Gatorade Sports Science 20 Institute ®

VOLUME 6 (1995) NUMBER 2

SPORTS SCIENCE EXCHANGE ROUNDTABLE

THE USE OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY TO IMPROVE SPORT PERFORMANCE

Participants:

Daniel Kirschenbaum, Ph.D. Director, Center for Behavioral Medicine Professor, Northwestern University Medical School Chicago, Illinois

Sean McCann, Ph.D. U.S. Olympic Committee Sport Science and Technology Division Colorado Springs, Colorado

Andrew Meyers, Ph.D. University of Memphis Department of Psychology Memphis, Tennessee

Jean Williams, Ph.D. University of Arizona Department of Exercise & Sport Science Tucson, Arizona

Introduction Sport psychology is the science of behavior applied to exercise and sport participation. Increasing numbers of athletes and coaches are using sport psycholo- gists to help them gain a personal and competitive edge--to manage stress and anxiety more effectively, improve concentration and motivation, increase confi- dence, and promote better communication. This field has been percolating for 70 years, yet many people still think of it as commonsensical mind games. The Gatorade Sports Science Institute convened a panel of four of the leading experts on sport psychology to help clarify the meaning of this important discipline, describe its recent history, and project its future. How has the use of sport psychology training programs. Increasingly, sport psy- and, in some cases, remarkably positive changed among elite athletes over the last chology has become as common a compo- effects. Several dozen studies clearly indicate 20 years? nent of elite athletic preparation as good that sport psychology interventions lead to nutrition and proper medical care. improvements in performance compared to Kirschenbaum: Sport psychology has grown control or alternative interventions. remarkably in recent years. During the past What is the current state of the science that decade, two new scientific journals and two supports the use of psychological interven- Under what circumstances, if any, can psy- major national organizations that address the tions to improve sport performance? chological interventions lead to more harm area of sport psychology have emerged. than good for athletes? Parallel increases have been apparent in the Williams: Individual variation certainly number of books on the topic and in the exists. However, a review of peak perfor- McCann: Of course, any intervention can growth of involvement of sport psychologists mance literature clearly indicates that suc- cause harm. Poor coaching, a misdiagnosis with Olympic teams. As further evidence of cessful athletes tend to have higher levels of by a sports medicine physician, or a trainer the increased popularity of the field, a recent self-confidence, a more task-oriented focus who ignores a serious stress fracture are all article noted that one-third of touring profes- of concentration, a lesser likelihood of examples of health professionals using inter- sional golfers are currently using sport psy- becoming distracted, a greater ability to keep ventions with potentially harmful conse- chologists. Five to ten years ago, few anxiety at facilitative levels, a more positive quences. Making sure that a sport professional golfers utilized a psychologist. preoccupation with sport (imagery and psychologist has the proper training and cre- thoughts), and more determination and com- dentials (i.e.-membership in the USOC Sport Williams: Twenty years ago most elite ath- mitment compared to less successful athletes. Psychology Registry or certification by the letes had never heard of sport psychology These psychological characteristics can be Association of Applied Sport Psychology and gave little or no thought to training the developed through appropriate psychological (AAASP)) is the best guard against harmful mental side of their games. Many of these interventions. intervention. athletes possessed excellent psychological skills, but the development of these skills Using meta-analytic procedures, review- The question can also be interpreted as occurred largely by chance and without con- ers of intervention research found support for suggesting that talking about a potentially scious recognition. For the vast majority of mental rehearsal (imagery), cognitive restruc- negative issue can actually “cause” it to athletes, efforts to improve performance con- turing interventions, goal setting, and relax- occur. For example, a coach might say “why sisted only of looking for advances in physi- ation interventions to improve athletic talk about extra pressure at the Olympic cal training and conditioning, biomechanics, performance in diverse sports such as golf, Games? Aren’t you just planting a seed?” and equipment. In contrast, all of today’s karate, skiing, tennis, and baseball. However, the bottom line for the athletes that elite athletes probably have heard of sport Meyers: Serious evaluative research in this I work with is that pressure is real at the psychology. In ever increasing numbers they area goes back only about 25 years, but there Olympic level, and mentally prepared ath- are seeking the services of sports psycholo- is now a good deal of evidence to support the letes handle that pressure with the greatest gists as the “competitive edge” to finish a use of many of the interventions that Dr. ease. You cannot get very far in sports these step ahead of the competition. Williams alluded to for athletic performance days if you pretend that environmental fac- enhancement. A recent review of the litera- tors don’t exist. Of course, an effective sport McCann: I believe that the most dramatic psychologist won’t just raise these issues; changes have occurred in the last 10 years, ture that I completed with a colleague, Dr. Jim Whelan, found that contemporary sport they will also have potential solutions to each with the development of a “common lan- of these challenges. guage” of sport psychology. This language psychology interventions are significantly accompanies a specific set of mental skills better than control conditions for improving Meyers: It’s no accident that one of the dic- for sport that are definable, understandable, athletic performance. Unfortunately, there tums of medical treatment is “Do no harm.” and teachable. Athletes in the 1980’s