Kernel technologies pdf

Continue Free and open core of the Unix Linux kernelTux penguin, mascot 3.0.0.0 downloadDeveloperLinus Torvalds and thousands of employees Written inC and build 2'OS familyUnix-likeInitial release0.02 (October 5, 1991; 29 years ago (1991-10-05))Last release5.9.1 (October 17, 2020; 3 days ago (2020-10-17)±) 10-04)) ± Repositorygit.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git Available in EnglishKernel typeMonolithicLicenseG GPNULv2 (only) with some code under compatible GPL options or under licenses, such as BSD, MIT (Official websitewww.kernel.org Linux Core, developed by participants around the world, is free and open source, monolithic, modular (i.e. supports insertion and removal while the core objects are being downloaded), unix-like core of the , and it is very customizable. Users who have been granted the necessary privileges can also fine-tune the kernel settings during the run. The Linux kernel is deployed on a wide variety of computing systems, such as built-in devices, mobile devices (including its use in the Android operating system), personal computers, servers, mainframes, and . Linux kernel was conceived and created in 1991 by for his personal computer and without cross-platform nature, but has since been ported to a wide range of computer architectures. Even so, the Linux kernel is highly optimized using specific architecture instructions (ISAs), so portability is not as simple as with other cores (e.g. NetBSD, which supports 59 hardware platforms by 2019). Linux was soon adopted as the core for the GNU operating system, which was created as open source and , and is based on UNIX as a product of the consequences of the Unix wars. Since then, it has spawned many distributions of the operating system, commonly also called Linux, although formally the term Linux refers only to the core. The Linux Kernel (LKML) mailing list hosts day-to-day development discussions. Linux is generally released in accordance with the general public license of GNU Version 2 (GPLv2), but it also contains several files under other compatible licenses and a special exception for API (UAPI) header files. Linux ABI (i.e. binary application interface, which also includes an application program interface or API at the source level of the code) between the kernel and the user space has four degrees of stability (stable, testing, outdated, remote); However, system challenges are not expected to ever change to break break programs that rely on them. The loadable core modules (LKM) are designed to be able to rely on a stable ABI. Therefore, they should always be recomperated whenever a new core is installed in the system, otherwise they will not be loaded. Drivers in a tree, set to become an integral part of the built core (), are statically connected by the construction process. There is also no guarantee of source level stability in the cores, and because of this, the code, as well as the code of any other core subsystem, must be updated with the evolution of the kernel. Fortunately, a simple rule requires that any developer who makes API changes fix any code that breaks down as a result of this change. History also look: The history of Linux and Linux history of the kernel version of Linus Torvalds with a microphone at LinuxCon Europe 2014 in Dusseldorf In April 1991, Linus Torvalds, then a 21-year-old computer science student at the University of Helsinki, Finland, began to work on some simple ideas for the operating system. It started with a task switch in the 80386 assembly language and the terminal driver. On August 25, 1991, Torvalds published the following on comp.os.minix, a newsgroup on Usenet: 26 I make a (free) operating system (just a hobby, won't be as big and professional as ) for 386 (486) AT clones. It's been brewing since April, and is starting to get ready. I would get feedback on things that people like/don't like in minix, as my OS resembles it somewhat (the same physical location of the file system (due to practical reasons) among other things). I'm currently ported to bash (1.08) and gcc (1.40) and everything seems to be working. That means I'll get something practical in a few months, yes - it's free of any mini-code and it has multi-thousand fs. It's not protable (uses 386 switch tasks, etc.) and it probably will never support anything but AT-harddisks, as that's all I have:-(. On September 17, 1991, Torvalds produced version 0.01 Linux and put the ftp.funet.fi - the FTP of the Finnish University and the Research Network (FUNET). It wasn't even executed because its code still needed Minix for compilation and playback. On October 5, 1991, Linus announced the first official version of Linux, version 0.02. At this point, Linux has been able to launch Bash, GCC and some other GNU utilities: As I mentioned a month ago, I'm working on a free version of Minix-lookalike for AT-386 computers. It has finally reached the stage where it is even used (although it may not be depending on what you want) and I am ready to put out the sources for wider distribution. It's just a 0.02 version ... but I've successfully run the bash, GCC, gnu-make, gnu-sed, compress, etc. underneath it. After that, a lot of people code in the project, including some developers from the MINIX community. In B The GNU project created many of the components needed for a free operating system, but its own core, GNU Hurd, was incomplete and inaccessible. The distribution of software in Berkeley has not yet been freed from legal problems. Despite the limited functionality of the early versions, Linux quickly acquired developers and users. Torvalds assigned the kernel to version 0 to indicate that it was primarily for testing and was not intended for productive use. Version 0.11, released in December 1991, was the first independent Linux, as it could be compiled by a computer running the same core. When Torvalds released version 0.12 in February 1992, it accepted the general public license of GNU Version 2 (GPLv2) in relation to its previous self-designed license, which did not allow commercial redistribution. Unlike Unix, all original Linux files are freely available, including device drivers. Linux's initial success was driven by programmers and testers around the world. With the support of the API POSIX, through libC, which, whatever the need, acts as an entry point into the kernel address space, Linux can run software and applications that were developed for Unix. The Linux kernel now supports a variety of hardware architectures, providing a common platform for software, including proprietary software. On January 19, 1992, the first post in the new news group alt.os.linux was presented. On March 31, 1992, the newsgroup was renamed comp.os.linux. The fact that Linux is a monolithic core, not a microkernel, has become a topic of debate between Andrew S. Tanenbaum, the creator of MINIX, and The Tormalds. The Tanenbaum-Torvalds discussion began in 1992 on usenet comp.os.minix as a general discussion about core architecture. The Linux version 0.95 was the first to work with the X Window System. In March 1994, Linux 1.0.0 was released with 176,250 lines of code. It was the first version suitable for use in production environments. He started the kernel version system with three or four numbers, separated by dots, where the first was the main release, the second was a minor release, and the third was a revision. At the time, the odd minor releases were for design and testing, while even moderate minor releases were for production. The non-binding fourth digit indicated a set of patches for revision. Development releases were shown with a suffix -rc (candidate for liberation). The current version of the camera is slightly different from the above. Even vs. odd seddies have been removed, and the specific main version