SACRED SPORT: A STUDY OF STUDENT ATHLETES’ SANCTIFICATION OF SPORT

Quinten K. Lynn

A Dissertation

Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

December 2008

Committee:

Kenneth I. Pargament, Ph.D., Advisor

Victoria Krane, Ph.D. Graduate Faculty Representative

Annette Mahoney, Ph.D.

Casey Cromwell, Ph.D.

ii

ABSTRACT

Kenneth I. Pargament, Advisor

The purpose of this study was to provide and test a unique theoretical framework for understanding the relationship between sport and religion. The construct of sanctification from the field of the psychology of religion was introduced as a way to understand and examine this relationship. Drawing from a sample of college athletes, the degree to which athletes perceive their participation in sport as sacred was assessed. Several hypotheses regarding the implications of athletes sanctifying their participation in sport were tested. Results indicated that athletes’ sanctification of sport was not uncommon; that is, many athletes viewed their participation in sport as sacred. Furthermore, sanctification of sport predicted important psychological and psycho-spiritual behaviors related to sport participation as well as health benefits. iii

To my parents. iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

With profound gratitude I thank Ken for his unflagging support. Thank you for sharing your insight, wisdom, humor, and friendship.

I would also like to thank Dr. Cromwell, Dr. Krane, and Dr. Mahoney for their suggestions and direction. Not only did their expertise add to the quality of this project, but helped in my development as a professional and scientist.

To Jen and my children, your unconditional love has carried me through the valleys frustration and buoyed my hope. I love you.

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

CHAPTER I. BACKGROUND STUDIES ...... 3

The Structure of Sport and Religion ...... 3

Religiousness in Athletes...... 6

Psychology of Religion...... 11

CHAPTER II. PRESENT STUDY...... 19

CHAPTER III. METHOD ...... 21

Participants and Procedures...... 21

Measures ...... 22

CHAPTER IV. RESULTS...... 27

Preliminary Analyses...... 27

Descriptive Findings on the Sanctification of Participating in Sport ...... 27

Testing of Hypotheses...... 27

CHAPTER V. DISCUSSION...... 32

Implications of Sanctification of Sport Participation...... 34

Limitations of the Study...... 37

REFERENCES ...... 41

APPENDIX. INSTRUMENTS...... 45 vi

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Descriptive Statistics...... 57

2 Comparison of Frequency of Prayer and Religious Service

Attendance between Present Sample and National Data ...... 59

3 Bivariate Correlations between Sanctification of Sport

Participation and Demographic Variables ...... 60

4 Descriptive Statistics for Criterion, Control, and Predictor Variables...... 61

5 The Endorsement Percentage for Each Item of the

Sanctification of Sport Scale...... 62

6 Bivariate Correlations between Sanctification of Sport

Participation and Criterion Measures...... 65

7 Bivariate Correlations between Demographic Variables

and Criterion Variables...... 66

8 Regressions of Demographic Variables and

Sanctification of Sport Predicting Criterion Variables ...... 67

1

INTRODUCTION

“Everything in my life can be related to God- so I guess [my sport] and God go hand in hand.” -Participant from present study

“I wouldn't say it was lucky. We executed the play well. We should have had another one (TD). Obviously, if you do what's right on and off the field, I think the Lord steps in and plays a part in it. Magic happens." -Collegiate football player after winning rivalry game

Sport and religion are two of America’s most enduring institutions. Their presence in American society is nearly ubiquitous as evidenced by sports stories covering the front pages of most newspapers, dozens of “sports only” television stations, the presence of churches and synagogues in most towns and cities across the nation, and the religious undertones of American politics. These institutions are not completely separate entities, however, and the one can be observed in the other. For example, many athletes make religious signs or pray before, during, and after competitions, and ecclesiastical leaders often use sport metaphors in their preaching (e.g., following God’s game plan).

The union between sport and religion has engendered considerable debate and research by social scientists. Many have theorized about the functional similarities between sport and religion and the religious significance of sport (e.g., Coakley, 2001, Hoffman, 1992).

Still others have argued even further that sport is a religion in and of itself (e.g., Novak,

1992; Prebish, 1993). However, the interface between sport and religion, as it expresses itself in the lives of athletes, is not well understood. For example, sport psychologists

(e.g., Balague, 1997; Wiese-Bjornstal, 2000) have noted that athletes use their religious beliefs to prepare, perform, and cope with their participation in sport, but the process by which this occurs has received little, if any, attention. And while social scientists have made some observations about the role of religion in athletes’ performance (e.g., Park, 2

2000; Vernacchia, McGuire, Reardon, Templin, 2000), few studies have systematically observed and measured the phenomenon. Furthermore, this line of inquiry is devoid of theories that help describe, explain, and understand whether and how athletes perceive their participation in sport as religious and how imbuing sport participation with religious qualities impacts, if at all, their sport experience.

This study is an attempt to fill in some of the existing gaps in the current literature and our understanding of the religious significance of sport participation for elite athletes.

More specifically, this study provides a framework for understanding how sport might be perceived and experienced as a spiritual phenomenon. In this framework, I will consider how sport might fit within athletes’ spiritual lives/perspectives/beliefs, how sport might take on religious/spiritual/sacred significance, and how sport might be a spiritual as well as secular resource for athletes in dealing with the challenges they experience in sport.

This framework represents a new way of observing and understanding the relationship between sport and religion in athletes. Drawing on research and theory from the psychology of religion, this framework goes beyond present theory and cursory empirical investigations about the religiousness of athletes by taking a more proximal look at sports in their lives. Hopefully, this framework will yield a clearer picture of the degree to which elite athletes perceive their involvement in athletics in spiritual terms and the implications of these perceptions.

3

BACKGROUND STUDIES

The Structure of Sport and Religion

Much of the extant literature on the convergence between sport and religion focuses on the structural and functional similarities between the two. For example,

Hoffman (1992) and others (e.g., Coakley, 2001) note that both religion and sport have special places and buildings for gatherings and special events. Sport has stadiums and arenas, while religions have churches and synagogues. Both have scripts and stories aimed at personal betterment. Sport has playbooks, practices, and time-outs, while religions have scriptures, rituals, and retreats. Both are often controlled by specific structured hierarchies. Sport has coaches, commissioners, and owners, while religions have pastors, priests, dioceses, and prophets. Both have events celebrating their core values during specific times that are set aside as special, often on the Sabbath. Sport has

Super Bowl Sunday, the World Cup, and March Madness, while religion has Sunday services, Ramadan, Lent, and Passover. Both contain important rituals before, during, and after major events. Sport has initiations, band parades, halftime pep-talks, and hand shaking after the game; religion has baptisms, opening and closing hymns, and processions. Both contain legends and heroes. The deeds of heroes in sport are told by fans, coaches, and journalists; and these heroes are enshrined in halls of fame. In religion, heroes are elevated to sainthood and their stories are told repeatedly by members of congregations and clergy, and memorialized in the sacred literature.

Elsewhere, Prebish (1992, 1993) and Novak (1992) go beyond describing the convergence of sport and religion in cursory and structural terms and focus instead on the functional similarities between the two. From their perspectives, sport and religion 4

both provide a venue wherein individuals can express and experience something larger than themselves, something with deep symbolic meaning, and something that allows them to reach for perfection. Novak (1992) contends that the rituals both in sport (e.g., singing fight songs, parades, pre-game speeches) and religion (e.g., communion, fasting, praying) allow those involved to experience the transcendent more fully. Prebish (1993) further contends that through asceticism, rituals, festivals, and solidarity (between fans and athletes in sport and parishioners and God in religion), sport and religion create opportunities for individuals to experience “ultimate reality” (i.e., something beyond the mundane).

There are, however, several limitations to these approaches. First, these approaches often minimize and/or ignore the many differences between sport and religion. Coakley (2001) enumerates several essential differences between sport and religion. First, religious practices, rituals, beliefs, and meanings are cemented in the sacred and transcendent realm; whereas sport is grounded in the mundane. Second, the purpose of sport is to focus on the material such as winning, while religion’s purpose is to focus on the transcendent and the pursuit of spiritual goals. Third, religion encourages and emphasizes cooperation among believers while many forms of sport emphasize competition. Finally, while religion engenders a spirit of compassion and service, sport engenders a commitment to personal achievement and dominance over others.

Another limitation to this line of thought and research is that the relationship between sport and religion is generally viewed distally. As such, observations focus on superficial similarities between sport and religion such as form and function. This includes focusing on hierarchical and organizational similarities, the use of pageantry in 5 both sport and religion, and how participants and onlookers interact. This distal approach fails to consider more proximal relationships between sport and religion, such as the perceived spiritual nature of sport for some athletes and fans and the role of sport within athletes’ spiritual framework.

A third limitation to the functionally-oriented work of Novak (1992) and Prebish

(1992, 1993) in particular is that they fail to consider the substantive content of religion and spirituality. For example, they do not address images of God, how the sacred is understood and experienced, how an individual might draw on spiritual resources to conserve their relationship with the sacred, or how an individual might integrate religious beliefs, values, and practices. To illuminate the relationship between sport and religion a more substantive approach is needed.

Finally, these theorists fail to provide empirical support for their claims. Though their observations may appear self-evident, they are not grounded in systematic observation and measurement, and, as a result, it is unclear how well these observations accurately reflect the ideas, emotions, and motivation of people engaged in sport and religion. Future research in this field should systematically observe and measure the relationship between sport and religion and its impact on the lives of athletes, coaches, fans, and church goers alike.

The present research project attempts to address the limitations of these sociological studies. I will take a proximal and substantive approach to observing and measuring the convergence between sport and religion at the individual level. More specifically, this project will examine the degree to which athletes perceive their 6

participation in sport as sacred and will begin to establish possible links between these perceptions and other attitudes and behaviors.

Religiousness in Athletes

Sport psychologists have initiated some quantitative research on the role of religion in the lives of athletes. This body of literature suggests religiousness is an important construct for athletes and has important implications for their well-being. For example, based on their studies of elite athletes, Storch and his colleagues (e.g., Storch,

Kolsky, Silverstry, & Storch, 2001; Storch & Storch, 2002; Storch, Storch, Kovacs,

Okun, & Welsh, 2003; Storch, Storch, Welsh, & Okun, 2002) reported higher levels of religiousness in collegiate athletes than non-student athletes, and that higher levels of religiousness in athletes are related to empirically based mental health variables.

Storch, Storch, Welsh, and Okun (2002) examined the relationship between religiousness and depression in athletes. The authors hypothesized that religiousness would protect athletes from the effects of depression and that, consequently, the two variables would be inversely related to each other. The authors sampled 105 (51 female) intercollegiate varsity athletes who varied in sport and religious affiliations. Participants completed the Duke Religion Index (DRI) which measures organizational religiousness

(e.g., church attendance), non-organizational religiousness (e.g., prayer and meditation), and intrinsic religiousness (e.g., degree to which people integrate their religious beliefs into their life endeavors), and the Depression subscale of the Personality Assessment

Inventory (PAI) which assesses cognitive, affective, and physiological symptoms of depression. Results indicated a statistically significant negative relationship between intrinsic religiousness and affective symptoms of depression (r= -.21, p<.05), suggesting 7

that for intercollegiate athletes, intrinsic religiousness may act as a buffer against

affective symptoms of depression.