used to are few experimental evaluations of sport Any intervention, medical or psychological, come to my door and say, “I’ve heard that psychology interventions using elite athletes. can produce harm (as well as benefit), so it is sport psychology can help athletes.” Now We know that these programs work with important for a client to be a careful, athletes are informed consumers who state, recreational through varsity athletes, but informed, and assertive consumer of such for example, “I’m having trouble with com- we’ve yet to demonstrate the viability of services. First and foremost, there is no guar- petition anxiety, and I was hoping that you these interventions with national and world antee that the provider of services will do a class athletes. However, all existing evidence could help me make a relaxation tape.” Elite competent job. The client should expect the suggests that these interventions would be athletes and coaches do not always under- provider to lay out an intervention plan that effective with this population as well. stand the theoretical underpinnings of the sci- informs the client of what will happen in ence of sport psychology, but they are McCann: I agree with Dr. Meyers. The psy- their professional relationship. This plan familiar with the sport specific applications chological interventions used in applied sport should detail the goals of the work and of that science, and these applications are in psychology are typically well-researched expected performance changes, expected great demand. cognitive behavioral techniques drawn from length of the intervention, the duration of applied clinical and counseling psychology. each session, and any other requirements Meyers: For many, the 1984 Summer Thus, the interventions are sound. However, such as fees and payment schedules. The Olympic Games in Los Angeles served as an there has been a tendency to use college stu- client should be free to request periodic introduction to applied sport psychology. The dents as subjects in many of the research updates from the provider on his or her use of sport psychology programs by Soviet studies conducted to date. There is a great progress, and inquire about the ethical codes and East German athletes and coaches need for more controlled studies with elite that the provider works under (i.e.-under focused a great deal of attention on this athletes to determine what modifications, if what circumstances can confidentially be emerging field. As some of the other respon- any, would be useful for psychological inter- broken?). Not all performance enhancement dents have stated, there are few elite athletes ventions with elite level performers. interventions will result in positive change at the present time who do not have at least a but an alert and involved athlete-consumer rudimentary awareness of the area. The Kirschenbaum: In addition, more follow-up should receive maximum benefit and maxi- United States Olympic Committee includes a studies are needed to show the extent to mum protection. sport psychologist in its Sports Science divi- which interventions produce long term sion and has encouraged the national govern- impact. However, sport psychology interven- Kirschenbaum: Psychological interventions ing bodies of the various Olympic sports to tions hold a great deal of promise; these can have a negative impact on performance include sport psychology in their athletes’ interventions can produce reliably positive under certain conditions. For example, some research indicates that focusing on details of Finally, if these services are worthwhile, the stigma that many athletes attach to going a technique when performing complex motor then priority must be given to funding these to a sport psychologist. Education and appro- movements can sometimes decrease perfor- activities. Unfortunately, professionals sim- priate exposure might lessen this roadblock. mance. Having athletes concentrate on how ply cannot develop without a professional their hands are moving or their swing is tak- career path, and that means that athletes and What do you envision as the future of ing shape could lead to at least a temporary sport organizations have to find a way to applied sport psychology over the next ten years? interference in smooth motor performance. support the work of the sport psychologist. Thus, if a sport psychologist encourages ath- Kirschenbaum: An additional factor is the Williams: Applied sport psychology will letes to focus on microscopic aspects of their relatively limited number of well-trained continue to grow as an academic discipline performance he or she can adversely affect sport psychologists in the United States. and professional practice, but I don’t see it athletic performance. There are less than 100 people currently on growing as fast as it has in the last ten years. I do envision more theoretical advances and It may also be harmful for sport psycholo- the U.S. Olympic Committee’s Sport documentation of the efficacy of performance gists to encourage all athletes to try to attain a Psychology Registry. There are only about enhancement interventions. Training stan- certain level of calm before performing. 100 people who are certified by AAASP. dards for sport psychologists will increase in Certain sports and certain movements within These limited numbers of people have limit- rigor and result in greater emphasis on inter- sports generally require a higher level of acti- ed resources for marketing. Although sport disciplinary training and supervised intern- vation. Also, some athletes tend to respond at psychologists are distributed around the ships. More academic programs will offer their best when they are at high levels of acti- country, it is difficult for athletes to find courses in applied sport psychology, includ- vation or arousal. them. These barriers are being broken down; however the efforts have been slow and grad- ing courses for coaches and athletic trainers. I Competent sport psychologists are like- ual and are not supported by a major public also foresee wider acceptance of the field in ly to observe and closely evaluate the relations push. the sports medicine and general psychology effects of their interventions with athletes. communities. However, although more ath- If the intervention appears to be