is now pointed to the first two numbers taken as a whole. While the timeline is open to developing the next major, the suffix -rcN to determine the n'th-release candidate for the next version. For example, the release of the issue 4.16 was preceded by seven 4.16-rcN (from -rc1 to -rc7). Once a stable release is made, its service is transferred to a stable team. Sometimes updates of stable releases are identified by the scheme of three numbers (e.g. 4.13.1, 4.13.2, ..., 4.13.16). Version 1.2 (released on March 7, 1995) was supported by computer systems using processors based on Alpha, SPARC and MIPS architectures. After version 1.3 of the kernel, Torvalds decided that Linux was developing enough to warrant a new large number, so he released version 2.0.0 in June 1996. The series included 41 releases. The main feature of 2.0 was the support of symmetrical multiprocessing (SMP) and support for more types of processors. Starting with version 2.0, Linux is configured to select specific hardware goals and to enable features and optimization architecture. A family of kbuild commands is used to enable and customize thousands of options for creating special kernel executions (vmlinux) and downloadable modules. Version 2.2, released on January 20, 1999, removed the Big Core Lock, which was a global spinlock, and improved SMP support, additional support for m68k and PowerPC architectures, and added new file systems (including Microsoft's NTFS only reading support). In 1999, IBM published its patches in Linux 2.2.13 to support the S/390 architecture. Version 2.4.0, released on January 4, 2001, supported ISA Plug and Play, USB and PC Cards. It also included support for Hewlett-Packard's PA- RISC processor. Development for 2.4.x has changed a little in that additional features were available throughout the series, including Bluetooth support, 1 Logical Volume Manager (LVM), RAID support, InterMezzo file systems, and ext3. Version 2.6.0 was released on December 17, 2003. Development for 2.6.x has changed towards the inclusion of new features throughout the series. Among the changes made in series 2.6 are: Clinux integration into core core sources, PAE support, support for several new processor lines, integration of Advanced Linux Sound Architecture (ALSA) into core core sources, support for up to 232 users (at least from 216), support up to 229 process ID servers (only 64-bit, The 32-bit arches, still limited to 215), have significantly increased the number of device types and the number of devices of each type, improved 64-bit support, file support, file systems stored by file sizes up to 16 terabytes, kernel pre-emption, support for the native POSIX (NPTL) streaming library, Linux integration into core core sources, SELinux integration into core core sources, Infinband support, and much more. Also notable is the addition of a wide range of file systems dating back to 2.6.x releases: Now the kernel supports a large number of file systems, some of them have been developed for Linux, like ext3, ext4, FUSE, , and others that are native to other operating systems such as JFS, XFS, Minix, Xenix, Irix, Solaris, System V, Windows and MS-DOS. In 2005, a stable team was formed in response to the lack of a core tree where people could work on bug fixes, and it would continually update stable versions. In February 2008, the next linux tree was created to serve as the location where the patches intended for fusion were assembled during the next development cycle. Several subsystem accompanying also took a suffix-next for trees containing the code they meant to submit for inclusion in the next release cycle. As of January 2014, the development version of Linux is taking place in an unstable industry called linux-next. Linux was used without the help of an automated source control system until BitKeeper was developed in 2002. It was freely available to Linux developers, but it wasn't free software. In 2005, due to efforts to reverse development, the company that owned the software withdrew support from the Linux community. In response, Torvalds and others wrote Git. The new system was written within a few weeks, and two months later the first official core manufactured with its use was released. Details of the history of the 2.6 core series can be found in the ChangeLog files for the 2.6 series source code release kernel.org. Linux celebrated its 20th anniversary in July 2011 with the release of the 3.0.0 kernel. Since 2.6 has been the number version for 8 years, the kernel has had to add a new uname26 personality that reports 3.x as 2.6.40'x to make the old programs work. Version 3.0 was released on July 22, 2011. On May 30, 2011, Torvalds announced that the big change was NOTHING. Absolutely nothing. and asked: ... Let's make sure we really make the next release with not only all the new shiny numbers, but a good core too. After an expected 6-7 weeks of development, it will be released by the 20th anniversary of Linux. On December 11, 2012, Torvalds decided to reduce the complexity of the kernel by removing support for the i386 processors, making the 3.7 core series the last, still supporting the original processor. The same series is unified support for the ARM processor. Version 3.11, released on September 2, 2013, adds many new features, such as the new open O_TMPFILE flag to reduce temporary file vulnerabilities, pilot dynamic power management AMD Radeon, low latency network survey and (cache compressed swap). The change of numbers from 2.6.39 to 3.0 and from 3.19 to 4.0 did not include any meaningful Differentiation. The main version number was to avoid large insignificant numbers. Stable 3.x.y cores were released to 3.19 in February 2015. In April 2015, Torvalds released a version of The 4.0 core. By February 2015, Linux had received contributions from nearly 12,000 programmers from more than 1,200 companies, including some of the world's largest software and hardware vendors. The 4.1 Linux version, released in June 2015, contains more than 19.5 million lines of code provided by nearly 14,000 programmers. A total of 1,991 developers, of whom 334 are first co-authors, added more than 553,000 lines of code to version 5.8, beating the record previously held by version 4.9. Main article: The share of operating system usage According to the annual Developer Review stack Overflow 2019, more than 53% of all respondents developed software for Linux OS and about 27% for Android, although only about 25% develop with Linux-based operating systems. Most web servers use Linux OS, and all 500 of the world's most powerful supercomputers use some Linux-based OS. Linux distributions are complete with system software cores (e.g. GNU C Library, , and other Unix and daemons utilities) and a wide range of software for applications, but their share of desktop use is low compared to other operating systems. Android, which makes up most of the established base of all operating systems for mobile devices, is responsible for the growing use of the Linux kernel, along with its extensive use in a wide variety of built-in devices. Architecture See also: vmlinux Linux Kernel Map is a monolithic core with a modular design (for example, it can insert and delete LKMs while running), supporting most of the functions once only available in the cores of closed sources of proprietary operating systems: simultaneous calculations and (with enough CPU cores for tasks that are ready to run) even true parallel execution of many processes at the same time (each of them has one or more threads of THE World; customizable features (with one of the make config commands before the compilation starts) and modifiable policies (via nice (2), setpriority (2) and family sched_ (2) sisks) task planners that allow you to pre-empt multitasking (both in user mode and starting with