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Home , Higher education, Undergraduate education

An Overview of Higher in the : Diversity,Access, and the Role of the Marketplace

By Peter D. Eckel and Jacqueline E. King

American Council on Education The Unifying Voice for This publication originally appeared as a chapter in J. Forest and P. Altbach (Eds.), The International Handbook of Higher Education (two volumes), published by Springer. Available at http://www.springeronline.com.

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

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American Council on Education

ACE and the American Council on Education are registered marks of the American Council on Education.

American Council on Education One Dupont Circle NW Washington, DC 20036 Table of Contents

Introduction ...... iii

The Distinctive Characteristics of U.S. Higher Education ...... 1

Size and Composition of U.S. Higher Education...... 1

Governance ...... 3

Finance ...... 5

Students...... 7

The and Degrees...... 9

Faculty and Their Appointments...... 10

University Administration ...... 11

Student Life and Athletics ...... 12

Current Challenges Confronting U.S. Higher Education ...... 15

The Marketplace (Not Government) as Key External Driver ...... 15

Higher Education as an Engine of Mobility ...... 16

Other Current Issues ...... 17

Conclusion ...... 19

References ...... 20 Introduction

higher education borrows its structure from both the British

undergraduate and German research , but its . . character is profoundly influenced by three major philosophical Ubeliefs thatS shape American public life.1 Informed by the Jeffersonian ideals of limited government and freedom of expression, states, religious communities, and individuals established and maintain a range of higher education and continue to protect these institutions from the levels of government control seen in most other countries.

The second set of influences is capitalism and the belief in the rationality of markets.

American and vie for students, faculty, and funding under the assumption that diversity and high quality are best achieved through competition rather than centralized planning. The final major philosophical influence on American higher education is a widespread commitment to equal opportunity and social mobility. Higher education was an elite activity for much of its , excluding individuals based on gender, religion, race/ethnicity, and social class. However, during the 20th century, economic and social changes transformed higher education into a primary gateway to the middle-class, and women and minorities made inroads against longstanding exclusion from mainstream higher education. Americans came to view broad access to higher education as a necessary component of the nation’s ideal as a “land of opportunity.”

Higher education responded by broadening access. Indeed, the one uniquely American type of —the —was founded in the 20th century to ensure open access to higher education for individuals of all ages, preparation levels, and incomes.

Guided by these beliefs, U.S. higher education reflects essential elements of the

American character: independence, suspicion of government, ambition, inclusiveness, and competitiveness. This publication describes the major characteristics of American higher education and important issues that challenge it, linking back as appropriate to these essential philosophical underpinnings.

1 In the United States, several important terms differ in meaning from most of the rest of the world. The term college refers to an institution that typically awards only undergraduate degrees. The term faculty can refer either to an individual or to all instructors (e.g., “The Harvard faculty approved a new degree program.”) American Council on Education iii The Distinctive Characteristics of U.S. Higher Education

ecause American higher educa- federal student aid programs and therefore tion is so diverse and complex, are not counted by the federal government any description of “standard (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). practice” inevitably misstates Degree-granting institutions are much about individual colleges typically divided into four major groups, Band universities. Indeed, important and a considerable amount of diversity exceptions to most of the characteristics exists within each group: described in this paper exist. Nonetheless, • America’s 1,100 public two-year insti- this section provides an overview of how tutions, or community colleges, enroll most colleges and universities are governed the largest share of undergraduates and financed, their students and faculty, (6 million students in 2001). These and the nature of the curriculum and institutions award associate degrees in student life. vocational fields, prepare students for transfer to four-year institutions, and Size and Composition of serve their communities by providing a U.S. Higher Education wide array of educational services. In addition to diversity, autonomy, com- These services range from specialized petition, and accessibility, size is a distin- training for large employers, to English guishing feature of U.S. higher education. instruction for recent immi- The U.S. Department of Education counts grants, to recreational courses. Almost 6,500 postsecondary institutions that 4 million students attended community participate in its student financial aid colleges part-time in 2001. The U.S. programs, including 4,200 colleges and government does not track enrollment universities that award degrees and 2,300 figures for noncredit or institutions that award vocational certifi- recreational courses, but the American cates. These 6,500 institutions enrolled Association of Community Colleges approximately 16 million full- and part- estimates that an additional 5 million time students, including 14 million under- students enroll in these types of courses graduates and 2 million graduate and at community colleges every year. professional students, in fall 2001. The • There are only 630 public four-year 4,200 colleges and universities awarded colleges and universities in the United more than 2.4 million degrees in academic States. But these institutions—which year 2000–01. In addition, an untold include regional comprehensive number of other institutions offer universities that concentrate on under- post-secondary instruction of some type graduate teaching and graduate but do not choose to participate in the preparation in professional fields such

American Council on Education 1 as teaching and business, as well as • For-profit institutions primarily offer research universities that offer a vocational programs that result in comprehensive set of undergraduate, certificates rather than degrees. Of the graduate, and more than 2,400 for-profit institutions programs—enrolled 6.2 million counted by the U.S. Department of students in 2001. This figure includes Education, 500 offer two-year associate 5 million undergraduates and slightly degrees and 320 offer bachelor’s more than 1 million graduate students.2 and/or graduate degrees. In total, • Private not-for-profit institutions are for-profit institutions enrolled more extremely diverse, including research than 750,000 students in 2001, all universities, four-year liberal but 50,000 of whom were at the colleges that focus on undergraduate undergraduate level. teaching, a small number of two-year institutions, faith-based institutions Table 1 provides an overview of enroll- that maintain strong links with ment in each of these four sectors. This religious denominations, women’s large number and wide range of institu- colleges, historically black colleges tions offer both access and choice—two and universities, and specialized hallmarks of American higher education institutions that focus on a single field, that respond to the previously described such as nursing or fine arts. Private value placed on opportunity and faith in not-for-profit institutions enrolled the market. 3.2 million students in 2001, including 2.3 million undergraduates and more than 700,000 graduate students.

