakhimpur, Dhemaji, Golaghat, Jorhat, Sibsagar, Dibrugarh and Tinsukia.
According to A.K. Bhagabati (200 1) the Brahmaputra plain covers an area of 56,339 km (72 percent of total area of Assam) and the length of this plain about 725 km. in east-west direction and an average width of 80 km. The Brahmaputra plain is an important physiographic unit of Assam and the largest plain of Northeast India and the entire Brahmaputra plain is enclosed by hills and mountains from all sides (Kar: 2002). The width of the Brahmaputra river channel varies considerably from one point to another as it largely depends upon a number of geological and geomorphological factors and on the way from Dibrugarh to Dhubri, numerous river islands locally called 'char' or 'chapori' are found to occur inside the channel (Ibid: 2002). Within the Brahmaputra plain we may further divide three middle sized/ shaped geographical region; narrow hilly region of North and South, central plain region and char j chapori (river-islands) region of the Brahmaputra (Bhagabati: 2001). Taher ( 1997) has rightly shown that there are 105 major tributaries of the Brahmaputra in Assam, 64 of which are on the
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left bank and 41 on the right bank; in addition to 105 numbers of first grade tributaries, there are 126 numbers of second grade, 52 numbers of third grade, 20 numbers of 4th grade and 15 numbers of fifth grade rivers besides a large number of small rivulets which have fallen into the Brahmaputra.
The formation of Char f Chapori is very complex. Though the 'Chars' are formed inside all the rivers, yet the 'Chars' are fully developed in some particular rivers. Char areas are also recognized as 'other special area' because these areas have also possessed topographical and natural features like the desert areas, hilly regions and border areas etc. In fact, 'Char' j 'Chapori' are two names based on topography of Assam. Raised land surrounded by water is locally called 'Char'. When 'Chars' get perpetuality then they are locally called 'Chapori'. In other words, after changing of the course of river if the 'chars' are connected with or linked to the original soil then the 'chars' are identified with 'chapari'.
'Chars' are inside the river and 'Chapori' are on the bank of the nver.
In connection with carrying silts, the Huangho in China ranks first while the Brahmaputra ranks second in the world. The quantity of silts is so huge that in the water of Brahmaputra per sq. km is 1495 tons at Pashighat, 1313 tons at Pandu (Guwahati) and 120 tons at Dhubri respectively (Taher: 1997). It is found that the quantity of silt carried by the river decrease gradually down to its lower destination. In addition to the silts carried by the main river (Brahmaputra), its tributaries too carry huge amount of silts to it and thus contribute in the formation of a large numbers of Char-Chapries (mid-channel bars) generally on the opposite sides of their confluence. According to Bengal
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Alluvion and Diluvion Regulation, 1825, the char areas were defined as "small islands in the river bed, which are formed by either frequent changes of the river or by shifting of the sands which lie on beds of those rivers".
The char areas are an integral part of the very complex fluvial regime of the Brahmaputra river ...... and in Assam, the river Brahmaputra flows through a highly braided Channel with numerous lateral and mid channel bars (chars) (Bhagabati: 2005). According to Bhagabati {Ibid: 2005) the bars are composed of both bed load and suspended load and are generally triangular in shape. Their height naturally can never be greater than the height of the highest flood since they are built under flood environment (Coleman, quoted in Bhagabati: 2005).
The beginning of human habitation in the Char areas of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam is of recent origin in comparison to other parts of Brahmaputra Valley. In fact, chars are the last spaces of attraction of so far as human habitation is concerned. It is worthwhile to mention here that the settlers of char are mostly immigrants Muslims, Bengali refugees, Nepali immigrants along with a very small number of indigenous people. Muslim immigrants and Hindu refugees migrated from erstwhile East Bengal (present Bangladesh) and the Nepalis from Nepal. The first significant migration from East Bengal took place in the beginning of the 20th century (Hussain/Guha/Kar).
The census of India for the first time recorded the Muslim peasant migration In 1911 and major portion of this migration took place from Mymensingh district of East Bengal (Present Bangladesh) to Assam's wastelands. Guha has rightly observed (1977) about this peasant migration thus:
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"Immigration was no doubt a welcome phenomenon for labour short, land abundant Assam from the economic point of view. Landless peasants from the overpopulated East Bengal - of them 85 percent were Muslims - found land in Assam's waterlogged, jungle-infested, riverine belt. Used to an amphibious mode of living and industrious, these immigrants came by rail, steamers and boats up the Brahmaputra to reclaim these material areas. All that they wanted was land. From their riverine base, they further pressed themselves forward in all directions in search of more living space in the areas held by the autochthons ...... "
P.C. Goswami (1994: 22} observed thus: "The settlers from the Bengal districts of Mymensignh, Pabna, Bogra and Rongpur began to flow to the 'Char' lands (i.e. lands formed by the deposits of allivium from rivers) in Goalpara district. The population of Goalpara, which increased by 2 percent in 1891-1901, increased by 30 percent in 1901- 11 due to the inflow of immigrants. In 1911 the immigrants formed of fifth of the total population of Goalpara district." In the subsequent period the immigrants started to settle in other districts and sub divisions of Brahmaputra Valley. In fact, Nowgong, Barpeta (sub division of Kamrup district), Darrang, North Lakimpur were other favourable areas of the Muslim immigrants next to Goalpara district of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam. It is important to note the observation of Guha (2000) who has rightly observed: "As the chars of Goalpara district were nearest to East Bengal, the immigrants first settled in this district. Later they scattered in the char areas of Kamrup, Darrang, Nagaon and in the chars of upper Assam. When the char lands became cultivable with crops, pam (temporary) cultivation was allowed to be done on the annual leases by the neighbouring areas in isolated patches. When the pressure of immigration from East Bengal
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increased, large tract of land were dereserved from each of the Professional Grazing Reserves part by part, till the whole reserve was ultimately settled with the immigrant population" (Guha: Quoted in Sheikh: 2005). The Assam Land Revenue Manual also states: "From about 1915 onward the immigration of residents of Eastern Bengal from the over crowded districts of that area mostly Mymensingh, Pabna and Rangpur, has been a very marked feature. Large area of land which the indigenous inhabitants could only use for fluctuating cultivation especially in Barpeta, Nagaon and Mangaldoi, have been brought under cultivation, the soil being very favourable to the growth of Jute." (The Assam Land Revenue Manual: VoL I: 8 edition: 1968) It is worthwhile to mention here that these migrru'lts from East Bengal comprised of both Muslims and Hindus. Of course, about 85 to 90 percent were Muslims and the remaining belonged to Hindus. Thus the human habitation of the Char areas started during first part of 20th Century as the cultivators and settled these uninhabited and inhospitable areas leaving their mother-land for good (Chakraborty & Alam: 2005). The population of Char areas of Brahmputra Valley, Assam is 24,90,097 and about 85 to 90 percent people are belonged to Muslims.
The process of formation of these chars of the mighty nver Brahmaputra primarily two. If ·vve look at the "Chars" lower Assam particularly the chars of Dhubri, Goalpara, Kamrup, Barpeta Nalbari we can observe that silts carried by the current of the river Brahmaputra precipitate for the emergence of Chars and these chars are transformed into chapories because of the perpetual nature. It does not mean that all the chars of these districts are permanent in nature. Some of them are destroyed because of occurrence of heavy flood and cyclone.
113 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
On the other hand, the Char-Chapories of Central Assam particularly the char-chapories of Nowgong, Morigaon, Darrang, Sonitpur etc. are emerged due to heavy erosion of the river Brahmaputra. It is observed that almost all the char-chapories of these districts were permanent villages adjacent to other permanent villages. But because of heavy erosion of the Brahmaputra a number of villages remaining as marooned for years and as a result of which chars chapories are formed. For instance Rangrai Chapori, Chitlamari Char, Ganimunchi Char, Garu Char etc. from the vast Goroimari villages areas were emerged in the erstwhile Nowgong District (at present Morigaon district) after a long gap of 20 years remaining as marooned because of heavy erosion in the river Brahmaputra. Thus, it is our observation that these are the two processes in connection with emergence of chars and chapories of Brahmaputra.
According to UNDP Human Development Report 2007- 08 "Monsoon floods and storms in South Asia during the 2007 session displaced more than 14 million people in India and 7 million in Bangladesh. Over 1,000 lost their lives across Bangladesh, India, Southern Nepal and Pakistan.
Gender bias in the impact of disasters is also under reported. When disasters strike, they hurt whole communities but women often bear brunt. Floods frequently claim for more female victims because their mobility is restricted and they have not been taught to swim. When Bangladesh was hit by a devastating cyclone and floods in 1991 the death rate was reportedly five times higher among women. In the aftermath of a disaster, restrictions on the legal rights and entitlements of women to land and property can limit access to credit needed for recovery." (UNDP- HDR report: 2007 -08).
114 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
The observation of UNDP-HDR report cannot be under estimated as during the last six decades large numbers of 'chars' along with human lives were washed away by the river Brahmaputra. Ismail Hussain (2005) has also rightly observed that with the intensity of recurring flood, devastating erosion has been continuously taking place on the banks of the Brahmaputra as well as in the Char areas causing damages to cultivable land, homestead, public and private properties and prosperous settlements of the state during the last few years. Of course, large-scale deforestation, influence of embankments along with frequents occurrence of earthquake have influenced much to the occurrence of Hoods and erosion in Assarn. The other factors causing extensive floods are adverse physiography of the region, heavy rainfall, excessive sedimentation, hill/land sliding, encroachment of the rivarine area. It is worthwhile to mention here that though these significant factors have in11uenced much to the occurrence of flood and erosion yet it has been observed that because of devastating earthquakes of 1897 and 1950 a number of areas were dislocated along with unprecedented change of human habitation as well as occurrence of flood and erosion of the Brahmaputra are on the rise gradually.
Assam has witnessed successive waves of devastating floods during the last few years. The Economic Survey has observed thus: In Assam, the flood and erosion cause enormous damages to the crops, livestock, land, property and bring untold miseries to the people at large. The major flood that had occurred in the state was in 1954, 1962, 1966, 1972, 1977, 1984, 1988, 1998, 2002 and 2004 though the flood of less magnitude occurs almost every year. The National Flood Commission had estimated the area vulnerable to floods in Assam as 31.60 lakh hectares against 335.16 lakh hectares for whole India. Assam thus accounts for 9.4 percent of total flood prone area of the
115 Chapte:r-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
country. (Economic Survey, Assam: 2004 - 2005). The Table No. 24 and also the Figure No. 3 show the extent of damages/losses caused by flood in the state over the last few years.
Table No. 24 DAMAGES CAUSED BY FLOOD IN ASSAM Item Unit 2000 2001 2002 2003 1 2004 l
1-----1 2 3 4 5 6 7 J 1. Area effected Hectare 966053.00 239511.00 674148.00 932113.00 3142685.40 \ 2. Population -~ affected No. F.?5 542634 7550581 5_6_5_1_9_5_4--+-13493392. I llis_~_u_m_a_n--1-iv_e_s--+-N--o_. ---~L--~ ·--+~-----~4~~-----+r------6~5~·~----+-- --5--2--1---~ 4. Loss of Cattle No. li 19988 I 15 ·-~ 4294 4319 65967 ~
I ~ff~~!~jes No. I 5090 J 1277 6807 7565 ~ l6. Area er_o_d--e-d--+-H-e-ct--a-r;j--_~ 5348.00 429657.00 12589.60 7829.72 I r-!l_{o_·s v_s_al_u_e_o_f_c_r_op-+--~-~--~-n--·-+t_·-_1--7-_3_5_--_1·.--5~7~-++-jl- _-_-8~3~5~.7~9----~: 1 ~1~4~5~5~9~.9~5~:---~1~4~7-o_o~---~--o- __+i.~------~~__, 8. Value of Rs. In houses 1648.45 259.49 4118.65 1869.22 lakh damaged
9. Total value of Rs. In 19000.02 1095.28 18678.60 16569.22 damages lakh 1------~---'------'------L------·· ~------"'------"'------' Source: Economic Survey, Assam: 2004-05.
116 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
Figure No.3 Bar Diagram of total value of damages caused by floods in Assam (Rs. In lakh).
Total Value of Damages caused by Floods in Assam (Rs in lakh) 20000 10000
0 2000 2001 2002 2003
Source: Economic Survey, Assam: 2004-05.
In fact, though all the districts of Assam were affected by floods of 2004; yet 10 numbers of districts namely, Kamrup, Nalbari, Darrang, Sonitpur, Tinsukia, Dhemaji, Nagaon, Morigaon, Dhubri, Lakhimpur were the worst affected districts. The flood caused large inundation wide spread devastation to standing crops, homestead, life and property, disruption of road and rail communication, public utilities, water supply installation, irrigation structures and flood control structures etc. As per Economic Survey Assam 2004-05 On 10 July, 2004, at 5-30 P.M. the artificial lake which was formed at about 30 Km upstream of Kurichu Hydel Project in Bhutan gave way due to retention of successive rain water and the entire volume of water rolled down with tremendous velocity through the Kurichu river (Manas- Beki- Aie river system) and finally entered into the Indian territory at Mathanguri and created havoc downstream with inundation and avulsion; Barpeta district was the worst affected due to avulsion of Beki river (Ibid: 2004- 05). The year 2004 also witnessed large-scale erosion at numerous
117 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
places by the nver Brahmaputra and its tributaries. A poor peasant once affected by flood cannot make up his loss by hard toil afterwards.
The resultant affect of heavy flood is erosion. In fact, it is more dangerous than flood as it can turn 'prince' into a 'pauper' over night. Innumerable villages and several thousand hectares of land in average are damaged by flood annually. A large areas are badly affected by erosion in the State annually too. On December 15, 2003 Shree Tarun Gogoi, the Chief Minister of Assam declared that about 4 lakh hectares of land had been eroded by the Brahmaputra in recent times.
These are: Rohmoria (Dibrugarh) ...... 298 hectares Nemati (Jorhat) ...... 328 hectares Majuli (J orhat) ...... 42000 hectares Kareng Chapori ...... Arney Chapori ...... Matmora, Balighat (Dhemaji) ...... 1 0, 000 hectares Moirabari, Bhuragaon ...... Lahorighat (Morigaon) ...... 15,000 hectares Palasbari-Gumi (Kamrup) ...... 10,000 hectares Mukalmua (Nalbari) ...... 80,000 hectares
Bohari, Baghbar (Barpeta) ...... ~ 8,000 hectares
Chunari- Hajirhat (Goalpara/Dhubri) ...... ~ .. 40,000 hectares Patabari (Dhubri) ...... 2500 hectares Source: Hussain: 2005
During the recent years erosion have rendered more than five lakhs of families landless (The Dainik Agradoot: Dec. 16, 2003). Though damages due to erosion have been going on in almost all the districts of the state, five districts of lower Assam namely, Morigaon, Nalbari, Barpeta, Goalpara and Dhubri are the worst affected.
118 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
3.3.2 Social and Demographic Aspects
It is very difficult to present the exact number of char villages and population of char villages of the mighty river Brahmaputra because of uncertainty of their existence. In this context it can also be said that it is very difficult to determine when a particular 'char' would appear and when that 'char' would extinguish /liquidate. Naturally, it is very difficult to furnish the exact number of char villages and population. Yet, Assam Govt. Char Development Authority prepared a list of char villages in 1985 and as per the survey 1256 char villages comprising 11 districts were in the Brahmaputra River.
Of course as per socio-economic survey report of the Directorate of Char Areas Development, 1992-93, fourteen numbers of districts comprising 2089 char villages having population of 16,00,244 and 2.39 lakh hectares of land. Out of 2.39 lakh hectares of land 1.68 hectares land was suitable cultivation and out of 16,00,244 lakh of population 8,01,261 lakh of population were below the poverty line. The Table no. 25 shows the name of districts covering the char villages along with district wise population of char areas as well as the rate of literacy.
119 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
Table No. 25 Districwise Char villages along with Population and Rate of Literacy, 1992-93.
District wise No. ofChar Rate of Sl. No. Name of District population of villages literacy% char areas
1 Darrang 121 135876 10.12 I 2 Barpeta 351 275525 12.90 j 3 Kamrup 148 105687 16.85 i-· I 4 Nalbari 58 62892 7.90 I ---~ 5 Bongaigaon 150 110215 12.58 l 6 I Goalpara 187 130007 8.38 '---· 7 Dhubri 313 233206 19.06 ~I 8 Morigaon 41 55581 8.02 ~-t- -- 9 Nowgong 1 29 45161 9.44 I 10 Dhemaji =+ 95 68998 14.44 ~1 _ Lakhimpur 182 110200 14.01 t ·-- l 12 Sonitpur 118 92061 12.63 I ---- 1 -- - ··- 13 Tinsukia 86 33034 14.20 -·· 14 Jorhat 210 141901 31.90
1 Total 2089 1600244 15.45 i ----- Source: Socw-Eco. Survey, Assam- 1992-93
Another survey was conducted by the Directorate of Char Areas Development, Assam in 2002-03 and according to survey report 2002- 03 the char areas of the river Brahmaputra constituted around 25 lakhs population covering 2251 villages and 14 districts. The related information regarding profile of Char areas along with district wise population, rate of literacy, land etc. are shown in Appendix. I & II.
Thus it is seen that the exact number of char villages and char population always are in a flux.
120 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
The State's profile of Char areas has been shown in Table No.26 along with literacy rate, educational institutions and medical facilities. The total Char areas in Assam is estimated as 3.60 lakh hectares out of which 2.42 lakh hectares is suitable for cultivation. Though the major portion of Char areas is dependent on agriculture yet the cultivable land is not adequate. There is growing pressure on land as it is also found that 9.35% of the state's char populations are living in 4.6% of state's total area. Density of population for the state happens to be 3 persons per hectare whereas in the char areas it is as high as persons per hectare. The poor literacy rate, higher sex-ratio, extreme poverty, lower medical facilities are some of the instances of deplorable socio-economic condition of Char people.
Before going to analyze social and demographic aspects of the char areas of Brahmaputra Valley we would like to mention here that barring a small number of indigenous people almost all the Char- dwellers are immigrant Muslims along with a small portion of Bengali refugees and Nepali immigrants. According to Abani Kr. Bhagawati (2005) all these population groups have cultural background of their own to characterize the Char landscape. It has been observed that major portion of these char areas are the Muslims. Muslims belong to religious minority under the constitution of India. Several studies and reports consider the Muslims as the marginalized groups. For instance, Sachar Committee Report has sketched the deplorable socio-economic condition of the Muslims in India. In connection with throwing light on socio-economic development of any marginalized group the utmost necessity is to peep into the demographic profile. Here lies the significance of demographic study as it can give us the socio-economic reality. It is observed that some scholars for instance, Bimal K. Kar (2008) has rightly argued in connection with analyzing changing
121 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
demographic structure of Assam that the Muslim witnessed a significance increase in their population from 24.56 percent in 1971 to as high as 30.92 percent in 2001. According to Kar (2008) the prevailing varying pattern of population growth among different groups in Assam is likely to bring about even more change in the demographic structure in near future with far-reaching socio-economic and political implication. Probably Kar (2008) did not take into account the prevailing socio-economic condition of the Muslims of the Brahmaputra valley of Assam along with backwardness in educational level which have tremendous influence in the demographic structure of any cultural group. Thus, a reputed scholar on demography Ashish Bose (2005) has rightly remarked the following manner:
"It is important to go beyond the population growth rate figures of Hindus and Muslims and give a thought to other demographic, economic and social variables...... From a study of the 2001 Census data from districts around the country with a substantial Muslim population, it appears that more than religion, it is the geographical location and economic conditions prevailing there that influence the condition of the people" (Ashish Bose: 2005).
Table No.26 (districts wise) has been shown the district w1se demographic char profile and other socio-economic information along with rate of literacy, density per sq. km. of the Char areas and also the percentage of Char area under cultivation.