series 2.6, in core mode); A fully fair planner (CFS) has been the default Linux planner since 2007 and uses a red-and-black tree that can search, embed and delete process information (task_struct) with the complexity of O (log n) where n is the number of tasks performed; Advanced memory management from a virtual memory page Inter-family Synchronization on top of several specific file systems (ext4, Btrfs, XFS, JFS, FAT32 and More); customizable i/O planners, (2), syscall, which manipulates the basic parameters of the device special files (this is a non-standard system call, since arguments, returns and semantics depends on the device driver in question), support POSIX asynchronic I/O because they scale poorly with multi-drawn applications, The Linux family of specific B/O system calls (io_ (2)) were to be created to manage asynchronous I/O contexts suitable for simultaneous processing: level of OS (with Linux-VServer), paravirtualization and hardware virtualization (with CVM or , and using ZEM for hardware emulation;) On the Xen , the Linux kernel provides support for linux distributions (such as OpenSuSE Leap and many others) that work like Dom0, which are virtual servers for hosting machines that provide a virtual machine management environment (DomU). Security mechanisms for discretionary and mandatory access control (SELinux, AppArmor, POSIX ACL, etc.); There are several types of tiered communication protocols (including a set of Internet protocols). Device and core extension drivers work in the core space (ring 0 in many processor architectures), with full access to hardware, although some exceptions work in the user space, such as FUSE/CUSE file systems and UIO parts. The graphics system used by most people with Linux does not work in the core. Unlike standard monolithic cores, device drivers are easily configured as modules, loaded or unloaded while the system is running, and can be proactive under certain conditions for proper hardware interruption processing and better support for symmetrical multiprocessing. By choice, Linux does not have a stable binary interface device driver. Linux typically uses memory protection and virtual memory, and can handle non-homogeneous memory access, but the project has absorbed Clinux, which also allows Linux to run on microcontrollers without virtual memory. The hardware is presented in the file hierarchy. Custom apps interact with device drivers through catalog entries/dev or/sys. Process information is also displayed in the file system using the directory/proc. Different layers in Linux, also showing the separation between userland and core space Custom Mode Custom Applications For example, Bash, LibreOffice, GIMP, Blender, 0 A.D., Mozilla Firefox, etc. Low-level system components: System daemons:systemd, runit, login, network, PulseAudio, ... Window system:X11, Wayland, SurfaceFlinger (Android) Other libraries: GTK, RT, RT, EFL, SDL, SFML, FLTK, GNUstep, etc. Graphics:Mesa, AMD Catalyst, ... (), exec (), sbrk (), rosette (), fopen (), calloc (), ... (until 2000. aims to be fast, and uClibc target built-in systems, written for Android, etc. all of them are aimed at the compatibility of POSIX/SUS. Linux Core Core Stat Mode, splicing, cheating, read, open, ioctl, write, mmap, close, output, etc. (about 380 system calls)Linux Core System Call Interface (SCI, aims to be POSIX/SUS-compatible) Process planningsubsystemCs IPubsystem Memory Management Virtual Systems Networksubsystem Other components: ALSA, LVM, Device Mapping, Linux , NetfilterLinux Security Modules: SELinux, TOMOYO, AppArmor, Hardware (CPU, Basic Storage Devices, etc.) Interfaces Main Articles: Linux Core Interfaces and Linux Core Interfaces (Category) See also: System Challenge, POSIX, and Single UNIX Linux is a clone of UNIX, so it aims to meet the requirements of POSIX and the UNIX Single Specification. Also, since Linux is not UNIX, the kernel provides additional system calls and other interfaces that are Linux-specific. In order to be included in the official core, the code must comply with a set of well-defined licensing rules. The kernel API for users of the Linux Kernel API Set, which touches user-prone interfaces, is mainly made up of system calls from UNIX and Linux. A system call is the entry point to the Linux kernel. For example, there is a family of clone system calls (2) among Linux specifics. Most extensions should be enabled by determining the macro _GNU_SOURCE in the title file or when compiling the user code. System calls can only be triggered by build instructions that allow you to move from unprivileged user spaces to a privileged core space in Ring 0. For this reason, standard C library (libC) acts as a wrapper for most Linux system calls, exposing C to functions that, only if necessary, can transparently enter the kernel that will be performed on behalf of the call process. For those system calls that are not exposed to libC, such as the fast custom space mutex (), the library provides a feature called syscall (2) that can be used to explicitly call them. Pseudo file systems (e.g. and file systems) and special files (e.g./dev/random, /dev/sda, /dev/tty, and many others) represent another level of interface to core data structures representing hardware or logical (software) devices. ABI's main article from kernel to user: Linux Standard BaseBeca differences between hundreds of different Linux implementations, executed objects, even if they are compiled, assembled and connected to work on a specific hardware architecture (i.e. they use an ISA ISA hardware), often unable to work on various Linux distributions. This problem is mainly related to distribution configurations and a set of patches applied to Linux kernel code, differences in system libraries, services (daemons), file system hierarchies, and environment variables. The main standard for The application and binary compatibility of Linux distributions is the standard Linux base (LSB). However, LSB goes beyond what concerns the Linux kernel, because it also identifies desktop specifications, X libraries and qt that have little to do with it. Version 5 of LSB is based on several standards and projects (POSIX, SUS, X/Open, File System Hierarchy (FHS), etc.). Parts of the LSB, largely core-related, are General ABI (gABI), especially the V ABI (ABI) system and the executed and connected format (ELF), as well as the Specific ABI (psABI) processor, such as Core Specification for X86-64. The standard ABI, for how x86_64 user programs cause system calls, is to load the syscall number into the rax register, and the other options in rdi, rsi, rdx, r10, r8 and r9, and finally put the syscall assembly manual into the code. In the core of the API at XDC2014, ALEX Deucher of AMD announced a single core mode driver. Linux's own graphics driver, libGL-fglrx-glx, will have the same DRM infrastructure with Mesa 3D. Since there is no stable in the ABI core, AMD has had to constantly adapt the former binary drop used by Catalyst. Several internal core APIs are used between different subsystems. Some of these are only available within the kernel subsystems, while a somewhat limited set of core symbols (i.e. variables, data structures, and functions) are also exposed to dynamically downloadable modules (e.g. on-demand device drivers), regardless of whether they are exported with EXPORT_SYMBOL and EXPORT_SYMBOL_GPL () by macros (the latter are reserved modules issued under GPL licenses). Some APIs in Linux kernels have been stable for several releases, others have not. There are no guarantees regarding the API at the core. The chaperones and participants can increase or change them at any time. However, there are APIs in the cores that manipulate data structures (such as lists, trees, queues) or perform general procedures (e.g., copy data from and into