Table 1. U.S. Postsecondary Institutions and Enrollments: Fall 2001 Public Private Private Total Not-for-Profit For-Profit

Institutions 2,099 1,941 2,418 6,458 Four-Year 629 1,567 324 2,520 Two-Year 1,165 269 779 2,213 Less than Two-Year 305 105 1,315 1,725

Enrollment 12,370,079 3,198,354 765,701 16,334,134 Four-Year 6,236,486 3,120,472 321,468 9,678,426 Two-Year 6,047,445 63,207 241,617 6,352,269 Less than Two-Year 86,148 14,675 202,616 303,439

2 The number of graduate and undergraduate students does not add to the total number of students because some students may take courses outside a formal degree program and, in other cases, the degree level of students was not reported.

2 AN OVERVIEW OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES Governance advocate to the legislature on behalf of Another of the philosophical underpin- public colleges and universities. In some nings of U.S. higher education is the states, more than one multi-campus Jeffersonian notion of limited and, system exists, such as California’s distinct whenever possible, locally controlled systems of community colleges, compre- government. Based on this model, the hensive state colleges and universities, U.S. Constitution reserves for the states and research universities. all government functions not specifically Because the Constitution does not described as federal. Among those func- mention education as a federal responsi- tions is education. As a result, each of the bility, the federal government plays a lim- 50 states is responsible for governing ited role and the United States has never public colleges and universities (which had an education ministry, such as those enroll 75 percent of students), rather than found in most other countries. With the the federal government. The degree of important exception of the Morrill Land control by the states varies tremendously. Grant Act of 1862, which donated federal Some institutions, such as the University territory to the states for the establish- of California and the University of ment of public universities, the federal gov- Michigan, enjoy constitutional autonomy ernment played almost no role in higher as separate branches of state government. education until the middle of the 20th At the other extreme, locally elected century, when World War II necessitated boards of trustees govern some commu- the establishment of federal funding for nity colleges. In some states, a governing scientific research at colleges and univer- board appointed by the governor and/or sities to build U.S. military capacity. In legislature oversees all institutions, setting 1944, President Franklin Roosevelt signed funding levels, establishing accountability the G.I. Bill of Rights, which granted measures, setting policies, and approving returning veterans funding to attend col- new academic programs. In others, the lege as a way to integrate servicemen back state board plays only an advisory function into the U.S. workforce. As the civil rights and has little direct authority over institu- movement took hold in the 1960s, the fed- tions. In many others, a state agency is eral role in supporting students expanded poised between the institutions and state to include grant and loan programs for government, implementing statewide low- and moderate-income students. Since policy but also attempting to insulate that time, federal support has expanded so institutions from ill-advised or overly that it is now the primary financier of both intrusive state policies. scientific research and student financial Some public universities are part aid. of statewide multi-campus systems in While the federal government which an additional layer of oversight generally does not provide direct exists between the campus and state operational support to colleges and uni- government. System administrators may versities, this special-purpose funding is oversee campus budgets, set policies an extremely important revenue source such as admissions standards, coordinate and, in turn, has increased the ability of degree programs, and facilitate credit the federal government to influence transfer and articulation between the colleges and universities in areas outside state’s public colleges and universities. research and financial aid. For example, in Additionally, and importantly, they order for institutions to participate in the

American Council on Education 3 financial aid programs, they must comply and national accreditation organizations with a wide range of federal reporting to determine whether institutions are of requirements on topics ranging from sufficient academic quality and manage- teacher preparation to gender equity in rial soundness to merit inclusion in the intercollegiate athletics. However, despite federal student financial aid programs. the growing influence of the federal gov- When the U.S. Department of Education ernment, its role is still limited and has officially recognizes an accrediting organi- not yet intruded into core academic zation, it certifies that the organization decisions, which are generally left to the adequately monitors quality in areas institutions and, in the case of some mandated by the federal government, such public institutions, the states. as fiscal soundness and managerial compe- Two sets of voluntary organizations act tence, fair admissions and recruiting prac- as bulwarks against excessive government tices, and evidence of student success. control of higher education: accrediting Accrediting organizations establish organizations that monitor quality assur- minimum standards that institutions must ance, and membership associations that meet in a range of areas such as the curri- represent institutions to the federal and cula, faculty qualifications, student learning state governments. Accrediting organiza- outcomes, co-curricular student services, tions are membership organizations of and financial health. Accrediting organi- colleges and universities and rely on zations do not, however, mandate how volunteers who work at colleges and institutions go about meeting those stan- universities and who agree to assist other dards. Further, because accreditation institutions by providing evaluation measures institutions against a set of through peer review. There are three standards, it generally does not provide types of accrediting organizations: region- a gauge of how well an institution is al organizations, which review the quality performing relative to other institutions. of entire institutions and focus almost Accreditation is accomplished through exclusively on public and private not-for- institutional self-study and a peer review profit degree-granting institutions; process to determine whether the institu- national organizations, which monitor the tion has met the organization’s standards. quality of most for-profit and non–degree- Accreditors typically review institutions granting institutions; and specialized on a three- to five-year basis (Eaton, 2000). accrediting organizations, which evaluate Membership associations, which can academic programs within a specific field have either institutions or individuals such as , , or . (such as business officers) as members, American accreditation differs from represent the interests of colleges and the type of quality assurance conducted universities to the federal government by governments in most other countries. and, in some cases, state governments. Federal and state governments can and do Many colleges and universities also impose their own accountability require- employ their own staff to advocate for ments on institutions, but they generally them, but in most cases, those staff work have left the assessment of academic only on issues of concern to the individual quality to institutions themselves through institution, such as state appropriations or the self-study and peer review processes of federal research contracts for the institu- accreditation. The federal government, in tion. Membership associations champion particular, relies on recognized regional those public policies that are in the