Storch, Storch, Kovacs, Okun, and Welsh (2002) examined the relationship

between religiousness and substance use in intercollegiate athletes. They hypothesized

that higher levels of intrinsic religiousness would be negatively related to substance use.

Participants included 105 (51 female) Division I intercollegiate athletes from a variety of

individual and team sports. Athletes were of diverse ethnicity and religious affiliation.

The Intrinsic Religiosity subscale of the DRI assessed intrinsic religiousness, and the

Alcohol Problems subscale of the PAI assessed frequency and quantity of consumption.

Two questions were developed by the researchers to assess the use of marijuana and other

recreational drugs. Intrinsic religiousness was negatively associated with alcohol use (r= -

.37, p<.001), marijuana use (r= -.27, p<.01), and other recreational drug use (r= -.21,

p<.05). This study supports the recurring theme that religiousness in athletes may protect

against deleterious behaviors and symptoms.

Storch et al.’s research can be criticized for its restricted sample (i.e., data appear

to come from only a few samples from the southeastern portion of the U.S.) and lack of

consistent results. For example, in their study of the relationship between religiousness

and depression in college athletes, Storch, Storch, Welsh, and Okun (2002) found that

religiousness in athletes was inversely related to affective symptoms of depression;

however, Storch, Kovacs, Roberti, Bailey, Bravata, and Storch (2004) reported that

religiousness was not significantly related to psychological adjustment which included a measure of depression. 8

Another limitation of these studies by Storch et al. is their focus on the

relationship between global measures of religiousness and mental health variables. This approach does little to elucidate the role of religion in athletes’ participation in sport. It fails to clarify the degree to which athletes perceive their participation in sport as religious and/or spiritual in nature. The use of more proximal variables to measure the relationship between sport and religion in athletes would assist researchers in better

understanding the link between sport and religion for athletes. A proximally-oriented

approach would assess the degree to which athletes perceive their participation in sport as sacred, the degree to which athletes’ participation in sport is integrated into their religious/spiritual beliefs, and/or the extent to which athletes use religious rituals while participating in sport, and the outcomes of these perceptions, beliefs, and behaviors.

Other sport psychology researchers, through qualitative methods, have taken a closer look at the role of religious beliefs and practices of athletes and how they are incorporated into their sport participation. For example, in their interviews with 15

Olympic track and field athletes from the United States, Vernacchia, McGuire, Reardon, and Templin (2000) found that religious beliefs impacted athletes in several important ways. First, several athletes stated that their religious and/or spiritual beliefs helped them develop their athletic ability. For example, one athlete stated that:

I would have to say it had to be my spiritual life. I don’t think I could do anything

without the Lord in my life. He has been the one that has guided me, the one that

has protected me, the one that has healed me when I had all those torn hamstrings

and was frustrated, didn’t know whether I wanted to continue to compete in track 9

and field. So He kept me I’d say faithful. It was a lot of hard work, but I stayed

faithful and stuck to it, and National Champion. (p. 13)

Second, athletes noted that they drew upon their religious beliefs to cope with the many challenges they faced (e.g., injury, training, performance, demanding schedule) and to persevere through difficult times. In reference to competing after recovering from an injury, one athlete stated, “…so I came back with a vengeance. I prayed a lot and I asked the Lord to give strength and guidance to do better. I came back. I won Nationals indoor and out” (p.14). Finally, religious beliefs appeared to provide athletes with deeper meaning to their experiences, be they positive (e.g., winning events) or negative (e.g., losing, injury).

Elsewhere, Czech, Wrisberg, Fisher, Thompson, and Hayes (2004) studied the role of prayer in the lives of athletes. They interviewed nine NCAA Division I Christian athletes and reported four emergent themes. First, these athletes often used prayer as a technique to enhance performance. For example, prayers were offered as a way to deal with stress, and to ask for safety for the participant, teammates, and opponents during competition. Athletes also reported offering prayers to help them perform to the best of their abilities. None of the athletes stated that they prayed to win. Second, prayer was very much a part of the athletes’ routines, both during practice and competition. Third, athletes gave thanks in their prayers for the opportunity to perform, for their talent, and to be able to participate in sport. For some, this gratitude served as a source of motivation.

One athlete commented:

You kind of thank God for providing the opportunity. You realize He did provide

this opportunity. I incorporated a “thank you performance.” I know there are a lot 10

of athletes out who do this. When I would step onto the field, I would basically

say, okay, God, I am thankful for my family. And through my intensity on the

field today, I am going to show you how thankful I am. I would use this as a form

of motivation. (p.8)

The final theme was related to what athletes perceived as God’s will. That is, most athletes believed that the outcome of their performance and their ability to perform was under the control of God’s will. For these athletes, this perspective helped them cope with the inevitable highs and lows they experienced in sports.

These studies (Vernacchia, McGuire, Reardon, and Templin, 2000; Czech,

Wrisberg, Fisher, Thompson, and Hayes, 2004) suggest that some athletes carry their religious beliefs and practices with them onto the field of play and highlight the importance of religion for some elite athletes as it relates to the preparation, performance, and evaluation of their sport. Indeed, it appears religion’s place in the lives of athletes, and consequently sports, is multi-faceted, common, and powerful. Religious beliefs and practices appear to serve several functions which help athletes perform, cope with the highs and lows of sport, and provide deeper meaning to their experiences.

Though these qualitative studies are encouraging, they are limited in several respects. First, findings are drawn solely from interviews with the athletes and have not been examined quantitatively. Second, these studies focus on small samples that lack diversity in ethnicity, age, skill level, sport, and religious affiliation. Finally, though this

research provides insight into the religious and spiritual domain of athletes by describing

religious coping techniques used by athletes, it does not offer explanations about the 11

degree to which athletes perceive sport as a spiritual experience and/or an integral

component to their spirituality.

By examining the degree to which athletes perceive their involvement in sport as sacred and how such perceptions are associated with specific sport and spiritual beliefs, attitudes and practices, researchers could assess the role of sport in athletes’ spirituality at a more proximal level. One way this could be accomplished is by approaching the subject through the lens of sanctification, a construct from the field of the psychology of religion.

Psychology of Religion

At its core, researchers in the area of psychology of religion study the various

ways individuals understand, approach, and relate to what they consider sacred. Research

in the psychology of religion is as diverse as the many ways people experience their own

spirituality. One line of research that might provide a conceptual framework for understanding the connection between sport and religion focuses on the power of perceptions of the sacred; that is, sanctification. This research suggests that seemingly ordinary things, such as sport, can be perceived as having spiritual significance and, thus, play an integral part in individuals’ spirituality. This perspective also points to several

important implications which might follow for athletes who sanctify their participation in

sport.

Sanctification. Sanctification, as defined by Pargament and Mahoney (2005),

refers to a “process through which aspects of life are perceived as having divine character

and significance” (p. 183). This process allows for the mundane to take on transcendent

qualities and the ordinary to become extraordinary. For example, through the process of

sanctification, people (e.g., the Pope, a rabbi, the Buddha), places (e.g., temples, 12 synagogues, Holy Land), time (e.g., the Sabbath), and cultural artifacts (e.g., hymns, books) can take on sacred qualities. Just as some people perceive mundane objects as having divine character and significance, some athletes may perceive their bodies, participation in sport, and the manner in which they compete as having divine character and significance; that is, they may see these things as sacred.

In studying sanctification, researchers have pointed to two ways in which objects are perceived to be sacred. The first is through perceiving objects as “manifestation[s] of one’s images, beliefs, or experience of God” (i.e., theistic sanctification) (Pargament &

Mahoney, 2005, p. 183). In many religious traditions followers are taught that many aspects of life and the world are a manifestation of God and God’s power. For example, some individuals view the earth as a manifestation of God’s creative power and thus as a sacred object. Additionally, many traditions believe that certain ways of living reflect the presence of God (e.g., following God’s law, following the “golden rule”) and that good deeds are a manifestation of God. As it might apply to sport, some athletes might believe that their bodies are a divine creation and the use of their bodies in sport is a manifestation of God’s creative power and benevolence. Others might view their athletic abilities as talents and/or gifts from a benevolent God.

Another, and less direct, way in which objects become sanctified (i.e., non-theistic sanctification) is by “investing objects with qualities that are associated with the divine”

(Pargament & Mahoney, 2005, p. 185). Included in these sacred qualities are attributes of transcendence (e.g., holy, saintly), ultimate truth and purpose (e.g., blessed, consecrated), and boundlessness (e.g., eternal, wondrous) (Pargament & Mahoney). Thus, it is possible for individuals who do not believe in God or a higher power to perceive certain aspects of 13

life as sacred. Again, many examples of this form of sanctification exist in our culture.

Cemeteries are often referred to as hallowed ground, wars are described as holy, and individuals are described as saintly. Similarly, in sport, objects such as the playing field are described as holy, athletic events are described as epic, and standout athletes are said to be worshipped. Also, it is possible that athletes view their bodies, performance, and experiences as heavenly, inspiring, or soul stirring.

The construct of sanctification, as described in the psychology of religion

literature, provides a framework for understanding and measuring the extent to which

athletes perceive their participation in sport as sacred. The same literature suggests

several important implications of sanctification, all of which can be applied to athletes’

perception of their sport participation.

First, because sacred objects are of great import to individuals, “people are likely

to invest more of themselves in the pursuit and care of those things that are sanctified

than in the search for other ends” (Pargament & Mahoney, 2005, p.188). For example,

Mahoney et al. (2005a) examined personal strivings (i.e., typical goals and objectives that

individuals try to attain in their daily behavior) in a community sample and the extent to

which these individuals sanctified their strivings; that is, the extent to which they

believed their strivings were a manifestation of God and/or possessed sacred qualities.

Higher levels of sanctification of strivings were associated with greater commitment to

the strivings, attributions that their strivings were more important, and greater belief that

their ten most important strivings dominated their lives. Furthermore, participants

reported spending more “time thinking, reading, studying, and doing things or talking

with others about their most sanctified strivings” (p. 258). In addition, participants had 14

greater confidence in their ability to achieve their strivings when their strivings were thought to be a manifestation of God or imbued with sacred qualities. It is possible that athletes who perceive their participation in sport as sacred will be more likely to invest more of themselves in their sport and have more confidence in their ability to achieve their athletic goals, as suggested by this and other (Mahoney et al., 2005b) research.