the user's space, distribute memory, print lines in a system log, and so on) that have remained stable since at least Linux version 2.6. Examples of APIs in the kernels are the libraries of low-level common services used by device drivers: SCSI Interfaces and libATA, respectively, peer-to-peer communications protocol for USB-connected storage devices, SATA, SAS, Fibre Channel, FireWire, ATAPI, as well as a library at the core of the core (c) Controllers and ATA host devices. (DRM) and Core Mode Setting (KMS) - to interact with GPUs and support the needs of today's 3D-accelerated video equipment, and to customize screen resolution, color depth and upgrade speed (dma_buf) - to share the buffers for hardware direct access to memory between multiple device drivers and subsystems (ALSA) - for New API sound cards - for mac80211 network interface controllers for the ABI core controllers prefer not to support the ABI core. Modules made up for a particular Linux cannot be downloaded to another version of the kernel without re-compiling, assuming that the original level in the API kernel remains the same, otherwise the module code must also be changed accordingly. Process and Topics Technical Features See also: Process (calculation), Flow (calculation), and Process Management (calculation)Linux creates processes with a clone (2) or a newer clone3 (2) system calls. Depending on these parameters, the new entity can be shared by most or none of the caller's resources. These syscalls can create new entities, ranging from new independent processes (each of which has a special identifier called TGID in the data structure task_struct in the core space, although the same identifier is called PID in the user space), to new execution threads during the call process (using the CLONE_THREAD option). In this latter case, the new entity owns the same TGID call process and therefore has the same PID in the user space. The POSIX Native Stream Library, simply known as NPTL, provides a standard POSIX (pthreads) thread interface into the user space whenever a new thread is created using the pthread_create (3) POSIX interface, the clone family (2) should also be given a feature address to which a new stream should go. The Linux kernel provides futex (7) mechanisms (an acronym for Fast Custom Spaces mutexes) to quickly lock and synchronize user space; Most operations take place in the user space, but you may need to communicate with the kernel using the futex system call(2). The so-called kernel streams are a particular category of threads. They shouldn't be confused with the aforementioned custom process streams. Core streams exist only in the core space, and their sole purpose is to perform kernel tasks at the same time. In different ways, whenever an independent process is created, syscalls return exactly to the next instruction of the same program, simultaneously in the parent process and in the same child one program, two processes). Various Different values (one per process) allow the program to know which of the two processes it is currently running. Programs need this information because the child's process, a few steps after the duplication of the process, usually calls execve (2) a system call (perhaps through the exec family (3) of the wrapper function in glibC) and replaces the program, which is currently being performed by the call process with the new program, with newly initiated stacks, piles and (initialized and unified) segments of the data. When this is done, it leads to two processes that run two different programs. Depending on the effective user ID (euid) and the effective group id (egid), the process performed with zero user privileges (root, system administrator, owns identifier 0) can do everything (for example, kill all other processes or recursively destroy entire file systems), instead no zero user processes can not. Opportunities (7) divides privileges traditionally associated with superusers into individual units that can be independently enabled and disabled by the parent process or removed by the child. Virtualization, Namespaces, Control Groups See also: Virtual Core Machine, Linux_namespaces, and Planning and Pre-emption See also: Fully Fair Planner, Pre-emption (calculation), and Linux kernel pre-emption allows for different classes of planning and policy. By default, the kernel uses a planner mechanism called Completely Fair Scheduler, presented in the kernel version 2.6.23. Internally, this default planner class is also known as SCHED_OTHER, but the kernel also contains two posIX-compatible real-time planning classes called SCHED_FIFO (real-time first in the first out) and SCHED_RR (in real SCHED_DEADLINE time circular time), both of which have priority over the default class. , released on March 30, 2014. It SCHED_DEADLINE priority over all other planning classes. Linux provides both user pre-emption and complete kernel pre-emption. Pre-emption reduces latency, improves responsiveness, and makes Linux more relevant for desktop and applications in real time. With the user's pre-emption, the kernel planner can replace the current process with a context switch to another one that thus acquires computational resources to perform (processor, memory, and more). It does this in accordance with the CFS algorithm (in particular, it uses a variable called vruntime for sorting processes), to the active planning policy and to the relative priorities of the processes. With the pre-emption of the nucleus, the nucleus can pre-empt itself when the handler interrupts when the kernel tasks are blocked, and whenever the subsystem explicitly calls the schedule a function. Linux Linux kernel patch allows you to fully anticipate critical sections, interrupt handlers, and interrupt code sequences. The partial integration of Linux patches in real time has resulted in the aforementioned functionality to the core line. Memory Management See also: Memory Management Memory Management in Linux is a complex topic. First, the core is not pageable (i.e., it always resides in physical memory and cannot be replaced by a disk). The core has no memory protection (there are no SIGSEGV signals, unlike the user space), so memory impairments cause instability and system failures. Processes address the space layout of the memory control system causes physical memory control Virtual Memory Management Paging and replacement page interprocess communication and synchronization See also: Interprocess communication, mmap, Unix outlet, named pipes, and Semaphore (computing) Entry/Exit layer Linux Storage Stack Chart consumer device running Linux Although not originally designed for portable, Linux is now one of the most widely portable core operating system operating systems operating on a variety of systems from ARM architecture to IBM z/mainfframe computers. The first port was made on the Motorola 68000 platform. The changes in the kernel were so fundamental that Torvalds viewed the Motorola version as a plug and an operating system similar to Linux. However, this led Torvald to a major code restructuring to make it easier to port more computational architectures. The first Linux, which, in one source tree, had code for more than i386 only, supported the DEC Alpha AXP 64-bit platform. Linux works as the primary operating system at the IBM Summit. As of October 2019, all 500 of the world's fastest supercomputers are working with some Linux core-based operating systems, a big change since 1998, when the first Linux was added to the list. Linux has also been ported to various portable devices such as Apple's iPhone 3G and iPod. Live updates that are fixed without a reboot can even be applied to the core using live fix technologies such as , , and kGraft. The minimalist framework for fixing the live core was combined into the main Linux kernel line