4 AN OVERVIEW OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES collective best interest of either all or some These two sources (along with local app- major segment of higher education. In ropriations at community colleges and Washington, DC, colleges and universities federal research grants and contracts at are represented by hundreds of organiza- research universities) provide the bulk of tions, which also provide networking and funds for general operating expenses. One opportunities of the perennial questions in American for their members. higher education finance is how much of the cost of education should be borne by Finance government, and how much by students Colleges and universities are financed in and families. ways consistent with both the Jeffersonian Traditionally, state appropriations ideal of limited government and the belief have made up the bulk of institutional that market competition tends to improve revenue at public institutions, but they are quality and efficiency. While government diminishing both as a share of state expen- plays a very important role in financing, ditures and as a percentage of institutional American colleges and universities are revenue. In response, state governments supported further by diverse revenue and public institutions have raised tuition, sources that reflect the market choices shifting the responsibility from taxpayers of students and parents as well as other consumers of the goods and services that institutions provide. The major sources of revenue include tuition and fee payments One of the perennial questions in American higher from students and families (including the education finance is how much of the cost of government-backed financial aid that education should be borne by government, and how students use to pay tuition); appropria- much by students and families. tions, grants, and contracts from federal, state, and local governments; private gifts; endowment and other investment earn- to students. In most states, higher educa- ings; and sales from auxiliary enterprises tion is the third largest item in the budget, and services. after health care and elementary/secondary Some of these sources are more education. Because health care costs are important to some types of institutions escalating rapidly and voters demand that than to others. For example, local govern- spending on elementary/secondary ments account for 18 percent of revenue at be protected, higher education community colleges but 1 percent of falls logically into legislators’ sights when revenue at private not-for-profit institu- they are forced to make budget cuts. Not tions. Similarly, private gifts contribute only does higher education represent a 14 percent of revenue to private not-for- significant portion of state budgets, but profit institutions, but only 1 percent (unlike other programs such as prisons) of revenue to community colleges (U.S. it has a natural alternative source of Department of Education, 2003). While revenue—tuition payments from parents the revenue sources of American institu- and students. Typically, in good economic tions are diverse, two sources are of part- times, states will raise appropriations to icular importance to most institutions: colleges and universities and demand that, state appropriations, particularly for in return, institutions keep tuition public institutions; and tuition and fees. increases low. When the economy is in

American Council on Education 5 trouble and state tax revenue falls, states and services to meet student demand for cut spending on higher education and state-of-the- technology, small class expect institutions to make up the sizes, and world-class academic and difference through tuition increases. recreational facilities. Private donations from individuals and In the face of these increased costs corporations provide another source of and reduced revenue from states and revenue for American colleges and univer- other sources, universities and colleges sities that is typically not found outside have three options. They can cut back, the United States. Total voluntary support improve efficiencies, and/or generate new for higher education, encouraged by the revenue. For the most part, institutions are U.S. tax structure, surpassed $23 billion engaged in some combination of all three. in fiscal year 2003, of which $11 billion They cut back by reducing travel and was donated by individuals (Council for equipment purchases, postponing salary Aid to Education, 2004). To this end, increases, leaving vacant faculty and many colleges and universities construct administrative positions, reducing adminis- sophisticated approaches to fund raising, trative and support staff, and postponing and college and university presidents building and renovation. Rarely do dedicate much of their time to raising institutions cut academic programs. private gifts. Institutions also strive to become more A significant and growing set of efficient. Much of this effort focuses on expenditures at many private not-for-profit administrative and student service institutions is institutional financial aid, functions, such as lowering electrical sometimes called “tuition discounting.” usage, streamlining purchasing and Private colleges have a long tradition procurement processes, and altering of providing financial assistance to low- financial systems. Some institutions are income students. In addition, most of pursuing efficiencies in academic areas, these institutions (and, increasingly, many such as using technology to reach more public institutions as well) have turned students, increasing class size, and hiring to institutional financial aid to attract adjunct instructors. However, most students who may be able to pay the full efficiencies are being sought outside the price but who are unwilling to attend classroom. without a discount. For some institutions, Finally, American colleges and univer- tuition discounting is a way to compete sities are pursuing many efforts to diversify with other institutions for the “best and and expand their revenue streams, such as brightest.” For others, it is a necessary developing online education and niche- practice that fills enrollment places that oriented degree and non-degree academic otherwise would remain vacant. In either programs, expanding research capacities, case, these discounts contribute to engaging in licensing and sponsorship increases in the posted or “sticker price.” agreements, and pursuing auxiliary enter- All institutions face real increases prises, such as managing real estate and in the cost of providing education. running conference centers. Because a Technology and equipment costs are primary source of additional revenue is rising, as are the prices of journals and student tuition and fees, they have risen at books, health care for employees, and twice the rate of inflation over the past building maintenance. Institutions are 20 years, outstripping increases in both working to update and expand facilities family income and financial aid resources.