Second, “people are more likely to try harder to preserve and protect sanctified aspects of life that have been threatened than other aspects” (Pargament & Mahoney,

2005, p.189). For example, many people view the presence of Americans on their nations’ soil as a desecration of something sacred and will go to extreme measures to preserve and protect the sanctity of their land. Individuals may also draw upon their spiritual resources as a way to preserve and protect their sense of the sacred (e.g., prayer, forgiveness, sacred rituals, spiritual support) (Pargament, 1997). Empirical research indicates that individuals make attempts to preserve and protect the sacred aspects of their lives. For example, in a study by Mahoney et al. (2005b) with 289 college students, the sanctification of the body (e.g., perceiving the body as a gift from God, describing body as holy) was related to higher levels of health protective behaviors (e.g., wearing a seat belt, avoiding overworking, eating sensibly) and to lower levels of smoking and alcohol use. As it relates to athletes and sport, this research on sanctification suggests that

athletes who sanctify their participation in sport may be more likely to preserve and

protect their athletic participation. These efforts may take several forms, including,

maintaining healthy habits, preparing for and competing in athletic competitions within

the parameters of the rules, and taking a strong stance against those who cheat and/or

tarnish the sports’ reputation. 15

Third, perceiving certain aspects of life as sacred is likely to elicit spiritual emotions (Pargament & Mahoney, 2005). Higgs (1992) and others (cf. James, 1902, Otto,

1928) have noted that experiences of the sacred are often accompanied by feelings of joy, adoration, gratitude as well as feelings of awe, reverence, and humility. Unfortunately, as

Pargament and Mahoney (2005) point out, very little empirical research has examined the relationship between sanctification and the eliciting of spiritual emotions.

One study that might be indirectly related to this topic is by Dillon and Tait

(2000) who examined the relationship between spirituality and being “in the zone.” The authors argued that the phenomenological experiences of being in the zone and having a

“spiritual high” are similar in that both are often described as states of euphoria, effortlessness, and self-transcendence. Because of their phenomenological similarities,

Dillon and Tait hypothesized that higher levels of spirituality would be related to higher rates of experiencing being in the zone. To assess spirituality and being in the zone, the authors developed two measures, the Spirituality in Sports Test (SIST) and the Zone Test

(ZT), respectively. The SIST is a 10-item scale which asks respondents to indicate how frequently they “use or look to [their spirituality] in different situations they might encounter as a member of a sports team” (p. 193). For example, “I use spirituality or religiosity as a way to help me with the emotional roller coaster of winning and losing”

(p. 195). The ZT is a 10-item scale which asks respondents to indicate how often they have been in the zone based on descriptions athletes have given of being in the zone. A sample item includes, “I have had the feeling of being able to move around, between, or through my opponents” (p.195).

Participants included 62 students, 42 of whom were members of an intercollegiate 16

team, while the rest were involved with other sports teams (e.g., intramural teams).

Results indicated a significant relationship between spirituality and being in the zone (r=

.49, p< .001). This study suggests that by using spiritual techniques to cope with their sport experiences athletes are more often in the “zone,” a phenomenological state that has often been described by language laden with spiritual emotions, such as the “feeling of being outside ‘oneself’” (p. 97). Thus, the theory and research of sanctification suggest that athletes who sanctify their participation in sport may be more likely to experience a wide range of emotions, including those associated with the divine and sacred.

A final implication of sanctification according to Pargament and Mahoney (2005) is that sacred objects also are thought to serve as resources individuals can draw upon.

Thus, individuals are likely to gain greater satisfaction and well-being from pursuing and experiencing objects they perceive as sacred.

Several empirical studies appear to support this proposal. For example, in a study by Emmons (1999) with three samples of college-aged and older community adults, strivings were coded into several categories. One category was spiritual strivings, those strivings with spiritual and/or religious content. Spiritual strivings were related to higher levels of well-being, greater purpose of life, and marital and overall life satisfaction when compared to personal strivings (i.e., those without spiritual/religious content).

Furthermore, spiritual strivings were more highly valued, perceived as less difficult,

pursued for more intrinsic reasons, and associated with lower levels of goal conflict when compared to personal strivings. Similarly, in a study of community members, Mahoney et al. (2005a) found that higher levels of sanctification of strivings were related to higher self-reported levels of meaning obtained from the strivings, more joy and happiness 17

derived from the strivings, and more perceived support from family, friends, and God in

their pursuit of these strivings. Additionally, in examining the sanctification of sexual

intercourse, Murray-Swank, Pargament, and Mahoney (2005) found that both men and

women who sanctified the act of sexual intercourse reported greater pleasure and satisfaction from the sexual act. One might expect, then, that athletes who sanctify their participation in sport may be more likely to report higher levels of satisfaction and well- being from their involvement in sport and pursuit of their sports related goals.

Elsewhere, Pargament (1997, 2007) has argued that individuals who sanctify an aspect of life will be more likely to draw on sacred resources as a way to cope with significant problems. For example, couples who sanctify their relationships might be more likely to pray together to help create peace and harmony in their relationships, or

individuals who sanctify their lives generally might tend to seek guidance from God

when faced with difficult decisions. Within sport, athletes who sanctify sport might turn

to sacred resources such as religious coping to help navigate the inherent turbulence of

athletics.

In sum, theoretical and empirical work on sanctification offers an interesting and

useful psycho-spiritual framework for understanding the relationship between sport and

religion. More specifically, this framework can be used to examine the degree to which

athletes perceive sport to be a manifestation of God and imbue sport with divine qualities.

Furthermore, this framework offers a set of predictions regarding the relationships

between the sanctification of sport and sport-related attitudes and behaviors. In this study,

I examine the connection between sport and religion proximally and make meaningful

interpretations about how and where sport and religion intersect. Hopefully, this approach 18 will lead to a clearer understanding of the role of sport in the lives of athletes and the potential implications of perceiving sport as a sacred aspect of their lives.

19

PRESENT STUDY

Popular media, cultural and sociological studies, and sport psychology all suggest a relationship between sport and religion. The present study seeks to better understand this relationship by examining it through a psycho-spiritual lens. More specifically, this study will examine the extent to which athletes sanctify sport; that is, the extent to which athletes view their participation in sport as sacred, and what implications this might have.

The first goal of this study is to determine the extent to which elite athletes sanctify their participation (e.g., practice, competition, relationship with coaches, teammates, fans, etc.) in sport. Studies examining sanctification suggest that many aspects of individuals’ lives are sanctified (see Pargament & Mahoney, 2005) and it is expected that many athletes will sanctify their sport participation.

The second goal of this study is to better understand the implications of sanctification for elite athletes. Drawing on the present literature on sanctification, several hypotheses about the outcomes will be tested. The first hypothesis is that athletes who report higher levels of sanctifying their sport will report higher levels of investment of themselves in their sport. Second, it is hypothesized that higher levels of sanctification by athletes will be related to athletes being engaged in more behaviors to preserve and protect their participation in sport. Third, higher levels of sanctification are hypothesized to be associated with reports of more spiritual emotions through their participation in sport. Finally, it is hypothesized that as athletes sanctify their participation in sport, they will draw upon this and other sacred resources to a greater extent. Thus, higher levels of sanctification by athletes are predicted to be related to greater perceptions of satisfaction and well-being; greater sense of purpose and meaning to life; greater support from 20 friends, family, and God; greater joy and happiness from participation in sport; and higher rates of religious coping.

21

METHOD

Participants and Procedures

A sample of 70 student athletes currently involved in Division I collegiate athletics at one Midwestern University participated in this study. Two additional participants’ responses were not used in the final analyses because of incomplete data sets. The student-athletes were recruited through an e-mail soliciting their participation in an online survey examining the relationship between religious and spiritual beliefs and their involvement in sport. E-mail addresses were obtained by cross-referencing team rosters and the public directory made available by the university. Participants were informed of the confidential and anonymous nature of their responses as well as how they could receive experimental credit for their participation. Students signed up to participate for the study, gave informed consent, and completed the study online.

A number of demographic variables were assessed to provide descriptive information about the sample and to serve as potential control variables for statistical analyses (see Table 1 for descriptive statistics of demographic variables). In this sample,

64% (n=45) were female, the average age was 20 years and ranged from 18 to 23.

Participants were in various stages of their education; 24.3% were in their first year,

37.1% in their second year, 10% in their third year, 21.4% in their fourth year, and 7.1 % in their fifth year or beyond. 64.3% of the participants reported a family income of

$75,000 or above. With respect to ethnicity, 87.1% self-identified as Caucasian, 4.2% self-identified as African American, 1.4% as Hispanic, 1.4% as American Indian, and

5.7% as other ethnicity (e.g., bi-racial). 22

The majority of the sample was Protestant (57.1%) and Roman Catholic (28.6%), with 5.7% endorsing other religious affiliation, and 8.6% none. In terms of their beliefs about God, two-thirds (67.1%) of the sample endorsed a theistic belief about God, 22.9% endorsed a Pantheistic belief, 5.7% endorsed an Agnostic belief, 2.9% endorsed an

Atheistic belief, and 1.4% endorsed a Deistic belief. Participants’ self-reported religiousness was based on four indicators. The breakdown of frequency of church attendance was several times a week (11.4%), weekly (2.9%), one to three times a month

(32.9%), monthly (7.1%), several times a year (10%), once or twice a year (15.7%), less than once a year (15.7%), and never (4.3%). The breakdown of frequency of prayer was

8.6% more than once a day, 18.6% once a day, 4.3% several times a week, 11.4% once a week, 5.7% a few times a month, 11.4% once a month, 22.9% less than once a month, and 17.1% never. Compared to a national sample (General Social Survey, 2008), this sample appears to be more casual in their church attendance and to pray less frequently

(see Table 2). A self-rated religiousness item with anchors 1 (not at all religious), 2

(slightly religious), 3 (moderately religious), and 4 (very religious) yielded a mean of 2.5

(SD = 0.8). A similar self-rate spirituality item yielded a mean of 2.6 (SD = .89).

Finally, student athletes were sampled from sixteen different sports, six male sports and ten female sports. 68.6% of the athletes reported being starters on their teams and 72.9% reported being in their competitive season. See Appendix A for all measures used in the present study.

Measures

Sanctification of Sport Participation. To assess the level to which athletes sanctify their participation in sport, participants completed 20 items designed to measure both 23 theistic and non-theistic forms of sanctification. Items were adapted to reflect sport participation and asked participants to indicate the degree to which they perceive their participation in sport as a manifestation of God (e.g., “I sense God’s presence when I participate in my sport”) and as having sacred qualities (e.g., “Participating in my sport is sacred”). Participants were asked to identify the degree to which they agree or disagree with descriptive statements on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1, “strongly disagree” to 7, “strongly agree.” Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for theistic and non-theistic sanctification were .98 and .94, respectively.

Investment in Sport. Two methods were used to assess the amount of resources athletes invest in the pursuit of their sport participation. First, five items from the Sport

Participation Attributes Questionnaire (a modified version of the Strivings Attributes

Questionnaire) were used to assess athletes’ investment in their sport participation (e.g.,

“How important to you is your athletic career/participation in sport?”). Participants responded to these questions on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1, “not at all,” to 5,

“extremely.” Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for this measure was .62.