122 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
Table No. 26 District wise Demographic Profile of Char areas of Assam 1 2 I 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 s:l s:l 0 ""Q) ...... jJ "Cf s:l Coot ~ cd Total Char Population 0 cd ::s ""Q) ::s CIS District cj "Cf -~ Q) ""~Q) cd s:l 0 i .a ~ cd s:l ~ Q) ::s "" a a 'tS"" cd ""cd ....0 l:io ::s:> Q) cd"" z- s:l • .c:l .c:l.jJ ~ :::> a ""cd u u ~ CIS cd cd CIS~ CIS~ Coot ~ "" ... Q) -..... - Q) • 0 cd ""0 0~ ~.c:l ~.c:l ~ ::s <"" M F ~ E-tO ~: 0 u 0~ 0 u 1. Dhubri 2798 346996 342913 689909 480 999.0 35.20 42.20 67.19
2. Bongaigaon 2152 70345 65464 135809 117 142.5 5.68 14.98 66.78
·3. Goalpara 18241 95521 I 91305 186826 179 198.6 10.89 22.72 66.68
4. Barpeta 3245 137708 130636 268344 277 366.5 11.30 16.341 67.48
5. Nalbari 2257 42702 40900 83602 32 134.315.95 7.34 66.97 6. Kamrup 14345 78258 76250 154508 175 171.71 3.95 6.14 67.88 '----- 7. Darrang 3481 74269 68136 142405 134 167.5 4.81 9.4'7 67.07
8. Sonitpur 5324 75119 70610 145729 145 141.1 4.62 8.68 67.90
9. Lakshimpur 22'77 73216 70019 143235 109 215.2 9.45 16.10 67.14
10. Dhemaji 3237 47689 43514 91203 149 169.8 5.24 16.01 66.84
11. Nagaon 3973 45302 44501 89803 43 120.4 3.14 3.88 66.93
I -·- 1 1 Morigaon 1551 47912 43412 91324 39 119.3 7.00 11.77 66.66 -- 13.Jorhat 2851 109617 105478 215095 293 421.7 14.80 21.31 66.43
14. Tinsukia 3790 27234 25371 52605 79 140.9 9.71 5.57 67.37 State's Total * 78,438-1271588-1218509-2490097-2251-3609.1-4.60-9.35- 67.17
* State's Total Area 78,438 sq. krn. also includes 9 other district's area which are not shown here.
123 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
Contd .. Table No.26
10 11 12
Sex Ratio of District Percentage of Char areas Density Per sq. km. Of the literacy in char (female per char areas areas 1000 males) I -·------r--- Dhubri 998 14.60 690 ==J Bongaigaon 930 12.46 953 I Goalpara 955 13.65 940.70
-- -·--··------~· Barpeta 948 17.63 732.18 I I - - ·----· --- Nalbari t--957 I 16.24 622.50 Kamrup 974 15.16 899.87 I t I Darrang -J 917 12.34 850.17 Sonitpur 940 16.93 1,032.80 --· Lakshimpur ± 956 -- 18.50 665.59 ------I Dhamaji 912 15.69 532.12
Nagaon 982 17.59 745.87
Morigaon 906 18.50 765.50
~or hat 962 60.55 510.06
Tinsukia 931 14.00 373.34
958 19.31 689.94
Source: Socio-Economic Survey, 1992-93 & 2003.
As mentioned earlier, major portion of char-dwellers are the Muslim immigrants migrated from erstwhile East Bengal (now
124 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
Bangladesh). According to Ismail Hussain (1998) almost 90% of their forefathers are converted Muslims, they converted from Hinduism few decades ago; 99% of these converted Muslims are belonged to lower castes of Hindus.
In fact lower-caste Hindus and tribals who converted to Islam were oppressed peasant community. Educationally backward, weak socio-economic foundation, religious conservatism, leadership of Matabbars (literally means Head) etc. are some of the features of society. Hussain has rightly observed thus:
Na-Asamiya Muslims are also at present, lagging far behind, economically and culturally, than most other communities, including the Asamiya Muslims and the Muslims of Barak Valley. Nevertheless, they have been striving hard to assimilate into the larger Asamiya nationality, and have contributed decisively in giving the Asamiya language an absolute and dominant majority status in Assam (M. Hussain : 1993).
The rate of literacy of char areas (expect Majuli island) is very poor; naturally Moulavi and Mollahs (clerics of Muslim society) played a significant and dominant role over the lives of char-dwellers and as a result which at times they are being misled by these clerics. In this way, fundamentalism and obscurantism have penetrated into the lives of illiterate Char-dwellers. These are considered as impediment relating to the development of progressive thinking in the Char society. Worst victims of fundamentalism are, of course, womenfolk of Char society. In other words womenfolk of Char society have failed to do any significant change in their lives because of prevalence of rigorous fundamentalists' control and influence in the society. In fact, 'purdah system' early marriage of girl child (before the completion of 15 years), illiteracy so far
125 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY as girl children are concerned etc. are some of the features of Char society in which, dominant role played by the fundamentalists can be experienced. Apart from this, almost all the brides fail to see the bridegrooms before the completion of marriages as restricted by the society; and as a result of which many brides who are at the age of 15 fall to the prey of so-called husbands (bride-grooms) who have to attain the age of 60. Economic backwardness has also been playing as contributory role in connection with making such kind of unscientific arrangement as many guardians make such arrangement of their daughters being allured to earn more wealth. In this way the womenfolk of char society are not only neglected but also the worst victims of the society.
According to Ismail Hussain (1997) Char areas of lower Assam are dominated by Dewanis or Matabbar (literally Head of the society) and they are considered as feudal lords. They have free hands so far as police station, Mandal, Kanungoo, Anchalik Panchayats, Mahakuma Parishads etc. are concerned. Even their influence relating to the affairs of the courts can also be observed. Thus they can play the role of adjudicator in matters relating to emergence of new 'Char' or having the proportion of share on the 'Khasland'. It also found that the central cause of conflict and clash of 'Char' areas is land and it is worthwhile to mention here that behind such a conflict or dispute there must be the role of 'Matabbar'. Even some teachers have been playing the role of Dewani in the Char society though, of late, their role (Dewani or Matabbars' role) has been challenged due to the emergence of educated youths in the Char society.
Though Manirul Hussain (1993) has remarked that due to certain historical reasons the process of middle class formation has
126 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
been very weak among the Na-Asamiyas, yet we can probably share the observation of Ismail Hussain who has rightly observed thus:
Middle class has also been emerged in the char areas because of acquiring some land, engaging in small trade along with engagement in government jobs by a small portion of char population. Their active participation can be observed in matters relating to the establishment of educational institutions and part played by them in several developmental activities. On the other hand, a portion of this class is also engaged to appropriate the resource of panchayats, co-operatives, haat-bazaar (market area) and other social institutions. Their exploitative nature can also be experienced in other activities as they are appropriating land as mortgage of poor people, offering loan imposing high interest, acting as mediator of conflict and disputes. In fact, they have been earning money by adopting any foul means, as their primary objective is to acquire asset so as to build house outside the Char areas. (Ismail Hussain; 1997 Translated from Assamese).
3.3.3 Socio-Economic Aspects
It can be stated that backwardness, illiteracy and extreme poverty are linked with Char dwellers. According to Bhagawati (2005) the Char-dwellers are economically poor, culturally backward and many of them live a kind of nomadic life. He has also rightly maintained that Char dwellers are to change their settlement sites mainly due to heavy and unpredictable bank erosiOn of the Brahmaputra; they often move by small country boats along with their little belongings in search of habitable and cultivable land from one area to other and thus hold a semi-nomadic character; such a situation has entitled many of them to be called a kind of 'river nomads'; it is because of environmental uncertainty and poverty, the Char-dwellers
127 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY cannot afford construction of modern permanent dwellings; they rather have to be content with small and temporary huts and sheds made of locally available building materials just to accommodate the family and the domesticated birds and animals (A.K. Bhagawati: 2005).
Major portion of char dwellers are not only the cultural groups belonging to Muslims but also the poor peasants. In fact, the economic condition of these poverty stricken peasants is determined on the basis of agriculture. It is noted here that around 95% of the Char dwellers are cultivators and a very small portion of the population are engaged in service, small trade or other occupations. Though the poor people of Char areas are hard working peasants yet they are socially and economically backward. Outmoded agricultural systems, lack adequate land and capital, flood and erosion are some of the reasons for which the peasant community have failed to raise their standard of living though observed that there is Zeal in producing paddy, pulse, mustard seeds, jute, sugar-cane, potato, ginger, onion, garlic, gourd, pumpkin, cucumber, brinjal, tomato etc. Ismail Hussain (1998) has remarked thus: Mazuli island is also considered as the notable Char of Assam. It can also be witnessed that there is workable communication system in Mazuli along with all the characteristics of n1odern Asamiya Villages. But the Char areas having dominated of immigrant Muslims are some thing different. The geographical and social picture of these Char areas are deplorable...... The economy of inaccessible Char areas dominated by immigrant Muslims is basically agriculture. Almost 99 percent people of these areas are related with agriculture. Cultivation methods are also ancient. There is no system of high yielding seeds, manure and irrigation facilities. There is no security of raiyats. Common cultivators are dependant on the kindness of Dewanis (headmen). If someone intends to go to char areas
128 Chapter-S CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY he or she would reach the destination after using country boat along with walking on foot several miles inside the sandy areas. Thus the peasants are compelled to sale their products (fish, milk, eggs, curd etc) at cheaper rate. Due to lack of proper daily market the peasants do not get real price of their produced crops. They also fail to store their products, as there is no arrangement of cold storage. They also face inconveniences in connection with marketing. That is why they take their products to the distantly situated weekly haats. The immigrants are supposed to fight constantly with flood and erosion. They are also supposed to leave the place losing the living land because of erosion. Despite this disadvantaged position the peasants of Char areas are enriching economy of Assam because of their hard working nature. Though they are living with extreme poverty yet they fail to consume their own products adequately. Apart from this, a portion of their labour goes to the pocket of Mahajan or Matabbars and these Matabbars are the owners of Char land. Appearance of new Chars are generally occupied by the poor farmers not only the cause of poverty but also enhances the property of Matabbars. Because of this exploitative nature of the Matabbars a large number of peasants compel to leave the household (Ismail Hussain: 1998).
Apart from this, illiteracy, lack of communication, lack of proper markets for products, lack of medical service, lack of consciousness about family planning etc. are some of the other major obstruction in the path of socio-economic development of Char dwellers which we have shown earlier in Appendix-H. Thus the observation of Manirul Hussain cannot be underestimated and whose observation runs in the following way:
Due to certain historical reasons, the process of middle class formation has been very weak among the Na-Asamiyas, which is
129 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY decisively a peasant community in an agriculturally backward, but largely agrarian state. They are highly exploited by the landed aristocracy belonging to their own community known as Matabbars (literally means Head), in collaboration with the state police and bureaucracy. The Matabbars are socially orthodox, politically conservative, and obviously they have the vested interests in keeping the entire community backward in order to ensure their own economic and political dominance in the existing exploitive system. ·><······,.<··· Na-Asamiya Muslims are an under-utilized and oppressed community of the Asamiya nationality (M. Hussain: 1993).
It is significant to note here that no separate land tenure system for the char areas is to be witnessed in Assam. The prevailing land tenure system is the legacy of British administration and the Assam Land and Revenue Regulation, 1886 is the foundation of the land revenue policy and land administration in Assam. This Land Act covers all the matters relating to land revenue. Of course, as A. Sheikh (2005: 18) has remarked that this Land Act does not deal with the rights of the raiyats who took agricultural land directly from the Govt. Thus to serve the rights of raiyats on land three different Tenancy Acts viz. (i) The Goalpara Tenancy Act, 1929 (applicable to the permanently settled areas of Goalpara), (ii) the Sylhet Tenancy Act, 1936, (applicable to the settled areas of Karimganj sub-division), and (iii) the Assam (Temporarily Settled Districts) Tenancy Act, 1935 (applicable to the temporarily settled areas of the plains districts) were enacted (Ibid: 18). Mention many be made here that all these Tenancy Acts were also replaced by the new Assam Tenancy Act of 1971 as the security provided under the Tenancy Acts was inadequate and this Act, too, replaced by the Adhiar Protection and Regulation Act of 1948 since Assam Tenancy Act of 1971 gives the Adhiar the status of a Tenant
130 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
(Ibid: 18). The people of rivarine areas have been facing acute problems relating to land revenue and patta in the char areas of Assam. In this context it is worthwhile to mention here that the exact number of Char villages, land area, area of agricultural land is not possible as the char areas in Assam have not yet been properly and systematically surveyed though there is a Directorate of Assam Char Areas Development. However, according to Assam Land Records Deptt. approximately 159203.21 hectares of land are covered by char areas in the four undivided districts of Goalpara, Kamrup, Darrang and Nowgong and out of this an area of 13,316.74 hectares are professional and village grazing reserves, 25474.57 hectares are under regular settlement, 12975 hectares are occupied by persons who have not given any pattas but who are required to pay tauzi-bahi-ra revenue and 15655.81 hectares are under unauthorized occupation. Of the total area (25474.57 hectares) under settlement, 3654.15 hectares are under annual leases and 21820.35 hectares under periodic lease and the periodic leases relate mostly to lands which were previously chars but later on become joint with the main banks after gradual silting up of the intervening channel (A. Sheikh: 2005).
It is interesting to note here that the method of agriculture is to some extent similar in the riversine areas of Brahmaputra whereas the land tenure system is totally dissimilar in all the char areas. It is also to be noted here that permanent settlement was prevalent in the Chars of Goalpara because of historical reasons. But in other chars of Brahmaputra valley the ryotowary system was prevalent. Because of these two systems the nature of land settlement in char areas also differ. The Zamindars settled the Char Lands to the immigrants on periodic lease in the permanent settled areas of Goalpara. But in temporarily settled areas of Assam when a new char is emerged in the
131 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
Brahmaputra is to be taken as the property of the state government which either keeps it as a grazing reserve or settled it with the cultivators as per Land Settlement Policy Resolution in force (Ibid: 2005). The Zamindars, under the permanent settlement, were the owners of the existing chars and welcomed the immigrants from East Bengal who were good cultivators and used to pay high rents and salamis. Disputes and conflict was the regular feature in the char areas of Goalpara District for the possession of newly char land so long as the Goalpara Tenancy Act was in vogue. In other char areas too, a newly emerging char in the Brahmaputra is often the incident of armed clashes and conflict between different groups under the leadership of Dewanis and Matabbars for the possession land. Land disputes do occur frequently in the riverine areas as systematic and scientific survey along with systematic enforcement of revenue administration is still yet to be enforced.
According to Char Area Development Authority, 1999 the total number of Chars of Assam is 2230. In order to implement developmental schemes in these huge areas the Govt. of Assam through Char Area Development Authority since its inception (1983), allotment of fund and expenditures in different heads have been made the following way:
132 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
Table: 27 B u dtge t ary All ocaf wn £or Char Area D eve 1opmen tb v G ovemment 0 fA ssam. Estimated Fund Expenditure Budget (Rs. Expenditure Total (Rs. in Year Allotted (Rs. (Rs. in In Lakhs) (Rs. in Lakhs) In Lakhs) Lakhs) Lakhs) 1985-86 50 50 16.84 33.16 50.00 1986-87 60 60 14.22 45.78 60.00 1987-88 78 78 19.36 58.57 77.93 1988-89 83 39 11.19 27.81 39.00 1989-90 83 83 20.96 62.04 83.00 1990-91 96 96 27 69.61 96.61 1991-92 110 109.77 34.86 74.91 109.77 1992-93 110 66.66 28.25 38.41 66.66 1993-94 110 110 36.35 73.65 110.00 1994-95 110 105.10 42.27 62.83 105.10 1995-96 110 107.78 50.40 57.38 107.78 1996-97 110 98.72 47.14 51.58 98.72 1997-98 110 89.52 47.44 42.08 89.52 1998-99 121 87.30 59.32 27.98 87.30 1999-2000 115 102.72 75.06 27.66 102.72 2000-01 I 118 94.30 75.09 19.21 94.30 2001-02 96 N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. Source: Isma1l Hussam (2002: p. 2-3)
It is observed that the people of Char areas have been experiencing acute discrimination relating to the question of economic upliftment. As per Table 28 it is found that the total fund amounting to Rs. 50 lakhs only was allocated during 1985-86 for the development of Char areas. Out of this total outlay 16.84 lakhs was spent for the payment of the officials and 33.16 lakhs was spent for the purpose of development. In other words, it can be said that out of total budget allocation 66.32% was spent for developmental schemes whereas 33.68% was spent for the payment of officials as salary. During 16 years (from 1985-2001) as per table, it is found that allocation in the budget was not at all enhanced as per ratio of the people of Char areas. During 2000-2001, an amount of Rs. 118 lakhs was earmarked in the budget for Char Areas Development and out of this releasing amount of Rs.94.30 lakhs was released and out of Rs.94.30 lakhs Rs.75.09 lakhs was spent for development. In other words, out of releasing amount
133 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
79.63% was spent for salary of the officials and schemes as well as Rs.19.21 lakhs was spent for salary and preparation of schemes and 20.37% was spent only for development. It is noted that total population of Char areas in 1997 is 21,60,024 and the population was increased to 23 lakhs in the year 2001. Thus it is said that Rs. 19.21 lak:hs was spent against the population of 23 lakhs, which meant Rs. 0.83 was spent per individual. In this way it can be stated that the people of Char areas have been facing acute discriminatory treatment.
Of course, the total outlay under different developmental schemes for its development has been increased since 2002-03. For instance, the total outlay has increased from Rs. 108.00 lakhs in 2002- 03 to Rs. 188.00 lakhs in 2003-04 and again has been enhanced to Rs. 224.00 lakhs 2004-05 (Socio-Economic Survey Report 2002-03 of Char areas of Assam).
Apart from this, the Directorate has been implementing various developmental programmes as a "Special Areas Programme" in char areas like Agriculture, Vety. & Dairy, Drinking water facility, Cottage Industry and Education schemes. The components of the Developmental programmes are in brief stated below:
(I) Agriculture:
a) Distribution of HYV Rabi Seeds.
b) Distribution of STWs
c) Tillage Operation by Power Tillers.
(II} Veterinary and Dairy
a) Construction of Raised earthen Platforms for Sheltering cattle and human being during the flood season.
134 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
(III) Drinking water Facility:
a) Distribution of Hand Tube Wells. (IV) Cottage Industry:
a) Distribution of Sewing Machine.
b) Distribution of Handlooms.
c) Six Months Training Programmes for Weaving, Sewing, Cutting-knitting etc. unemployed educated girls of Char Areas.
(V) Education Schemes:
a) Aid for improvement of School buildings.
b) Computer training for educated unemployed youths.
c) Nurse-cum-Midwife training programme to educate girls.
d) Distribution of Sports goods/Books to School/Club/ Library etc.
Source: Economi Survey Assam 2004-05.
3.4 Conclusion
In fact, the lives of char people are closely bound up with the flow of rivers - and with flooding. Chars themselves face constant erosion and reformation, as rivers wash away soil and deposit silt. Thus, almost all the char villages are vulnerable to erosion flooding, though people living by unprotected river channels face special risks. As mentioned earlier, the question of land remains unresolved so far as 'pattas' are concerned as Chakraborty and Alam (2005) have rightly observed. Till now there has been a total lack of co-ordinated approach regarding various aspects of tenancy, rent, riverine, ownership and patta settlements in char areas. Due to the absence of cadastral survey the situation has worsened as limited number of char dewellers have meadi patta over their land while majority possess Ek Chona and Touzi
135 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
Patta while the rest are considered as Khas or Government land. According to a survey on char areas of Barpeta district conducted by Atul Go swami (2000) it is found that only 17.76 percent of the land is under meadi settlement, out of the rest 38.76 percent is Touzi settlement whereas 43.48 percent of land is under Ek Chona settlement. In others, in 82.24 percent of land the cultivators have no legal rights and ownership title (Atul Goswami: 2000). It can be said that the situation is no different in char villages of other districts of the state. As the major portion of char people have no right and ownership title on the land they have failed to get loan from recognized financial institutions even mortgaging their land documents. At times, they also fail to prove as Indian citizens because of land documents.
As mentioned earlier the char villages of Brahmaputra valley are inhabited by large group of people specially Minorities people. Socio Economic Survey Report 2002-03 of Char Areas of Assam, conducted by Directorate of Char Areas Development (Vide Appendix II) has reported that there are 2251 numbers of Char villages from Sadiya to Dhubri with a population of 2,490,097 and the male-female break-up is (M) 1,271,588 and (F) 1,218,509 with a sex ratio of 958. The total number of family in the char areas are 434754 and 67.88 percent people in average are living below the poverty line which indicates the poor socio-economic condition of the people. The total literate persons are 480,807 and the percent of literacy of the char areas is 19.31. The low literacy rate, poor medical facilities, lack of proper means of communication, lack of pure drinking water etc. have turned the people of char areas into a nomadic tribe. In the next chapter economic and political empowerment of women we would like to focus our attention on the char areas of the Barpeta District.