6 AN OVERVIEW OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES The implications of increasing prices Students for students and families are a matter of Despite increases in the price of attending constant policy debate. Despite tuition college, the American student population increases, demand for higher education continues to grow rapidly in both size and continues to increase. Further, a wide diversity. As noted previously, there are array of government and private financial more than 16 million individuals seeking aid programs provides assistance to stu- degrees at U.S. postsecondary institutions dents, based on both financial need and and an estimated 5 million additional academic merit. Financial aid to students students enrolled in noncredit courses. totaled more than $105 billion in 2002–03, American college students are diverse in including $71 billion in federal grants, age, race/ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic loans, and tax credits; $6 billion in state status, and academic interests. The majority grants; and $20 billion in grants provided of undergraduate students are women and by colleges and universities, as well as private organizations (, 2003). Despite these resources, access and success in higher education continue Despite increases in the price of attending college, to be stratified according to income, with the American student population continues to grow students at the upper end of the income rapidly in both size and diversity. spectrum far more likely to attend college and earn a degree than those from disad- vantaged backgrounds. Of , many one-third are racial or ethnic minorities. factors play into college access and suc- More than 40 percent are age 25 or older cess, not the least of which is students’ (U.S. Department of Education, 2002b). level of prior academic preparation. About 20 percent come from families with Because the quality of U.S. elementary incomes at or below the federal poverty and secondary schools varies widely level (King, 2004). Three out of four depending on the wealth of communities, American college students are considered tuition prices alone cannot be blamed nontraditional—that is, they possess one for disparities in education opportunity. or more of the following characteristics: However, even if low-income students are They are age 25 or older, have delayed able to overcome the academic and finan- entry into higher education after cial barriers to enrolling in college, their completing high , did not earn a ability to succeed once enrolled can be traditional high school , are impeded because they must work and married, attend part time, work full time, attend part time in order to pay their or have children (U.S. Department of tuition, suggesting that financial matters Education, 2002a). Eighty percent of play a crucial role. students work during the academic year. Half attend part time (U.S. Department of Education, 2002b). In part because most nontraditional students juggle college attendance with work and family responsibilities, it is becoming increasingly unusual for students to enroll at one institution and remain there for their entire

American Council on Education 7 undergraduate career. Sixty percent of two- and four-year institutions that admit bachelor’s degree recipients attend more all students, to highly selective research than one institution. In about half of these universities and liberal arts colleges that cases, the student formally transfers from admit only a small fraction of those who one institution to another. The most apply. Many students apply to more than common form of transfer is from a commu- one college or university and enroll in one nity college to a four-year institution. In from among those that offer them admis- the remaining half of these cases, students sion. Admissions decisions at selective may maintain their primary enrollment at institutions are based on a fixed set of one institution but also take classes at academic criteria, including high school other institutions, sometimes attending coursework, grade point average and class two different institutions simultaneously. rank, and admissions test score, as well as Students also may move among multiple a more flexible set of nonacademic charac- institutions, often suspending enrollment teristics, such as demonstrated leadership (or “stopping out”) for some period before ability, creativity, and community service. enrolling at a new institution. Because the United States has no national This student mobility is possible curriculum or high because the American system of higher school exit examination, colleges rely education uses a common “currency” to on two privately developed admissions measure academic progress—the credit. examinations—the SAT and ACT. These Students earn credits toward their degrees tests, while important, are only one by completing courses. These credits can criterion among many that institutions then typically be transferred to another consider. Indeed, the admissions decisions institution if the receiving institution at highly selective institutions are so agrees that the academic rigor and material complex and consider so many factors that in the courses is roughly equivalent to its wealthy families often hire private admis- own similar courses. Many institutions sions counselors to help them anticipate develop transfer or articulation agree- which factors a given institution is likely to ments to help facilitate student mobility, weigh most heavily and to help their child determining in advance which courses are craft an application that best meets those of equivalent value. Institutions struggle criteria. to balance the goal of expanding access by Consistent with American faith in the allowing students to take classes where market, institutions compete heavily to and when they want with the need to main- attract the most talented students. While tain the academic integrity of their degree this competition spurs improvements in programs and capture much-needed quality and keeps institutions focused on tuition revenue. meeting student needs, it also can have Although American college students negative effects, sometimes prompting enjoy a level of mobility unknown to most institutions to make academic and finan- of their peers around the world, they still cial choices that may improve student must compete for admission to the more recruitment but that are inconsistent with selective colleges and universities. the institution’s mission, the best interests American higher education includes of the public, or the long-term financial institutions with a wide range of admis- health of the enterprise. sions selectivity, from open-access