Second, a 6-item scale asked participants to indicate how often they engage in specific behaviors that reflect athletes’ investment in their sport by assessing how much of themselves and their time they devoted to their sports (e.g., I talk to coaches about my performance outside of practice and game time). This measure, the Investment in Sport

Questionnaire, was developed for this study. Participants responded to each item on a 7- point Likert scale ranging from 1, “none” to 7, “a great deal.” Scale items were chosen based on face validity and their sensitivity to the time demands placed on collegiate athletes. Items assessed how much athletes invest of themselves while at practice and 24

while outside of practice. This latter point is particularly important given that the

National Collegiate Athletic Association regulates the amount of time coaches can

mandate their athletes to practice. Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for this measure was .82.

Protecting and Preserving Sport Participation. One way athletes might protect

and preserve their participation in sport is by espousing healthy habits. As a measure of

the degree to which athletes engage in healthy habits, participants were asked about their

alcohol and drug use. Participants responded to three questions about the quantity and

frequency of their alcohol use (i.e., “In a typical week, how many days do you have at

least one drink of alcohol?,” “On a typical day that you drink alcohol, how many standard

drinks of alcohol do you drink?,” “During the past 30 days, on how many days did you have more than 5 drinks in a row during a single day?”). Participants also responded to nine items assessing the frequency of their use of illicit drugs (e.g., marijuana, steroids).

Because of low endorsement rates, only two of the nine items (marijuana and use of prescription drugs for non-medical reasons) were included in the analyses. These two items were treated separately in the analyses.

Another way athletes might preserve and protect their participation in sport is by competing within the parameters of the rules and by displaying good sportspersonship.

Two scales from the Multidimensional Sportspersonship Orientation Scale (Vallerand,

Briere, Blanchard, and Provencher, 1997) were used to assess athletes’ willingness to follow the rules of the game (e.g., “I really obey all rules of my sport”) and social conventions in sport (“When I lose, I congratulate the opponent whoever he or she is”).

Both Cronbach’s coefficient alphas for these two dimensions were .87.

Eliciting Spiritual Emotions. To assess the prevalence of experiencing spiritual 25

emotions while participating in their sport, athletes responded to a 7-item scale in terms

of how much they experience certain spiritual feelings (e.g., “overcome by awe.”).

Participants were referred to a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1, “not at all,” and 7, “a

great deal” when responding to the items. The present scale is a modified version of a

similar scale currently used in a project examining the sanctification of parenthood

(Mahoney & Pargament, 2007). Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for the scale in the present study was .95.

Drawing on Sacred Resources. To assess the extent to which athletes draw upon their spiritual resources to help meet the demands of their sport, participants completed the positive subscales of the Brief RCOPE (Pargament, Smith, Koenig, & Perez, 1998) which was modified to reflect the stressor of sport difficulties (e.g., “when I have problems with my sport participation I try to put my plans into action together with

God.”). This scale consists of 7 items (e.g., “To cope with the demands and ups and downs of my sport, I have looked for a stronger connection with God”). Response anchors ranged from 1, “not at all,” to 4, “a great deal.” The internal consistency of this scale was .95.

Two measures were also used to assess various aspects of well-being and meaning

derived from the sanctification of sport. First, six items from the Sport Participation

Attributes Questionnaire, a modified version of the Strivings Attributes Questionnaire

(Mahoney et al., 2005b), were used to assess perceived social support (e.g., “How much

support do you receive from family and friends regarding your participation in your

sport?”), perceived support from God (“To what extent do you experience a sense of

support from God in your participation in sport?”), the extent to which obstacles (e.g., 26

limited time and opportunity) interfered with their participation in sport, the extent to

which they doubt whether they should participate in sport, and the meaning and joy they

experience through their involvement in sport (e.g., “How much joy or happiness do you experience through your participation in your sport?”). Participants were asked to refer to a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1, “not at all,” to 5, “extremely,” in responding to these questions. A factor analysis of these six items was conducted to ascertain if they could be grouped together to measure a single construct. Results indicated that these items did not represent a scale measuring a unified construct. As such, each item was analyzed separately as has been done in other studies (Mahoney et al., 2005b).

Second, to assess general well-being, participants were asked to complete the 12- item version of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12). Participants indicated how they have recently been feeling as compared to how they normally feel (e.g., “able to concentrate,” “felt under strain,” “feeling unhappy or depressed”). Responses ranged from 1, “less than usual,” to 4, “much more than usual;” higher scores represent better health, some items were reversed scored. Internal consistency for the GHQ-12 in this study was found to be satisfactory with a Cronbach’s coefficient alpha of .80. Table 3 contains correlations between demographic variables and the Sanctification of Sport

Scale.

Control Variables. A measure of Global Religiousness was also included as a potential control variable. This measure was created by combining scores from the frequency of prayer and religious service attendance questions described above

(Cronbach’s α = .78). Table 4 contains descriptive statistics of the measures included in

this study. 27

RESULTS

Preliminary Analyses

Preliminary analyses were conducted to determine whether the theistic and deistic

scales could be combined into a single scale as these scales were highly correlated (r=.89,

p < .01). When combined to form a single sanctification scale (Sanctification of Sport

Scale), this scale was significantly related to the individual theistic and deistic scales (r =

.98 and r = .97, p < .01, respectively) and demonstrated high internal consistency (α =

.98). As such, the Sanctification of Sport Scale was used throughout the analyses.

Descriptive Findings on the Sanctification of Participating in Sport

The mean of the Sanctification of Sport Scale was 80.9 (SD = 31.1; range = 20-

136). The scores were negatively skewed indicating that scores tended to bunch toward the higher end of the scale. In fact, almost all of the Sanctification of Sport Scale items were endorsed to some degree by almost 50% of the sample. Additionally, the total scores of over one third (35.3%) of the sample were 100 or above, indicating that they perceive their participation in sport as sacred to some degree. Examples of items that received high endorsements include: “Being involved in my sport seems like a miracle to me” and “My participation in sport is part of a larger spiritual plan,” which were endorsed to some extent by 48.6% and 52.8% of the sample, respectively, and 31.4% of the sample indicated that they strongly agreed with the item “God played a role in my sport career.” These results suggest that for some student athletes, their participation in sport is perceived, to some degree, as a sacred event. See Table 5 for frequency of endorsement of each item of the Sanctification of Sport Scale.

Testing of Hypotheses 28

Hypothesis 1: Sanctification of Sport Predicting Greater Investment in Sport. The

first hypothesis of this study predicted that athletes who reported greater sanctification of their sport participation would report higher levels of investment of themselves in their

sport. This hypothesis was not supported. The Sanctification of Sport Scale was not

significantly correlated with the Sport Participation Attributes Questionnaire and the

Investment in Sport Questionnaire. Table 6 displays correlations between the

Sanctification of Sport Scale and the criterion variables.

Hypothesis 2: Sanctification of Sport Predicting Preserving and Protecting Sport.

The second hypothesis predicted that higher levels of sanctification would be related to more behaviors that protect and preserve student athletes’ participation in sport. Partial support was found for this hypothesis. The three separate items assessing alcohol use were each significantly negatively associated with the Sanctification of Sport Scale

(number of drinks in a week, r = -.36, p < .01; number of drinks in a day when drinking, r

= -.40, p < .01; number of days with 5 or more drinks in a row, r = -.27, p < .05).

Student athletes were asked to report how often they use nine classes of illicit drugs. However, all participants reported “never” in response to seven of the drugs presented (amphetamines, barbiturates, heroin, hallucinogens, “ecstasy”, mushrooms, and performance enhancing drugs). Sanctification of Sports was not significantly related to the other two drugs, marijuana and taking prescription medicine for non-medical reasons.

The rules adherence dimension of the Multidimensional Sportspersonship

Orientation Scale was significantly related to sanctification (r = .21, p < .05). That is, athletes who perceived their participation in sport as more sacred were more likely to obey the rules of their sport and respect referees’ decisions. The social conventions 29 dimension, however, was not significantly related to the Sanctification of Sport Scale.

Hypothesis 3: Sanctification of Sport Predicting Spiritual Emotions in Sport. The third hypothesis predicted that higher levels of sanctification would be associated with athletes experiencing greater amounts of spiritual emotions through their participation in sport. This hypothesis received strong support. The Sanctification of Sport Scale and

Spiritual Emotions in Sport Questionnaire were strongly intercorrelated (r = .76, p < .01).

Hypothesis 4: Sanctification of Sport Predicting Drawing on Sacred Resources.

Finally, it was hypothesized that higher levels of sanctification by athletes would be positively correlated with drawing on sacred resources and greater perceptions of support and well-being. In support of this hypothesis, results indicated a strong and significant relationship between the Sanctification of Sport Scale and the Brief RCOPE (r = .72, p <

.01). This indicates that student athletes who sanctify their participation in sport to a greater degree were more likely to use positive religious coping to meet the demands of their sport.

Several of the six items from the Sport Participation Attributes Questionnaire used to assess support and well-being were significantly related to the Sanctification of

Sport Scale. These items were: “How much support do you receive from family and friends regarding your participation in your sport?” (r = .22, p < .05), “To what extent do you experience a sense of support from God in your participation in sport?” (r = .71, p <

.01), and “To what extent does your participation in sport give meaning to your sport?” (r

= .24, p < .05).

The correlation between the Sanctification of Sport Scale and the General Health

Questionnaire was not statistically significant. 30

Regression Analyses. To test the unique predictive power of the Sanctification of

Sport Scale, regression analyses were conducted. Demographic variables (e.g., Global

Religiousness, role on the team) were included as controls if they were significantly related to the criterion variable being predicted. Team affiliation was not included as a control variable as several teams were represented by only one or two participants (see

Table 7 for correlations between demographic and criterion variables). When indicated, the Sanctification of Sport Scale was then entered in the second step. The change in R square values was examined to assess the amount of unique variance accounted for by the

Sanctification of Sport Scale. The beta weights in each model were also examined to test the predictive power of the Sanctification of Sport Scale when other predictors were controlled. The results of these analyses are listed in Table 8.

Regression analyses indicated that sanctification predicted several outcome variables. More specifically, the Sanctification of Sport Scale predicted student athletes experiencing sacred emotions through their participation in sport (Spiritual Emotions in

Sport Scale, ΔR2 = .31, p < .001; β = .74, p < .001), student athletes’ propensity to draw

on spiritual resources when coping with difficulties related to their sport participation

(Brief RCOPE, ΔR2 = .08, p < .001; β = .37, p < .001), the amount of support student

athletes felt from God (ΔR2 = .20, p < .001; β = .61, p < .001), and the amount of

meaning participating in sport gives student athletes (ΔR2 = .08, p < .02; β = .28, p < .02).