136 Chapter-3 CHAR AREAS OF BRAHMAPUTRA VALLEY
Notes:
1. Garia: Sometimes this term is used to denote the entire Asamiya Muslims. According to Gait, the word Garia is an indication of their claims to have come from Gaur, the medieval Mohammedan Capital of Bengal.
Source: Gait: 1983 and Hussain: 1993.
137 CHAPTER-4
WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES
4.1 Introduction
The present chapter is concerned with our field based studies in the three Development Blocks of Barpeta District of Assam comprising a major segment of the Char Areas of the Brahmaputra Valley. We conducted both field surveys and interviews to arrive at an understanding of women's position in family, society and political processes. The present chapter has been divided into 5 sections including the present introductory section. Section two presents a general profile of the Barpeta District together with brief details of the Char villages under our sample. The third section presents brief profiles of three Development Blocks. The fourth section presents our major research findings through Tables and Charts. The fifth section concludes the chapter.
4.2 General profile of the Barpeta district
The Barpeta district was carved out of erstwhile Kamrup district of Assam in July 1983. Created as a Civil Sub-Division in 1841 by the British Administration, John Battler was the first administrative officer of erstwhile civil Sub-Division.
This Lower Assam District covers an area of 3245 square K.Ms. and is bounded by international border i.e. Bhutan Hills in the North, Nalbari District in the East, Kamrup and Goalpara Districts in the South and Bongaigaon district m the west (file://E:\internet\Geographical%20 location, htm). Today Barpeta Comprises two Sub-Division (as on 31-03-2004), twelve Blocks (as on 31-3-2004), eight Revenue Circles (as per 2001 Census), 150 numbers of Gaon Panchayats (as on 31-08-2004), 1073 villages along with 23 uninhabited (as per 2001 census) and 7 number of towns (as per 2001 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES census) (Statistical Handbook of Assam: 2004). As per socio economic profile of Barpeta District (vide Appendix-VI) the HDI rank is 9 and GDI rank is 10 out of 23 districts of Assam which is not at all satisfactory (excluding four districts of BTC).
The demographic proflle of Barpeta District has been shown in Table No. 28
Table No. 28 Demographic Proflle of Barpeta District as Per 2001 census. Population and literacy: As per 2001 census r; ______N_a_t_u_r_e------4---- _N_u_rn__ b_e_r ___ ==l--~ Total Population 1647201 Total Male Population 848578 Total Female Population 798623
~Sex Ratio 1000: 941 I Population Density 506 + .... _ I Total literate Persons 752682 I - Literate (Male) 448021 Literate (Female) 304661 r-- Literacy Rate (Male) 64.83% Literacy Rate (Female) 47.07% Total literacy Rate 56.24% Source: Census of India 2001, Part Assam Senes: 19.
Barpeta district is the fourth largest populated district of Assam. At the district level, the highest overall literacy rate is in Jorhat (76.3 percent) followed by Sibsagar (74.5 percent} and Kamrup (74.2 percent). On the other hand the lowest literacy rate is recorded in Dhubri (48.2 percent) and the literacy rate in Barpeta is 56.2 percent ranking the position 20 out of 23 districts not at all satisfactory. As
139 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES
Barpeta district is one of the significant Muslim dominated districts of Assam we would like to present Muslim population and literacy rate as per 2001 census in Table No. 29
Table No. 29 Muslim population and literacy rate in Barpeta district: As per 2001 census. b Nature Number Total Muslim population 977943 Total Muslim Male population 506735 I Total Muslim Female 471208 ulation i Sex Ratio I 1000; 929 Total literate Persons (Muslim) 320754 ------Literate: Male (Muslim) 199997 , Population I Literate: Female (Muslim) 120757
~pulation --- L1teracy Rate: Male (Muslim) 50.70% -- Literacy Rate: Female (Muslim) 33.28% Total literacy Rate : (Muslims) 42.35% Source : 1. Census of India 200 1, Part Assam Series: 19. 2. Statistical Handbook fo Assam, 2003-04 & 2006-07.
It is found from Table 29 that sex-ratio of the Muslim population Barpeta District is lower as compared to sex-ratio of the overall population of the district. It has not only reduced the number of Muslim women population but also has reduced the status of women. As far as literacy rate of the Muslim population is concerned it is seen that there is 13.89% literacy gap of the Muslims with overall population of the district. The literacy rate of all male population of the district is 64.83% and if we compare this with Muslim male's literacy rate it would come to 14.0% literacy gap of the Muslim male's literacy. It can
140 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES safely state that Muslims are backward in educational level. The female literacy gap of the Muslims with overall population of the district is 13.79%, which also signifies backwardness of Muslim female education. If we compare the literacy rate of Muslim population of Barpeta district with the literacy rate of the people belonging to Hindus we can experience a wider gap between the two religious groups which has been shown in Table 30.
Table No. 30
Literacy Rate of Hindus & Muslims: Barpeta District, As per 2001 census
Literacy Rate: Hindus Literacy Rate: Muslims
I Total Literacy Rate: 74.51 % Total Literacy Rate: 42.35%
~Male Literacy Rate: 83.78% I Male Literacy Rate: 50.70% k-- I 1 Female Literacy Rate:_6_4___ 8_5_CX_o_-+_F_e_m_a_le-L-it_e_r_a_c_y_R_a-te_:_3_3_. 2_8_% ____ _
I------Source : Statistical Ha..11.dbook of Assam, 2003-04 & 2006-07.
Thus it can be said that there is wider gap between the two dominant groups of the district. It is worthwhile to mention here that education IS directly linked to socio-economic and cultural development. Apart from this, educational development is utmost necessity in connection with controlling growth of population. If a dominant cultural group is neglected in connection with achieving proper education how can we expect a balanced growth rate along with a better socio-economic condition from a particular community. We would focus these significant issues in details along with highlighting the role of women in family society as well as in the political process.
141 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES
We have already pointed out in the earlier analysis that Barpeta District covers an area of 3245 sq.kms in which the total Char area is 366.5 sq. kms. Thus, 11.30 percent area of the district is under Char areas covering the 16.34% of Char population as the Char population stands at 268344, having sex ratio of 948 and density of population is 732.
As per Socio-Economic Survey, 2002-2003, conducted in the 'Char Areas' (riverine areas) of Assam, we can experience 277 char villages of Barpeta District (vide : Appendix-III), under 5 numbers of Community Development Blocks and 31 Gaon Panchayats within one Sub-Division comprising 36,655 hectares of land and 268,344 population. Out of the total population, the number of male population is 137,708 and female population is 130,636 covering 45,792 total number of family. The total literate persons are 4 7,309 and the number illiterate persons are 221,035, being overall literacy rate is 17.63 percent as well as 67 percent family in average are living below poverty line (Socio-Economic Survey: 2002-2003). It is worthwhile to mention here that barring a very few almost all the char villages of the district are Muslim dominated villages belonging to immigrant Muslims. Two hundred seventy seven (277) char villages of Barpeta district are under the jurisdiction of five (5) Char Development Block. They are - ( 1) Mandia Development Block, (2) Barbaradi Development Block (3) Chenga Development Block (4) Keutkuchi Development Block (5) Rupshi Development Block. Eighteen Gaon Panchayats under Mandia Development Block have covered one hundred sixty four char villages, two Gaon Panchayats under Barbaradi Development Block have covered twenty-three char villages, Chenga Development Block covering four Gaon Panchayats having forty-two char villages, Rupshi Development Block having six Gaon Panchayats forty-two char villages 142 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES
and Keutkuchi Development Block covering just one Gaon Panchayat having six char villages.
Socio-Economic Profile of Surveyed Char villages:
Though we have shown socio-economic and demographic profile of selected 18 char villages (see Appendix-V) of Barpeta District yet it is our attempt to present in brief the socio-economc profile of our surveyed char villages as per Socia-Economic Survey Report, 2003 and Census of India, 200 1 in the following way:
Char Village No. 1 Islampur: The char village Islampur is under Bhatnapaty Gaon Panchyat. The village is situated under Mandia Development Block. As per Socio-Economic Survey Report, 2002-003, of Char Areas Assam, the total population of the village is 312 comprising 162 males and 150 females. The sex-ratio is 925. The percentage family living below the poverty line is 67.31 and the literacy rate is 17.63 percent. According to census, 2001, the population Islampur 457, out of which male population is 245 and female population is 212 having a sex ratio of 865. The literacy rate is 25.7 percent out of which male-female literacy rate is 37.3 percent and 12.1 percent respectively and the gender gap in literacy is 25.2 percent!.
Char Village No. 2 Jahanar Ghola: Jahanar Glola is under Mandia Development Block and is under Baghbar Gaon Panchayat. The total population is 366 out of which male population is 366 out of which male population is 182 and female population is 184 having a sex ratio of 1010 as per Socio-economic survey Report, 2002-2003, char areas of Assam. The percentage of family living below the poverty line is 67.65 along with literacy rate of 19.13 percent. But according to Census 2001, the total population of Jahanar Ghola is 349 having 179 male population and 170 female population. The sex ratio is 949 and the 143 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES
literacy rate is 20.6 percent in which the percentage of male literacy is 31.2 and female literacy is 8.7 and the gender gap in literacy rate is 22.5 percent.
Char Village No. 3. Aligaon Pathar: The char village Aligaon Pathre is within the jurisdiction of Mandia Development Block. The village is under the Gaon Panchyat of Manikpur. As per Socio-Economic Survey, 2002-03 char area of Assam, the total number of persons of the village is 437 comprising 222 males and 215 females having a sex ratio of 968. The percentage of family living below the poverty line is 66.67 together with literacy rate of 17.62 percent. But, according to census 2001, the total persons Aligaon Pathar is 153 out which males are 80 and females are 73 having a sex-ratio of 912. The percentage of literacy is 21.4 out of which the literacy rate of male is 34.4 percent and the literacy rate of females is 7. 1 percent along with a gender gap in literacy 27.3 percent, which is extremely wider.
Char Village No. 4. Gulia: The Char village Gulia is situated at Lashunga Gaon Panchayat under Rupshi Development Block. As per socio-economic Survey Report 2002-03, Char areas of Assam, the total population of this Char village is430 out of which 225 are males and 205 are females having a sex-ratio of 911 along with the percentage of family living below the poverty line is 70.83. The percentage of literacy rate is 17.44. But, as per Census 2001, the total number of persons is 1965 and the male-female break-up is 872 and 823 respectively having a sex ratio of 943. According to 2001 census, the percentage of literacy rate is 44.1 in which the percentage of male literacy rate is 51 and female literacy rate is 36.5 having a gender gap is 14.5.
144 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES
Char Village No.5. Sarudia: The Char village Sarudia is under Dakhin Gadhuni Panchayat and Chenga Development Block having a small number of population of 247 comprising 117 males and 130 females with a sex-ratio of 1111 as per Socio-Economic Survey, 2002- 03, Char Areas of Assam. The percentage of family living below the poverty line is 66.67 and the percentage of literacy rate is 17 .41. But according to 2001 Census, the total population is 275 having 144 males and 131 with a sex ratio of 909. The overall percentage of literacy rate is 60 percent out of which the literacy rate of males is 64.8 percent and females' literacy rate is 54.6 percent having a gender gap in literacy 2 percent, which, of course, not at all disturbing in comparison to other four char villages as mentioned earlier.
Char Village No. 6. Balajan: The Char village Balajan 1s under Baghbar Gaon Panchayat and Mandia Development Block. The total population is 445 out of which 235 males and 210 females having a sex ratio of 893 as per Socio-Economic Survey, 2002-03, Char Areas of Assam. The percentage of family living below the poverty line is 67.07 with a literacy rate of 16.85 percent. But Census 2001 gives slightly different picture relating to total population. According to 200 1 census, the total population of Balajan is 619. The male population is 315 and females are 304 with a sex ratio of 965. The percentage of literacy rate is 38.2 in which the rate of males' literacy is 46.4 percent and females' rate of literacy is 29.4 percent with a gender gap in literacy is 17.1 percent.
Char Village No. 7. Morabajh: The char village Morabajh is within Baghbar Gaon Panchayat and Mandia Development Block and the total persons of this village is 725 having 363 males and 362 females along with sex ratio of 997 and the percentage of family living below the
145 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES
poverty line is 73.13. The literacy rate of this village is 17.24 percent as per Socio-Economic Survey 2002-03. But according to 2001 Census, the total population of Morabjh is 1192 having 624 males and 568 females with a sex ratio of 910. The literacy rate of this village is 35.9 percent. The literacy rate of males is 44.8 percent and the females' literacy rate is 26.2 percent having a gender gap in literacy rate is 18.6 percent.
Char Village No. 8. Jahanar Gaon: Jahanar Gaon is another char village which is under the jurisdiction of Baghbor Gaon Panchayat and Mandia Development Block and the total population of this village is 408 males and 397 females along with a sex ratio of 973 and the percentage of family living below the poverty line is 67.12 along with the literacy rate is 19.63 percent as per Socio-Economic Survey, 2002-03, Char areas of Assam. According to census 2001, the total population of this village 1306 having 675 males and 631 females with a sex ratio of 934. The literacy rate is 31.1 percent having males' literacy rate is 39.2 percent and females' literacy rate is 22.4 percent with a gender gap in literacy rate 16.9 percent.
Char Village No. 9. Bamundongra: The char village Bamundongra under Bamundongra Gaon Panchayat and Mandia Development Block and the total persons of this village is 624 having 313 males and 311 females as per Socio-Economic Survey, 2002-03, Char Areas of Assam. The sex ratio is 993 and the percentage of family living below the poverty line is 67.31. The literacy rate of this village is 17.63 percent. But, according to census 2001, the total population of this village is 1994, which is much more than the total population conducted by Socio-Economic Survey, 2002-03. The males are 1023 and females are 971 out of 1994. The literacy rate is 48.8 percent having males literacy
146 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES rate is 57.9 percent and females rate of literacy is 38.6 percent along with a gender gap in literacy rate is 19.3 percent. Though there is gender gap in literacy yet the overall rate of literacy not at all too much dismal in comparison to other char villages as mentioned earlier.
Char Village No. 10. Todhara Gaon: As per Socio-Economic Survey, 2002-03 Char Areas of Assam, the char village Todhara Gaon is also within Mandia Development Block but the village is under Dighirpar Gaon Panchayat. The total persons of this village is 573 having 298 males and 275 females along with a sex ratio of 922. The percentage of family living below the poverty line is 65.98 and the literacy rate of this village is 19.02 percent. But the total population of this village is 1463 as per census 2001 out which males are 765 and females are 698 having a sex ratio of912. The literacy rate is 41.1 percent having males literacy rate is 52 percent and females literacy rate is 27.9 percent with a gender gap of 24.8 percent in literacy rate.
Char Village No. 11. Udmari: Udmari is a Char village of Sonapur Gaon Panchayat under Rupshi Development Block. Accoding to Socio Economic Survey Report 2002-03, Char areas of Assam, the total population of this village is 825 out of which males are 425 and females are 400. The sex ratio is 941 and the percentage of family living below the poverty line is 73.61 along with a literacy rate of 18.79 percent. But, as per Census 2001, the total number of person of this village is 1493 comprising 777 males and 716 females having a sex ratio of 921. The literacy rate of this village is 48.2 percent. The male literacy rate is 55.6 percent and females literacy rate is 40.2 percent with a gender gap of literacy rate is 15.4 percent.
147 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES
Char Village No. 12. SUashi Pather: Salashi Pather is under Baghbor Gaon Panchayat and Mandia Development Block and the total persons are 925 with 463 males and 462 females with a sex ratio of 997 and the percentage of family living below the poverty line is 67.25 having a literacy rate of 17.08 percent as per Socio-Economic Survey, 2002-03 Char areas of Assam. But, the Census 200 1 gives us a different picture regarding the total population of this village. In fact, the total population of this village is 1580 with 805 males and 775 females, which is much more in comparison to Socio-Economic Survey of 2002- 03. Probably, this is due to erosion of some areas of this village. The sex ratio 962 and the overall literacy rate 24.1 percent with males literacy rate is 30A percent and females literacy rate is 17.3 percent with a gender gap in literacy of 13.1 percent.
Char Village No. 13. Baghbor Gaon: The char village Baghbor Gaon is under Baghbor Gaon Panchayat and Mandia Development Block with a population 1935 out of which males are 975 and females are 960. The sex ratio is 984 and the literacy rate is 17.83 percent. The percentage of family living below the poverty line is 68.09 as per Socio Economic Survey Report 2002-03, Char Areas of Assam. But according to Census 2001, the total persons of this char Gaon is 941 having males literacy rate is 47.4 percent and females' literacy rate is 30.4 percent with a gender gap in literacy of 17.0 percent.
Char Village No. 14. Niz Baghbor: Char village Niz Baghbor is also within the jurisdiction of Baghbor Gaon Panchayat and Mandia Development Block. As per Socio-Economic Survey Report 2002-03, char areas of Assam, the total population of this village is 2032 with 1025 males and 1007 females along with a sex ratio of 982. The percentage of family living below the poverty line is 66.05 and the
148 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES literacy rate is 17.52 percent. But, according to Census 2001, the total population is 3204, which is much more than the total population of 2032 conducted by Survey Report of 2002-03. The total male population is 1644 and female population is 1560 with a sex ratio of 948. The literacy rate is 42.6 percent in which males' literacy rate is 56.9 percent and females' literacy rate is just 27.4 percent having a wider gender gap in literacy of 29.6 percent.
Char Village No. 15. Char Saria: The Char village Char Saria is under the Gaon Panchayat of Guliza and Rupshi Development Block and as per Socio-Economic Survey Report 2002-03, Char Areas of Assam, the population of this village is 1590 having 798 males and 792 females with a sex ratio of 992 and the percentage of family living below the poverty line is 70.94. The literacy rate is 17.61 percent. But, according to Census 2001, the total population is 1248 with males 673 and 575 females and the sex ratio is 854. The literacy rate is 24.2 percent with male literacy rate percent and female literacy rate 14.6 along with a gender gap in literacy rate of 18.1 percent.
Char Village No. 16. Major Char: The char village Major Char is under the Gaon Panchayat of Dakhin Godhuni and Chenga Development Block As per Socio--Economic Survey, 2002-03, Char Areas of Assm, the total persons are 1123 out of which males are 563 and females are 560 with a sex ratio of 994. The percentage of family living below the poverty line is 66.84 percent and the literacy rate is 17.63 percent. According to Census 2001 the population of this village is 1056 with 548 males and 508 females having a sex ratio of 927. The literacy rate is 14.4 percent having males literacy rate 19.1 percent and females literacy rate 9.2 percent along with gender gap in literacy rate of 9.8 percent.
149 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES Char Village No. 17. Dighir Pather: The char village Dighir Pather is within the Gaon Panchayat of Dighir Pam and Mandia Development Block. As per Socio-Economic Survey Report 2002-03, Char Areas of Assam, the total population of this char village is 2517 having 1312 male population and 1205 female population and the sex ratio is 912. The percentage of family living below the poverty line is 66.98 and the literacy rate is 18.08 percent. But, according to Census 2001, the total population of this village is 1667 out of which males are 860 and females are 807 and the sex ratio is 938. The literacy rate is 35.8 percent in which males literacy rate is 45.3 percent and females rate of literacy percent with a gender gap in literacy rate is 19.5 percent.
Char Village No. 18. Dakhin Godhuni: The char village Dakhin Godhuni is within the Gaon Panchayat of Dakhin Godhuni and Chenga Development Block. According to the Socio-Economic Survey Report, 2002-2003, Char Area of Assam the village has 1325 persons with 675 males and 650 females and its sex ratio is 962. The percentage of family living below the poverty line is 66.81 and the literacy rate is 17.58 percent. But, according to census 2001 the total persons of this village is 2338 out of which male population is 1216 and female population is 1122 with a sex ratio of 922. The overall literacy rate is 21.6 percent in which males literate rate is 28.6 percent and females literacy rate is 14.4 percent and the gender gap in literacy rate is 14.2 percent.
