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A Study of Student Athletes' Sanctification of Sport

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A Study of Student Athletes' Sanctification of Sport SACRED SPORT: A STUDY OF STUDENT ATHLETES’ SANCTIFICATION OF SPORT Quinten K. Lynn A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY December 2008 Committee: Kenneth I. Pargament, Ph.D., Advisor Victoria Krane, Ph.D. Graduate Faculty Representative Annette Mahoney, Ph.D. Casey Cromwell, Ph.D. ii ABSTRACT Kenneth I. Pargament, Advisor The purpose of this study was to provide and test a unique theoretical framework for understanding the relationship between sport and religion. The construct of sanctification from the field of the psychology of religion was introduced as a way to understand and examine this relationship. Drawing from a sample of college athletes, the degree to which athletes perceive their participation in sport as sacred was assessed. Several hypotheses regarding the implications of athletes sanctifying their participation in sport were tested. Results indicated that athletes’ sanctification of sport was not uncommon; that is, many athletes viewed their participation in sport as sacred. Furthermore, sanctification of sport predicted important psychological and psycho-spiritual behaviors related to sport participation as well as health benefits. iii To my parents. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS With profound gratitude I thank Ken for his unflagging support. Thank you for sharing your insight, wisdom, humor, and friendship. I would also like to thank Dr. Cromwell, Dr. Krane, and Dr. Mahoney for their suggestions and direction. Not only did their expertise add to the quality of this project, but helped in my development as a professional and scientist. To Jen and my children, your unconditional love has carried me through the valleys frustration and buoyed my hope. I love you. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER I. BACKGROUND STUDIES .......................................................................... 3 The Structure of Sport and Religion .......................................................................... 3 Religiousness in Athletes........................................................................................... 6 Psychology of Religion.............................................................................................. 11 CHAPTER II. PRESENT STUDY....................................................................................... 19 CHAPTER III. METHOD .................................................................................................... 21 Participants and Procedures....................................................................................... 21 Measures ........................................................................................................... 22 CHAPTER IV. RESULTS.................................................................................................... 27 Preliminary Analyses................................................................................................. 27 Descriptive Findings on the Sanctification of Participating in Sport ........................ 27 Testing of Hypotheses................................................................................................ 27 CHAPTER V. DISCUSSION............................................................................................... 32 Implications of Sanctification of Sport Participation................................................. 34 Limitations of the Study............................................................................................. 37 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 41 APPENDIX. INSTRUMENTS............................................................................................. 45 vi LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Descriptive Statistics.................................................................................................. 57 2 Comparison of Frequency of Prayer and Religious Service Attendance between Present Sample and National Data .......................................... 59 3 Bivariate Correlations between Sanctification of Sport Participation and Demographic Variables ................................................................. 60 4 Descriptive Statistics for Criterion, Control, and Predictor Variables....................... 61 5 The Endorsement Percentage for Each Item of the Sanctification of Sport Scale...................................................................................... 62 6 Bivariate Correlations between Sanctification of Sport Participation and Criterion Measures......................................................................... 65 7 Bivariate Correlations between Demographic Variables and Criterion Variables............................................................................................. 66 8 Regressions of Demographic Variables and Sanctification of Sport Predicting Criterion Variables .............................................. 67 1 INTRODUCTION “Everything in my life can be related to God- so I guess [my sport] and God go hand in hand.” -Participant from present study “I wouldn't say it was lucky. We executed the play well. We should have had another one (TD). Obviously, if you do what's right on and off the field, I think the Lord steps in and plays a part in it. Magic happens." -Collegiate football player after winning rivalry game Sport and religion are two of America’s most enduring institutions. Their presence in American society is nearly ubiquitous as evidenced by sports stories covering the front pages of most newspapers, dozens of “sports only” television stations, the presence of churches and synagogues in most towns and cities across the nation, and the religious undertones of American politics. These institutions are not completely separate entities, however, and the one can be observed in the other. For example, many athletes make religious signs or pray before, during, and after competitions, and ecclesiastical leaders often use sport metaphors in their preaching (e.g., following God’s game plan). The union between sport and religion has engendered considerable debate and research by social scientists. Many have theorized about the functional similarities between sport and religion and the religious significance of sport (e.g., Coakley, 2001, Hoffman, 1992). Still others have argued even further that sport is a religion in and of itself (e.g., Novak, 1992; Prebish, 1993). However, the interface between sport and religion, as it expresses itself in the lives of athletes, is not well understood. For example, sport psychologists (e.g., Balague, 1997; Wiese-Bjornstal, 2000) have noted that athletes use their religious beliefs to prepare, perform, and cope with their participation in sport, but the process by which this occurs has received little, if any, attention. And while social scientists have made some observations about the role of religion in athletes’ performance (e.g., Park, 2 2000; Vernacchia, McGuire, Reardon, Templin, 2000), few studies have systematically observed and measured the phenomenon. Furthermore, this line of inquiry is devoid of theories that help describe, explain, and understand whether and how athletes perceive their participation in sport as religious and how imbuing sport participation with religious qualities impacts, if at all, their sport experience. This study is an attempt to fill in some of the existing gaps in the current literature and our understanding of the religious significance of sport participation for elite athletes. More specifically, this study provides a framework for understanding how sport might be perceived and experienced as a spiritual phenomenon. In this framework, I will consider how sport might fit within athletes’ spiritual lives/perspectives/beliefs, how sport might take on religious/spiritual/sacred significance, and how sport might be a spiritual as well as secular resource for athletes in dealing with the challenges they experience in sport. This framework represents a new way of observing and understanding the relationship between sport and religion in athletes. Drawing on research and theory from the psychology of religion, this framework goes beyond present theory and cursory empirical investigations about the religiousness of athletes by taking a more proximal look at sports in their lives. Hopefully, this framework will yield a clearer picture of the degree to which elite athletes perceive their involvement in athletics in spiritual terms and the implications of these perceptions. 3 BACKGROUND STUDIES The Structure of Sport and Religion Much of the extant literature on the convergence between sport and religion focuses on the structural and functional similarities between the two. For example, Hoffman (1992) and others (e.g., Coakley, 2001) note that both religion and sport have special places and buildings for gatherings and special events. Sport has stadiums and arenas, while religions have churches and synagogues. Both have scripts and stories aimed at personal betterment. Sport has playbooks, practices, and time-outs, while religions have scriptures, rituals, and retreats. Both are often controlled by specific structured hierarchies. Sport has coaches, commissioners, and owners, while religions have pastors, priests, dioceses, and prophets. Both have events
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