8 AN OVERVIEW OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES The Curriculum and Degrees No national govern the titles of Five types of degrees exist in the United degrees, although each state typically States. Two-year colleges (community regulates the level of degree that colleges) and a small number of four-year institutions located within its borders institutions grant associate degrees, can award. Each institution has the typically awarded after the completion autonomy to determine its own program of 60 credits. Associate degrees may requirements, typically following broad represent a in a vocational degree guidelines set by the states or by field or may prepare students to complete specialized accrediting agencies. a bachelor’s degree at a four-year institu- tion. The bachelor’s degree is by far the most common type of degree awarded, preparing students for most that The bachelor’s degree is by far the most common require a college degree and for further type of degree awarded, preparing students for most graduate study. Three degrees exist at the jobs that require a college degree and for further graduate level: graduate study. 1. The master’s degree is the most common type of graduate degree. About 75 percent of graduate students The undergraduate curriculum typically are enrolled in master’s degree consists of two components—general programs, divided roughly evenly education and the major field of study among students in education, business (the major). The purpose of general administration, and all other fields education is to provide students with (U.S. Department of Education, broad knowledge and prepare them to be 2002c). A master’s degree may have engaged and informed citizens. General either a professional or theoretical education is delivered predominantly focus and usually requires a compre- through either a core curriculum, in hensive examination and/or which all undergraduate students take or other original piece of work. The the same courses, or an elective or distri- master’s degree either prepares butive format, in which students choose graduates for future advanced study courses from a pre-specified list repre- at the doctoral level or is itself a senting a range of topics (such as , terminal degree. art and aesthetic appreciation, mathe- 2. A professional degree provides access to matics, humanities, etc.). General edu- advanced professions in fields such as cation requirements typically constitute law and medicine. between one-quarter and one-half of a 3. The doctoral degree is the highest student’s courses, depending upon the academic award and recognizes the institution and the student’s major. The graduate’s ability to conduct indepen- other courses include those related to the dent research. The most common major. Students choose their major either degree of this type is the doctor of upon enrolling or after completing their (Ph.D.), but it also includes second year of studies, depending upon the doctor of education (Ed.D.). institutional policy. Students may change their majors if their interests change and keep most of their credits earned toward their degree.

American Council on Education 9 Although most institutions continue three roles depend upon the mission of to rely on a traditional nine-month (two the institution at which they work, their semesters) academic calendar, many academic discipline, and their rank and colleges and universities are innovating career stage. For example, faculty at com- with their academic calendars, and addi- munity colleges more often tend to teach tionally offer short month-long courses, and be engaged in service activities, while overlapping semesters, and courses in a many senior faculty at research universi- condensed weekend format, as they try to ties spend more time engaged in research create programs that meet student needs than in the other two areas. and schedules. Thirty-eight percent of all full-time faculty are women, but women hold only Faculty and Their Appointments 21 percent of full professorships. At the More than 1 million academic staff assistant professor rank, 46 percent of (faculty) work at American colleges and full-time faculty are women. However, universities. Faculty appointments may be women’s larger presence at the junior full time or part time and may be tenured/ ranks does not guarantee future propor- tenure-track or nontenure-track. Tenure tionality at senior ranks. The number is an academic employment arrangement, of full-time faculty from racial/ethnic granted after a probationary period, that minority groups almost doubled over the ensures holders a series of rights, includ- last 20 years, yet only 14 percent of all ing and participation full-time faculty are racial/ethnic minori- in institutional governance. It often ties. The largest minority group is Asian implies continuous employment, barring American/Pacific Islander, comprising dismissals for cause or financial exigency. 6 percent of the total full-time faculty Not all academic positions carry tenure. population, with African Americans at See Table 2 for a list of faculty titles in the 5 percent, Hispanics at 3 percent, and tenure and nontenure tracks. Native Americans at less than half of Faculty responsibilities typically fall 1 percent (Harvey, 2003). into three basic categories: teaching, In 1999, according to an American research, and service to the campus Council on Education study (Anderson, and/or community. However, faculty jobs 2002), approximately half of all faculty are by no means uniform, and the time were employed part time and/or in and attention that faculty devote to these nontenure-track positions. These faculty

Table 2. Faculty Rank and Titles, by Tenure/Nontenure Track Tenured/Tenure Track Nontenure Track Full Time Professor Lecturer Associate Professor Instructor Assistant Professor Professor of Practice Research Professor Research Professor

Part Time Professor Emeritus Adjunct Professor Lecturer Instructor

10 AN OVERVIEW OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES include those who are qualified for and independent institutions is 30. For most seek full-time, tenure-track appointments public institutions, the state government yet do not obtain them, as well as individ- typically appoints board members, often uals who do not have and/or after nomination by the governor and teach in addition to other professional approval by the legislature. However, in responsibilities. Debate and discussion some states and at many community col- continue to focus on the increasing use leges, board members are chosen through of part-time and nontenure-track faculty. general elections. For private institutions, Much of this growth accommodates boards select their own members (called increasing student enrollments. Another self-perpetuating boards). The length of important reason for hiring part-time and board members’ terms varies from four nontenure-track faculty is to reduce years to as long as 12 years. In some cases, personnel costs and increase institutional board members can be reappointed to flexibility in course offerings, as these additional terms. faculty can be hired and fired as interest Boards hire and delegate much of the in their academic fields ebbs and flows. administrative responsibility for managing However, critics charge that reliance on the institution to the president (sometimes part-time and nontenure-track faculty has called a chancellor). The president is hidden institutional and educational costs, responsible for providing overall leader- lowering quality as these individuals do ship to the institution, managing its little student advising and research and finances and budget, developing and do not participate in non-instructional executing the institution’s strategic plan, activities such as faculty governance. and establishing systems of accountability and performance. However, much of the University Administration president’s work lies outside the institution. Although the internal organization and The president advocates for the institution’s structure of U.S. institutions vary based needs and seeks support from legislative upon size and mission, some common and other external audiences, meets with elements exist. Lay boards of trustees who alumni and prospective students, develops tend not to be academics govern most relationships with corporations and com- college and universities. These boards are munity groups, and provides the public the legal agents for the institution and are persona of the institution. The president responsible for ensuring and monitoring serves either at the pleasure of the board its financial health, setting strategy to or on a fixed-term contract, eligible for fulfill its mission, and evaluating both renewal. institutional and presidential perform- Beyond the president, other senior ance. The size, structure, and appoint- administrators provide the leadership for ment of boards vary. For example, some the institution’s various divisions. The boards of private nonprofit institutions typical structure includes academic affairs, exceed 50 members. Public institution responsible for academic programs and boards tend to be much smaller. According research; , overseeing stu- to the Association of Governing Boards of dent services and student life; business Universities and Colleges (AGB), the mean and administration, accountable for the size of public boards is approximately 10 financial operations, auxiliary services, people and the mean size among and campus facilities; and development,