Now we would like to analysis the profile of three important blocks of Barpeta District of Char areas of Assam.
150 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES 4.3.1 Profile of the Block Mandia:
Mandia Development Block is one of the largest Blocks of Assam. The Block came into existence in the year 1952. There are 18 Gaon Panchayats under the jurisdiction of this Block
The Block also covers 164 Char villages having the population of 167429 as per socio-economic survey report, 2002- 03, Government Assam. The male-female break up is 84810 (males) and 82619 (females) having a sex ratio of 974. The total area of Char villages under this Block is 26222 hectares. Of this, cultivable land is 17690 hectares and uncultivable land is 8506 hectares. Thus, total cultivable land is 67.46 percent. The literacy rate covering 164 Char villages under the Mandia development block is 17.64 percent. There are 179 lower primary schools, 50 middle schools, 20 high schools, 1 higher secondary school two colleges. There are 5 Public Health Centres and 16 Sub Centres so far as medical facilities are concerned.
There are 28942 numbers of family covering 164 Char villages under the Mandia Development Block. Of this, 19449 numbers of family are below the poverty line having the percentage of 67.20. Out of 11.30% Char areas of Barpeta District, 8.08% Char areas are covered by Mandia Development Block along with density of population per sq.km. is 638.
4.3.2. Profile of the Block Rupshi:
Rupshi Development Block came in to existence in the year 1960. There are forty-two Char villages and six Gaon Panchayats under the jurisdiction of Rupshi Development Block having the total Char population of 31,264. The total number of male population is 16987 and female population is 14277 having the sex ratio of 840. The total
151 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES land (in hectares) is 3745 and out of this total land, cultivable land is 2504 hectares along with 1241 hectares uncultivable area of land. Thus it is said that 66.86 percent of total land belongs to cultivable land. The literacy rate of these 44 Char villages comprising this block is 19.02 percent. There are 37 lower primary schools, 13 middle schools, 3 high schools having no higher secondary schools and colleges. Medical facilities are totally absent in these 44 Char villages. There is no irrigation facilities too. Out of 5642 total number of family 4051 families are living below the poverty line having the rate of poverty 71.80 percent. The total percentage of Char areas under Barpeta District is 11.30% as mentioned earlier. Of this, 1.15% Char areas are covered by Rupshi Development Block having the density of population per sq. km. is 835.
4.3.3. Profile of the Block Chenga:
Chenga Development Block was created in the year 1963. There are 42 Char villages along with 4 Gaon Panchayats comprising the total population of 41159. The male-female breakup is 20864 (males) and 20295 (females) having the sex ratio of 972. The total area is 5243 hectares and out of this total area 3530 hectares are cultivable land and 1703 hectares are uncultivable land. Thus the percentage of cultivable land is 67 .33. The literacy rate of this block is 17.51 percent. There are 41 lower primary schools, 10 middle schools, 4 high schools having no higher secondary schools and colleges under the 42 Char villages covering Chenga Development Block. The medical facilities are extremely dismal as there is not a Public Health Centre and dispensary created so far in these villages except a Sub-Centre. Out of 11.30%Char areas of the district Chenga Development Block has covered 1.61% Char areas having the density of population is 785. The absence of
152 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES
irrigable land also creates obstacles, which has certainly broadened the burden of poor cultivators. There are 6909 numbers of total families in these Char villages covering the Block. Out of these total families, 4628 numbers of families are below the poverty line having the percentage of 67.
Before going to focus the role of women in family, society and the political process in the Development Blocks of Mandia, Rupshi and Chenga covering the Char areas of Barpeta Districts m the Brahmaputra Valley of Assam, we would like to throw some lights on question of womenfolk playing their part in family, society and the political process.
4.4 Women in family, society and political process in selected Blocks:
According to Kasema Khatun ( 1997) womenfolk of Char areas are not allowed to go to nearby houses after sunset. She has also remarked that young girls are prohibited from going to 'Ghats" of the river in the evening (Ibid: 1997). It has also been observed in these Char villages that after the demise of husband, a widow if she desires may accept brother-in-law (husband's younger brother) as husband or brother-in law may accept sister-in-law (wife of an elder brother) as wife. In other words, widow remarriage and marriage a divorced lady are prevalent in Muslim dominated Char areas. Among the Muslims of Char villages the marriage of very young girls is still quite prevalent as mentioned earlier. In fact, marriage of female Char dwellers at the age of 12 to 16 years is commonly noticed. Polygamy is also allowed in the Char villages like other Muslim dominated societies. Joint family system can also be noticed in these areas. The practice of purdah is another custom among the womenfolk of Char areas. The birth of a girl is also 153 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES considered as an unfortunate and unpleasant event in the Muslim families of Char areas as like as Hindu families. As per Islamic rules a woman is entitled to possess land as well as the maternal property. Of course, these are maintained and looked after by their male relatives. As the Char areas are fluctuated because of flood and erosion, so major portion of Char dwellers suffer loss of huge areas of landed property every year. Thus, the right to possess land by womenfolk of Char areas of these villages fail to make significant impact on their lives.
The general observations of Kasema Khatun ( 1997) have been borne out by our field studies of selected Char Villages of the three Development Blocks, , Mandia, and Chenga. In our sample all the respondents of whom majority were less than of thirty (30) years of age, were married and Muslims (See Table No.31). Within family the women members generally had low autonomy. In our questionnaire we have grouped different indicators as low, moderate and high women's autonomy according to a scale (7 no.).
This has been constructed from the reported decision-making power of woman with respect to (a) what to cook, (b) obtaiing health care, (c) purchase jewellery, (d) respondent staying with family, (e) how money will be spent; and freedom of movement with respect to (a) go to market and (b) visit relatives. In the case of decision-making, the codes used are: Own decision= 2; Joint decision == 1; Others= 0. In the case of freedom of movement, the codes are: Yes = 2; No = 0. The total autonomy scores range from 0 to 16. This has been classified as low (0- 5), moderate (6-11) and high (12-16).
Accordingly, 84.17% was found to have low autonomy in decision making and a zero percentage of high decision making in the surveyed Char Villages (See Table No.32). Almost all the women respondents 154 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES were housewives (90.83%) with the remaining engaged in agricultural works. 78.06% returned with no monthly income, 21.67% having income in between 1000-2000 and 0.28% having income in between (2000-5000). Expenditure pattern revealed a pattern of subsistence living and none of the women respondents owned land (See Table 33). Without exception all the women respondents took decision in consultation with their husbands (See Table No.34). Given this it was surprising to find that 96.94% of women respondents refused to find any gender discrimination in family (See Table 35). It may be they did not have any clear idea of gender discrimination at all. We had distinguished five stages of household socio-economic status. A composite index of household socio-economic status or standard of living index was constructed by combining house type, toilet facility, source of lighting, fuel for cooking, source of drinking water, separate room for cooking, ownership of house, ownership of agricultural land, ownership of irrigated land, ownership of livestock and ownership of durable goods like car, television, telephone etc. This index scores range from (1} 1-8: Low SLI, (2) 9-15: Lower Middle SLI, (3) 16-22: Middle SLI, (4) 23-32: Upper Middle SLI; (5) 32-48: High SLL
155 Table No.31
Social background
~- ~------T-· l ! ; Age Marital Status I Religion Women's Education ! I 1
Name of Block Name of Village If----.~--r--~~--l , I _g"' i . -a I -~ I I I . u ~_J I $ <( I ·fl! i ~ :::> .§ I ~ o
Women's Autonomy in decision-making
Women's Autonomy Name of Block Narne of Village I I I Low Moderate High ---- Dighir Pathar --- 15 5 Niz Baghbar 15 ---·- - 5 Baghbar Gaon 15 5 Silashi Pather 18 2 Morabajh 19 1 ~,-~ Jahanar Gaon Mandia 17 3 Aligaon Pather 19 1 Islampur 17 3 - I Jahanar Ghola -- 18 2 Balajan 19 1 Todhera Gaon ------18 2 Bamundongra 4 - 16 Udmari 16 4 - Ruposhi Galia 16 4 Charsaria 15 5 - Sarudia 16 4 Chenga Majar Char 18 2 Dakhin Godhuni 16 4 Total 303 57 j -· '- ·--- Source : Field Survey
(157) Table No.33
Economic status of Women's Members of Family
~------Oc~upation - T~o~thly ~come I ~~nthly Expenditure 1 Land Ownership
!-- . --,- I I - J .... I ~ I i il---r1 I I ~ I ' I ~ Name of Block Name of Village .3 g · o o'o o o o o o o o - ~ ~=< >-< ~ v._. 00000 00 00 o B ~ 2 ~ 5;;: ,__.,ii:!':o ooooo ~ oo oo o ~ ·c: ·~ 'a; " .0 ;> v ~ i>: 0 - N N tl) tl) 0 - N N tl) tl) o 00 o.o t .... t> ro . C)~ .o 1u:i ro ro rt.i w.o w w w w w.o v o ~ (!) < () 0.,,...:) ::r: 0-,f-< ~I ~~~~ ~ c0 ~~ ~~ ~ c0 ;:... z ' Dighir Pathar 1 19 17 2 1 19 1 20 --r------NizBaghbar 1 19 14. 6 1 19 1 20 I Baghbar Gaon 1 19 16 ~ 4 20 20 I Silashi Pather 2 18 ---14 6 I 20 20 Morabajh ·__ ' ~18_ 2 ~ 4 j 19 1 20 Jahanar Gaon 2 17 . 1 15 5 20 20 I Mandia I j_ Aligaon Pather 2 17 1 1 I 15 5 I 17 3 20 Islampur 20 + 17 3 13 7 20 Jahanar Ghola 1 19 t--- --r-20 --'-- , 19 1 20 Balajan 2 1 1 16 2 l8f 2 i 17 3 20 I 1 Todhera Gaon I _ 19 1 I 14 j 6 j J 15 5 20 I
Bamundongra 20 17 1 3 12 8 20
Udmari 20 16 J 4 13 7 20 Ruposhi Galia t 20 14 I 6 j 15 5 20 Charsaria I 2 I I I I 18 I I I 16 I 4 I I I 13 I 7 I I I 20
Sarudia 1 I 3 1 1 I 4 20 I 11 I I I 16 I 16}_i_l 16 I I I I 1 Chenga Majar Char I . . j l9t 1 J 15 I 5 i I 12 8 20 1 1 2 1 1 DakhinGodhuni 51 I 1131 1 ~ 11T9'T--Il0--16-- 20 I l--J I .-:;r I I 0\ 0 Total I ~ I N l ~ j' co \ ~ ~ \ J co ~ \0 (!') ---~ N i L N (!') Source : Field Survey (158) Table No.34 Decision Making
I I I Decision Consulted by Husband 1 Name of Block Name of Village \ I Yes No - Dighir Pathar --20 Niz Baghbar --20 Baghbar Gaon 20 - Silashi Pather -20 Morabajh 20 Jahanar Gaon -+---· ·- Mandia -20 Aligaon Pather -20 20 1 Islampur ------·---+------+------Jahanar Ghola 20 - 20 Balajan ------+------+------Todhera Gaon --20 Bamundongra _ 20-- 20 Udmari - 20 Ruposhi Galia - 20 Charsaria - Sarudia 20 -· Chenga Majar Char -20 20 Dakhin Godhuni -- Total 360
L...... -- Source : Field Survey
(159) Table No.35 Gender Discrimination in Family
-----~- ~~-~- ---~ Gender Discrimination in Family I Name of Block Name of Village LI I I Yes No -- Dighir Pathar 20 Niz Baghbar -- 2 18 Baghbar Gaon - 20 Silashi Pather 1 -· - 19 Morabajh --- - 20 Jahanar Gaon Mandia 20 Aligaon Pather - 20 Islampur - 2 18 Jahanar Ghola 1 19 - - Balajan 20 Todhera Gaon 20 Bamundongra 20 ·--- Udmari 1 19 I Ruposhi Galia 1 19 I 20 Charsaria ------Sarudia 1 19 --- - Chenga Majar Char 1 19 ------~--- 1 19 Dakhin Godhuni ---- Total 11 349 ------I Source : Field Survey
(160) Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES
In terms of this criteria 85.28% of the households of women respondents had low economic status and the rest belong to the lower middle category (See Tabe No.36).
It is not unnatural to expect that women are unlikely to play a positive social role when they are largely illiterate. It was found in the surveyed char villages 79.17% were illiterate, 17.22% studied upto below seven, 3.05% studied upto HS and 0.56% HS and above. This largely explains why 86.67% had very low exposure to mass media. Exposure to mass media derived from the responses to three questions: If a woman listened to the radio at least once in a week and went to a movie theatre at least once a month. If a woman responded yes to all the three questions, she was coded as having high exposure; if she responded yes to any two items, she was coded as having moderate exposure and if she responded yes to either one or no items, she was coded low exposure. Remarkably there was not a single case high exposure to mass media (See Table No.37). Consistently our respondents 84.17% showed a low level of autonomy on a three point scale (description ofvariation No.7). There was no case of high women's autonomy (See Table No.32).
161 Table No.36 Household Socio-Economic Status - - I Household Socio-economic Status Name of Block Name of Village ~Low I Lower Middle Middle Upper Middle High - Dighir Pathar 18 I 2 - Niz Baghbar 17 3 - Baghbar Gaon 16 4 -- Silashi Pather 18 2 Morabajh 18 2 --"------Jahanar Gaon 17 3 Mandia Aligaon Pather 1 19 -- Islampur 16 4 Jahanar Ghola 19 1 Balajan 18 +-- 2 Todhera Gaon -- 18 L 2 Bamundongra 4 Udmari -=EF16 4 Ruposhi Galia + 15 5 Charsaria I 16 ' 4 Sarudia 4 Chenga Majar Char 18 2 ··~+=+---- Dakhin Godhuni 16 4 ----+------53 1 Total I .. 1 307 _c_ '-- Source : Field Survey (162) Table No.37 Exposure to Mass Media ~- I I Exposure of Mass Media I Narne of Block Narne of Village High Moderate Low ---·· Dighir Pathar - --· 2 18 Niz Baghbar 5 15 Baghbar Gaon -·------2 18 Silashi Pather -·-- 1 19 I Morabajh 1 19 j --- I Jahanar Gaon 2 18 ! Mandia ------Aligaon Pather 2 18 \ Islarnpur 2 18 Jahanar Ghola 3 17 Balajan 3 17 Todhera Gaon - 2 18 I Barnundongra 2 18 - -l Udrnari 5 15 l 1- Ruposhi Galia 4 16 Charsaria 4 16 Sarudia 3 17 I 3 17 Chenga Majar Char I Dakhin Godhuni 2 18 1 I 312 ITotal I 48 I - I J Source : Field Survey (163) Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES
All the women respondents were asked 5 questions relating to political participation. These were marked as questions No.15 to 20 in the questionnaire ranging from whether the respondents cast their vote in election, whether they cast their votes without any influence, whether they took part in the activity of panchayat, whether they attended the meeting of the Gram Sabha, whether they attended political meeting, whether they were active member of political party. If the respondent responded 'Yes' all the questions from Question No.15 to 20 she was scored 18 having 3 points for each question and it has been classified as high participation in political process. If the respondent responded 'Yes' any three questions from Question No.15 to 20 she was scored 9 and classified as moderate participation in political process. If the respondent responded 'No' all the questions from 15 to 20 she was scored '0' having '0' point for each negative response it has been classified as low participation in political process. In terms of this criteria 81.67% showed low participation in political process with the remaining showing moderate participation (See Table No.38).
However, while interviewing selected respondents it came to our notice that women turn out in large numbers in political meetings and processions. Some of them are also members of Krishak Sabhas and Mahila Samities. Since gram sabha meetings are not held regularly, the data about their participation there were not available. This evidence of political activism is in sharp contrast with a preponderently low level of political awareness and participation as revealed from our survey data. The explanation may lie at the fact of insecured identity and sometimes even of nationality of the inhabitatants of the Char areas. Participation in politically mobilized meetings may be a way of bargaining for political support in their quest for security. 164 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES
Of all the respondents 18.61% were members of Self Help Groups (see Table No.39). This low figure of SHG membership was partly due to late introduction of SHG in Assam and partly to remote and inhospitable nature of the char area making the presence of NGOs are rare experience. In many cases the Block Offices were run from remote locations due to unstable climatic conditions and geo-physical constraints. Nevertheless we found that all the indicators of development related positively to the members of SHGs showing that a little bit of education, slightly higher income, a better awareness could be associated with the members of SHGs. However, there is no positive that SHGs any direct contribution to women's empowerment as it is too early to discover such connection. But generally we seem to find a negative picture of women's empowerment in the char areas of the Brahmaputra Valley when we take into account the indicators of economic and political empowerment (see Figure No.4,5 & 6).
165 Table No.38 Level of Political Participation ! Name of Block Narne of Village Political Participation High Moderate Low Dighir Pathar 3 17 ' --· Niz Baghbar ·-----·-- 5 15 Baghbar Gaon - 2 18 Silashi Pather 4 16 Morabajh 2 18 J ahanar Gaon 3 17 Mandia ..• .. Aligaon Pather 5 15 Islampur 5 15 -· Jahanar Ghola 4 16 Balajan 4 16 Todhera Gaon 2 18 Bamundongra 4 16 - Udmari 4 16 ·- Ruposhi Galia - 5 15 Charsaria 4 16 ------t--· Sarudia 4 16 I Chenga Majar Char I 4 16 I Dakhin Godhuni 2 18 Ii 66 294 -· I bSource : Field Survey (166) Table No.39 Membership of Self Help Group (SHG) Member of SHG Name of Block Name of Village Yes No ------Dighir Pathar 20 Niz Baghbar 6 14 Baghbar Gaon 20 ------Silashi Pather 5 15 ---~~ Morabajh ----·--- 20 Jahanar Gaon 20 Mandia ·- Aligaon Pather 6 14 -~-----· - Islampur --·------12 8 Jahanar Ghola 20 Balajan 20 Todhera Gaon --- - 20 Bamundongra 7 13 Udmari 6 14 Ruposhi Galia 20 Charsaria 5 15 Sarudia 20 Chenga Majar Char 7 13 13 7 Dakhin Godhuni - Total 67 293 Source : Field Survey
(167) Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAlllllLY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES
Figure No.4
Distribution Curve of Women's Political Participation
20 18 16 14 12 10
1!,
r,;; (,_} :1 c ~ i5 •"> ·':l e-p·~· 0 0 ,;:; "' ..c ::;; 5 '::U"" E .'ii .!:: l? ,., !...? 5r;; ·;::s l? l? if• 2 u 0, "" 0 "" ~ 1-:; "0 ··- •$ ,., I? if) 0 ~ '~ ~,·' ,c .~'"" ;:: "'" ;§ :s ·L.. ) ") ·::? ~ ...... , , .c :;;:: r· ·s:.., ~ 2 .:::.. \:J '"' !2 '::1 ,__0 :;;;;; "" 0
Source : Field Survey
168 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES
Figure No.5
Distribution Curve of Exposure to Mass Media, Women's Autonomy & Political Participation.