in the 4.0 kernel version, which was released on April 12, 2015. These basics, known as livepatch and based primarily on core functionality, form a common core capable of supporting a hot fix for both kGraft and kpatch, providing an application programming interface (API) for kernel modules that contain hot patches and a binary application interface (ABI) for userspace management utilities. However, common core The Linux 4.0 core only supports the x86 architecture and provides no mechanisms to ensure consistency at the function level while hot patches are applied. As of April 2015, work is continuing to port kpatch and kGraft into the overall live patch core provided by the main Linux kernel line. Security kernel errors pose potential security issues. For example, they may allow privileges to escalate or create denial-of-service attack vectors. Over the years, numerous bugs affecting the security of the system have been found and corrected. New features are often implemented to improve core security. Opportunities (7) have already been introduced into the process and thread section. Android uses them and Systemd gives administrators detailed control over process capabilities. Linux offers many mechanisms to reduce the surface of a kernel attack and enhance security, which are collectively known as (LSM). They consist of the Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) module, whose code was originally developed and then released to the NSA public, and AppArmor. SELinux is currently actively developing and supported on GitHub. SELinux and AppArmor support access management security policies, including mandatory access control (MAC), although they vary greatly in complexity and scope. Another security feature is BPF (SECure COMPuting with Berkeley Package Filters), which works by filtering parameters and reducing the set of system calls available to user applications. Critics accuse core developers of hiding security flaws, or at least not announcing them; In 2008, Linus Torvalds responded by saying, I personally think security mistakes are just normal mistakes. I don't cover them up, but I also have no reason to-do that-so-always- think it's a good idea to track them down and declare them as something special... One of the reasons I refuse to mess around with the whole security circus is that I think it glorifies and thus encourages-wrong behavior. This makes heroes out of people's safety, as if people who don't just fix normal mistakes aren't as important. In fact, all boring normal mistakes are much more important, simply because there are many more. I don't think some impressive safety holes should be glorified or taken care of as more special than the occasional spectacular crash due to poor locking. Linux distributions typically release security updates to fix vulnerabilities in the Linux kernel. Many offer long-term support releases that receive security updates for a specific version of the Linux kernel for a long time Time. The development community is believed to be a Linux core development community of 5,000 or Members. According to the Linux Core Development 2017 study, published by the , which covers output commitments of 4.8 to 4.13, about 1,500 developers contributed on average from about 200-250 companies. The top 30 developers contributed just over 16% of the code. As companies, Intel's top investors (13.1%) and (7.2%), (5.6%), IBM (4.1%), second and fifth place is No (8.2%) and the unknown (4.1%) Category. Instead of a roadmap, there are technical recommendations. Instead of central resource allocation, there are individuals and companies that all have a stake in the further development of the Linux kernel, completely independent of each other: People like Linus Torvalds, and I do not plan the evolution of the kernel. We don't sit there and come up with a roadmap for the next two years, and then assign resources to various new functions. That's because we don't have any resources. The resources are all owned by various corporations that use and contribute to Linux, as well as various independent contributors out there. These are the people who own the resources that decide...- Andrew Morton, 2005 Source Office Of the Linux Developers Community uses Git to manage source code. Git users clone the latest version of the Torvalds tree with a git clone (1) and keep it up to date with git-pull (1). Contributions are sent in the form of patches, in the form of text messages to LKML (and often in other mailing lists on specific subsystems). Patches must comply with a set of rules and a formal language that, among other things, describes which lines of code should be removed and what others should be added to the files. These patches can be automatically processed, so system administrators can apply them to make only some changes to the code or gradually move on to the next version. Linux is also available in GNU zip (gzip) and bzip2 formats. Sending code to a Kernel A developer who wants to change the Linux kernel begins by developing and testing this change. Depending on how much change is and how many subsystems it changes, the change will either be presented as a single patch or in multiple source patches. In the case of a single subsystem that is supported by a single accompany, these patches are sent as an email to the accompanying subsystem with the appropriate mailing list to Cc. Once the verification process is complete, the accompanying subsystem receives patches in the corresponding Git kernel tree. If changes to the Linux kernel are fix bugs that are considered important enough, a request to pull for patches will be sent to Torvalds within a few days. a request for a pull will be sent to Torvalds during the next merging window. The merger window usually lasts two weeks and begins immediately after the release of the previous version of the kernel. The Git Core Source Tree names all the developers who contributed to the Linux kernel in the Credits catalog, and all subsystem escorts are listed in Maintainers. The Linux programming language and coding style is written in a special C programming language supported by GCC, a compiler that expands the C standard in many ways, for example by using in-line sections of code written in the Austrir language (in the GCC AT'T-style) syntax of the target architecture. Since 2002, all code must adhere to 21 rules that include the linux kernel coding style. The GNU toolchain Collection of GNU compilers (GCC or GNU cc) is the default compiler for major Linux sources and is called a utility called make. The GNU collector (most commonly known as GAS or GNU as) then displays object files from the assembly code generated by GCC. Finally, GNU Linker (GNU ld) is used to create a statically connected core file called vmlinux. like ld are part of a package called GNU binutils. The aforementioned tools are known collectively as GNU toolchain. The GCC compatibility compiler has long been the only compiler capable of building Linux correctly. In 2004, Intel said it had changed the kernel so that its compiler C was also able to compile it. In 2009, there was another such success, with a modified version of 2.6.22. Since 2010, efforts have been underway to create Linux with Clang, an alternative compiler for the C language; As of April 12, 2014, the official core could have been almost compiled by Clang. The project dedicated to these efforts is named LLVMLinux after the LLVM compiler infrastructure on which Clang is built. LLVMLinux does not seek to fork out for either Linux or LLVM, so it is a meta-project consisting of patches that are eventually presented in ascending projects. By allowing Linux to be compiled by Clang, developers can benefit from a shorter compilation time. Debugging Core Sample Panic Core Linux Main Articles: Panic Core And Linux Core oops