American Council on Education 11 focusing on fund raising and alumni and universities provide housing for relations. Within each division, a variety students during the academic year. of deans, directors, and department chairs These residence halls, in addition to complete the administrative structure. providing food service and sleeping Figure 1 provides an overview of a typical rooms, provide programming to students college or university administrative on a variety of topics, both academic and structure (American Council on social, such as AIDS awareness, alcohol Education, 2001). abuse, and study skills. Colleges and Although presidents have primary universities additionally provide a range responsibility for the institution, most of student support services, including rely upon a system of shared governance personal counseling, career placement between faculty and administrators for and advising, recreation and physical key institutional decisions. The primary fitness, child care, transportation, organizational structure for shared banking, health care, and tutoring. governance is the faculty senate. The Beyond these services, colleges and senate is responsible for recommending universities host various student organi- academic decisions and policies, such as zations and clubs, including academically those affecting new curricula and courses, focused groups (such as the National degree requirements, and academic Society of Black Engineers or the Public hiring and workloads. Its members Relations Student Society of America), as typically include full-time faculty, well as athletic (such as rugby and water although students, administrators, staff, polo clubs), cultural and religious and part-time faculty sometimes partici- (such as the Muslim Student Society or pate as well. At some institutions, the Association of Asian Students), and social senate has the ability to make final organizations. A familiar type of student decisions; at others, the senate makes social organization is the Greek-lettered recommendations for administrative or fraternity or sorority. Another important board action. In smaller institutions, all student organization is student govern- faculty typically participate in the senate. ment, which is the formal, recognized In larger institutions, senators are student advocacy body on campus. elected, frequently representing However, for the most part, its influence particular departments or colleges. is limited and its agenda constrained, particularly when compared with similar Student Life and Athletics student governments or student unions in The U.S. collegiate experience is strongly Latin America and . shaped by a residential tradition, although Finally, any discussion of student today more than half of undergraduate life at American colleges and universities students are older and/or enrolled part must include athletics, which plays time and less than 20 percent of all under- a major role on many—but not all— graduates live on campus. Building upon campuses. The influence of athletics on the foundations of the British residential campuses tends to be disproportional to college, U.S. institutions have developed the small number of student athletes. an expansive infrastructure to meet the At institutions with “big-time” sports needs of students. Most four-year colleges programs, the athletics budget can reach

12 AN OVERVIEW OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES Figure 1. The University: Administrative Organization

The Board of Trustees

Assistants to the The President of President the University •Legal Counsel •Editorial Assistant •Federal Relations •Administrative Assistant

Vice President Vice President Vice President Vice President Business Development University Relations University Administration

•Building & Grounds •Fund Raising •Alumni Records & •Administrative •Campus Security •Business and Industry Mailing Control Center •Computer Services •Real Estate Management Council •Alumni Relations •Admissions •Suburban Campus •Associates Program •Information Services •Educational Resources •University Engineer •National Council •University Publications •Library •University Relations •Occupational Information Center •Office Services •Personnel Accounting •Registrars

•Controller •Auditing •Budget Supervision •Bursar Vice President •Data Processing Academic Affairs Vice President Vice President •Veteran’s Affairs Student Affairs University Planning •Academic Computer Services •Athletics •Institutional Research •Basic Colleges •Chapel •University Planning Auxiliary Services Business Admin.* •Counseling & Testing Education* •Deans of Men, Women, •Bookstore & Freshmen •Housing & Food Services Liberal Arts •Financial Aid •Purchasing Nursing* •Health Services * •Student Activities Bureau of Business & •Student Center This diagram illustrates the administrative organization Economic Research of a large university. The structure of most colleges is Center for Reading similar, but with a less diversified administration. Improvement * •Graduate Division * Administrators usually have the title of . Arts & † † Administrators usually have the title of Graduate Dean. Business Admin.† Education † Pharmaceutical Sciences † Marine Science Institute Rehabilitation Institute College † Urban Affairs Office

American Council on Education 13 millions of dollars, dwarfing those of commercialized, garnering national academic departments, and coaches of television coverage and athletic apparel men’s basketball and football teams are endorsement deals. Athletics on U.S. frequently the university’s highest-paid campuses is a double-edged sword. In employees. At these institutions, athletic some situations, it can provide a unifying teams are divided into revenue sports catalyst for the institution and its commu- (football, men’s and increasingly women’s nity and teach its participants valuable basketball, and in some cases, ice hockey)3 lessons. In other situations, it has been and nonrevenue sports (for example, described as an unstoppable “arms race,” track and field, swimming, wrestling, exemplifying a winner-take-all attitude, golf, tennis, field hockey, and soccer). spurring scandal, , The majority of student-athletes excessive commercialization, abuse of participate in the nonrevenue sports. student-athletes, and distraction from the The revenue sports tend to be highly institution’s academic priorities.