[X.f',)O$UfC t<) tv1Js<:~ fv-1cdia: HEMM
MEMM
txposurc tviJ:~;"' L[MM
20
Source : Field Survey
169 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES
Figure No.6
Bar Diagram of Exposure to Mass Media, Women's Autonomy & Political Participation
Ill Exposure to Mass IVk 2 ke .. -~ '1,_ 1"\i '0 ..r::. ·;:: "' ~ "" ,!•.: E 0"' '"'/'l t.,.l ·v ""'? v J :'2 ·ut? 0 w l.? Polit;;:;,:~l Part;c;p,:;t;~;l!l ..¥ Moderate(MPP) 0'"' Politic,>\ Partitii>Jtlon low{LPP) Source : Field Survey 170 Chapter-4 WOMEN IN FAMILY, SOCIETY AND POLITICAL PROCESSES 4.5 Conclusion Assam Human Development Report 2003 had presented a picture of the Barpeta District the Char areas of which have been surveyed by us. Our suevey has not only confirmed the main observation of the Assam Human Development Report, it has also made the picture darker with respect to the Char areas. As we know the difference between the HDI rank and the GDI rank of a particular district indicates the gender disparity in the District. Barpeta enjoys 9th rank in the HDI index and lOth rank in the GDI index out of 23 districts (including 4 districts in the Bodoland Territorial Council) of Assam. So it is a moderate achiever in terms of HDI but with low gender disparity. However, the Human Development Report did not focus separately on the Char areas. Our survey with a specific focus on the char areas has been indicative of somewhat greater gender disparity in the Char areas of the District. If it does not indicate a higher gender disparity it certainly indicates a below average HDI for the Char areas. However, the deplorable conditions of women in the Char areas of the Barpeta District would certainly require a more gender sensitive development initiative in the Char areas. 171 CHAPTER- 5 PARTICPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM 5.1 Introduction In the previous chapter the reported survey data pointed to a v1c10us circle; poverty and underdevelopment leading to lower awareness and participation, which in turn contribute to further impoverishment and social backwardness. Literature on participatory development suggests however that the vicious circle can be broken through incremental changes through participation, both by raising consciousness and by direct economic benefit, one helping the other. In recent years therefore emphasis has been put on formation of Self-Help Groups, specially for women. In the present chapter we will deal with participatory development and the role of SHGs with special reference to the Char areas of Barpeta District. The present chapter has been divided into five sections. The first section, the present one introduces the chapter. The second section notes relation between participatory development and gender in the context of Assam in terms of various phases of participatory development. The 3rd section takes into account the late introduction of Panchayats in Assam and its implications. The 4th section discusses the implications of late introduction of SHGs in Assam and the significance of Micro-Finance Institutions for women empowerment. The fifth section concludes the chapter. 5.2.1 Participatory Development and Gender After carrying out interviews with women in Char areas participating in group discussion and conducting surveys in the Char areas of Barpeta District we can safely conclude that the socio economic and educational status of women of Assam in general and Barpeta District in particular is not at all satisfactory. In fact, the Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM question of women in the Char Areas of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam particularly in the Char areas of Barpeta District is not at all the questions of status/position, but the question of 'survival'. Though it is said that development is gender-neutral, yet it can be observed through several studies that women lag behind men all over the world. The differences are in almost all aspects of life. In Assam too, there are differences in educational attainment, measured by literacy rates and school enrolment figures; in the share of earned income, measured by Female Work Participation Rate (FWPR} and proportional rate of female wages to male wages. Other gaps are in the health status of males and females measured by life expectancy at birth {LEB) and Infant Mortality Rates (IMR), which have already been shown in the earlier analysis. The Assam Human Development Report (2003) has rightly justified thus: "The neglects of women's health, denying women equal access to family and community resources such as food, education, health care and income and devaluation of women's work and overall dignity as persons, all contributes to gender discrimination." Thus it can be safely state that gender inequity has not only stood as impediment on the development of womenfolk but also sidelined the entire process of the concept of development. Assam ranked 29 amongst 32 States and Union Territories as per Gender Equality index for India, 1991. Amongst the North Eastern States, the position of Assam is below than Manipur, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura so far as Gender Equality Index for North Eastern States is concerned. Thus there is clearly much to be done if the womenfolk in Assam are to be equal partners in the rural poor (Hulme and Turner, 1990). The importance of participation to achieve the objectives of development cannot be denied though social scientists interpreted the 173 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM term 'participation' in a different way. Probably Okley has provided a useful classification of different interpretations thus: Participation as contribution, participation as organization and participation as empowerment. Most manifestations of Participatory Development seek to give the poor a part in initiatives designed for their benefit in the hopes that development projects will be more sustainable and successful if local populations are engaged in the development process. According to R. Jennings (2000) "Participation refers to involvement whereby local populations in the creation, content and conduct of a programme or policy designed to change their lives. Participation requires recognition and use of local capacities and avoids the imposition of priorities from the outside." Advocates of participatory development makes a distinction between participation as "an end in itself', and participatory development as a "process of development process". In Assam the level of empowerment of women is low and in the Char areas of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam particularly in the Char areas of Barpeta district is much lower and dismal in which along with the question of empowerment of women the 'question of survival' is to be dealt with. Thus it requires attention at the policy level as well as at the grassroots level. 5.2.2 Participatory Development and Gender in Assam Participation is a very popular word in development studies particularly in the field of social development. The increasing recognition of total dependence upon a professionally dominated style of intervention resulted in the emergence of new approach like bottom up development, putting people first, and putting the last first (Okley et al 1991 quoted in S. Sarkar: 2004). Popularized by the United Nations 174 Cbapter-5 PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM and other International Bodies, participation replaced the earlier versions of formalized community development of the 1950s which fell largely into the hands of more affluent people, bypassing the empowerment" for marginalized populations as rightly observed by G. Mohan (2007). Siddiqur Osmani (2008) has observed this contrast between valuing participation for intrinsic rather than purely instrumental reasons. In the former manifestation, participants may be asked to give opinions will have an effect or may be informed of decisions after they have been made. In the later form, proponents assert that participatory development tries to "foster and enhance people's capability to have a role in their society's development" (Amartya Sen: 1999 and 2008). The womenfolk of Assam barring NC Hills and Karbi Anglong Autonomous Councils availed the opportunity in connection with participating development process particularly in rural development after the passing of Assam Panchayat Raj Act, 1994 in consistent with the provisions of 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992. But up to March 2002 Panchayat Raj Institutions in Assam had been totally ineffective due to non-holding of Panchayat Election in the State. Of course, long awaited Panchayat election was held on Dec. 2001. As a follow up action, the womenfolk of Assam barring the two Autonomous Councils got the opportunity to take part in the development process as the Panchayats in their present form had the provision for reservation of not less than one-third of the seats and offices for the womenfolk. Even in the seats and posts already reserved for the disadvantaged groups like the scheduled Castes and Schedule Tribes, not less than a third had been earmarked for the womenfolk of these groups. These features are included not only for the maintenance of gender equity but also provided a space for womenfolk in the development process of the 175 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM locality. Now, the womenfolk have the say relating to the issue of development of their own area. In this context he observation of Ms. Nirmala Buch is noteworthy when she has remarked thus: We are well aware about the pivotal role played by women in building a family, society and the world at large. No wonder the preeminent status of women in Panchayats is therefore the edifice for ushering in sustainable development from the grassroot in a bottomline approach (Quoted inK. Alam and Sazzad Alam: 2004) We would like to throw some light in the subsequent analysis regarding the new role and status of womenfolk under the patronage of New Panchayats of Assam particularly in the Char areas of Brahmaputra Valley. 5.2.3 Phases of Participatory Development and Gender in Assam Phases of Participatory development vis-a-vis gender in Assam may be analyzed maintaining the linkage with the launching of Community Development Programme since 1952. In fact, during the last six decades transformation of rural areas has been considered as one of the significant objectives of planning in India. Thus the department of Panchayat and community development came in to existence in Assam in the year 1952. It is to be noted here that Assam Government had passed "The Assam Panchayat Act, 1948" immediately after independence like other state of Indian Union. The Act provided for two tiers Panchayat system - Rural Panchayat and Primary Panchayat. Under this Act 2656 Primary Panchayats at the village level and 422 Rural Panchayats at the apex level were constituted in Assam and for the first time the Act provided for an election of Panchayat Raj institutions on the basis of universal franchise. It is worthwhile to mention here that the Act failed to serve the villages satisfactorily as 176 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM rightly observed by N. Hazarika (2005 p.39). In 1957, the Study Team was constituted headed by Balawant Rai Mehta to recommend for an effective institutional mechanism to involve local people in the process of development. The Study Team recommended for three-tier Panchayati Raj institutions with a real devolution of power and resources. Accordingly the Assam Panchayat Act, 1959 was enacted and provided for three-tier Panchayati Raj institutions . Gaon Panchayat at the village level, Anchalik Panchayat at the Block level and Mahkuma Parishad at the sub-divisional level. Thus the first generation village self-government in the form of Panchayati Raj institutions sprang up in Assam too 1950s like other parts of India as per recommendations of the Balvantray Mehta Committee (Prabhat Dutta: 1997). The Anchalik Panchayats could not function satisfactory and as a result in 1972 it was abolished and in the year 1972 the Assam Panchayat Raj Act, 1972 was enacted along with two-tier system. The Mahkuma Parishad was entrusted with the executive functions in the field of public health; education, agriculture, welfare, small-scale industry, Co-operative Society etc. and it would the administrative area at the sub-divisional level. The Gaon Panchayat was entrusted with several developmental functions, operating in the village level covering a population of 15000 and not more than 20000. The phase of revival can be witnessed after the formation of a committee headed by Ashoke Mehta by the Janata Government in 1977 and the committee submitted its report in 1978. According to Prabhat Dutta {1977) the recommendations of the Ashoke Mehta Committee initiated the rise of the second-generation panchayats in India with emphasis on regular elections on the basis of open participation of political parties, devolution of more powers and resources on them etc. 177 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM Three states namely Kamataka, Kerala and West Bengal led the new movement for Panchayat Raj, although it was West Bengal, which emerged successful. The Govt. of Assam accepted the recommendation of Ashoke Mehta Committee though the Govt. of Assam did not accept regarding the structural changes of Panchayat system. Of course, the Chief Minister of Assam was in favour of existing two-tier system. In 1986, the Assam Panchayati Raj re-introduced the three-tier Panchayat system and under this Act, 2486 Gaon Panchayats, 217 Anchalik Panchayats and 43 Mahkuma Parishads were created in the rural areas of Assam. All these Acts, provided scope for peoples' participation in decision-making process in the rural areas along with reservation of weaker sections of the society. Besides, the Acts contained provision of holding election for Panchayat institutions at regular interval. But the super session, dissolution, delays in holding election and suspension of election for an indefinite period had crippled the institutions resulting reduction of importance of Panchayati Raj institutions in the process of decentralization of power of the grassroots level. It is also observed that installations of ad-hoc bodies replacing the elected bodies were also encouraged. Apart from these, financial constrains cropped up in Panchayat Raj institutions and as a result the financial resources collected by way of imposing taxes, fees etc. which become absolutely inadequate to support the developmental work without grant-in-aid from the State government. (Girin Phukan: 2004 P. 84). Thus, people's participation in the development process during this period has not translated in to reality. During this phase of participatory development via Panchayat Raj institutions there used to be token membership of women. 178 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM The third generation of Panchayat Raj institutions for the success of participatory development was launched in Assam since 1990s after 73rct constitutional Amendment in 1992. In 1990 the Government of Assam issued an ordinance by which the Assam Panchayat Act, XVIII of 1986 has been renamed as Principal Act. This Act provided that if in the administrative area of the Gaon Panchayat the population of Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes (Plains) is 33.3% or more than the total population, in that case the President of the Gaon Panchayat must be elected from amongst the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes. Further 30% of the total number of seats in the Panchayat Raj must be reserved for women. Thus large number of womenfolk of Assam availed the opportunity to participate in the decision-making process for the first time through the Panchayat Raj institutions. It is worthwhile to mention here that no election was held under the Act of 1986 till 1992. The Panchayat elections were held in Assam in February 1992 after a gap of about 13 years. Niru Hazarika (2005 p. 48) has rightly remarked thus: "The Panchayat election of 1992 may be considered as a landmark in the history of Panchayat Raj in Assam as it brought with it new ideas and social values." She has also maintained that in 1992 the Congress Govemment initiated the process and delimited the administrative area of a Panchayat Constituting one Gaon Panchayat for every 6000 to 10,000 people and thus increased the number of panchayats from 714 to 2486 (Ibid: 2005). Another significant feature of the Panchayati Raj in Assam is that tea gardens were included within the administrative area of Gaon Panchayat for the first time in Assam. Anchalik Panchayats were reintroduced by forming 196 such bodies. The Mahkuma Parishads were considered as apex body. 179 Chapter-5 PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM The reservation of 30% seats for woman candidates along with providing adequate representation to the Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes were also included in the said ordinance. A major step towards grassroots empowerment was the Constitution (73rd amendment) Act, 1992, which came in to effect from 24 April 1993. In conformity with the recommendation of the 73rd constitutional Amendment Act, 1992, the Government of Assam enacted the Assam Panchayati Raj Act, 1994 repealing the Assam Panchayati Raj Act, 1986. As per the Act of 1994 three-tier Panchayat system i.e. Gaon Panchayat at the village level, Anchalik Panchayat at Block level and Zilla Parishad at the district level has been introduced. But it is unfortunate that Panchayat elections in Assam in accordance with the 1994 Act could not be held till 200 1 (the elections were due in October 1997). In fact, the stated position of the Government of Assam relating to the issue of encouraging the decentralization of power and decision making and devolving responsibility and empowering people particularly the weaker sections along with womenfolk at the grassroots level miserably failed as elections to the Panchayati Raj institutions were held in December 2001. Again, it has been observed that the Panchayat elections in Assam have been due since December 2006, but the Government of Assam failed to complete the election process till 2008. It is worthwhile to mention here that a writ petition was filed in Hon 'ble Gauhati High Court whereupon the Hon 'ble Gauhati High Court ordered the State Government to hold the Panchayat election on or before 31st October 2007. As a result, Panchayat elections in Assam were held in four stages starting from the 31st December 2007, culminating in January 2008. Thus, it is found that delays in holding election, non-holding of election and suspension of election for an indefinite period have not only crippled the Panchayat Raj institutions 180 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM but also hindered the peoples participation in the development process particularly the weaker sections (SC & ST) and womenfolk though there is a provision of reservation for them in the Assam. Panchayat Raj Act of 1994. Though the Panchayats in their present form have not immensely benefited the common womenfolk of Assam yet participating in the decision making process the womenfolk have availed the opportunity to express regarding their rights, government plans and policies especially with regard to the development of their own area. 5.3 Comparative Accounts of Panchayats in Assam in comparison to other states of India As analyzed earlier, like other states of Indian Union, Assam also passed several Acts relating to the effective functioning of Panchayat Raj institutions. Several Acts passed and enacted by the Government of Assam during the last few decades after independence. They are: The Assam Panchayat Raj Act 1948, The Assam Panchayati Raj Act 1959, The Assam Panchayat Raj Act 1972, The Assam Panchayati Raj Act 1986, and The Assam Panchayat Raj Act 1994. As mentioned earlier, the Assam Panchayat Raj Act 1948, provided for two-tier Panchayat system - Rural Panchayat and Primary Panchayat and was expected to bring about an all round development. The Act failed to fulfill the hopes and aspirations of the rural people. Rao and Hazarika have rightly justified thus: Of the 742 Rural Panchayats that were to be constituted, only 422 were established by 1959, consisting of 2667 Primary Panchayats; further, under the Act, only five Primary Panchayats could be established in any rural Panchayat. Besides, these defects, there were other difficulties. So, the Government appointed a committee in 1953, to study the working of the Panchayats. The committee recommended 181 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM that Panchayats should be established through out the State in a period of two years and that the total number of primary Panchayats in a Panchayat area might be five to fifteen. These recommendations were embodied in a bill and it was introduced in the legislative in 1955. But it was not proceeded with. (Rao and Hazarika: 1980; p. 68) The Assam Panchayat Raj Act 1957 was enacted with three-tier Panchayati Raj institutions as per recommendations of the study Team headed by Balwant Rai Mehta constituted in 1957 for an effective institutional mechanism for the involvement of local people in the process of development. Thus like other states of Indian Union Panchayat Raj institutions brought in to force in Assam in 1960 for ensuring peoples' participation. At the village level, the existing primary panchayat would be named as Gaon Panchayat in Assam and in between the Gaon Panchayat and the Mahkuma Parishad, Anchalik Panchayat was created whose area was coterminous with that of the existing Community Development Block. Anchalik Panchayat was responsible for the over all development of the area under its jurisdiction. On the other hand, Gaon Panchayat was the actual executive agency for the execution of village schemes. Apart from these units of Panchayat Raj institutions, there was also the Mohkuma Parishad in each sub-division. It replaced the Sub-Divisional Development Board and the Local Board. In 1963, the Govemment appointed Study Team relating to the functioning of Panchayati Raj in Andhra, Madras, Maharastra and Orissa. The Study Team recommended that- • The Anchalik Panchayat should be held responsible for the preparation and implementation of block plans; 182 Chapter-5 PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM • That provision should be made for the transfer of village schemes to the Gaon Panchayat for execution as agents of the Anchalik Panchayats; • That all funds intended for community development should be transferred to the control of Anchalik Panchayats. • That certain other schemes, which