Two of the three items assessing alcohol consumption were also predicted by the

Sanctification of Sport Scale: number of drinks in a week (ΔR2 = .13, p < .01; β = -.36, p

< .01) and number of drinks in day when drinking (ΔR2 = .09, p ≤ .01; β = -.40, p ≤ .01).

For the first item (i.e., number of drinks in a week), the Sanctification of Sport Scale was 31 the only variable included in the regression model, suggesting that the potential control variables did not add to the variance predicted by the Sanctification of Sport Scale.

32

DISCUSSION

The major purposes of this study were to determine the extent to which student athletes perceive their participation in sport as sacred (i.e., sanctify their sport participation), and to investigate potential behaviors associated with such perceptions.

Seventy student athletes from a Midwestern Division 1 university indicated the extent to which they perceive their participation in sport as sacred and completed questionnaires assessing constructs that were hypothesized to be associated with their sanctification of sport. Results from the study indicate that nearly all of the sanctification items were endorsed to some extent by almost 50% of the sample. Furthermore, the total scores of over one third (35.3%) of the sample suggested that they perceive their involvement in sport as sacred to some degree. Together, these data suggest that many of the student athletes sampled appear to view their participation in sport through a sacred lens. That is, for many of the student athletes sampled, their participation in sport is seen as a manifestation of God (e.g., “God has been a guiding force in my sport participation”) and as being imbued with sacred qualities (e.g., “Participating in my sport is holy”).

Consistent with predictions, student athletes who reported higher levels sanctification of sport were also more likely to report engaging in activities that protect and preserve their participation in sport. Specifically, higher levels of sanctification of sport participation were related to obeying the rules of their sport more often and to less alcohol consumption. In fact, higher levels of sanctification were related to consuming fewer numbers of alcoholic drinks during a week, less drinks consumed during a day

(when drinking), and less binge drinking (consuming five drinks in a row).

Higher levels of sanctification were also associated with student athletes’ reports 33

of experiencing more spiritual emotions (e.g., “spiritually uplifted”) through their

participation in sport. Similarly, higher levels of sanctification were related to higher

levels of drawing on sacred resources. Student athletes who sanctified their participation

in sport were more likely to turn to God (e.g., “sought God’s love and care”) when

encountering difficulties with their participation in sport; more likely to feel supported in

their involvement in sport from family, friends, and God; and more likely to gain

meaning and perspective through their involvement in sport.

However, not all hypotheses were supported. Specifically, the sanctification of

sport did not predict athletes’ level of investment in sport. That is, responses on the

Sanctification of Sport Scale were not related to responses on the Investment in Sport

Questionnaire or the Sport Participation Attributes Questionnaire.

Regression analyses were conducted to examine the unique predictive power of

the Sanctification of Sport Scale. When control variables were added in the regression

models, some of the effects were lost. However, sanctification of sport continued to be a

significant predictor of two of the items assessing alcohol use (e.g., the numbers of days

in a week that they drink and the number of drinks they consume when drinking),

experiencing spiritual emotions through participating in sport, using religious coping strategies to deal with the demands of sport, feeling supported from God, and deriving meaning through involvement in sport.

Collectively, the results from this study indicate that a large subset of student athletes perceive their involvement in sport as sacred. Furthermore, these findings

suggest that sanctifying sport participation is associated with important behaviors, beliefs, 34

and health benefits. These findings point to several important new ways of understanding

the role of sport participation for many student athletes.

Implications of Sanctification of Sport Participation

The first, and perhaps most important, implication of this study is that a large

subset of student athletes integrate their spirituality into their sport participation.

Spirituality, it appears, is not checked in the locker room or left on the bench before

athletes enter the game. One athlete’s statement helps elucidate this point, “I talk to God

on the [court]. I thank him for shots that are just unbelievable and I am aware of his presence.” As such, for many student athletes, their involvement in sport is more than recreation, physical activity, or a quest for achieving lofty goals. It represents a sacred experience, an experience wherein they commune with the holy. As one athlete put it,

“[My sport] is a type of meditation for me…a time to grow closer with God.”

Results of this study also point to the value of the construct of sanctification of sport participation as it provides a clearer perspective on the interface between sport and

spirituality than that offered by global measures of religiousness or spirituality. It

suggests that to better understand this interface, athletes’ perceptions of the sacred must

be considered. Indeed, this study found that sanctifying sport participation predicted

some criteria (i.e., alcohol consumption, experiencing spiritual emotions through sport,

the use of religious coping for difficulties related to sport involvement, feeling God’s

support, and deriving meaning through sport participation) even after controlling for

global markers of religiousness. These results are consistent with previous research on

sanctification which indicate that more proximal measures of spirituality and

religiousness are stronger predictors than global measures of these constructs (e.g., 35

Mahoney et al., 2005a, Mahoney et al., 2005b, Murray-Swank, Pargament, and Mahoney,

2005).

These perceptions of sports as sacred have implications for other aspects of the

athletes’ experiences. As athletes integrate their spirituality into their involvement in

sport, they become more likely to access sacred resources, experience sacred emotions, and create meaning in unique ways. Several comments from the student athletes in the study underscore these phenomena. With respect to accessing sacred resources, one athlete stated, “I look to God when times are tough and thank him when I do well.”

Another said, “When I struggle in my sport I turn to my spirituality for guidance.” Yet another athlete stated, “I ask God to help me through the rough times and to help me be the best that I can be.”

With respect to feeling sacred emotions, one athlete spoke of his/her gratitude, “if

I get to the field I will lay in the grass and close my eyes and visualize the game and pray to God…and thank him for letting my play [my sport] today.” One athlete suggested that feeling sacred emotions in sport was a common experience, “any serious [athlete] can tell you, if you [compete] long enough or hard enough you cannot help but feel some unexplainable emotion.”

With respect to creating meaning about his/her involvement in sport, one student athlete stated, “[My sport] is a way that I can please God by using the talents he has given me in order to [perform] for him.” As these comments and the data from this study highlight, sanctification of sport participation goes beyond mere perceptions, it impacts how student athletes approach and experience their sports, cope with the inherent ups and downs of sport, and how they make sense of their involvement in sport. 36

Another implication of this study is that student athletes who sanctify their

participation in sport also appear to gain specific health benefits; specifically, they

consume less alcohol and are less likely to engage in binge drinking. Previous research

(e.g., Booth & Martin, 1998) suggests that global religiousness is related to less risk of

alcohol abuse among adolescents and adults. This study finds that sanctification of sport

predicts less alcohol use (i.e., number of drinks consumed in a day when drinking), a

finding that could not be attributed to the effects of global religiousness. This suggests

that sanctification is an important additional spiritual dimension for student athletes,

especially as it relates to alcohol consumption. Moreover, recent literature (e.g., Ford,

2007, Watson, 2002) indicates that drinking by college student athletes is a serious problem on most college campuses and is more pervasive than non-athlete student drinking. Within this context, it is important to recognize that sanctification of sport participation appears to help buffer and protect athletes against potentially harmful drinking behaviors.

Knowing that some student athletes might integrate their spirituality into their sport participation, while others may not, has important implications for coaches and sport psychology consultants. First, coaches and consultants need to be mindful and sensitive to this reality and create an environment that is respectful of athletes’ religious and spiritual beliefs, or lack thereof. For example, coaches and consultants should avoid speaking from the point of reference of a specific religious tradition. Not only might this alienate those who do not belong to that or any faith tradition, but it also assumes that those from the same faith tradition share identical beliefs and/or that they are equally satisfied with their faith tradition. Speaking from a religious or spiritual perspective also 37

assumes those athletes with spiritual beliefs would find such talk useful, beneficial, or desirable. Similarly, as this study suggests, not all athletes view sport participation as sacred and, thus, they might become uncomfortable, frustrated, or alienated when coaches or consultants speak to them from a religious or spiritual perspective.

Coaches and sport psychology consultants can also create environments that are sensitive to and respectful of athletes’ integration of spirituality and sport by giving them space to draw upon their spirituality. For example, coaches might give their teams several minutes before competitions to meditate, pray, and/or reflect on important issues.

Similarly, consultants could ask athletes if and how they integrate their spirituality and their involvement in sport; such a question conveys a respect for athletes’ spirituality without assuming athletes perceive their participation in sport as sacred. A willingness to explore these perceptions and beliefs allows consultants to better understand how athletes prepare for and perform during competition (e.g., use prayer as a way to cope with anxiety). Discussing spirituality within the context of sport also allows the consultant to be aware of potential interventions that might be inappropriate (e.g., encouraging an athlete to reflect upon their many abilities and strengths might be perceived by an athlete as vanity).

By being sensitive to athletes’ spirituality, coaches and consultants are more likely to gain athletes’ trust and create a supportive and affirming environment. It also allows for better understanding of the whole person and what resources might, or might not be, available to work with.

Limitations of the Study 38

Although this is an exciting study which provides new insights into the relationship between sport and spirituality, caution should be exercised when interpreting the results. The sample in this study consisted solely of college student athletes from one university, most of whom were Caucasian Christian individuals. Future studies are needed to determine if the findings will generalize to other populations. Furthermore, given the cross-sectional nature of the data and the statistical model used to analyze the data, no causal inferences can be made regarding the relationship between the sanctification of sport participation, or lack thereof, and the specific variables measured in this study. Additionally, this study was only a first effort to examine the sanctification of sport performance. Many questions remain unanswered. For example, it is unclear how perceiving sport participation as sacred is related to actual performance. Nor is it clear how changes in perception about the sacred impact athletes or how participation in sport comes to be perceived as sacred.

These limitations open the door to further investigation. Be it through qualitative or quantitative methods, researchers might examine the larger spiritual context in which sport plays a role. This might include examining the ways athletes use a spiritual lens to view their sport involvement. For example, this study suggests student athletes draw on multiple sacred resources as they participate in sport, such as feeling supported by God while participating in sport and using religious coping to deal with the stresses involved in athletics. Comments from student athletes also suggest that prayer is a common form of religious coping. As one student said, “I ask God to help me through the rough times and to help me be the best that I can be.” Future research might address the frequency and circumstances under which sacred resources are likely to be accessed and how doing so 39

impacts athletes’ experiences, such as management of physiological arousal (e.g.,

competitive anxiety), recovery from injury, and performance.

Future research might also address the different manners in which athletes use a

spiritual lens to make sense and meaning of their involvement in sport. Comments from

student athletes in this study suggest that student athletes do make sense of their athletic

abilities and the outcome of their performances by interpreting them through a spiritual

lens. For example, one athlete stated, “…I have been blessed with a talent that I am using

for God.” Another athlete remarked, “Every success and defeat is a learning experience that is in God’s will for me.” How spiritual meaning making is related to motivation, resiliency, and the level of fulfillment might be explored in future research.

Results from this study also suggest that examining the spiritual emotions athletes

experience through their involvement in sport might be beneficial. Research which gives athletes the forum to describe the different kinds of spiritual emotions they experience, how often they experience these emotions, under what circumstances they are most likely to experience them, and what they perceive to be the consequences of these emotions might give insight into how these emotions impact athletes on and off the field.