3 Much debate exists as to whether or not these sports ultimately generate actual revenue, given their expenditures.

14 AN OVERVIEW OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES Current Challenges Confronting U.S. Higher Education

he introduction to this publica- and building represent just some of the tion described the fundamental additional autonomy that public institu- belief systems that shape the tions are seeking. Many are pressing for character of American higher new legislation to provide this freedom education and distinguish it from through a range of innovations, including Thigher education in other countries. This public corporations, charter colleges, section expands on that discussion, state enterprise status, and performance describing how the inherent tensions contracts. among these central beliefs have created The result is that activities and serious challenges for U.S. higher educa- research in certain fields and disciplines tion. The section concludes with a short (such as engineering, applied natural overview of additional issues on the science, and agricultural science) become national higher education agenda. higher institutional priorities because

The Marketplace (Not Government) as Key External Driver Many believe that the marketplace has overtaken Many believe that the marketplace has overtaken state government as the dominant government as the dominant external force shaping external force shaping (and reshaping) (and reshaping) American higher education American higher education, even for public colleges and universities. As noted they have stronger market value than do earlier, government support is not keeping other programs (such as humanities). pace with educational expenditures. Thus Institutions create new programs, alter in many ways, the market is having more academic calendars, and pursue different bearing on higher education than govern- financial aid policies to capture more and ment. To create more flexibility, many better students—particularly those who public colleges and universities are asking can afford to pay high tuition prices. For for less government regulation and over- instance, executive MBA programs are sight. In some instances, they are even increasingly popular. Institutions seek asking for less state money in return for contracts and partnership agreements, more autonomy. Their argument is that and enhance research programs with the current structures and accountability practical applications that have large requirements impede their capacity to be financial payouts. They are changing their effective and efficient. The ability to set institutional structures—for example, by tuition, seek block-grant funding, and adding new units that focus on generating secure freedom from state policies and external grants and bringing new tech- regulations in areas such as purchasing nology to market, by building conference

American Council on Education 15 centers, and by creating for-profit Higher Education as an Engine of subsidiaries. The implications of the Mobility growing privatization are that academic Since World War II, U.S. higher education research is increasingly focused on has been engaged in a process of “massifi- marketable knowledge, entrepreneurial cation,” that is, expanding to serve priorities are taking precedence, services students from all walks of life. Motivating are being outsourced, and students are this effort is a widespread belief in the carrying an increasing burden to pay power of education to create social and higher tuition and fees for their education. economic mobility and in the morality and Administrators see little option except social value of making higher education to respond to the marketplace, for if their accessible to everyone. Longitudinal data institution does not react effectively, it bear out public perceptions: Young people will not have the necessary resources to from low-income backgrounds who offer high-quality and diverse academic complete a bachelor’s degree have income programs. Institutions unable to compete and employment characteristics after may face trying circumstances as public graduation equivalent to their peers from support continues to fall, students become more affluent backgrounds (Choy, 2002). better-informed consumers, and advances Education truly can be “the great in technology and new entrants into equalizer.” higher education widen the number and Despite widespread public faith in the reach of competitors. In turn, the ability value of higher education, the process of to compete—for students, resources, massification has not been without its faculty, and prestige—becomes a driving detractors, and progress has been slow and strategic force. At its extreme, competi- uneven. Higher education did not admit tion can overtake more traditional significant numbers of racial and ethnic academic values such as unfettered minorities until after the civil rights move- inquiry, access and choice for a diverse ment of the 1960s forced change. Further, student population, and critical social despite significant expenditures on finan- commentary. The downside of pursing cial aid, minority and low-income individ- market goals without appropriately uals are still less likely to attend college balancing them against the public good is than whites or students from middle- and that institutions will no longer be able to upper-income families—although these uphold their part of the social compact to gaps have narrowed somewhat. Despite produce a well-educated citizenry and face progress in narrowing the access the threat of losing their privileged place discrepancies, large gaps remain between in American society as they resemble more completion rates. Low-income students closely other market-driven organizations. come to college less prepared, and must balance academic demands with work and family responsibilities.