could be implemented, should be transferred to the Anchalik Pamchayats for execution. These recommendations were embodied in the Assam Panchayat Amendment Act, 1964 though in the subsequent period i.e. in 1973 the Anchalik Panchayats were abolished and Mohkuma Parishads were entrusted with executive functions (Rao and Hazarika: 1980). According to Ranbir Singh the growth of the Panchayati Raj remained stagnant during 1964-1971 and there was the phase of decay during 1971-1977. Thus, lLke other states of Indian Union no significant changes are observed relating to the workable functioning of Panchayati Raj institutions in Assam too vis-a-vis people's participation although in the year1972 the Assam Panchayat Raj Act replaced the Assam Panchayat Act 1959. With the introduction of the two-tier system of Panchayati Raj under the Assam Panchayat Raj Act, 1972 the Anchalik Panchayats, which were coterminous with Community Development Blocks, were abolished and Gaon Panchayats with jurisdiction larger than erstwhile Gaon Sabhas were established. During 1979-80 the numbers of such Gaon Panchayats in the Plains district of the State stood at 714 and 20 Mohkuma Parishads were established in the Plains districts of the State under the said two-tier system. The State again re-introduced three-tier system of Panchayat institutions as a follow-up action of the enactment of Assam Panchayati Raj Act of 1986. Though there was a structural change so far as 183 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM Panchayati Raj Institutions are concerned yet it can be observed that no election was held in the state of Assam under the Act of 1986 till 1992. In fact, Panchayat Raj Institutions failed to deliver the goods particularly in the process of decentralization of power to the grass root level as no election was held in the state during the long period ( 1979- 1992). Thus, though the phase of Panchayati Raj Institutions' revival started in 1978 in other states of India and resulted in the enactment of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 yet it can safely be stated that in Assam the process of revival of Panchayati Raj Institutions truly started in 1992, when the election to the Panchayat Raj institutions was held. As mentioned earlier the Government of Assam enacted the Assam Panchayat Raj Act, 1994, in conformity with the recommendation of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992. As per provisions of Assam Panchayati Raj Act, 1994 there are three tier system of Panchayats viz. Zill Parishad at the district level, Anchalik Panchayat at the intermediate level and Gaon Panchayat at the village level and according to Economic Survey Assam, 2007-08, 29 state subjects have already been transferred to the Panchayati Raj Institutions and activity mapping has been notified in respect of 23 subjects empowering the Panchayati Raj Institutions. At present, there are 2202 number of Gaon Panchayat as on 20-03-2007, 219 Community Development Block as on 31-03-2007, 189 Anchalik Panchayat, under 20 Zilla Parishadsas on 20-03-2007 in Assam (Economic Survey Assam: 2007 -08). All these Acts provided scope for people's participation in rural decision-making process. Some of the Acts also made provision for the reservation of seats for the weaker section of society along with reservation of womenfolk. Even these Acts also made provision for holding of Panchayat Raj Institutions at regular interval. But, as mentioned earlier, election to the Panchayat Raj 184 Chapter-5 PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM Institutions were not at all held regularly_ Failure of the Government to hold the Panchayat polls - apart from devolving power has also deprived the rural people under 2486 Gaon Panchayats in the State from enjoying the benefits earmarked under rural development schemes of the Central Government. Ironically, Assam and Bihar have been identified as the two states in the country, which have failed to hold Panchayat elections and hence have been deprived of the benefits envisaged under the 73rct amendment of the Panchayat Raj Act (Assam Tribune: 8th June, 2000). It is also learnt that as the two Eastern states of Assam and Bihar have failed to utilize the Central funds, a major chunk of these funds have gone to West Bengal which in turn has helped its farmers to usher in green revolution in the state. (Ibid: 2000) The Panchayat Empowerment and Accountability Incentive Scheme (PEAlS) is a Central Sector Plan Scheme, which has been implemented by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj since 2005-06. The scheme had an allocation of Rs. 5.00 Crore for 2005-06, which was raised to Rs. 10.00 Crore for the subsequent years; and the funds released to the State Governments/Union Territories on 100% grant basis, after assessing their devolution of the 3Fs (Funds, Functions and Functionaries). The scheme has continued in the lith Five Year Plan period with annual allocation of Rs. 10.00 crore. From 2006-07 onwards the criteria for eligibility were derived on the basis of devolution of 3 Fs, which was developed by the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER), New Delhi. During 2007-08, the index was revised to include a fourth dimension of "Framework", which specially tests if the State has met the four mandatory constitutional requirements viz. establishing the State Election Commission, holding 185 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM PRI Election every five years, establishing State Finance Commission and setting up of District Planning Committees (Kurukshetra: 2010). For 2008-09 NCAER, New Delhi was engaged by the Ministry for compiling the information on the parameters constituting the Index of Devolution (DI) and processes the same. NCAER submitted the final report titled "An Index of Devolution for Assessing Environment for PRis in the States-Empirical Assessment- 2008." An Evaluation of the states under the PEAlS for 2008-09 was based on a two-stage assessment. For 2009-10, the Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA) was commissioned to undertake the study of the Devolution Index and rank states accordingly. In 2008-09 too, evaluation of states under PEAS for 2009-10 was based on a two-stage assessment. The performance of Assam in comparison to other states and Territories respect of Devolution Index is not at all satisfactory which has been shown in Table No.40, 24 States and Union Territories (Uts) participated in the evaluation exercise. Jharkhand did not qualify, as election to Panchayat have not been held in the state. Evaluation of the performance of the 23 states f U T that qualified has already been shown in Table No. 40. 186 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM Table No.40 Devolution Index descending order on overall rank. DI D2 D3 D4 DI Rank States Framework Function Finance Functionaries Overall 1 Kerala 92.59 80.76 69.62 61.25 74.73 2 Karnataka 90.74 77.95 56.11 64.08 69.45 3 Tamilnadu 89.63 77.11 58.76 49.58 i 67.06 ,4 West Bengal 96.30 70.90 61.56 46.25 66.51 - I Maharastra 73.52 65.52 62.78 44.17 61.49 Madhya Pradesh 74.44 63.52 53.50 54.17 59.78 ~ Guzrat 54.44 59.78 51.56 44.58 53.07 Is Andhra Pradesh I 70.74 45.01 53.77 35.83 50.10 I Sikkim 87.04 59.11 24.59 40.17 ~--- 1------47.43~ I 1o Himachal Pradesh 88.15 53.89 25.30 43.83 47.01 '----:----- I Haryana 51.67 I 44.66 40.15 40.17 43.23 ~ -- I 12 Orissa 67.04 56.76 27.17 31.67 42.93 ~ Uttar Pradesh 80.00 42.47 ~31 23.17 41.73 14 1 I Bihar '73.33 53.98 22.69 30.33 I 41.20 Lakshadeep 74.44 28.46_~33 41.25 I 39.62 -~-·- r---·- Rf-6 Rajasthan 70.37 30.72. I 34.83 28.00 37.56 c--· 17 Goa 64.81 29. '78 25.81 34.17 34.52 18 Chhattisgarh 48.70 28.80 37.28 26.25 34.24 19 Punjab 62.41 34.25 11.07 40.17 31.54 20 Uttarkhand 41.67 28.75 22.52 30.83 28.92 21 Assam 63.70 23.08 26.56 12.67 28.31 22 Arunachal 46.48 19.71 3.17 21.25 18.25 Pradesh I --,----- 1------23 Chandigarh 33.33 23.44 5.46 16.25 17.19 Source: The Kurukshetra, Oct./2010 For the year 2009-10, the Ministry has decided to award 6 prizes in all, as follows: First Prize: Kerala and Karnataka- Rs. 2.50 crore each; Second Prize: Tamilnadu and West Bengal- Rs. 1.50 crore each; Third Prize: Maharastra - Rs. 1.00 crore. Sikkim being the best performing North East State: Sikkim Rs. 1.00 crore. The states were facilitated on the 187 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM occasiOn of the "National Panchayat Diwas" on 25-04-2010. The ranking of states that were adjudged for the award as per Dis for the (2005-06, 2006-07, 2007-08, 2008-09 and 2009-10) are shown in Table No.41. Table No.41 Ranking of States as per Index of Development since 2005-06 to 2009-10 r--81-.-.------~---R-a_n_k__ ~ __R_a_n_k __ ~ __R_a_n_k---,--R--an_k __ _, __ R_a_n_k __J l No. States 2009-10 2008-09 2007-08 2006-07 2005-06 i l 1_ _ Madhya Pradesh 6 1 6 6 ~2- West Bengal I 4 2 3 3 -----~--~ 11 Andhra Pradesh 8 11 8 I 12 Uttar Pradesh 13 12 8 ~---4------r------4------+------+------~ 13 Maharastra 5 13 14 Arunachal 22 14 Pradesh r----~------r------r------+------~------r------~ l15 Rajasthan 16 15 5 8 - 16 Goa --,---1-7-----t----16-----+--1cx=-~~------1--l----==-=------!- 1 7 Tripura - 17 1 - - - 18 Orissa 12 18 9 7 6 19 Bihar 14 19 20 Punjab 19 20 21 Manipur - 21 11 22 Gujrat 7 23 Lakshadeep 15 24 Uttarakhand 20 25 Chandigarh 23 Source: The Kurukshetra, Oct./2010 188 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM 5.4 Self-Help Groups: Late introduction of SHG in Assam in comparison to other Indian States Before analyzing the significant role of women in Self-Help Groups in contemporary society we would like to present the observation of UN-HDR and World Bank reports regarding SHGs/Micro-Credit schemes. UN-Human Development Reports and World Bank reports regarding micro-credit schemes (SHGs) observe rightly as a tool of poverty alleviation and empowerment especially of women. The UN Human Development Reports and other United Nations/World Bank reports identify "South Asia as one of the most deprived regions in the world. South Asia has the largest number of people in the world living in absolute poverty, which includes 43 percent of the developing world's population. Sixty percent of these are women, which limited access to basic needs. The greatest burden of human deprivation and poverty, illiteracy and health related problems fall on its women" (Quoted in Neera Burra: 2007). In India, as in many other countries, ensuring women's access to credit through micro-credit schemes is an important tool for both poverty alleviation and women's empowerment. Indeed, thousands of women's self-help groups (SHGs) have been set up across country and this respect the NGOs and Government sponsored programmes and schemes (the Rashtriya Mohila Kosh (RMK), the Indira Mahila Yojana and the Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) have contributed relating to the growth of SHGs. Apart from this, Micro Credit through women's SHGs is also a central element of the development vision outlined in the Tenth Five year Plan (Ibid: 2007). It is noted here that the Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) was launched as an integrated programme for self employment of the rural poor with effect from 1st April 1999 and the objective of the 189 Chapter-5 PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM scheme was to bring the poverty line by organizing them into Self-Help Groups (SHGs) through the process of social mobilization, their training and capacity building and provision of income generating assets through a mix of bank credit and government subsidy (India A Reference Annual: 2009). The SGSY has a special focus on the vulnerable groups among the rural poor. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes account for at least 50 percent, women 40 percent and the persons with physical disability constitute 3 percent of the Swarozgaries respectively. The scheme is being implemented through the District Rural Development Agencies (DRDAs), with active involvement of panchayati raj institutions, banks and NGOs; the scheme is financed on 75:25 cost-sharing basis between the Centre and the States Since the inception of the programme 22.52 lakh Self-Help Groups (SHGs) have been formed covering 66.97 lakh swarozgaries which include 35.54 lakh members of the SHGs and 31.43 lakh individual Swarozgaries who have been assisted with a total investment of Rs. 14403.73 crore and out of total Swarozgaries assisted, SCs/STs were 45.54 percent and women 47.85 percent along with Central allocation for the scheme during 2006-07 was Rs. 1200 crore (Ibid: 2009). Eminent scholars (for instance Mahammad Younis) have rightly observed that the poor are bankable and poor women are the trustworthiest in providing fmancial services. However, of late, notion of micro-credit has also been broadened into micro-finance which includes not only savings and credit but also insurance and pension together with the addition of housing as Ela Bhatt has rightly justified (Ela Bhatt: 2007). Of course, the first official interest in group lending (SHGs) in India took shape during 1986-87 when National Bank for Agriculture 190 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM and Rural Development (NABARD) supported and financed research project on saving and credit management of Self-Help Group of Mysore Resettlement and Development Agency (MYRADA) (Gurmeet Singh: 2009) though SHG Banking linkage programme was initiated in 1992. It can be said that there are two major models under micro finance namely Self-Help Group Bank Linkage (SHG-BL) and Micro Finance Institution (MFis) operating in India though Micro insurance is in experimental stage. Rajaram Dasgupta (2005) has rightly observed that micro insurance is still in experimental stage, till now "Micro savings" has been a proxy for 'Micro insurance'. The declaration of the Micro Credit Summit held in Washington, D.C. in 1997 defined micro-credit programmes as those "extending small loans to poor people for self employment projects that generate income allowing them to care for themselves and their families" (Micro Credit Summit: 1997 quoted in V.K. Ramchandran: 2003). The declaration also adds that, "in most cases, micro-credit projects offer a combination of services and resources to their clients in addition to credit for self employment and these often include savings facilities, training, networking and peer support (Ibid: 2003). In India, the Task Force on Supportive and Regulatory Framework for Micro-Finance in India (NABARD-2000) defined micro finance as the "provision of thrift, credit and other financial services and products of very small amounts to the poor in rural semi urban or urban areas enabling them to raise their income levels and improve living standards". The Reserve Bank of India also uses the same definition. V. K. Ramchandran(2003) has rightly observed that micro credit is usually associated with in the following ways: 191 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM • very small loans, • no collateral, • borrowers from among the rural and urban poor, • loans for income-generation through market-based self employment, • the formation of borrower groups and • privatistion, generally through the mechanism of NGO control over and the determination by NGOs of the terms and conditions attached to each loan. Thus, SHGs are voluntary associations of economically homogeneous groups of poor people who are not covered by the existing banking system with the member size of banking 10-20; and after opening a savings Account each member of the group contribute a fixed amount either weekly, bi-weekly or monthly and they rotate this common pooled resource within the members with small rates of interest. Formation of SHG has been shown with the help of the Text Box No.2:- 192 Chapter-5 PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM Text Box No.2 Organisational Structure of SHG Formation of a voluntary association having minimum of 10 and maximum 20 members ~ A nomenclature is to be given to the Group ~ Electing a leader democratically ~ Arranging meeting of the Group at regular interval ~ Determining the objectives of the group ~ the collection of amounts by the Group members (weekly, bi-weekly or monthly) ~ Opening up a Savings Account in Bank ~ Determining the rate of interest of providing loan to a member ~ Providing loan with surety of regular repayment for both consumption and for the purpose of production without collateral ~ Availability of Bank loan when the group attains maturity ~ Provision of regular audit It is said that the spread of the SHG-Bank linkage programme in different regions are uneven because of a number of factors. In March 2001, 71% of the linked SHG, were from Southern region consisting of Andhrapradesh, Karnataka, Kerele and Tamilnadu, though the share of southern region has come down progressively over the years but it is still 44% (Gurmeet Singh: 2009). In fact, several studies indicate that there is uneven geographical distribution of SHG's has been covered by Andhra Pradesh alone and the lowest percentage of total SHG's i.e. 193 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM 0.19% is in Punjab; the SHGs growth is very low in states like Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhyapradesh and Rajasthan where the social environment is totally unfavourable to rural empowerment. However, 488 districts in all the States and Union Territories are covered under SHG's - Bank linkage programmes having linkage with 444 banks including 44 Commercial Banks, 191 RRBs and 209 Co-operative banks with the association of 2155 NGOs (A.Y. Pangannavar: 2008). It has been revealed that up to 31st March 2006 the highest cumulative SHG growth of both in physical and fmancial terms has been achieved by the Southern Region. Highest growth of SHG in physical and fmancial terms has been achieved by the States of Southern Regions ranked in No. 1 position in the year 2006. In ranking Eastern Region remained in the second position and the Northeastern Region remained the last ranking position of '6' among all the six regions in the country (B.K. Mohanty: 2009). Rajaram Das Gupta has rightly observed thus in connection with classifying on the basis of credit per SHG and percent of poor families financed through SHG channel: "There emerges seven groups of states: (a) Goa and Tamilnadu with high volume (Rs. 50,000 or more per SHG) and high penetration (50 percent or more families extended credit); (b) Andhrapradesh, Karnataka and Kerala with average volume (Rs. 25000- 50,000) and high penetration; (c) Himachal Pradesh with low volume (less than Rs. 25,000) and high penetration. (d) Rajsthan and Orissa with low volume and average penetration (25 -50 percent); 194 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM (e) Haryana and Punjab with high volume and low penetration (less than 25 percent); (f) Jammu and Kashmir, Bihar, Maharastra with low volume and overable penetration; and (g) Assam, West Bengal, Madhya Preadesh, Uttar Pradesh and Gujrat with low volume and low penetration (Rajaram Dasgupta: 2005) He has also rightly maintained that micro credit is more SHG centric in a, b and c group of states; but more SGSY - centric in e, f and g group of states; and the group d comprising Rajasthan and Orissa lies in between these two sets with equal emphasis on SHG and SGSY. (Ibid: 2005) which has been shown in Table No.42. Table No.42 SHG Credit in different states of India: ,------r---- - I Percentage of I SHG credit per Sl.No. Name of the States SGSY credit to Poor (Rs.) SHG Credit 1. Goa & Tamilnadu 687.4 7.9 2. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka & Kerala 811.9 13.9 Himachal Pradesh 3. 698.7 58.8 Rajasthan & Orissa 4. 75.5 124.3 I Haryana & Punjab I 5. 70.5 338.8 Jammu Kashmir, Bihar & 6. Maharastra 25.5 295.8 Assam, West Bengal, Madhya 7. Pradesh and Gujrat 32.4 225.2 Source: R. Dasgupta, "Micro finance in India", Economic and Political Weekly, March 19 I 2005. The growth of SHGs has been very slow in Assam like Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan etc. in the initial years. Today SHG movement in Assam has gained momentum during last few years. The Self Help Groups have started playing a very significant role in 195 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM respect of rural development and women empowerment. The spirited functioning of several thousands of SHGs engaged in motivating and organizing the rural poor through income generating activities having a positive impact for improving the socio-economic condition of the villagers particularly the womenfolk. According to the Chief Minister of Assam, "Assam's rural economy is undergoing a silent revolution with more than 85,000 SHGs playing the role of a vital catalyst, generating considerable level of self employment." He has also maintained that the spark of a silent revolution has already been ignited by mobilizing a sizeable section of the rural populace motivating them to match on the road to economic emancipation through capacity building measures and setting up of SHGs. More than 1 lakh SHGs have been functioning in Assam in which womenfolk have also been playing a vital role. The district wise number of SHGs in the state of Assam is shown in Table No.43. 196 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM Table No.43 Districtwise Number of SHGs in the State of Assam Sl.No. District No. of SHG formed 1 Barpeta 6435 2 Bongaigaon 2443 3 Cachar 2961 -- 4 Darrang 4076 5 Dhemaji 4134 6 Dhubri 9409 7 Dibrugarh 4705 8 Goalpara 3517 -- 9 Golaghat 4949 10 Hailakandi 1821 ------Jorhat 4991 12 Karbi Anglong 2859 13 Kamrup 7369 14 Karimganj 2476 -- 15 Kokrajhar 2854 1 ·----·--- -- ~- I Lakh1mpur ------~------4_2_7_3______~ 17 Morigaon 2792 P I ------18 N.C. Hills 763 19 Nagaon 9320 20 Nalbari 3452 21 Sibs agar 6109 22 Sonitpur 17997 I 23 2842 I Tinsukia -·----- I Total 1,12,547 Source: 1. http: j jwww.pnrdassam.org/ shg/ ASSAM 2. Statistical Handbook of Assam, 2006 & 2007. For SHG credit, there are three different models as rightly observed by R. Dasgupta (2005) and these three models are: Model I, Model II and Model III. As per Model I SHGs are formed and extended credit by the banks; in Model II SHGs are formed by the NGOs but credit extended by the Banks and in Model III in addition to forming SHGs, avail bulk loan from banks for lending to SHGs (Ibid: 2005). 