While much of the discussion has focused on many potential positive aspects of sanctifying sport participation, researchers should also examine the potential darker side of sanctification. As Pargament, Magyar-Russell, Murray-Swank (2005) discuss, if individuals experience a loss or violation of something perceived as sacred, they are susceptible to adverse outcomes, such as negative affect and health symptoms. Within the context of sport, athletes who sanctify their participation in sport might by vulnerable to more negative outcomes if they lose their ability to participate in sport via injury or 40 retirement. Similarly, as suggested by the work of Mahoney et al. (2002), if fans sanctify the team they root for and perceive others as violating their team (e.g., running up the score), they might be more apt to engage in more extreme measures of retaliation (e.g., fighting with the other team’s fan, destroying property).

Finally, future research might examine the implications of sanctifying winning.

That is, if athletes perceive winning as sacred, they might go to greater, and perhaps unethical or illegal, lengths to win. This might include not following the rules of the game, using illegal substances, or being overly aggressive. Similarly, if winning is sanctified, athletes (or fans) might believe that God is supporting them and, thus, against other athletes and teams. These beliefs might lead to greater prejudice, disrespect, and hatred of the competition.

In spite of its limitations, this study takes an important step to in depth consideration of perceptions of the sacred as they relate to sport. It provides a unique conceptual framework for understanding the interface of sport and religion. It represents the first known effort to proximally measure athletes’ perceptions of sport within the context of spirituality. This study also indicates that the sanctification of sport is not uncommon and that it is a significant predictor of both psycho-spiritual and psychological variables with important health implications. Furthermore, it suggests coaches and sport psychology consultants should seriously consider how they approach and talk about spiritual issues with athletes. In sum, this study evidences the richness of the study of sport and religion and sets the stage for exiting and promising research on an important but overlooked dimension in sport.

41

REFERENCES

Balague, G. (1997). Understanding identity, value, and meaning when working with elite

athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 13, 89-98.

Booth, J., & Martin, J. E. (1998). Spiritual and religious factors in substance use,

dependence, and recovery. In H. G. Koenig (Ed.), Handbook of religion and

mental health (pp. 175-200). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Coakley, J. (2001). Sport in society: Issues & controversies (2nd ed.). New York:

McGraw-Hill.

Czech, D. R., Wrisberg, C., Fisher, L., Thompson, C., & Hayes, G. (2004). The

experience of Christian prayer in sport- an existential phenomenological

investigation. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 2, 1-19.

Dillon, K. M., & Tait, J. L. (2000). Spirituality and being in the zone in team sports: A

relationship? Journal of Sport Behavior, 23, 91-100.

Duda, J. L. (1992). Motivation in sport settings: A goal perspective approach. In G.C.

Roberts (Ed.), Motivation in sport and exercise (pp. 57-92). Champaign, IL:

Human Kinetics.

Emmons, R. A. (1999). The psychology of ultimate concerns: motivation and spirituality

in personality. New York: Guilford Press.

Ford, J. A. (2007). Alcohol use among college students: A comparison of athletes and

nonathletes. Substance Use & Misuse, 42, 1367-1377.

General Social Survey. (2008). Chicago: National Opinion Research Center. 42

Higgs, R. J. (1992). Muscular Christianity, holy play, and spiritual exercises: Confusion

about Christ in sports and religion. In S.J. Hoffman (Ed.), Sport and religion (pp.

89-104). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Hoffman, S. J. (1992). Recovering a sense of the sacred in sport. In S.J. Hoffman (Ed.),

Sport and religion (pp. 153-159). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

James, W. (1961). The varieties of religious experience. New York: Simon and

Schuster.

Mahoney, A., Pargament, K. I., DeMaris, A. (2007). New arrivals: Passage to

parenthood study. Unpublished manuscript.

Mahoney, A., Pargament, K. I., Ano, G., Lynn, Q., Magyar, G. M., McCarthy, S., Pristas,

E., Wachholtz. A., & Procidano, M. (August, 2002). The devil made them do it:

Desecration & demonization & the 9/11 attacks. Symposium conducted at the

American Psychological Association's Annual Convention, Chicago, IL.

Mahoney, A., Pargament, K. I., Cole, B., Jewell, T., Magyar, G., Tarakeshwar, N., et al.

(2005a). A higher purpose: The sanctification of strivings in a community sample.

The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 15, 239-262.

Mahoney, A., Pargament, K. I., Cole, B., Jewell, T., Magyar, G., Tarakeshwar, N., et al.

(2005b). The sanctification of the body and behavioral health patterns of college

students. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 15, 221-238.

Murray-Swank, N., A., Pargament, K., I., Mahoney, A. (2005). At the crossroads of

sexuality and spirituality: The sanctification of sex by college students. The

International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 15, 199-219. 43

Novak, M. (1992). The natural religion. In S.J. Hoffman (Ed.), Sport and religion (pp.

35-42). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Otto, R. (1928). The idea of the holy: An inquiry into the non-rational factor in the idea

of the divine and its relation to the rational. London: Oxford University Press.

Park, J. (2000). Coping strategies used by Korean national athletes. The Sport

Psychologist, 14, 63-80.

Pargament, K. I. (1997). The psychology of religion and coping: Theory, research,

practice. New York: Guilford Press.

Pargament, K. I. (2007). Spiritually integrated psychotherapy: Understanding and

addressing the sacred. New York: Guilford Press.

Pargament, K. I., Magyar-Russell, G. M., Murray-Swank, N. A. (2005). The sacred and

the search for significance: Religion as a unique process. Journal of Social Issues,

61, 665-687.

Pargament, K. I., & Mahoney, A. (2005). Sacred Matters: Sanctification as a vital topic

for the psychology of religion. The International Journal for the Psychology of

Religion, 15, 179-198.

Pargament, K. I., Smith, B. W., Koenig, H. G., & Perez, L. (1998). Patterns of positive

and negative religious coping with major life stressors. Journal for the Scientific

Study of Religion, 37, 710-724.

Prebish, C. S. (1992). “Heavenly father, divine goalie”: Sport and religion. In S.J.

Hoffman (Ed.), Sport and religion (pp.43-54). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Prebish, C. S. (1993). Religion and sport: The meeting of the sacred and the profane.

Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. 44

Storch, E. A., Kolsky, A. R., Silvestri, S. M., & Storch, J. B. (2001). Religiosity of Elite

College Athletes. The Sport Psychologist, 15, 346-351.

Storch, E. A., Kovacks, A. H., Roberti, J. W., Bailey, L. M., Bravata, E. A., & Storch, J.

B. (2004). Strength of religious faith and psychological adjustment in

intercollegiate athletes. Psychological Reports, 94, 48-50.

Storch, E. A., & Storch, J. B. (2002). Intrinsic religiosity and aggression in a sample of

intercollegiate athletes. Psychological Reports, 91, 1041-1042.

Storch, E. A., Storch, J. B., Kovacs, A. H., Okun, A., & Welsh, E. (2003). Intrinsic

religiosity and substance abuse in intercollegiate athletes. Journal of Sport &

Exercise Psychology, 25, 248-252.

Storch, E. A., Storch, J. B., Welsh, E., & Okun, A. (2002). Religiosity and depression in

intercollegiate athletes. College Student Journal, 36, 526-531.

Vallerand, R. J., Briere, N. M., Blanchard, C., & Provencher, P. (1997). Development

and validation of the multidimensional sportspersonship orientations scale.

Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 19, 197-206.

Vernacchia, R. A., McGuire, R. T., Reardon, J. P., & Templin, D. P. (2000). Psychosocial

characteristics of Olympic track and field athletes. International Journal of Sport

Psychology, 31, 5-23.

Watson, J. C. (2002). Assessing the potential for alcohol-related issues among college

student-athletes. Athletic Insight, 4. Retrieved July 29, 2008, from

http://www.athleticinsight.com/Vol4Iss3/AlcoholAssessment.htm

Wiese-Bjornstal, D. (2000). Spirit, Mind, and Body. Athletic Therapy Today, 5, 41-42.

45

APPENDIX

Demographics Please mark (X) your answers to the following questions. Fill in any additional information where necessary.

1. Sex: ____ Male ____ Female

2. Age: ____ (years)

3. Race/Ethnicity: ____ African American ____ Asian American ____ Caucasian ____ Hispanic ____ Multi-racial/ethnic ____ Native American ____ Other, please specify:______

4. What year are you in school? ____ First year ____ Third year ____ 5+ years ____ Second year ____ Fourth year

5. What is the yearly income of your family (please indicate combined income)? ____ less than $20,000 ____ $35,000-49,999 ____ $75,000-99,999 ____ $20,001-34,999 ____ $50,000-74,999 ____ $100,000 or more

6. What is your religious preference? ____ Catholic ____ Episcopal ____ Lutheran ____ Methodist ____ Baptist ____ Evangelical ____ Pentecostal ____ Church of Christ ____ Other Protestant ____ Jewish ____ Other (please note):______None

7. Please check ONE of the following that best describes how you think about God. ____ I believe that God is all around us. I look to nature to see God. I see God in every person I meet. I believe God is involved in everything we do and touches every person.

____ I believe God is a personal being who reigns over all creation who looks after us and listens to our prayers and praise. He responds to our needs and protects us from evil.

____ I believe God created the world and everything in it and left us to fend for ourselves. God is no longer involved in the happenings of this world and looks down on us from above without ever intervening in our lives.

____ I am not sure what or who God is but I think that it is beyond our understanding to comprehend such ultimate things. I often wonder if there is a God but I do not think that I will ever know for sure.

____ I do not believe there is a God. I do not believe that God created the world or controls its affairs. There is no higher power that can intervene in our lives. 46

8. How often do you attend religious services? ____ Several times a week ____ About once a month ____ Less than once a year ____ Every week ____ Several times a year ____ Never ____ 2-3 times a month ____ About 1-2 times a year

9. How often do you pray privately in places other than church or synagogue? ____ More than once a day ____ Once a week ____ Less than once a month ____ Once a day ____ A few times a month ____ Never ____ A few times a week ____ Once a month

10. To what extent do you consider yourself a religious person? Are you…

Very Religious Moderately Religious Slightly Religious Not at all Religious 1 2 3 4

11. To what extent do you consider yourself a spiritual person? Are you…

Very Spiritual Moderately Spiritual Slightly Spiritual Not at all Spiritual 1 2 3 4

12. What Division I collegiate sport do you play? Mens: Womens: _____ Baseball _____ Basketball _____ Basketball _____ Cross Country _____ Cross Country _____ Golf _____ Football _____ Gymnastics _____ Golf _____ Soccer _____ Hockey _____ Softball _____ Soccer _____ Swimming & Diving _____ Swimming & Diving _____ Tennis _____ Tennis _____ Track & Field _____ Track & Field _____ Volleyball _____ Volleyball Other (please specify:______) Other (please specify:______)

13. What is your role on the team? _____ Starter _____ Reserve

14. Are you currently in-season with your sport, or is it the off-season? _____ In-season _____ Off-season

47

Investment in Sport Questionnaire

Please indicate your agreement with each below. Please be open and honest in your responding.

