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Mass Releases of Genetically Modified Insects in Area-Wide Pest sustainability Article Mass Releases of Genetically Modified Insects in Area-Wide Pest Control Programs and Their Impact on Organic Farmers R. Guy Reeves 1,* and Martin Phillipson 2 1 Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, 24306 Plön, Germany 2 College of Law, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A6, Canada; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +49-4522-763-376 Academic Editor: Gerhart U. Ryffel Received: 22 October 2016; Accepted: 22 December 2016; Published: 1 January 2017 Abstract: The mass release of irradiated insects to reduce the size of agricultural pest populations of the same species has a more than 50-year record of success. Using these techniques, insect pests can be suppressed without necessarily dispersing chemical insecticides into the environment. Ongoing release programs include the suppression of medfly at numerous locations around the globe (e.g., California, Chile and Israel) and the pink bollworm eradication program across the southern USA and northern Mexico. These, and other successful area-wide programs, encompass a large number of diverse organic farms without incident. More recently, mass release techniques have been proposed that involve the release of genetically modified insects. Given that the intentional use of genetically modified organisms by farmers will in many jurisdictions preclude organic certification, this prohibits the deliberate use of this technology by organic farmers. However, mass releases of flying insects are not generally conducted by individual farmers but are done on a regional basis, often without the explicit consent of all situated farms (frequently under the auspices of government agencies or growers’ collectives). Consequently, there exists the realistic prospect of organic farms becoming involved in genetically modified insect releases as part of area-wide programs or experiments. Herein, we describe genetically modified insects engineered for mass release and examine their potential impacts on organic farmers, both intended and unintended. This is done both generally and also focusing on a hypothetical organic farm located near an approved experimental release of genetically modified (GM) diamondback moths in New York State (USA). Keywords: organic certification; sterile insect technique; genetically modified insects; diamondback moth; Plutella xylostella; law; regulation; coexistence; GM-SIT; biotechnology 1. Introduction The intentional release of sterile or partially sterile insects as a means of reducing the size of reproductive populations of the same species acting as agricultural pests has been practiced for over 50 years (Chapter 1 in [1]). While large numbers of farmers throughout the globe continue to benefit from successful historical pest eradication programs or ongoing pest suppression programs, current awareness of this approach is often limited. We aim to briefly describe the principles and practices of the conventional sterile insect technique (SIT) and then discuss the implications for certified organic farmers of proposed elaborations of SIT that incorporate the mass release of genetically modified insects (GM-SIT). This includes discussion of not only intended biological outcomes [2], but also a holistic consideration of other likely impacts on farmers. In doing so it is important to emphasize that for many producers and consumers organic farming is much more than adherence to standards or certification regimes and encompasses principles of health, ecology, fairness and Sustainability 2017, 9, 59; doi:10.3390/su9010059 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2017, 9, 59 2 of 24 Sustainability 2017, 9, 59 2 of 24 stewardshipThis is in addition [3]. This to is emphasizing in addition to the emphasizing importance the of importance farmer autonomy of farmer and autonomy genuine and choice genuine for choiceconsumers, for consumers, both of which both remain of which at the remain core of at athe global core industry of a global estimated industry to be estimated worth US$ to be80 b worthillion US$80in 2015billion [4]. While in 2015 the [above4]. While principles the above do not principles appear doto have not appear been breached to have been and breachedhave not adversely and have notimpacted adversely organic impacted farmers organic operating farmers in operating areas where in areas conventional where conventional (non-GM) (non-GM) SIT releases SIT releases have haveoccurred occurred (Figure (Figure 1), the1), theproposed proposed incorporation incorporation of ofGM GM technologies technologies in in future programsprograms stillstill warrants careful consideration. Failure to do so could expose farmers to unnecessary and potentially harmful economiceconomic uncertainty. uncertainty. From From the the perspective perspective of organic of organic farmers, farmers the fact, the that fact insect that pestinsect control pest programscontrol programs are generally are generally conducted conducted on an area-wide on an area basis-wide is ofbasis particular is of particular concern, concern as well, asas thewell fact as thatthe fact historically that historically they have they involved have someinvolved degree some of compulsorydegree of compulsory participation. participation. It is this compulsion It is this thatcompulsion appears that to run appears counter to to run efforts counter towards to efforts coexistence towards [5], andcoexistence the likely [5], negative and the perception likely negative of the useperception of this technologyof the use byof consumersthis technology warrants by consumers responsible warrant discussion,s responsible ideally before discussion, releases ideally of GM insectsbefore intoreleases the environment of GM insects occur. into Furthermore, the environment most current occur. measuresFurthermore, aimed most at fostering current coexistence measures throughaimed at limiting fostering cross-contamination coexistence through of cropslimiting in fieldscross-contamination rely on promoting of crops particular in fields agricultural rely on practices,promoting often particular the use agricultural of buffer zones, practices, to limit often the the flow use of of GM buffer materials zones, between to limit fields.the flow However, of GM inmaterials SIT of allbetween types, fields. the movement However of, in sterile SIT of (or all partially types, the sterile) movement insects of between sterile (or fields partially and farms sterile) is generallyinsects between a necessary fields prerequisite and farms is for generally successfully a necessary suppressing prerequisite pest populations for successfully below economically suppressing significantpest populations thresholds. below This economically is because significant the infestation thresholds. of crops This from is because untreated the areas infestation is a more of rapidcrops processfrom untreated (occurring areas in is as a little more time rapid as process it takes a(occurring mated female in as tolittle fly time into anas it area) takes than a mated is suppression female to byfly SITinto (which an area) takes than generations). is suppression The by need SIT (which to suppress takes insects generations). on a suitably The need scaled to suppress area-wide insects basis alsoon a frequentlysuitably scaled dictates area that-wide control basis programs also frequently are undertaken dictatesnot that only control on agricultural programs are land undertaken but also in urbannot only and on suburban agricultural areas. land but also in urban and suburban areas. Figure 1. A wide variety of U.S.U.S. farmers have reducedreduced their reliance on chemical pest control due to the success of past andand ongoingongoing area-widearea-wide pest controlcontrol programs.programs. Locations of some of the major conventional SIT control programs in the USA areare shown.shown. Gr Grayay states represent those with active medflymedfly (an exotic pest ofof manymany fruitfruit crops)crops) suppressionsuppression programs.programs. Dotted states represent those involved in the pink bollworm (an exotic pest of cottoncotton andand okra)okra) eradicationeradication program inin Southern U.S.U.S. states andand NorthernNorthern Mexico.Mexico.The The thick thick black black line line represents represents the the approximate approximate maximum maximum extent extent of screwwormof screwworm before before its its eradication eradication using using SIT. SIT. None None of theseof these programs programs utilized utilized GM-SIT. GM-SIT. 1.1. What Is Conventional (Non-GM)(Non-GM) Sterile Insect Technique andand HowHow IsIs ItIt Used?Used? The releaserelease of of sterile sterile (or (or partially partially sterile) sterile) individuals individuals as a as means a means to reduce to reduce the reproductive the reproductive size of asize pest of population a pest population dates back dates to theback 1930s to the and 1930s was firstand formulatedwas first formulated by the Russian by the scientist Russian Alexander scientist SerebrovskyAlexander Serebrovsky (Chapter 1 in(C [hapter1]). The 1 basic in [1]). principle The basic of the principle approach of is the described approach in Figureis described2a. To bein successfulFigure 2a. inTo reducing be successful target in pest reducing population target sizes, pest it ispopulation generally essentialsizes, it is that generally releases essential be conducted that releases be conducted on an area-wide basis without leaving any populations from which pests could readily re-establish themselves. Typically,
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