197 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM Rajaram Dasgupta (2005) has also rightly maintained that in comparison to other four regions (North, Central, West and South). North-East and Eastern regions depend more on Model I and share of Model II is much less in these two regions and not much organic relationship has yet been established between bank and non-bank SHGs there. Thus it can be said that being a Northeastern state, Assam has been categorized as SHG-backward state. In Assam RRBs and co operatives are more dominant and commercial banks depend on their limited organizational resource for both development of SHGs and extending credit and as a result of SHGs credit per poor is much less in the state of Assam. It is interesting to nete here that the SHGs have to raise the women-related issues particularly relating to women empowerment and other socio-political rights of womenfolk as several women's groups have rightly asked the Government of India to set up a committee on the status of. Self Help groups (SHGs) to review the existing perspective, policies and programmes related to them to strengthen their potential for addressing the social, economic and political rights ofwomen (The Hindu: 8 Nov/2006) According to a report on SHGs, empowerment and Poverty Alleviation prepared and released by Anandi, Nirantar and Yugantar on 7 November, 2006 that strategy for both women's empowerment and poverty reduction, there has been little dialogue on SHGs between civil actors and policy workers regarding the expectations from SHGs, the ground level realities as well as possible ways of strengthening them (Ibid: 2006). The report also continued that the key findings of the study are that participation in SHGs has enabled women to gain access to credit for crisis and consumption related needs, if has put the burden of saving and repayment primarily on women; women have also 198 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM little control over the use of credit that they have brought to the family; It is also worthwhile to mention here that 64 percent of the Government sponsored groups never took up social issues, domestic violence was addressed only in 11 percent of SHGs and sexual notice issues taken up only by 4 percent SHGs; as high as 4 7 percent SHGs do not receive any capacity building inputs and only 39 percent SHGs were literate. It was also focused in the report that interior tribal villages have not benefited from the SHGs and neither have the SCs and women headed households. Since there are no men in the SHGs, there is resistance to women's entry in local market and political structures and resistance the family. The study concludes thus: Micro finance is not the solution to poverty or empowerment. For women's empowerment to be addressed, women need to be enabled to define their priorities and demand their rights (Ibid: 2006). Various studies regarding the role of SHGs in the State of Assam also point out that Assam has at present more than one lakh Self-Help Groups (SHGs) with a membership of more than ten lakh and these SHGs are said to be existing on paper only because nearly 95 percent of them have become inactive by now due to absence of any income generating schemes before them (The Assam Tribune: 27 Dec./2007). The report also highlighted that most of the SHGs were found interested in receiving the subsidy amount. It is worthwhile to note here that the SHG movement in Assam has not been uniform in the state, with upper Assam adopting the movement more vigorously than lower Assam. The findings of the study 'SHGs - The Real Story' published by Nanda Talukdar Foundation in 2007 is that the upper Assam districts despite being well-endowed with natural resources and having moderately buoyant economy has adopted the schemes more sincerely than in lower Assam districts. According to the study at least 199 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM 60-65 percent of SHGs, mainly promoted by State Institute of Rural Development (SIRD), are doing reasonably well; the SHGs promoted by others like DRDA, NABARD have lost momentum and have become directionless and the study points out the problem thus: "The problem lies in the head. It has everything to do with attitude. The general tendency in lower Assam is to usurp the subsidy and then sit idle, blaming the authorities in turn for supplying sub standard machinery, or parent stock, or expecting even more spoon feeding." (Nanda Talukdar Foundation: 2007). The study also says that in Barpeta and Nalbari Districts, the SHG movement is viewed as just another Government scheme designed for systematic plunder (Ibid: 2007). Now, we would like to focus the role of SHGs in the Barpeta District of Assam. Out of 23 Districts of Assam, Barpeta Ranked 6th regarding the formation of SHGs. As per Government document 6435 numbers of SHGs has been formed in the district since 1-4-1999 to 2005-06 (Statistical Hand book of Assam: 2007) and out of these 6435 SHGs 3730 numbers of women SHGs has been formed during the same period (Ibid: 2007). The summary of all Self-Help Groups of Barpeta District covering all the Development Blocks has been shown in the Table No.44. 200 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM Table No.44 s ummery o f a llSlfHe - etp 1 G roups o fB arpeta n·1stnct cti "d "d "d (l) .:: ui tS (l) .....:> '"0 .Ba;- tS +-' .2; (l) (l) p (l) u ~ M..C: +-' ;::1 u (l) "d (!.) .:: (l) ~ (l) l> .8 ~ ;::1 0 1-< (fj (fj :>.. s 0 1-< 2:....::! 0 0 0"(j 0 1-< u (l) 0 s ~ ::r: ..... ::r: <8 ~ ..0 [; .8 ::r: (/) (!.) -< (/) (/)$ (fj s ~ cti ...., .s...... _ ;::1 bJJ ..0 (l) ...... 0 ...... ~ (/) 0 0(1) ..8 s ~ o- '2~ ..0- ""C) v ::r: "dp v 0 .:: 0&3 0 4...; ~ § ;2:: ;::1 z..., ._ ~ ;::1 (/) ()~ u 0 al 0 ell ~~ al<>-: al:.S 0 0 +-> 0s :§~ .S....:J +-' :> ...... (l) ci I 0 s~ 0 p 0 (l) 0 ~ ci ffi z E-< ~ < ~ E-< ..... tS .8 f-. 1-< E- Out of 12 Development Blocks major portion of Char villages have fallen in three Blocks namely Chenga, Mandia and Rupshi. The summery of all Self-Help Groups of these three Blocks of Chenga, Mandia and Ruposhi along with major activity wise summery of all Self Help Groups of Barpeta District has been shown in 45, 46, 47 and 48. 201 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM Table No.45 Summery of all Self-Help Groups of Mandia Block of Barpeta District 1. Mandia 76 905 385 2.20 31.81 15.94 22 20 0 2. Bamundongra 17 206 64 1.10 19.69 9.66 11 12 0 3.AgrnondiJadavpur 0 4. Satra Kanar 0 · 5.D~rrparn -----t-·----=---o 6. Chachra 0 7. Moinbori 14 172 21 0.10 0.00 0.00 1 0 0 I--'----..:.C::..:..::.=:..c:..::..:'--.______--+__:;:....:_+-·::.:...=--+-=---if.---=..=:.::-+-.=.:::..::_+-=-=-=--+-_:::__-l---=:--+---:---1 8. Manikpur 5 5 60 0 0.20 0.00 2 0 0 9. Baghbar 33 387 184 0.90 1.00 0.50 9 1 0 10. Rarnapara ______t--6=--+-~7~1~+-~12=--+-~0~.6~0~-+~1~.~50=--+-0~.~7~5-+--~6--+- __l~-4-'---0~ ~~j:;~~:!i _"-- 4 45 ~-Go 10 o.oo o.oo 1 o o I ;------+- ~~· Dh:~pur 3 41 1 10 2.00 1.00 1 1 J 0 1--.::-='a-::tn~a::.:=m:.::::t::. 1--'7--14=-' •.....:T::c=-ar=.cak=a=-:n=d=.ci ----+--'l~0=-+--=12~0:__t_[___::6::....=r--L_o::.:·.=,2g_=-__[I6o 1 1. 30 I 2 2 I q_ liS. Joypur 0 Chikartary 16. Uzirchar -·a- 17. Sonabari 2 32 6 0.20 0.00 0.00 2 0 0 18. Baghrnara Char 5 51 0 0.20 3.00 1.50 2 2 0 19. Kadarntola 0 r2o. Bhatkuchi -----+--4-2--+-4-9-5 I 68 I 2.30 I 13.74 I 6.87 I 23 __,_! _11==r_Q__ 21. Gajia Medhirtary 0 22. Sitoli 47 598 227 2.10 18.67 9.21 21 11 0 23. Janata 25 282 62 0.90 1.20 0.60 9 1 0 24. Sonapur Rubi 19 242 72 0.10 0.00 0.00 1 0 0 25. Jania 45 564 352 2.30 6.90 3.45 23 6 0 26. Kadong 0 27. Gobindapur 16 189 60 0.70 7.34 3.72 7 4 0 Source: http: I /www.pnrdassam.org/ shg/ c.asp? District= BARPETA & Block== Mandia 3/16/2009 202 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM Table No.46 Summery of all Self-Help Groups of Chenga Block of Barpeta District I "' ] 1fS " @ o ... ~~ ~ 0 ] ~~ 1 c I 0 u ,.0{\.) :> - I:; ::r:: .::i ::r:: ;<;::: ~ ,., I 203 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM Table No.47 Summery of all Self-Help Groups of Rupsi Block of Barpeta District r------~-:-~-----'""----.-..o-~------~---s----~---.s---.-~---8--,l-~--:-~--.-~--;---.-~--"lll "' (f) ~ "' I §oo +'({) ~rzi ~...- ~~ "" o 0 s ~ 6 ~~ ;ij ~ E ~ ~ ~ ~ u ~ i I E-<0 IHh E-< Ht!E-< z j·~z JH i3: 204 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM Table: 48 Major Activity wise summery of all Self-Help Groups of Barpeta District .. "d (\) "d o8 (/) !=: I -~ Cli (\) "d z (\) Q) ...... (f) +-' :> "d ...... (\) C) 0 (\) (\) ~ .... :r:: ...... 0 "d ..... ;:J I'd I 'd (\) ~ (j) Cfl (\) ~ 0 'd :> s ;J (\) bJJ 0 (\) -~ 2 0 s :> (\) 8.... C) "Q) $ :;E bJJ 8 205 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM SHGs: Role of women on Char villages under Mandia, Chenga and Rupshi Development Block: Our "surveyed Char villages are within the Jurisdiction of Mandia, Chenga and Rupshi Development Blocks. The role of women Self-Help Groups in these Char villages are still in nascent stage. Out of 18 surveyed villages 12 villages are within Mandia Development Block, 3 villages are within Chenga Development Block and 3 villages are within Rupshi Development Block. The 12 Char villages of Mandia Development Block cover five Gaon Panchayats. Islampur 1s under Bahtnapaiti-Dharampur Gaon Panchayat. Aligaon Pather 1s under Manikpur Gaon Panchayat. Jahanar Ghola, Balajan, Morabhaij, Jahanar Gaon, Silashi Pather, Baghbar Gaon, Niz-Baghbar are under Baghbar Gaon Panchayat, Bamundongra is under Bamundomgra Gaon Panchayat, Todhara Gaon and Dighir Pather are under Dighir Pam Gaon Panchayat. Sarudia, Major Char and Dakhin Godhuni are under Chenga Development Block fallen under the jurisdiction of Dakhin Godhuni Gaon Panchayat. Char Saria is under Rupshi Development Block which is covered by Guliza Gaon Panchayat, Udmari is under Sonapur Gaon Panchayat and Golia is within the Lashunga Gaon Panchayat. It is worthwhile to mention here that not a single SHG has been formed till today in Todhara Gaon amd Dighir Pather which are under Mandia Development Block falling under Dighirpam Gaon Panchayat. As per our survey too we have not noticed functioning of SHG in these two Char villages. We can witness 17 number of SHGs under Bamundongra Gaon Panchayat and out of these 17 SHGs covering 206 total members (64 women members), 11 number of SHGs received revolving hunds and 12 SHGs received Credit and subsidy and out of 206 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM these 17 SHGs there is only 1 SHG belonging to women in the Char village of Bamundongra Nabajyoti Mohila SHG covering 10 women members. The primary activity of SHG is Poultry; it has received Rs.10,000.00 as revolving fund and received credit and subsidy Rs.1,42,000.00 and Rs. 72,000.00 respectively. The char village Aligaon Pathar along with other villages are under Manikpur Gaon Panchayat falling Mandia Development Block having only 5 number of SHGs. Out of these 5 SHGs only two SHGs received revolving fund but it is unfortunate that no SHG belonging to womenfolk has been found. As per our field survey and interview with the womenfolk of this village not a single woman have ever heard about SHG. The Char village -- Islampur is under Bhatnapaity-Dharampur Gaon Panchayat and under Mandia Development Block. It has only 3 SHGs and out of these three SHGs one SHG received revolving fund and one SHG received credit and subsidy; but no woman SHG has been formed till today in the Char village of Islampur. Baghbar Gaon Panchayat of Mandia Development Block has formed 33 SHGs and this Baghbar Gaon Panchayat has covered 7 surveyed villages and out of 7 surveyed villages only three villages - Silashi Father, Baghbar Gaon and Niz-Baghbar are fortunate enough to form some SHGs belonging to womenfolk. Of course out of 33 SHGs in Baghbar Gaon Panchayat 9 SHGs received revolving fund and 5 SHGs out of these 9 SHGs are SHGs comprising women members. These SHGs are Niz-Baghbar, Marami Mahila Samity, Niz-Baghbar Nabanoor Mohila Samity, Silashi Father Mohila Samity, Nabajyoti Mohila SHG, Niz-Baghbar Madhumati Mohila Samity. While conducting survey, it is found that almost all the respondents stated that they are benefited from the SHG movement, though the womenfolk are facing some problems from male members of 207 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM their family in connection with participating the meetings of SHG which we have highlighted in the survey report of our study. Charsaria is a Char village, which is under Guliza Gaon Panchayat falling under Rupshi Development Block having 13 SHGs along with other villages. Out of these 13 SHGs only two SHGs received revolving fund and no SHG is yet to receive credit and subsidy. Jonali Mohila Atma Sahayak Got, Sagarika Atma Sahayak Got, Noor Jannat Paschim Bardanga Atma Sahayak Got, Sewali Mohila Atma Sahayak Got are some of the SHGs belonging to women members in this Gaon Panchayat. Sarudia, Major Char, Dakhin Gudhani are the Char villages falling under Dakhin Gudhani Gaon Panchayat and Chenga Development Block having 6 SHGs. Though no SHG has received revolving fund and subsidy yet it is worthwhile to mention here that all the 6 SHGs have comprised women members. It is noted here that the primary activity of almost all the SHGs are poultry, dairy, animal husbandry, agriculture, weaving etc. Summery of all Self-Help Groups of Mandia, Chenga and Rupshi Development Blocks under Barpeta District which our surveyed Char villages covered have been shown from Table No. 44 to Table No.48. 5.5 Conclusion While introducing the chapter it was pointed out that participatory institutions, to the extent people embrace them may loosen the hold of vicious circle of poverty, lack of consciousness and low participation. In the second section of the Chapter the significance of participation was noted with respect to women's empowerment in Assam in general and char areas of Barpeta District in particular as revealed in Panchayat Elections. The Third section discusses the limits of Panchayati Raj Institutions for women's empowerment in the light of their general performance. The fourth section discusses the slow 208 Chapter-S PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER IN ASSAM growth of SHGs in Assam and the problem of their extension in the Char areas. It was generally found that participatory institutions have not taken deep roots in the char areas of Barpeta District which has negative implications for women belonging to minority communities. 209 CHAPTER- 6 SUMMERY AND CONCLUSION The question of women or gender-related issue IS a significant issue in our civil society. Though women play an extremely important role in every society, yet they are deprived of rights and dignity along with facing gross negligence and discrimination as we have highlighted in the earlier analysis. In our study we tried to bring the gender perspective face to face with the vulnerabilities and deprivations of people living in the chars of the brahmaputa Valley, particularly the district of Barpeta in Assam. The present study was designed to be a field based studies in the three Development Blocks of the Barpeta District of Assam comprising a major segment of the Char Areas of the Brahmaputra Valley. We conducted both field surveys and interviews to arrive at an understanding of women's position in family, society and political processes. Through the ages, women have played an extremely important role particularly in the process of change and development. Despite their contribution, in fact, in almost all the societies, women continue to be severely disadvantaged, and even discriminated against. In the world over however it is now recognised that the socio-economic status of women in family and society continues to be inferior to men which we have shown in the second chapter through global perspective along with the importance of gender related development index as the gender development IS considered central to the process of human development. Though the Government of India launched a number of schemes related to the improvement of women's status in family and in household economy it is our observation that these are not adequate in order to enhance women's position. We have also shown in chapter-II that like other parts of the country women are isolated (isolation is basically isolation from formal economic and political decision making Chapter-6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION process at different level of Government) in Assam too, though due to non-existence of certain customs like 'Dowty' and 'Sati' Assamese women are considered to be better position. Evil practices like 'Dowty', 'Crime and violence against women' "witch hunting" etc. have already gained ground in the civil-society of Assam which has been analyzed in this chapter too. Today, gender related development index of Assam in comparison to other states of North Eastern Region is not at all encouraging which has also been analyzed in details in this chapter. Apart from these, we have tried to provide the socio economic lives of char or riverine people of Brahmaputra Valley in general and char areas of Barpeta district in particular from political pesspectives highlighting the socio economic and political awareness of womenfolk In fact, economic and political empowerment of women belonging to any community, society and region can not be understood without taking into account the specificities of local conditions. So we considered the nature and extent of women's empowerment specifically in the char areas in the 3rd chapter. The dismal socio-economic status alongwith lower educational level and lower political awareness belonging to Muslim womenfolk of char areas rightly justified the epithet used for them: "river nomads" The Assam Tribune is justified in observing: The female literacy rate in the State is abysmally low. Twelve districts of the State have less than 50 percent literacy rate among women. Dhubri, Kokrajhar, Darrang, Barpeta, Karbi Anglong, Sonitpur, Bongaigaon, Morigaon, Hailakandi, Goalapara, Tinsukia and Dhemaji figure among the 365 districts of the country having dismal literacy rate among women. Total literacy in the State would be a utopian concept unless the authorities reach out to the marginalized sections living in the 211 Chapter-6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION char (riverine) areas and tea gardens which account for the majority of the illiterate (The Assam Tribune, Editorial, May 26, 2010). In fact, the following are the key contributory factors relating to low socio--economic status of Muslim women of char areas of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam: );>- Poor Educational Level; );>- Lower Occupational Profile; );>- Socially and Economically backward areas; );>- Dominant role played by the Matabbars (Dewanees); );>- Lack of Medical facilities; );>- Prevalence of superstitions thinking; ? Natural calamities like erosion and flood; ? Absence of land pattas in the char areas; :Y Conservatism and prevalence 'Purdah'; ? Sevre poverty; In fact, women's socio-economic status of char areas of Barpeta district 1s probably determined mainly by religion, purdah, conservatism alongwith low level of education, lack of opportunity, low mobility, huge domestic responsibilities together with inadequate medical facilities and absolute poverty. In this connection the observation of Sushanta Talukdar is noteworthy as he rightly observed: As the immigrant Muslim settlers continue to devise different strategies to secure their political rights. The char areas of lower Assam remain poor. For example, a large population of legal and illegal immigrants are marked by poverty and under development. Nearly three lakhs families out of around 4.35 lakh families residing in chars are below the poverty line. The literacy rate in these areas is only 19.3 percent against the Assamese average of 64 212 Chapter-6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION percent. There are only 52 public health centres to serve a population of 25 lakhs. Soil erosion is a severe problem and has forced a large number of immigrant settlers to move to Guwahati or Urban areas of the State in search of employment. Those immigrant settlers who remained have demanded land settlements but the Government is yet to undertake a survey of all the char areas (S. Talukdar: 2006). It has been observed in our surveyed char villages that Muslim women are very much active in participating in the political process via village Panchayat, Legislative Assembly and Parliament than the women of Towns or Semi Towns (as manifest from our interviews) in some Muslim dominated wards of some towns under Barpeta District yet it cannot be safely stated that Muslim women of the district want revolutionary change of the social structure. In fact, some of them are members of Krishak Sabhas (Peasant's Front), Ganatantric Mahila Semities (Progressive women's front) as information gathered through interviews yet major portion of Muslim womenfolk do not know how their acute problems will be solved and how they will be emancipated. It is worthwhile to mention here that the deplorable socio economic condition of Muslim women has been highlighted in various reports and studies which may correctly be justified relating to our study area too. For instance, a report by the National Commission for Women, titled 'Voice of the voiceless," as submitted in 2000, highlighted the socio-economic condition of 60 million Muslim women and major portion of them were poor. The 75 page report contained testimonies of Muslim women of all ages, presented at public hearings in a number of states along with conducting hearings in Chennai, Jabbalpur, Calcutta, Thiruvanthapuram, Bangalore, Tezpur (Assam), Ahemdabad, Hyderabad, Mumbai, Indore, Kolhapur and Aligarh. The report rightly observed : 'Everywhere the stories were filled with pathos. 213 Chapter-6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Economically, socially, educationally, and politically deprived women came out in holders (T.K. Rajalakhmi: 2000). The striking feature of the report is its stress on the fact that Muslim women are no different in their life situation from women of other communities; the report also went against getting sucked into the imagery and cultural stereotyping 'of the burqa or hijahclad Muslim women', created by the film industry. One must be wary of such over simplification and steer off cultural stereotyping because it tends to overshadow the Muslim women's contemporary realities and struggles (Ibid: 2000). The report also has rightly observed that the perpetuation of stereotypes inadvertently serves the political purpose of often presenting the status quo. The backwardness of Muslim women stems not only from the Muslim personal law or certain 'Islamic features' it is very much a product of economic circumstances as well - poverty, destitution and most important the lack of economic rights (Ibid: 2000). Muslim Women Survey conducted by Hasan and Menon (2006) also elaborately have focused the lower educational attainment alongwith lower socio economic status and high level of political awareness relating to voters' turn out and political participation belonging to Muslim women. Contrary to streriotypes, as pointed out in section 1.5, the Muslim Society, its alleged conservative and restrictive nature and Islamic injunctions did not so put brakes before the Muslim women and cant explain why the Muslim women's participation in political process is noteworthy as compared to Hindu women in the Char areas of Barpeta District of Assam. Such steriotypes beg the question me: If the Muslim women are restrained for "social advancement" for the prevalence of "pardah - polygamy - talaq" in almost all Muslim societies why the large number of Muslim women do participate in various movements spearheaded by political parties, NGOs in the district of Barpeta ? 