Linux Bugs can be very difficult to figure out and fix, firstly because of the kernel's interaction with userspace and hardware, and secondly because they can be caused by a wider number of causes than those that can affect user programs. A few examples of the main causes are semantic code errors, misuse of synchronization primitives, and mismanagement of hardware. The message of a non-laughing error in the nucleus is called oops; such deviations from the correct behavior of the Linux kernel may allow us to continue to work with the compromised Critical and fatal error reported through panic. It prints the message and then stops the kernel. One of the most common methods used to find code errors is printing debugging. To do this, Linux provides an API called printk in the core that stores messages in a circular buffer. The syslog system call (2) is used to read and/or clean the buffer of the kernel message ring and to determine the maximum level of the message log to be sent to the console (i.e. one of eight print KERN_ settings) that indicate the severity of the reported state); it is usually called through the glibC klogctl wrapper (3). Core messages are also exported to the user country through the interface /dev/kmsg (e.g., system-journaled ,203) reads this interface and by default attracts messages to /var/log/journal). Another fundamental method of debugging a running core is tracking. The ftrace mechanism is an internal Linux tracer; it is used to monitor and debug Linux during execution, and can analyze user space delays due to kernel misconduct. In addition, ftrace allows users to track Linux while downloading. kprobes and kretprobes can break (like debuggers in userspace) in Linux and non-disruptively collect information. kprobes can be inserted into the code at (almost) any address, while kretprobes work on the return of the function. uprobes have similar goals, but they also have some differences in use and implementation. The Linux Kernel Design Model integrates new code on a mobile basis. Software registered in the project should work and be compiled without errors. For each subsystem the kernel has an attendant that is responsible for reviewing patches regarding core code standards and keeps a queue of patches that can be presented to Linus Torvalds within a few weeks of merging. The patches combine Torvalds into the source code of the previous stable Linux kernel release, creating a candidate to release -rc for the next stable core. Once the merger window is closed, only fixes are made to the new code in the development release. The -rc release of the core development undergoes regression tests and once it is considered stable Torvalds and the subsystem core is accompanied by a new Linux kernel released and the development process starts all over again. Developers who feel that they are being treated unfairly can report this to the Technical Advisory Board of the Linux Foundation. In July 2013, USB 3.0 driver Sarah Sharp asked Torvalds to address offensive comments in the kernel development community. In 2014, Sharp abandoned the development of the Linux kernel, stating that the focus is on technical excellence, coupled with overloaded people, and people with different cultural and social backgrounds means that Linux kernel escorts are often blunt, rude, or cruel enough to get their job done. In B (LCA) conference in 2018, the developers expressed the view that the culture of the community has become much better in the last few years. Daniel Vetter, an intel drm/i915 graphics driver, noted that pretty harsh language and discussion in the core community has diminished or disappeared. Laurent Pinchart asked developers to get feedback on their experience with the core community at the 2017 Embedded Linux Conference Europe. The issues raised a few days later were discussed at the Summit. Concerns about the lack of coherence in how the escorts responded to the patches presented by the developers were echoed by Shua Khan, who was accompanied by a core self-testing system. Torvalds argued that there would never be consistency in the processing of patches because different core subsystems over time have taken different development processes. Therefore, it was decided that each accompanying subsystem of the kernel would document the rules for receiving patches. Linux fork iPod download iPodLinux there are certain communities that develop kernels based on official Linux. Some interesting snippets of code from these forks (i.e. slang terms meaning derivative projects) that include Linux-libre, , INK, , RTLinux and User-Mode (UML) have been merged into the main line. Some operating systems developed for mobile phones initially used highly modified versions of Linux, including Google Android, Firefox OS, HP webOS, Nokia Maemo and Jolla Sailfish OS. In 2010, the Linux community criticized Google for effectively starting its own core: 217 means that any drivers written for Android hardware platforms cannot be combined into the core tree because they have a dependence on code that lives only in a Google core tree, so it can't build a tree kernel.org. Because of this, Google has now prevented the biggest chunk of hardware drivers and platform code from ever getting merged into the core tree core. Effectively create a core branch that various suppliers currently rely on. Greg Croa-Hartman, 2010 Today Android uses a little customized Linux, where changes are implemented in device drivers, so little or no changes to the kernel kernel code are required. Android developers also introduce patches on the official Linux, which can finally download the Android operating system. For example, the Nexus 7 can download and run basic Linux. Conflicts of the developer community There have been several notable conflicts between Linux kernel developers. Examples of such conflicts are: In July 2007, Kon Kolivas announced that he would stop developing the Linux kernel. In In 2009, resigned from the TTY escort post after a disagreement with Linus Torvalds. In December 2010, between Linux SCSI's james James Bottomley and SCST's accompanying Vladislav Bolkhovitin about which TARGET SCSI stack should be included in the Linux kernel. This has upset some Linux users. In June 2012, Torvalds made it clear that he did not agree with the fact that NVIDIA had released its drivers as closed. In April 2014, Torvalds banned from filing patches into the Linux kernel for failing to deal with errors that led to the system's negative interaction with the kernel. In October 2014, Lennart Poeting accused Torvalds of tolerating the crude style of discussion on Linux kernels and of being a bad role model. In March 2015, Christoph Hellwig filed a lawsuit against VMware for copyright infringement on the Linux kernel. Linus Torvalds made it clear that he did not agree with this and similar initiatives, calling the lawyers a gue sickness. Famous Linux kernel developers have realized the importance of preventing conflicts between developers. For a long time there was no code of conduct for kernel developers because of Linus Torvalds' opposition. However, on March 8, 2015, the Linux Core Conflict Code was introduced. On 16 September 2018, it was replaced by a new Code of Conduct based on the Contributor's Covenant. This coincided with Linus's public apology and a brief break with the development of the kernel. On November 30, 2018, in accordance with the Code of Conduct, Intel's Jarkko Sakkinen sent out patches replacing cases appearing in comments to the source code for appropriate hug versions. Compared to 2020, linux kernels had about 33 million lines of code in the 5.6th release, about 14% of the code was part of the core (arches, kernels, and mm of catalogs), while 60% were drivers. Linux is an evolution not intelligent design! - Linus Torvalds, 2005 (237) Estimated cost of reconstructing the Linux kernel Costs to restructure the Linux 2.6.0 kernel version in the traditional patented development parameter is estimated at US$612 million (467 million euros, 394 million euros) in 2004 at a price using the cocoMO- month model using man. In 2006, a study funded by the European Union put the cost of the kernel reconstruction at 2.6.8 euros higher at 882 million euros ($1.14 billion, 744 million euros). This topic was revisited in October 2008 by Amanda McPherson, Brian Proffitt and Ron Hale-Evans. Using David A. Wheeler's methodology, they estimated the reconstruction of the kernel of 2.6.25 is currently worth $1.3bn (part of a total of $10.8bn for the refurbishment of Fedora 9). Again, Garcia-Garcia and Alonso de Magdaleno of the University of Oviedo (Spain) calculated that the value added annually to the core was about 100 million euros between 2005 and 2007 and 225 million euros in 2008, which would also cost more than 1 billion euros (about $1.4 billion according to the data on data on the data on 2008). 