How much time outside of practices, games, and None A mandatory study sessions do you do the following: great deal 1. Think about your sport 1 23 4 5 6 7

2. Talk with others about your sport 1 23 4 5 6 7

3. Study about your sport (e.g., watch game tape, 1 23 4 5 6 7 study play book, read books about physical and/or mental aspects of your sport, etc.)

4. Talk to coaches about your performance 1 23 4 5 6 7

5. Work with coaches on specific aspects of your game/technique/etc. (This work being completely voluntary on your part.)

6. How often do you put forth maximum effort 1 23 4 5 6 7 (both physical and mental) during practice (For this question, 1 = “never” and 7 = “always”)

48

Sport Participation Attributes Questionnaire

Please indicate your agreement with each item below. Please be open and honest in your responding.

1 2 3 4 5 Not at all Neutral extremely

1. How important to you is your athletic 1 2 3 4 5 career/participation in sport? (investment item)

2. How committed to your sport are you? 1 2 3 4 5 (investment item) 3. How long do you expect to continue with 1 2 3 4 5 your sport? (investment item) 4. To what extent does your participation in sport 1 2 3 4 5 dominate your life to the exclusion of other things? (investment item) 5. How much support do you receive from 1 2 3 4 5 family and friends regarding your participation in your sport? (Drawing on scared resources item) 6. To what extent do you experience a sense 1 2 3 4 5 of support from God in your participation in sport? (Drawing on scared resources item) 7. How likely are you to succeed in your sport? 1 2 3 4 5 (investment item) 8. To what extent do obstacles (e.g., limited time, 1 2 3 4 5 opportunity, money, disapproval from others, and so on) interfere with your participation in sport? (Drawing on scared resources item) 9. To what extent do you question or doubt whether 1 2 3 4 5 you should be participating in your sport? (Drawing on scared resources item) 10. To what extent does your participation in sport 1 2 3 4 5 give meaning to your life? (Drawing on scared resources item) 11. How much joy or happiness do you experience 1 2 3 4 5 through your participation in your sport? (Drawing on scared resources item)

49

Quantity and frequency of Alcohol Use

Please indicate the option that describes your experience with alcohol. Please be open and honest in responding. (Alcohol should be defined in broad terms including beer, wine, and hard liquor such as vodka, rum, etc.)

1. In a typical week (7 days), how many days do you have at least one drink of alcohol? a. zero days b. one day c. two days d. three days e. four days f. five days g. six days h. seven days

2. On a typical day that you drink alcohol, how many standard drinks of alcohol do you drink? a.-h.= 1-8 drinks i. 9-11 drinks j. 12-14 drinks k. 15-16 drinks l. 17-24 drinks m. 25 drinks or more

3. During the past 30 days, on how many days you have more than 5 drinks in a row during a single day? a. never b. 1-3 days c. 4-6 days d. 7-9 days e. 9-11 days f. 12-14 days g. 15-17 days h. 18-20 days i. 21 or more days

50

Illicit Drug Use

How often have you done each of the following drugs during part or all of the last year (12 months)? Do not include use for medical reasons. Please be open and honest in responding to these questions.

Nearly Once/ Once/ 3 to 10 Once/ Never Every Twice a Twice a Times a Twice a Day Week month Year year 1. Smoked Marijuana (pot, grass) or hashish 2. Taken amphetamines (pep pills, bennies, speed, uppers) 3. Taken barbiturates (yellow jackets, red devils, downers) 4. Taken heroin (smack, horse, “H”) 5. Taken hallucinogens (LSD, mescaline, peyote, etc.) 6. Taken “Ecstasy” or other similar drugs to it 7. Taken mushrooms or “shrooms” 8. Taken prescription medicine, be it your own or others’ (other than for medical reasons) 9. Performance enhancing drugs (e.g., steroids)

51

Multidimensional Sportspersonship Orientations Scale

For each of the following items, indicate the option that best represents the extent to which the item corresponds to you.

Doesn’t Corresponds to Corresponds to Corresponds to Corresponds to correspond to me a little me partly me a lot me exactly me at all 2 3 4 5 1

1. When I lose, I congratulate the opponent whoever he or she is. 2. I obey the referee. 3. After a defeat, I shake hands with the opponents’ coach. 4. I respect the rules. 5. After a competition, I congratulate the opponent for his good performance. 6. I really obey all rules of my sport. 7. After a win, I acknowledge the opponent’s good work. 8. I respect the referee even when he or she is not good. 9. Win or lose, I shake hands with the opponent after the game. 10. I respect an official’s decision even if he or she is not the referee.

52

Spiritual Emotions in Sport Questionnaire

How much do you experience the feelings below when you participate in your sport and/or think about your participation in sport? Select the choice that best represents your experience.

Not A great I feel . . . Somewhat at all deal 1. an intense sense of gratitude toward a higher power. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2. A sense of peace beyond all understanding. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

3. Spiritually uplifted and inspired. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4. Overcome by awe. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5. fully accepted by God. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

6. overwhelmed by spiritual feelings that I could not put into words. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

7. humble before a higher power. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

53

Religious Coping in Sport

The following statements describe specific ways that people might cope with stressors associated with their participation in sport. As you think of the stressors you have faced in your participation with collegiate sports, how much do you use each of the following things to cope?

To cope with the demands and ups and downs of my A sport, I have… Not Some- Quite great at all what a bit deal 1. Looked for a stronger connection with God. 1 2 3 4

2. Sought God’s love and care. 1 2 3 4

3. Sought help from God in letting go of my anger. 1 2 3 4

4. Tried to put my plans into action together with 1 2 3 4 God. 5. Tried to see how God might be trying to 1 2 3 4 strengthen me in this situation. 6. Asked for forgiveness for my sins. 1 2 3 4

7. Focused on religion to stop worrying about my 1 2 3 4 problems.

54

General Well Being

Listed below are several questions about your general level of well-being. Read each statement, and mark one of the four choices that best represents your response.

1= Less so than usual 2= No more so than usual 3= Rather more than usual 4= Much more than usual

Have you recently:

1. been able to concentrate on whatever you’re doing? 1 2 3 4 2. lost much sleep over worry? 1 2 3 4 3. felt that you are playing a useful part in things? 1 2 3 4 4. felt capable of making decisions about things? 1 2 3 4 5. felt constantly under strain? 1 2 3 4 6. felt you couldn’t overcome your difficulties? 1 2 3 4 7. been able to enjoy your normal day-to-day activities? 1 2 3 4 8. been able to face up to your problems? 1 2 3 4 9. been feeling unhappy or depressed? 1 2 3 4 10. been losing confidence in yourself? 1 2 3 4 11. been thinking of yourself as a worthless person? 1 2 3 4 12. been feeling reasonably happy all things considered? 1 2 3 4

55

Sanctification of Sport

Some of the following questions use the word “God.” Different people use different terms for God, such as “Higher Power,” “Divine Spirit,” “Spiritual Force,” “Holy Spirit,” “Allah,” “Buddha, or “Goddess.” Please feel free to substitute your own word for God when answering any of the questions that follow. Also, some people do not believe in God. If this is the case for you, please feel free to choose the “strongly disagree” response when needed.

Please indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree with each of the following statements:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree Neutral Strongly Agree

1. Being involved in my sport seems like a miracle to me. 2. God played a role in my sport career. 3. My participation in sport is part of a larger spiritual plan. 4. Participating in my sport is holy. 5. God lives through my involvement with my sport. 6. Playing my sport puts me in touch with the deepest mysteries of life. 7. God has been a guiding force in my sport participation. 8. Participating in my sport connects me to something greater than myself. 9. I feel God at work in my involvement with my sport. 10. At moments, my involvement in sport makes me very aware of a creative power beyond me. 11. Participating in my sport feels like a deeply spiritual experience. 12. I sense God's presence while participating in my sport. 13. I experience God through my participation in my sport. 14. My involvement in my sport is sacred to me. 15. My involvement in sport is a reflection of God's will. 16. The deepest truths of life are revealed to me through my participation in sport. 17. In mysterious ways, God has touched my participation in sport. 18. When I’m playing my sport, there are moments when time stands still and I feel I am part of something eternal. 19. There are moments when I feel a strong connection with God through my participation in sport. 20. I see God’s handiwork in my sport participation.

56

Open-ended Questions- Please answer the following questions by providing as much or as little information as you choose.

1) What things do you pray for when you pray about your involvement in sport? 2) How has your spirituality influenced your involvement in your sport? 3) In what ways do you incorporate your spirituality in your sport participation? What else about your participation in sport as it relates to your spirituality should I be aware of?

57

Table 1

Descriptive Statistics

Demographics

Variable N Percent M (SD) Gender Male 25 35.7 Female 45 64.3

Age 20 1.4 18 11 15.7 19 18 25.7 20 16 22.9 21 12 17.1 22 8 11.4 23 3 4.3

Education 1st year 17 24.3 2nd year 26 37.1 3rd year 7 10.0 4th year 15 21.4 5+ year 5 7.1

Income Under $20,000 4 5.7 $20,000-$34,999 5 7.1 $35,000-$49,999 5 7.1 $50,000-$74,999 11 15.7 $75,000-$99,999 16 22.9 $100,000 or more 29 41.4

Ethnicity Caucasian 61 87.1 African American 3 4.2 Hispanic 1 1.4 Native American 1 1.4 Other Specified 4 5.7

58

Table 1 (Continued)

Demographics

Variable N Percent M (SD) Religious Preference Catholic 20 28.6 Baptist 5 7.1 Lutheran 7 10 Methodist 10 14.3 Other Protestant 11 15.7 Non-Denominational 7 10 None 5 7.1 Other 5 7.1

God Belief Pantheistic 16 22.9 Theistic 47 67.1 Deistic 1 1.4 Agnostic 4 5.7 Atheist 2 2.9

Religiousness Religious Service Attendance 70 4.3 2.4 Prayer Frequency 70 5.0 2.4 Self-rated Religiousness 70 2.5 .86 Self-rated Spirituality 70 2.6 .89

Role on Team Starter 48 68.6 Reserve 22 31.4

Season In Season 51 72.9 Off Season 19 27.1

59

Table 2

Comparison of Frequency of Prayer and Religious Service Attendance between Present Sample and National Data

Percent Endorsement of Sample Frequency of Prayer Present Sample National Sample N=70 N=2,978 More than once a day 8.6% 29.9% Once a day 18.6% 29.3% A few times a week 4.3% 11.6% Once a week 11.4% 6.6% A few times per month 5.7% Once a month 11.4% Less than once a month 22.9% 11.5% Never 17.1% 11.1%