214 Chapter-6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION In fact, issues relating to social, economic and political status of India's Muslim minority community have been a matter of debate for several decades both during pre-independence and post independence period. During the pre independence period the Dalit Muslims were provided reservation facilities along with Dalit Hindus as per Government of India Act, 1935. During the post Independence period, Dr. Gopal Singh Committee (10 members comprising the committee) submitted its reports in 1983 on the issues of Minorities, Scheduled Castes, (S.C.'s), Scheduled Tribe (S.T.'s) and other weaker sections of society pointing out that 'a sense of discrimination prevailing among the minorities' along with forwarding suggestions that 'it must be eliminated, root and branch, if we want the minorities to form an effective part of the mainstream {V. Ramkrishanan: 2006). The socio-economic status and educational level of Muslim community was further analyzed systematically m details by the Sachar Committee and fact, the conditions of Indian Muslim highlighted by the Sachar Committee are the process of continuation of debate so far as the deprivation and discrimination of Muslim community, if there is any, is concerned. The seven member high level committee headed by Justice Rajinder Sachar was formed in March 2005 and it submitted its report in Nov. 2006 throwing light on the issues of Muslim Community particularly on three types of issues identity, security and equality. The Sachar Committee did not analyze in details the question of women empowerment belonging to Muslim community. Apart from this, the Sachar Committee did not incorporate a woman member too. Probably M.A. Kalam (2007) rightly observed how the Committee tried to pre-empt this when the Committee says: During the Committee's interaction with women's groups, some of them seriously articulated a grievance that it did not have any woman 215 Chapter-6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION and impact on women. At least our study of women in 'char areas' has drawn our attention to it. Thus, they are disadvantaged: as members of the minority community, as women, as poor women, and as women of char areas. Their lives not only are positioned at the intersection of gender, class and community but also transformed due to the specificity of char areas of the mighty river Brahmaputra and its tributaries. It would not be inappropriate to make statement that 'gender discrimination coalesces with class inequalities in perpetuating a structured disempowerment of Muslim Women' (Ibid: 2006) within the context of Assam's society in general and the char areas of Barpeta District particular. In our study, as reported in chapter 4, we seemed to find a negative picture of women's empowerment in the char areas of the Brahmaputra Valley when we took into account the indicators of social, economic and political empowerment (see Figure No.4,5 & 6). Our survey data pointed to a vicious circle; poverty and underdevelopment leading to lower awareness and participation, which m turn contributed to further impoverishment and social backwardness. We pointed out that participatory institutions, to the extent people embrace them may loosen the hold of vicious circle of poverty, lack of consciousness and low participation. But we found that in Assam in general and char areas of Barpeta District in particular there has been slow growth of SHGs in Assam and there was problem of their extension in the Char areas. It was generally found that participatory institutions have not taken deep roots in the char areas of Barpeta District which has negative implications for women belonging to minority communities. But what was remarkable was large scale attendance of women belonging to the minority community of the char areas under study in political meetings and processions. However unless we properly understand the "space"and its implications for the life and times of char dwellers such participation may give the wrong 217 Chapter-6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION message and may indeed be taken as a remarkable s1gn of empowerment. In fact such an interpretation may also lead to questioning our fmdings of the field survey highlighting absolutely low awareness and low autonomy of the women in char areas. There must be a reason why such a low state of women's empowerment by measurable indices goes together with high political turnout of women. In fact under section 4 of chapter 4 we already offered a tentative explanation. The women of the char areas together with their families suffer from two interrelated insecurities: from nature and from regional politics. The Nature makes their huts and land wash away frequently the regional politics their citizenship is questioned by branding them as Bangladeshis. So these people always make a bee line for political support from the parties that will provide them with some kind of security. We interviewed many people including politicians and understood the motive behind such participation. We have observed that Muslims of Char areas do fall in the category of the poor though poverty has not been acknowledged by the policy-makers. Most studies and scholars lay more emphasis on community identity than the class, gender and specific vulnerabilities of the lived areas.The lower level of women's education of char areas has certainly reduced women's earning prospects and possibilities of economic impendence. It has also contributed to lower exposer to mass media alongwith reducing women's autonomy. The low socio-economic status of womenfolk of char areas along with poor occupational profile have reduced their lives to a very deplorable condition. Apart from this, the lives of char people (both men and women) are closely bound up with the flow of river and with flooding. In fact, erosion and flood are posing a constant threat to their lives (lives of char people) which ultimately are marked by human deprivation. 218 Chapter-6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION As per Gender and Development approach towards gender issues direct female participation in gainful economic activity is a necessary condition for women's empowerment. But it is observed that female work participation of char areas is very poor. Agriculture and allied activities are the major occupation of female work force in such char areas; but in this respect too, the womenfolk of 18 surveyed char villages miserably fail to score on these activities. Women's right to land is also significant not only for poverty reduction among women, but also for gender mainstreaming because it can enhance women's voice, confidence, equality and autonomy. In the chars areas of our surveyed villages, women's control and access to land is almost nil. Inclusion of women into the political process or government 1s one of the major components of the process of gender mainstreaming. After 73rd and 74th Amendments to the Constitution of India in 1992, a new lease of life has been provided to the Panchayats which not only represent grass root of the federal structure of Indian policy but are also regarded as powerful institutions for women's empowerment. Because of one third of total seats in the Panchayats are reserved for women, so the scope of women for joining the decision making bodies has been enhanced. Reservation of one-third seats to the womenfolk of our surveyed char villages has already been implemented though in reality women's nominal participation has been observed because their husbands try to dictate and control the entire situation. Even the attendance of Gaon Sabha meeting by the womenfolk in these backward areas is simply dismal though the Gaon Sabha meetings are not held at regular intervals. The women's turn out during elections and participation in meetings organised by political parties is, of course, encouraging as has been shown in the earlier analysis. Thus it can be said that there is moderate women's political participation but 219 Chapter-6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION political awareness is not at all encouraging as major portion of Muslim womenfolk of surveyed villages responded that they cast their votes as directed by their husbands and other male members of their families. Thus is can be said that the smooth running of the processes of political empowerment alongwith decision making power of Muslim women in the char areas of Brahmaputra Valley of Assam in general and Barpeta District in particular are hindered by many hurdles at both the individual and family leveL Usually women face the following difficulties: L Absolute dependence on their husbands or other male family member so far as financial matter is concerned. 2. Low level of education fails to accelerate the confidence of women for which they can not interact freely and effectively. The family yet to change its outlook towards women members at different decision making bodies. Womenfolk char areas face some other problems: 1) Almost all the meetings of all sorts are often held at inconvenient hours. Women members cannot attend those meeting because of the engagement of household responsibilities. 2) Religious strictures along with crime prone society against women also restrict women's free movement in the char areas. Formation and expansion of activities of SHGs can play a revolutionary role in accelerating the process of women's empowerment. The initiation of formation of SHGs has been very discouraging in the char villages of Barpeta District; and where the SHGs are formed the participation coverage of rural women is very low and the striking features of these groups are not at all satisfactory in connection with bringing about any remarkable change in the overall 220 Chapter-6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION status of women m the char society though some of the SHGs successfully initiate (in the initial period) economic activities. Living in the Char lands may look attractive to the distant beholders. For the inhabitants it is not the fresh air or the water-body that is important, but the day to day struggle of commuting from the char land to the mainland, of keeping themselves afloat during mansoon or rebuilding their huts after landslides. The mere existence on the char land is a struggle and an achievement in itself. 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March 26-April 8, 2005. • Krishnaraj, M., "Research in Women Studies Need For A Critical Appraisal" in EPW, Vol. XL No. 28, July 9-15, 2005. • Madhab Jayanta, "Insurgency and Development" in Yojana, Vol. 50 (Special issue) December, 2006. • Medhi Kunja, "Empowerment of Women: A reflex on the Global Perspective "in a Journal of Assam Legislative Assembly. Vol. I. No. 3. Oct. 8/1988. • Mohanty B.K., "SHG Movement An Emerging Social Innovation of Micro Financing in Orissa" in Kurukshetra, Vol. 57. No. 4, Feb. 2009. • On Party's Perspective on women's issues and tasks - central committee document in The Marxist Quarterly, Theoretical Quarterly of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) XXII 1, January- March 2006. • Panchayat Empowerment & Accountability Incentive Scheme (PEAlS) in Kurukshetra, Vol. 58, No. 12, Oct. 2010. • Pangannavar A. Y, "Self-Help Groups and Rural Poverty" in Kurukshetra. 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Vol. XL No. 25, June.18, 2005. • Rao, Uma and Meera Devi "Glimpses: UP Women's Response to Gandhi: 1921-30" Samya Shakti - A Journal of Women Studies 1 (2), 1984. • Robinson Rowena, "Indian Muslims: The varied Dimensions of Marginality" in EPW, Vol. -XLII No. 10 March 10-16, 2007 • Saxena Kirti, "Facilitating Development" in Yojana, Vol. 53. (Special Issure) Dec J2009. • Sen S., "Daskhin - Purba Asia: Mahilarder Artha-Samajik Maryada 0 Unnayaner Abhimukhey Tader Abasthan" in EK Sathe, Sharad Sankhya Yr. 41, No. 5 and 6 Sept./Oct 2008. • Sen, A, "Many Faces of Gender Inequality" in Frontline, Vol. 18. No. 22. Oct. 27- Nov. 9. 2001. • Sen, I., "Mahila Mukti Dalli Rajhara: A Report from a Women's Organisation" in Samya Shakti- A Joumal of Women's Studies. 1(2), 1984. 248 SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY • Sengupta Sudipta, "Raktaa Charai Je Bishmaykar Biplab Samvab Hayeche" in Desh. Year 66. No. 23. Octj2. 1999. • Shah Ghanshyam, "The Condition of Muslims" in EPW, Vol. XLII No. 10 March 10-16, 2007. • Shimray, U.A., "Women's Work in Naga Society - Household Work, Workforce Participation and Division of Labour" in EPW. Vo. XXXIX. No. 17. April 24, 2004. • Shylendra H.S., "Role of Self Help Groups" m Yojana, Vol. 52 January 2008. • Talukdar R.B., "Sanghat, Bitaran Naari Aru Preskhapat" in Natun Padatik- 6 Oct, 2008 No. (July 2008 --Oct, 2008) • Tharu, S and Niranjana,T., " Problems for a Contemporary Theory of Gender" in Social Scientist. 22 (3-4), 1994. • Wilkimson S., comments on the Analysis in Sachar Report" in EPW, Vol. XLII No. 10 March 10-16, 2007. • Yunus Muhammad, "Give the Man Credit" m Yojana. VoL 52 January 2008. SEMINAR PAPERS: • A publication of Seminar papers on "Rural Development through women's empowerment with special reference to the North East" published by Dr. K.K. Kakati, Chairperson, Seminar Organizing Committee, B. H. College, Howly, Barpeta, Assam 2006. • Barooah Jeuti, "Women, Social Hazards and Empowerment" in A Publication of Seminar Papers, Organized by B.H. College, Howly, Assam, 10-11 Feb, 2006. • Kalita D.K. & Saha Kalita. M., "Socio-Economic and Demographic Status of women in Rural and Urban Areas in Assam (with 249 SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY . special reference to Kharupetia)" in A publication of seminar Papers, organised by B.H. College, Howly, Assam, 10-11 Feb, 2006. • Mukhopadhyaya D. "Equality, Welfare and Empowerment of Women for Rural Development: Role of Education" in A publication of the Seminar Papers organised by B.H. College, Howly, Assam, 10-11 Feb, 2006. • Sarkar S. S., "Participation of the poor in rural development programmes A key success factor" A paper presented at the National Seminar on 27 & 28 Feb/2008, Gauhati University. • Sarma J. C. & Kunda B. K., "Role of SHGs Rural development of Assam - A case study of Chakchaka and Gobardhana Development Block in Barpeta District" A paper presented at National Seminar on 27 & 28 Feb/2004, Gauhati University. INTERNET: Devolution to Panchayats in Assam: The way forward: http: I /pnrdassam.nic.onldevolution.htm. Participatory development. http:/ I en.wikipedia.orglwiki/ garticipatory -development. http: I /www.pnrdassam.org/ shg/b.asp?district=BARPETA 12/28/2008. http: I /www.pnrdassam.org/ shg/ASSAM http: I /www.pnrdassam.org/ shg/ c.asp? District= BARPETA & Block= Mandia 3/16/2009 http:/ /www.pnrdassam.orgjshg/District= BARPETA & Block= Chenga http:/ fwww.pnrdassam.orgjshg/District= BARPETA & Block= Rupshi http: //www.pnrdassam.org/ shg/District=BARPETA 250 Appendix- I State's profile of Char Areas, Assam 1. Total Nos. of District with Char Areas 14 Nos. 2. Total Nos. of Sub-Div with Char Areas 23 Nos. 3. Total Nos. ofG.P. with Char Areas 299 Nos. 4. Total Nos. of Dev. Block " 59 Nos. 5. Total Nos. of Char villages " 2251 Nos. 6. Total Nos. of Population " 24, 90, 097 Nos. 7. Total Nos. of Male " 12, 71, 588 Nos .. 8. Total Nos. of Female " 12,18,509 Nos. 9. Total land in Hectors " 3,60,927 Hect. 10. Total land Cultivable " 2,42,277 Hect 11. Total land Uncultivable " 1,18,650 Hect. 12. Total No of Family " 4,234,754 Nos. 13. Total No. of family below the poverty line " 2,95,199 Nos (67.88%) 14. Total No. of literate person " 4,80,807 Nos. 15. Total No. of illiterate person " 20,09,290 16. Percentage of literacy 19.31% 17. Educational Institution. a) L.P. School 1852 Nos. b) M.E. School 574 Nos. c) High. School 218Nos. d) H.S. School 8 Nos. e) College. 18 Nos. 18. Medical Facilities. 52 Nos. a) Total Nos. of PHC. 52 Nos. b) Total Nos. of Dispensary. Nil c) Total Nos. of Sub-Centre. 132 Nos. d) Total Irrigable Land. 13975 Hect Source: Socio-Economic Survey Report, 2002-03, Directorate of Assam Char Areas Development, Assam. Cl, Appendix - II Statement showing the Data of Socio Economic Survey Report of Char Areas/Villages of Assam under Directorate of Char Areas Development Assam, Dispur, Guwahati - 6, Prepared on August 2003 "' Population (Nos) Land (in Heel) ~iT;l E~cational institution (Nos) ~edical Facilities ~ ~ 1Nos n (..') u ctl Q) SL ~ B &j ~ ~ - £ · · :5. ·- I • • s..;; _J Q) Q ~ d) Cfj tJ) >-. 9 Nagoan 2 6 4 43 45302 44501 89803 8056 3980 12036 1 17920 11969 15796 74007 17.59 28 9 2 - - 4 - 4 10 Jorhat 1 20 2 293 109617 105478 215095 28016 14158 42174 35316 22602 130240 84855 60.55 423 138 90 4 8 8 - 16 5560 1 11 Sonitpur 3 23 7 145 75119 70610 145729 16410 7758 24168 23428 15931 24672 121057 16.93 88 29 4 - - 1 - 7 12 Lakhimpur 2 16 6 109 73216 70109 143235 14451 7072 21523 23096 15940 26498 116737 18.50 93 35 10 - - 1 - 6 13 Dhemaji 2 9 3 149 47689 43514 91203 11347 5629 16976 19112 13566 14309 76894 15.69 40 8 1 - - 1 - 4 14 Tinsukia 1 4 1 79 27234 25371 52605 9496 4598 14094 10670 7352 7364 45241 14.00 16 11 1 - - - - 6 G.Total 23 299 59 2251 1271588 1218509 2490097 242277 11650 360927 1 434754 295119 ~80807 29992_99 _19~L _1~~~ '--574 218 8 18 52 - 132 13975 1 Source: Socio-Economic Survey Report, 2002-03, Directorate of Char Areas Development Assam. Appendix-Ill Name of District: Barpeta Name of the Sub-Division: B -· -·- - ·- ~ Medical Facilities Population (Nos.) Land (in Hectares) Q) Education Institution (Nos) .b > tf .E 0 (Nos) Q) 0. -;;;- >. (,) J!1 Q) 8 0 E. .c z ~ ~ "0 SL Name of Name of Name of 0 -Q) 2::- _g; c Q) u:i ~,§ .l!l .l!l ~ c: -' No. Dev. Block G.P. CharNillage Fema Cultivable Uncult 0 .c 0> 0 "' Q) "' ~ ~ 0 a.: w _g> uj Q) c: Male Total Total z :C "'Q) le Land ivable 1i .l!l '#...... i :::E ::c :C 0 0. ~ ]i >. :.:::; (_) a.: .!a ~ 0 ~ :::1 0') 0 (f) .E"' f- 'E' - \ u.."' 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 241 1 Mandia Alopoti 1. Alopati No. 1 794 768 1562 127 61 188 260 174 275 1287 17.61% 2 1 ------Developmen Major 2. Alopati No. 2 397 380 777 83 40 123 134 80 137 640 17.63% 1 ------1 - !Block Char G.P. 3. Alopati No. 3 1930 1828 3758 280 134 414 636 394 663 3095 17.64% 2 2 1 1 1 1 - 1 - 4. Alopati Sanitpur 750 675 1425 240 115 355 245 169 258 1167 18.11% 2 1 ------5. Kalairdia 1042 975 2017 261 125 386 350 238 356 1661 17.65% 2 1 ------6. Pub Nishaner 825 775 1600 126 61 187 280 190 290 1310 18.13% 2 1 - - --- Char 7. Pachim Nichaner 512 495 I 10o7 210 101 311 174 117 178 829 17.68% 1 1 1 - - -- - Char 8. Major Char No. 1 883 780 1663 108 52 160 281 191 295 1368 17.74% 2 ------9. Major Char No.2 1017 946 1963 128 61 189 338 233 346 1617 17.63% 2 1 1 ------10. Major Char No.3 661 632 1293 166 80 246 216 140 238 1055 18.41% 1 1 ------11. Major Char No. 4 463 440 903 150 72 222 150 104 169 734 18.72% 1 1 ------(Khatiamari) 12. Major Char 230 217 447 185 89 274 76 5_3 --79 368 17.67% ------Charpara I 13. Majorchar 360 349 709 146 70 216 116 80 142 558 20.29% 1 ------Purbapara 14. Alopati Fakirpur 385 375 760 150 72 222 127 87 154 606 20.26% 1 ------1988 338 1629 Sub-Total 10249 9635 2360 1133 1 3493 2250 3580 18.01% 20 10 3 1 1 1 2 4 3 5 - . ------· Source: Socio-Economic Survey Report, 2002-03, Directorate of Char Areas Development Assam. Name of District : Barpeta Name of the Sub-Division: Barpeta .£! Medical Facilities Population (Nos.) Land (in Hectares) Q) Education Institution (Nos) > I 't5 I .,;:,. 0 (Nos) Q) .E 0.. » I Cll ~~~ <> ~ J£ .s:;;; z z g:! "0 Sl. Name of Name of u; <-' 2 .~•peta, , .)lib-Division : Barpeta I Population (Nos.) I Land (in Hectares) ! Medical Facilities I ,..,\Q) Education Institution (Nos) I = . ...c: Iii Vi >. (Nos) E -"' 0 0 (.) SL Name of Name of I I ' ~ ~~ z z ~ (f) ~~c: - .l!l 2:- !'< NameofG.P. 0 2 -2 Q) No. Dev. Block Char/Village Fema 2t - .c: 0 (f) E __J z >-> ~ ~ u.i g' c:"' Q)"' Male 0 0 0.: .52' c.ri () ]i = 0 _j I Q) "' ::0 le Land UoruH1vable T ., E c. ~ 0~ ~ ::c I 0 a. '"'' I (f) .6 c"'""'"l 0 -' () 0.: ~ :;:J !- 1.1.. "' i5 (f) f"' 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 H-10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 24 3 1 Mandia Kodamtala G.P. 22. Say Shimana 641 624 1265 129 62 191 214 145 225 1040 17.79% 2 1 - - - - - Developmen N.C. !Block 23. Do No.1 567 532 1099 125 60 I 185 189 125 194 905 17.65% 2 ------24. DoNo. 2 709 633 1342 118 57 ' 175 227 152 237 1105 17.66% 2 1 - - - - - 25. Roiar Char 662 588 1250 75 36 111 211 139 104 1146 8.32% 1 ------26. Dholar Char 630 561 1191 63 30 93 198 132 105 1086 8.82% 1 ------27. Kodamtala N.C. 967 944 1911 85 41 126 318 206 166 1745 8.69% 2 1 1 - - 1 - 1 - 28. Kopahtoli 680 654 1334 73 35 108 230 154 115 1219 8.62% 1 ------29. Kalaasia Char 352 337 689 70 33 103 137 93 59 630 8.56% ------30. Kalpani Char 279 233 512 78 34 112 44 30 45 467 8.79% ------31. Kodamtala 524 500 1024 120 58 178 193 129 82 942 8.01% 1 ------32. Takiachoti Char 450 425 875 60 27 87 148 100 75 800 8.57% 1 1 - - - - - 33. Niz Moinbori 822 792 1614 102 49 151 286 197 283 1331 17.53% 2 ------34. Sata Moinbori 830 825 1675 140 67 207 299 203 302 1373 18.03% 2 1 ------~5 ~at Moinbori 1105 1050 2155 170 82 252 378 260 389 1766 18.05% 2 1 1 - - - - Moinbori G.P. 36. Pochim Moinbori 1320 1280 2600 271 130 401 460 299 458 2142 17.62% 2 1 1 - - - - - Do 37. Uttar Moinbori 905 850 1755 140 67 207 151 101 320 1435 18.23% 2 1 ------1082 2229 368 1913 Sub-Total 11443 1819 868 2687 2465 3159 2 14.17% 23 8 3 - - 1 1 8 1 3_ L__ ------ 3 Name of District Barpeta, Name of the Sub-Division: Barpeta >- -o I Population (Nos.) Land (in Hectares) gj ,... ~~· "'0 u Medical c: Sl. Name of Q) Q) .£9~ l'1 Education Institution (Nos) ctl I Name of Name of .O>Q) ~ Facilities (Nos) --' c- ~ t3 Q) u ~ .$9 & c: Q) - Q) No. [ Dev. Block G.P. CharNillage Femal ·=n 8.§ .<:: Male Cultivabl Uncult ~ ~ 1 .E "' ~ ~~ 0 u.i uj al' 0 ~ ~ -"'I Total 0 = a.: .!2' ~Q)