doing more As Dr. Meyers suggested, the availability letic departments, National Governing harm than good, the psychologist should be of funding for sport psychology research has Boards, and professional athletes will use able to recognize this, and make adjust- been limited as well. In addition, competition sport psychologists, budgetary constraints ments accordingly. from other fields has detracted from the will still restrict the potential for employment growth of this specialty area. For example, opportunities. Williams: Employing appropriate interven- psychologists have relatively little control tions at inappropriate times can also adverse- over who attends Olympic events and who Kirschenbaum: I believe that we will witness ly affect performance. For example, when works with elite athletes. The control lies an accelerated growth in applied sport psy- good performance is critical and insufficient more in the hands of the administrators, chology in the next ten years. Public and time exists to learn thought control and relax- coaches, and physician groups, and the major athletic organizations will become ation techniques, increasing an athlete’s acceptance of any type of psychological increasingly aware of what sport psycholo- awareness of dysfunctional thinking or unde- intervention in our culture is still somewhat gists are, how they work, and where to find sirable tension may result in poorer perfor- limited. them. As this occurs, there will be more and mance. A tennis coach would not ask a more demand for their services. This growth player to switch to a two handed backhand a McCann: My views are similar to those of might parallel the increased acceptance of week prior to a major competition; neither Drs. Meyers and Kirschenbaum. The primary behavioral medicine over the last two should a sport psychologist make major barrier, in my opinion, is the discrepancy decades. What was once a small subspecialty changes in mental skills without allowing between the large amount of publicity about in the field of psychology has become a dom- appropriate practice time. It goes without the field and the relatively few trained profes- inant force in clinical psychology that is rep- saying that unqualified sport psychologists sionals in the field. In many communities, resented in almost every medical school and are more likely to make the types of mistakes there are no trained sport psychologists, and every major hospital in the United States that lead to poorer performance. local athletes are forced to acquire informa- today. I think that the same will occur with tion through reading materials. As more sport psychology. People who are well- What have been the major barriers to “self-help” type sport psychology books trained and knowledgeable in this area are making sport psychology more accessible become available, the average athlete will going to become more sought after as their to athletes? have access to the basic concepts and lan- work becomes more familiar to amateur and Meyers: As with any new profession there is guage of sport psychology. Of course, going professional sport organizations. Hopefully, often skepticism and resistance. Many elite from the general concepts to the specific situ- there will be a concomitant increase in athletes justifiably feel that they manage the ation of each athlete will always be facilitated research to support, test, and improve the emotional side of their competitive world just by the presence of a professional. usefulness of these approaches. fine without outside help. Coaches are often Williams: I think that unqualified individuals McCann: I envision growth as well. Growth reluctant to give up control, or at least the ineffectively practicing sport psychology in the number of trained professionals. perception of control over their athletes. And have also led to the lack of trust and credibili- Growth in employment settings for these pro- resource-starved administrators must find ty that some coaches and athletes feel toward fessionals. Growth in the scientific knowledge additional funds to pay for these professional the field of sport psychology. To lessen this base with elite athletes. Growth in the appli- services. occurrence, one sport psychology organiza- cation of sport psychology principles into Sport psychologists must continue to tion (AAASP) has established criteria for areas such as business. I also envision prove themselves in the sport arena. That’s training sport psychologists, and implement- changes in the methodology of sport psychol- why research on sport psychology interven- ed a procedure for certifying consultants. ogy. Although generalized techniques for tions must continue. Athletes, coaches, and Unfortunately, few individuals within the ath- enhancing performance will exist, these tech- administrators will only be completely con- letic community know about these efforts. niques will become more individualized. The vinced of the value of these services when They do not know what to look for when first CD-ROM program for an individualized the evidence is consistent and indisputable. selecting a sport psychologist, how to get sport psychology program has been produced, This means that sport psychologists must lists of qualified individuals, or the variety of and the next ten years should bring modifica- work both in the lab and in real-world com- services that these individuals might offer. tions in these programs so that they may serve petitive settings to demonstrate the merits of Regardless of the training and education as tutorials for athletes and coaches. their efforts. efforts, however, a remaining roadblock is Selected Readings

Kirschenbaum, D.S. Mind matters: seven steps to smarter sport performance. Cooper Publishing Group, Indianapolis, IN, 1996 (In press) Murphy, S.M. (ed.) Sport psychology interventions. Human Kinetics Publishing, Champaign, IL. 1995 Williams, J.M. (ed.) Applied sport psychology: personal growth to peak performance. Mayfield Publishing Co. San Francisco, CA. 1993

This issue of the Roundtable was coordinated and moderated by Daniel Kirschenbaum, Ph.D., Director, Center for Behavioral Medicine, Chicago, Illinois and Mitchell Kanter, Ph.D., Director, Gatorade Sports Science Institute

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