16 AN OVERVIEW OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES Finding ways to increase the enroll- Other Current Issues ment rates of low-income students and This section explores some of the other encourage their success once enrolled are challenges currently facing American two of the most important problems higher education. This list is not inclu- facing American higher education. One sive, but rather reflects some of the key of the challenges to meeting these goals is issues creating sleepless nights for that they can conflict with the other academic leaders. central tenets of American higher educa- tion: market competition and resistance to government control. For example, institu- tional competition for the most academi- Public colleges and universities are in many ways cally talented students is likely to foster becoming private, as the percentage of state funds in increased use of tuition discounting for their budgets is dropping—in some cases, to less than students without financial need, which 20 percent. could divert resources away from need- based financial aid for low-income stu- The Blurring of Institutional Types. American dents. Similarly, institutions may seek to higher education is known for its institu- distinguish themselves in the academic tional diversity. However, the characteris- marketplace by becoming more selective tics that make many types of institutions in admissions decisions, thereby reducing distinct are fading. For instance, in some the number of low-income students states, community colleges are seeking to admitted. A primary role of government offer four-year degrees to meet growing in the United States is to mediate the demand for higher education. Public potentially negative effects of competition colleges and universities are in many ways by insisting that institutions adhere to becoming private, as the percentage of their missions, providing need-based state funds in their budgets is dropping— financial assistance to students, and in some cases, to less than 20 percent. holding institutions accountable for their They are soliciting gifts and working to performance. Institutional resistance to build endowments in ways similar to their government control provides a useful private counterparts, and are seeking check on the ambitions of government, more procedural autonomy from state pushing policy makers to focus on ends oversight. At the same time, for-profit rather than means and to leave core institutions are vying for public funds academic decisions largely in the hands previously reserved only for nonprofit of institutions. Nonetheless, a constant institutions. preoccupation of American higher educa- Documenting Student Learning. American tion is this tension between the competi- colleges and universities are facing tive, ambitious nature of institutions and increased external scrutiny of the the interests of government in promoting effectiveness of . important public goals, primary among As budgets become tighter and tuition them broad access and widespread success continues to rise, taxpayers and policy for all students. makers—as well as students and their families—are asking the extent to which their investment is producing real educational results. Simply put, they want

American Council on Education 17 to know what and how much students are Increasing Productivity and Efficiency. learning. Outside pressure is mounting on Because of increasing pressure to reduce institutions to document student learning, costs, keep tuition increases small, and in much the same way that the elementary serve more students, institutions are and sectors document seeking ways to improve their productivity learning through assessments linked to and efficiency. They are creating adminis- standards of what students should know trative efficiencies, such as by stream- and be able to do. Of course, the challenge lining business processes. They are of demonstrating student learning is much innovating with technology-based more difficult in higher education because teaching to reach more students both on of the diversity of the curricula. Nonethe- campus and in the broader community less, higher education leaders are being through . Many institu- challenged to find some way to show tions are also beginning to view collabora- that real learning takes place at their tion as an important strategy. Partnerships institutions. include (among other things) joint Internationalizing the Undergraduate research, collaborative purchasing Experience. Many U.S. colleges and uni- arrangements, shared financial services, versities are making a concerted effort to and interinstitutional academic programs. make their institutions and curricula more These alliances allow partners to extend international and to provide experiences capabilities; develop research, courses, for students that broaden and deepen their and services more quickly; generate understanding of other cultures. At the greater economies of scale; share costly same time, U.S. institutions continue investments; gain access to knowledge and their efforts to train and educate foreign skills; and reduce expenses. students, both by bringing them to campus but also through distance education and satellite programs abroad (although we do not know the extent of U.S. involvement in such cross-border education). However, recent U.S. visa and homeland security policy changes, cou- pled with an increased desire by foreign universities to recruit abroad, mean that the U.S. share of the international student market is shrinking. Institutions from England, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, for instance, are establishing a presence abroad and benefiting favorably from their governments’ policies. The effect is slowed growth in the number of international students enrolling in American colleges and universities.

18 AN OVERVIEW OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES Conclusion

n many ways, the American system of higher education is unique in the world. In its

size, diversity of institutions and students, freedom from government controls, and

reliance on market forces, it is without peer. However, higher education systems Iaround the globe are struggling with many of the same issues as the United States and are exploring similar strategies, such as imposing tuition to create greater access while

instituting student aid programs, creating a credit system to facilitate student mobility,

and standardizing degree programs. Other nations wrestling with these challenges may

benefit by understanding the philosophical beliefs that shape U.S. higher education—

distrust of government, faith in markets, and reliance on education as a gateway to social

mobility—and the ways in which the United States continually struggles to balance market

forces, government intervention, and access to high-quality education.

American Council on Education 19 References

American Council on Education. (2001). A brief guide to U.S. higher education. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

Anderson, E. (2002). The new professoriate: Characteristics, contributions, and compensation. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

Choy, S. (2002). Access and persistence: Findings from 10 years of longitudinal studies of students. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

College Board. (2003). Trends in student aid: 2003. New York: College Board.

Council for Aid to Education. (2004). Charitable giving to higher education stabilizes in 2003; Gifts from alumni rebound after a sharp one-year decline. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, Council for Aid to Education. See http://www.cae.org/content/pdf/2004FullPressReleaseVSE2003.pdf.

Eaton, J. (2000). An overview of U.S. accreditation. Washington, DC: Council for Higher Education Accreditation.

Harvey, W. B. (2003). Minorities in higher education: Annual status report. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

King, J. E. (2004). Choice of institution: Changing student attendance patterns in the 1990s. ACE Issue Brief. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2002a). Findings from the condition of education 2002: Nontraditional undergraduates. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2002b). Profile of undergraduates at U.S. postsecondary institutions: 1999–2000. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2002c). Student financing of graduate and first-professional education, 1999–2000. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2003). Digest of education statistics: 2002. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

20 AN OVERVIEW OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES Peter D. Eckel is the Associate Director for Institutional Initiatives in the Center for Institutional and International Initiatives at the American Council on Education.

Jacqueline E. King is Director of the Center for Policy Analysis at the American Council on Education.

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