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Paired-Associate Learning Paired-Associate Learning Julissa Corona Faculty Sponsor: Dr. Katharine Snyder Department of Psychology Abstract The present study evaluated an important variable in neuropsychology, which is the impact of patient emotional associations to verbal stimuli during memory testing. Accurate and detailed memory testing is vital to the diagnosis and treatment of neuropathology (e.g. traumatic brain injury). Students were asked to learn a series of word pairs that varied in emotional valence: positive (happy—merry), negative (slay—murder), and neutral or original (curtains—blinds). A one-way repeated-measures ANOVA illustrated a significant effect of emotional valence [F(2 ) = 14.5, p<0.001], with recall for the neutral/original word pairs (M = 8.3) being significantly greater than recall for the negative (M = 5.4) and positive (M = 5.13) word pairs. Since the emotional (negative or positive) word pairs were synonyms, they could have been more difficult to recall than the neutral/original word pairs. The neutral/original word pairs may also have been higher in imagery than the emotional word pairs. Implications for future research will be discussed. Paired-Associate Learning Research in the area of learning and memory has rapidly expanded during the last few decades. Researchers now have access to an extensive body of knowledge about the use of mnemonic devices or associations between semantically related words. The present study used an exploratory technique to evaluate the use of semantically associated words in relation to learning and memory. The present study focused on paired associative memory, which is an important neuropsychology issue in which emotional associations to verbal stimuli are tested for better understanding of cognitive processes. Emotional valence effect on memory and learning is also of great importance for the area of neuropsychology. This study is also specifically relevant to the improvement and understanding of college learning. It was hypothesized that emotional valence will have an effect on memory and learning, and the negative words would be recalled more frequently than positive or neutral/original words. However, the findings partially support this hypothesis. The neutral/original word pairs were recalled more frequently than either the negative or positive word pairs, a result attributed to the higher imagery of the neutral/original pair words. After numerous studies, scientists are able to identify the areas of the brain associated with memory. The structures involved in learning and memory include the 14 temporal lobe, the parietal cortex, the hippocampus, and the limbic cortex. Reas and temporalBrewer (2013) lobe, thearticulate parietal that cortex, “[b]rain the hippocampus,regions sensitive and to the the limbic strength cortex. of the Reas retrieved and Brewermemory (2013) include articulate areas of that the “[b]rain medial temporalregions sensitive lobe” (p. to 219).the strength Reas and of theBrewer retrieved also add memorythat the “includeparietal areas cortex of isthe k nownmedial to temporal serve an lo essentialbe” (p. 219). role in Reas visuospatial and Brewer attention, also add thatworking the “ memory,parietal cortex and sensory is known association to serve an [citations essential omitted] role in visuospatial , [and] parietal attention, subregions workingare also engagedmemory, during and sensory memory association retrieval” [citations (p. 229). omitted] The hippocampus , [and] parietal with subregions the arecollaboration also engaged of duringclosely memoryrelated structures retrieval” is(p. responsible 229). The hippocampusfor the majority with of the cognitive collaborationprocesses. Carlson of closely (2011) related state structures the following: is responsible “the hippocampal for the majority formation of cognitive and the processes.limbic cortex Carlson of the (2011) medial state temporal the following: lobe appear “the tohippocampal be involved formation in the consolidation and the and limbiretrievalc cortex of declarative of the medial memories, temporal both lobe episodic appear andto be semantic” involved in(p. the 366). consolidation Furthermore, and retrievalNorman, of Newman, declarative & memories,Detre (2007) both observe episodic that and semantic” (p. 366). Furthermore, Norman, Newman, & Detre (2007) observe that the job of the hippocampal network is to rapidly memorize patterns of thecortical job of activity the hippocampal in a manner network that supports is to rapidly pattern memorize completion patterns (i.e., of cortical activity in a manner that supports pattern completion (i.e., retrieval of the entire pattern in response to a partial cue) after a single retrieval of the entire pattern in response to a partial cue) after a