Percent Endorsement of Sample Frequency of Church Present Sample National Sample Attendance N=70 N=4,492 Several times a week 11.4% 7.1% Every week 2.9% 19.0% Nearly every week 5.0% Two-three times a month 32.9% 8.4% Once a month 7.1% 6.8% Several times a year 10.0% 11.6% Once a year 15.7% 12.7% Less than once a year 15.7% 6.8% Never 4.3% 22.5%

60

Table 3

Bivariate Correlations between Sanctification of Sport Participation and Demographic Variables

Sanctification Age .06 Gender .21 Ethnicity -.11 Family Income .02 Year in School .13 Season (In-season vs. Off-season) .03 Role on Team (Starter vs. Reserve) .13 Global Religiousness .67** ** p<0.01

61

Table 4

Descriptive Statistics for Criterion, Control, and Predictor Variables

Scale N M (SD) Range Alpha Sport Participation Attributes Questionnaire 70 21.0 2.7 11-25 .62 Investment in Sport 70 31.3 6.0 16-42 .82 Alcohol- drinks in a week 70 1.9 0.8 1-4 Alcohol- drinks when drinking 70 4.2 3.0 1-13 Alcohol- 5 drinks in a row 68 1.7 0.8 1-4 Drug Use- marijuana 70 5.8 0.5 1-6 Drug Use- prescription drugs 70 5.6 1.2 1-6 Social conventions 70 20.8 4.1 9-25 .87 Following rules 70 19.6 4.3 7-25 .87 Spiritual Emotions 70 28.0 12.3 7-49 .95 Religious Coping 70 15.7 6.4 7-28 .95 Support from family and friends 70 4.7 0.6 2-5 Support from God 70 3.9 1.2 1-5 Obstacles 70 2.9 1.2 1-5 Question or doubt 70 2.6 1.3 1-5 Joy or happiness 70 4.0 1.0 1-5 Meaning 70 4.3 0.8 2-5 General Health Questionnaire 70 30.3 5.3 20-48 .80 Global Religiousness 70 9.3 4.1 2-16 .78 Sanctification of Sport 70 80.9 31.1 20-136 .98

62

Table 5

The Endorsement Percentage for Each Item of the Sanctification of Sport Scale

Sanctification of Sport Item Strongly Somewhat Somewhat Strongly Disagree Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Agree Agree 1. Being involved in my sport seems 12.9 1.4 10.0 27.1 21.4 14.3 12.9 like a miracle to me. 8.6 4.3 8.6 22.9 8.6 15.7 31.4 2. God played a role in my sport career. 12.9 1.4 8.6 24.3 11.4 20.0 21.4 3. My participation in sport is part of a larger spiritual plan.

4. Participating in my sport is holy. 18.6 5.7 11.4 34.3 14.3 12.9 2.9 17.1 8.6 5.7 21.4 22.9 12.9 11.4 5.God lives through my involvement with my sport. 22.9 14.3 11.4 27.1 20.0 4.3 0.0 6. Playing my sport puts me in touch with the deepest mysteries of life. 14.3 7.1 10.0 17.1 24.3 12.9 14.3 7. God has been a guiding force in my sport participation. 12.9 8.6 10.0 20.0 22.9 20.0 5.7 8. Participating in my sport connects me to something greater than myself.

63

Table 5 (Cont.)

The Endorsement Percentage Endorsement for Each Item of the Sanctification of Sport Scale

15.7 4.3 15.7 14.3 21.4 17.1 11.4 9. I feel God at work in my involvement with my sport. 15.7 8.6 8.6 20.0 18.6 18.6 10.0 10. At moments, my involvement in sport makes me very aware of a creative power beyond me. 15.7 10.0 15.7 21.4 24.3 5.7 7.1 11. Participating in my sport feels like a deeply spiritual experience. 15.7 11.4 8.6 20.0 17.1 18.6 8.6 12. I sense God's presence while participating in my sport. 17.1 8.6 10.0 20.0 17.1 15.7 11.4 13. I experience God through my participation in my sport. 11.4 10.0 8.6 20.0 24.3 15.7 10.0 14. My involvement in my sport is sacred to me. 17.1 8.6 8.6 15.7 22.9 11.4 15.7 15. My involvement in sport is a reflection of God's will. 17.1 10.0 11.4 27.1 22.9 7.1 4.3 16. The deepest truths of life are revealed to me through my participation in sport. 64

Table 5 (Cont.)

The Endorsement Percentage Endorsement for Each Item of the Sanctification of Sport Scale

14.3 7.1 11.4 15.7 24.3 17.1 10.0 17. In mysterious ways, God has touched my participation in sport. 20.0 24.3 8.6 18.6 17.1 7.1 4.3 18. When I’m playing my sport, there are moments when time stands still and I feel I am part of something eternal. 15.7 10.0 12.9 22.9 15.7 10.0 12.9 19. There are moments when I feel a strong connection with God through my participation in sport. 18.6 8.6 7.1 21.4 24.3 5.7 14.3 20. I see God’s handiwork in my sport participation.

65

Table 6

Bivariate Correlations between Sanctification of Sport Participation and Criterion Measures

Investment in Sport Sport Participation Attributes Questionnaire .11 Investment in Sport Questionnaire .05

Protecting and Preserving Participation in Sport Alcohol Use Number of drinks in a week -.36** Number of drinks in a day when drinking -.40** Number of days with 5 or more drinks in a row -.27* Drug Use Marijuana .11 Prescription drugs for non-medical reasons .05 Multidimensional Sportspersonship Orientation Scale Social conventions .09 Following rules of the game .21*

Eliciting Spiritual Emotions Spiritual Emotions in Sport .76**

Drawing on Sacred Resources Religious Coping .72** Support from family and friends .22* Support from God .71** Obstacles .05 Question or doubt -.09 Meaning .24* Joy or happiness .19 General Health Questionnaire .15

* p≤0.05; ** p≤0.01

66

Table 7

Bivariate Correlations between Demographic Variables and Criterion Variables

Age Gender Ethnicity Income School Season Role Global Religiousness SPAQ- .19 -.15 -.19 -.11 .11 .14 -.13 -.05 Investment Investment .02 -.14 -.12 .03 -.01 .22 -.23 -.04 Drinks/Week .15 -.11 .17 .18 .14 .09 -.14 -.22 Drinks when .18 -.17 .08 .13 .10 .13 -.10 -.28* Drinking 5 drinks or .10 .05 .19 .11 .10 .00 -.01 -.27* more Marijuana .09 .00 .13 .11 .10 .18 -.15 .16 Prescription -.23 -.01 .24* -.01 -.23 -.16 .16 .16 Drugs Social .21 -.06 -.01 .04 .13 -.09 .07 .13 Conventions Following .23 .16 -.06 -.05 .19 .11 -.03 .21 Rules Spiritual .10 .15 -.23 -.16 .08 .16 .05 .51** Emotions Religious .17 -.01 -.18 .20 .15 .06 .00 .76** Coping Support- -.31* .24* .00 .04 -.12 .07 .11 .15 Family and Friends Support- .10 .05 -.13 -.08 .10 .02 .05 .55** God Obstacles .08 -.02 -.05 -.16 -.06 -.06 .25* -.09 Question .16 .15 .27* -.20 .06 -.15 .20 -.07 Meaning -.14 .11 .01 .04 -.01 .15 -.24* .10 Joy -.28* .03 -.18 -.12 -.30* .13 .00 .06 Well-Being -.06 -.08 -.27* -.08 .03 -.10 .16 .18 * p≤0.05; ** p≤0.01

67

Table 8

Regressions of Demographic Variables and Sanctification of Sport Predicting Criterion Variables

Criterion Predictors R2 F P Beta T p Included Investment in Sanctification .01 .772 (1, 68) .38 .11 .879 <.38 Sport (Sport of Sport Scale Participation Attributes Questionnaire) Investment in Sanctification .00 .154 (1, 68) .70 .05 .392 .70 Sport of Sport Scale Questionnaire Alcohol Use- Sanctification .13 10.077 (1, 68) <.01 -.36 -3.17 <.01 Number of of Sport Scale drinks in a week Alcohol Use- Global .07 5.224 (1, 68) .03 -.27 -2.29 .03 Number of drinks Religiousness in a day when Sanctification .09 7.109 (1, 67) .01 -.40 -2.67 .01 drinking of Sport Scale Alcohol Use- Global .08 5.404 (1, 66) .02 -.28 -2.33 .02 Five drinks or Religiousness more Sanctification .01 1.006 (1, 65) .32 -.16 -1.00 .32 in a row of Sport Scale Marijuana Use Sanctification .01 .810 (1, 68) .37 .11 .900 .37 of Sport Scale Prescription drug Ethnicity .06 4.058 (1, 68) <.05 .24 2.01 <.05 Misuse Sanctification .01 .359 (1, 67) .55 .07 .60 .55 of Sport Scale Social conventions Sanctification .01 .536 (1, 68) .47 .09 .732 .47 of Sport Scale Following rules Sanctification .04 3.126 (1, 68) .08 .21 1.77 .08 of Sport Scale Spiritual Emotions Global .23 24.294 (1, 68) <.001 .51 4.929 <.001 (Spiritual Religiousness Emotions Sanctification .31 47.704 (1, 67) <.001 .74 6.907 <.001 in Sport of Sport Scale Questionnaire)

Religious Coping Global .59 95.753 (1, 68) <.001 .77 9.785 <.001 (Brief RCOPE) Religiousness Sanctification .08 15.328 (1, 67) <.001 .37 3.915 <.001 of Sport Scale

68

Table 8 (Continued)

Regressions of Demographic Variables and Sanctification of Sport Predicting Criterion Variables

Criterion Predictors ∆R2 F P Beta t p Included Support from Age & .15 5.530 (2, 65) <.01 .23 1.943 .06 family and friends Gender Sanctification .02 1.137 (1, 64) .29 .13 1.066 .29 of Sport Scale Support From God Global .31 30.528 (1, 68) <.001 .56 5.525 <.001 Religiousness Sanctification .20 28.197 (1, 67) <.001 .61 5.31 <.001 of Sport Scale Obstacles Role .06 4.329 (1, 68) .04 .25 2.081 .04 Sanctification .00 .031 .86 .02 .176 .86 of Sport Scale Question or doubt Ethnicity .07 5.289 (1, 68) <.03 .27 2.30 <.03 Sanctification .00 .302 (1, 67) .58 -.07 -.55 .58 of Sport Scale Meaning Role .06 4.093 (1, 68) <.05 -.24 -2.02 <.05 Sanctification .08 5.774 (1, 67) <.02 .28 2.40 <.02 of Sport Scale Joy or happiness Age & Year .11 4.043 (1, 65) <.03 -.32 -1.48 .14 in School Sanctification .04 2.855 (1, 64) .10 .20 1.69 .10 of Sport Scale Well Being Ethnicity .08 5.520 (1, 68) <.03 -.27 -2.35 <.03 (General Health Sanctification .01 1.062 (1, 67) .31 .12 1.03 .31 Questionnaire) of Sport Scale