2010) for development in the European As of March 7, 2011, using the then LOC (code line) Linux kernel 2.6.x and payroll numbers with calculations by David A. Wheeler, it will cost approximately $3bn (about 2.2bn euros) to restructure the Linux kernel as it gets bigger. Updated calculation for September 26, 2018, Using the current 20,088,609 LOC (code lines) for the Linux kernel 4.14.14 and the current average programmer's salary in the U.S. of $75,506 show that it will cost about $14,725,449,000 dollars (11,191,341,000 pounds) to rewrite the existing code. The maintenance and long-term support for the Linux 2.6.25.17 Core Message Boot message is supported separately. Most of the latest core releases were controlled by Linus Torvalds. Current versions are released by Greg Croa-Hartman. The Linux core development community supports a stable core by applying fixes to software bugs that were discovered during the development of the subsequent stable core. Thus, www.kernel.org will always list two stable cores. The next stable Linux kernel is now released only 8 to 12 weeks later. Thus, Linux kernel maintainrs have labeled some stable kernel releases as long-term, these long-term Linux support cores are updated with bug fixes for two or more years. In November 2019, there were five long-term Linux cores: 4.19.84, 4.14.154, 4.9.201, 4.4.201 and 3.16.76. The full release list is in the history of the Linux kernel version. Relationships with Linux distributions Most Linux users go to the kernel supplied by their . Some distributions are vanilla or stable kernels. However, some Linux distribution providers (such as Red Hat and Debian) support a different set of Linux kernel branches that are integrated into their products. They are usually updated at a slower rate than the vanilla branch, and they usually include all fixes from the appropriate stable branch, but at the same time they can also add support for drivers or features that have not been released in the vanilla version from which the distribution provider started to base its branch. Legal aspects of GPLv2 licensing conditions Initially, Torvalds released Linux under a license that banned any commercial use. This was changed in version 0.12 by switching to the general public license of GNU Version 2 (GPLv2). This license allows the distribution and sale of possibly modified and unaltended versions of Linux, but requires that all of these copies be released under the same license and be accompanied by full relevant source code. Torvalds described GPLv2 Linux licensing as the best thing I've ever done. The Linux kernel is explicitly licensed only under version 2 of GPL, without providing the ability to choose any more timely version which is GPL expansion. The official git Torvalds branch contains documentation that explains the process of developing the kernel to people who want to work with the community and enter code; it clearly states that any contributions that are not covered by a compatible GPLv2 license will not be accepted into the core. There was considerable debate about how easy it was to change the license to later versions of GPL (including version 3), and whether this change was even desirable. Torvalds himself specifically indicated after the release of version 2.4.0 that his own code was released only under version 2. However, the terms of the GPL are sticking together that if the version is not specified, any version can be used, and Alan Cox noted that very few other Linux participants have indicated a specific version of GPL. In September 2006, a survey of 29 key core programmers showed that 28 preferred GPLv2 to the then GPLv3 project. believed that I personally was just a queer person because I was so publicly not a big fan of GPLv3 . This group of high-profile kernel developers, including Torvalds, Greg Kroah-Hartman and Andrew Morton, commented on their objections to GPLv3. Under licensing rules, LKMs that only use a public subset of kernel interfaces are non-productive works, so Linux gives system administrators mechanisms to load out-of-the-tree binary objects into the core address space. There are several subsoil downloadable modules that make it legal to use the kernel dma_buf function. The GPL code can certainly use it. However, another possible case of use would be Nvidia Optimus, which pairs a fast GPU with an integrated Intel GPU, where the Nvidia GPU writes in Intel's framebuffer when it is active. But Nvidia cannot use this infrastructure because it requires circumventing a rule that can only be used by LKMs, which are also GPL. Alan Cox responded to LKML by rejecting a request by one of his engineers to remove this technical support from the API. Torvalds made it clear on LKML that I maintain that core modules are only binary derivatives by default. On the other hand, Torvalds also said that one grey area in particular is something like a driver who was written for another operating system (i.e. clearly not a Linux derivative by origin). This is a gray area and this is an area where I personally believe that some modules may be considered as non-derivative work simply because they were not intended for Linux and are not dependent on any special Linux behavior. In particular, drivers of their own graphics are actively discussed. The firmware binary drops The Official Core, i.e. the Linus git branch in the kernel.org repository, does not contain any proprietary code; However, Linux can search for file systems to find its own firmware, drivers and other pumping modules (collectively known as binary drops), then it can download and link them into the core space. Whenever proprietary modules are loaded into Linux, the kernel marks itself as tainted, so error messages from corrupted cores are often ignored by developers. Whether it's needed (for example, to access download devices or for speed), the firmware can be built into the core, which means building a firmware in vmlinux; however, this is not always a viable option for technical or legal issues (for example, firmware that is not compatible with GPL is not allowed). See also: Linux: Copyright, trademark and Linux name is a registered trademark of Linus Torvalds in the United States, the European Union and several other countries. The legal action initiated for the fraudulent use of a trademark by a third party (William Della Croce, who had never participated in the development of Linux) and the claim of trademark infringement ended in August 1997, when the trademark was finally awarded to Mr. Torvalds. 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LWN.net. Received on February 4, 2018. Pre-pre-rt. linuxplumbersconf.org archive from the original dated October 15, 2016. Received on June 14, 2016. David Meyer (February 3, 2010). The Linux developer explains the removal of the Android kernel code. Zdnet. CBS Interactive. Received on February 3, 2010. Chapter 03: Maemo Platform Review. Maemo Technology Review. Nokia. 