single study exposure to the pattern. (p. 895) study exposure to the pattern. (p. 895) The hippocampal network supports the task of memorization and learning, thus The hippocampal network supports the task of memorization and learning, thus enabling thethe processprocess ofof learning learning as as well well as as various various cognitive cognitive processes. processes. ResearchResearch onon thethe dual dual--codingcoding theory theory has has generated generated valuable valuable knowledge knowledge in inthe the area of cognitivecognitive psychology.psychology. Crawford Crawford and and Allen Allen (1996) (1996) note note that that Paivio Paivio presented presented the the dual-coding theorytheory inin hishis earlier earlie rstudies studies (p.355). (p.355). Crawford Crawford and and Allen Allen (1996) (1996) refer refer to to “Paivio’s (1971,(1971, 1986,1986, 1989)1989) dual dual-coding-coding theory theory that that proposes proposes that that there there are are functionally functionally separate butbut interactiveinteractive imaginal imaginal and and verbal verbal processing processing sys systemstems operating operating during during the the recall ofof pictorialpictorial andand verbalverbal stimuli” stimuli” (p. (p. 355). 355). Highly Highly visual visual imagery imagery generates generates vivid vivid images thatthat enhanceenhance thethe participant’s participant’s ability ability to to learn learn and and to to remember. remember. Hence, Hence, an an individual cancan vividlyvividly conceiveconceive high high imagery imagery words, words, both both ver verballybally and and imaginally. imaginally. According toto thethe dualdual--codingcoding theory, theory, both both visual visual and and verbal verbal information information are are processed processed individually butbut notnot independentlyindependently of of each each other. other. Crawford Crawford and and Allen Allen (1996) (1996) explain explain that that “imaginal processesprocesses assistassist in in the the learning learning and and recall recall of of hi highgh imagery imagery words” words” (p. (p. 355). 355). Perhaps high imageryimagery allowsallows an an individual individual to to become become more more involved involved and and to to experience experience the meaning ofof aa wordword toto a a greater greater level, level, thus thus facilitating facilitating and and improving improving memory. memory. RecentRecent researchresearch has has focused focused on on dual dual-process-process theory theory providing providing k nowledgeknowledge about about specific areasareas ofof thethe brainbrain involved involved with with it. it. A A study study by by Haye Hayes, sBuchler,, Buchler, Stokes, Stokes, Kragel, Kragel, and Cabeza (2011)(2011) suggestssuggests that that “[d] “[d]ualual-process-process theories theories have have proposed proposed that that familiarity familiarity is more dependentdependent onon rhinalrhinal cortex cortex whereas whereas recollection recollection is is more more dependent dependent on on the the hippocampus”” (p.(p. 3959).3959). The The dual dual-process-process theory theory suggests suggests that that the the method method of of memorization dependsdepends onon the the familiarity familiarity of of the the word word being being recalled. recalled. Different Different structures areare usedused forfor thethe different different methods methods of of memorization memorization and and learning. learning. But But it isit theis the familiarity ofof thethe itemitem thatthat reinforces reinforces the the method method used used by by the the brain. brain. WhileWhile highhigh imageryimagery is is considered considered a avery very influential influential factor factor in in paired paired-associate-associate learning, otherother factorsfactors shouldshould also also be be taken taken into into consideration. consideration. For For instance, instance, attention attention and momotivationtivation toto learnlearn aa specific specific task task are are also also significant significan aspects.t aspects. Campbell, Campbell, Trelle, Trelle, and and Hasher (2013)(2013) indicateindicate thatthat “learning “learning a a list list of of word word pairs pairs requires requires one one to to limit limit attention” attention” (p. 5). Hence,Hence, learninglearning anyany task task depends, depends, to to a acertain certain extent, extent, on on the the attenti attentionon of of the the person. ReasReas andand BrewerBrewer (2013) (2013) identify identify attention attention as as a anecessary necessary condition condition for for memory. memory. 15 Additionally, Reas and Brewer (2013) note the following: “cognitive control and attention critically contribute to episodic memory retrieval efforts and success”success” (p. 219). Furthermore, the level
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