2008. Archive from the original on June 16, 2008. Received on April 9, 2010. Croa Hartman, Greg (February 2, 2010). Android and the Linux kernel community. Received on February 3, 2010. a b Roger E Programming Android system. Packt Publishing. page 14. ISBN 9781787120389. Why I left: Core developer . APC Magazine. ACP magazines. July 24, 2007. Archive from the original on July 7, 2011. Received on August 15, 2011. Corbet, Jonathan (July 25, 2007). Re: -mm merger plans for 2.6.23. LWN.net. Received on February 10, 2018. Alan Cox (July 28, 2009). Re: (PATCH) kdesu broken. Received on February 10, 2018. Rodriguez, Goldwyn (January 22, 2011). A story about two goals of SCSI. Received on February 14, 2018. Steinmetz, Andreas (January 17, 2013). LIO is a broken target implementation of iSCSI. Received on February 14, 2018. Paul, Ryan (June 19, 2012). Linus Torvalds says f-k you NVIDIA. Received on February 14, 2018. John Gold (April 3, 2014). Linus Torvalds suspends key Linux developers: the core of panic as Systemd dev pokes the bear. Received on March 24, 2019. Poetess, Lennart (October 6, 2014). About the disease of the Linux kernel community. В Google. Received on February 10, 2018. John Brodkin, March 6, 2015. VMware has allegedly violated its open source Linux license for years. Ars Technica. Received on February 14, 2018. McCarthy, Kieren (August 26, 2016). Insulting everyone else in the world, Linus Torvalds calls his own lawyers a nasty dagnous disease. Register. Received on February 14, 2018. Corbet, Jonathan (September 10, 2007). KS2007: Relationships with the developer and the development process. LWN.net. received on February 11, 2018. John Brodkin (July 16, 2013). Linus Torvalds defends his right to shame Linux kernel developers. ARS Technica. Received on February 11, 2018. Corbet, Jonathan (March 9, 2015). Core conflict code. LWN.net. received on February 11, 2018. Corbet, Jonathan (September 18, 2018). Code, conflict and behavior. LWN.net Cohen, Noam (September 19, 2018). After years of abusive emails, the Creator of Linux is stepping aside. A New Yorker. Larabel, Michael. Removing profanity in a commentary on the kernel code: Linux gets Hugs. Phoronix. Received on June 15, 2019. The evolution of Linux (PDF). March 26, 2008. Eternal Development: A Linux Core LifeCycle Model (PDF). October 25, 2011. Croa Hartman, Greg (February 12, 2008). Re: Announce: Linux-next (or Andrew's dream :-)). Linux kernel mailing list (mailing list). Received on January 30, 2017. David A. Wheeler Linux Core 2.6: It costs more!. The economic impact of FLOSS on the innovation and competitiveness of the EU ICT sector (PDF) (table 3 on page 50). Estimating the total cost of developing a Linux distribution (PDF) (table on page 6). Archive from the original (PDF) dated July 11, 2010. A billion-dollar core. Linux.slashdot.org February 24, 2010. Received on November 12, 2010. Wheeler, David. Linux core: It costs more!. Received on September 17, 2012. Linux MAINTAINERS file. from the original on January 12, 2013. Year. Torvalds, Linus (September 16, 2018). Linux 4.19-rc4 is issued, an apology, and a service note. LKML. Received on September 23, 2018. Alexandru Vadawa, Alex Gonzalez and Chris Simmonds (2016). Linux: Built-in development. Packt Publishing. page 663. ISBN 9781787124455. Linux kernel archives. Received on November 13, 2019. a b Yamagata, Hiroo (August 3, 1997). A free software pragmatist. Hot Wirth. Archive from the original on February 10, 2007. Received on February 21, 2007. GPL-v2. gnu.org. Corbet, Jonathan (January 31, 2006). GPLv3 and core. LWN.net. Received on 21 February 2007. Torvalds, Linus (September 8, 2000). Linux-2.4.0-test8. LKML (mailing list). Received on February 21, 2007. gnu.org. www.gnu.org. Received on October 18, 2017. Alan Cox (January 20, 2006). Re: GPL V3 and Linux. LKML (mailing list). Received on February 21, 2007. Stephen Shankland (September 25, 2006). The best Linux programmers are panning GPL 3. News.com. CNET. Received on February 21, 2007. a b James E.J. Bottomley, Mauro Carvalho Chehab, Thomas Gliksner, Christoph Hellwig, Dave Jones, Greg Croa-Hartman, Tony Luck, Andrew Morton, Trond Mickluust, David Woodhouse (September 15, 2006). Core developers' position on GPLv3: Dangers and problems with GPLv3. LWN.net. Received March 11, 2015.CS1 maint: uses the parameters of the authors (link) - Petreli, Nicholas (September 27, 2006). Fighting evil or fighting for attention?. linuxjournal.com. received on March 11, 2015. Linus Torvalds says that GPL v3 violates everything THAT GPLv2 advocated. Debconf 2014. 2014 Received March 21, 2018 Clarke, Rob; Semwal, Sumit (November 1, 2012). DMA Buffer Exchange Structure: Introduction (PDF). The conference of embedded Linux. Received on August 2, 2014. Alan Cox (October 10, 2012). (PACH) dm-buff: Use EXPORT_SYMBOL. Direct rendering infrastructure (mailing list). Received on September 3, 2013. Torvalds, Linus (December 10, 2003). RE: Linux GPL and binary module exclusion position?. LKML (mailing list). Received on December 31, 2010. Torvalds, Linus (December 3, 2003). Re: Linux GPL and binary module exclusion position?. LKML (mailing list). Received on November 12, 2010. Linux firmware API - Linux documentation kernel. www.kernel.org. received on January 13, 2020. Spotted kernels - Linux Kernel documentation. www.kernel.org. received on January 13, 2020. Built-in firmware - Linux Kernel documentation. www.kernel.org. received on June 10, 2020. Registration of LinuxTM in the United States. uspto.gov. - Registration of LinuxTM in the EU. euipo.europa.eu archive from the original dated June 9, 2016. Hughes, Phil (August 1, 1997). Controversy over Linux trademarks. Linux Journal. Belltown Media, Inc. received on December 8, 2010. Hughes, Phil (March 1, 1997). Actions taken on Linux trademark. Linux Journal. Belltown Media, Inc. received on December 8, 2010. Tonya Tonya History of Linux trademarks, operating system (PDF). Gisselberg Law Firm, Inc. Archive of the Original (PDF) on 11 July 2011. Received on December 8, 2010. Further reading by Torvalds, Linus; David Diamond (2001). Just for fun: The story of a random revolutionary. HarperBusiness. ISBN 978-0066620732. Bezrukov, Nikolai. Ch 4: Benevolent Dictator. Portraits of open source pioneers (e-book). Softpanorama. LinkSys and binary modules. LWN.net weekly edition. October 16, 2003. Everyone's favorite Linux mascot. Linux timeline. The history of Linux. Archive from the original september 10, 2006. Upgrade to 2.6 core. Joseph Pranevich (December 2003). The wonderful world of Linux 2.6. Archive from the original on July 16, 2003. Josh Aas (February 17, 2005). Understanding Linux 2.6.8.1 CPU Planner. Archive from the original on September 29, 2007. LinuxChanges. Workshop paper on Linux Kernel 2.6. Archive from the original on February 2, 2007. Linux Device Drivers Linux Kernel Networking, Rami Rosen, 2014 (Book). Linux: GPL and binary modules. Archive from the original on July 23, 2005. Anatomy of the Linux kernel. External wikimedia Commons links have media related to the Linux kernel. Wikibooks has more on the topic: Linux Core Official Website Linux Core Documentation Index Linux Core Core Pages Bugzilla, and Regression for every recent version of the Nucle Kernel Novices, the source of various core-related kernel coverage at LWN.net, a reputable core source related to the information of the Elixir Cross Boot Linkr, Linux core code cross-reference By Greg Kroa Hartman on the core of the Linux kernel technologies linux material. kernel technologies linux pdf

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