* PART ONE *

OVERVIEW OF THE DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION

I. BACKGROUND OF THE DISTRICT

1.1 PREAMBLE

Kabale district which used to be called until 1980 is located in south-western bordering and the districts of , , Ntungamo and Bushenyi. covers a total surface area of 1,827 square kilometres, 93% of which is arable land. Its capital town Kabale, lies near 1o 15'' south latitude and 30o East longitude towards the southern boundary of Uganda with Rwanda.

The districts terrain is characterised by high hills dissected by steep sided valleys. The valleys at altitudes as low as 1,200m and the high ground rises to over 2,400m at several places. These hills provide a scenic beauty and because of this and the districts water resources, hot springs and attractive forests, the district used to be loosely referred to as " the switzerland of uganda ".

1.2 HISTORY OF KABALE DISTRICT

The History of Kabale as a district can be traced to as far back as 1911 when the boundaries of Uganda, Rwanda and Zaire were established with Kigezi falling into Uganda. Due to the topography of Kigezi, the british, Belgian and German colonial powers had failed to establish the boundary. Before 1911 the 3 colonial powers aimed at occupying the territory. In the year 1891, the first Europeans, Emin Pasha and Dr. Stulman entered Kigezi. These were to be followed later by captains N.cote, De courcy Ireland, Hall and Indian and Sudanese soldiers in 1909 led by Yohanna Ssebalijja. They arrived in Bufumbira (now Kisoro) at a place called Kagezi meaning "a small lake" which later became a british post. The name Kigezi later came to be applied to the whole district. In 1912, however, the post was transferred to Ikumba near Hamurwa. In 1913, the then District commissioner, G.E.E Sullivan moved the post from Ikumba to Kabale.

The name Kabale means "a smallstone". It originated from apiece of iron ore that was so heavy that people used to come from far and near to see and feel its weight. The stone was eventually taken to the then protectorate headquarters at Entebbe.

In 1911, the first catholic missionary, Yowana Kitagana arrived in Kigezi. He established the first mission station in Nyarushanje and later moved to Rushoroza where he built the first catholic church. In 1912 the first protestant missionary to come to Kigezi, Zakarya Balaba built the first church at Kikungiri but later moved to Rugarama where he built another church in 1913.

The first mosque was built at Kigirme by the first Muslim Arab teacher in the district, Sharif Ahmad. Islam grew in the district and founded schools such as Ndorwa and Kambuga primary schools.

It is estimated that by 1931 the number of Europeans in the district had increased to 33, that of the Indians to 86 and Arabs to 6 while the natives were about 226,214.

Kigezi was not ruled by the indigenous people until 1929. The Bakiga used to settle in groups according to their clans each with a clan leader. In the year 1964, the "Rutakirwa Engabo ya Kigezi" ( the shield of Kigezi) was elected as the constitutional head of the District. But following the 1966 constitutional changes he vacated the position in 1968 as the constitutional head of Kigezi. As Kigezi grew plans to create new districts were underway. In 1974, Rukingiri which was part of Kigezi was made a separate district. In 1991, Kisoro also became a separate district.

1.2.1 Brief history of Kabale Municipality

The whole settlement of Kabale municipal council is contained between parallel series of steep hills on either side of the Mugogo-Rwabakazi valley and is terminated at each end by the Kiruruma and Kisumbi swamps.

The municipality is bisected by the river Mugogo and small tributary streams in valleys. It is 408 kilometres from city and has a total surface area of 47 square kilometres.

The demarcation and extension of the boundaries of the municipality has been carried several times since its inception as a township authority in 1930. The first and perhaps more precise demarcation was considered and approved by the authority in 1932. The Municipal council started as a township authority established under the then township ordinance. The executive powers of the Township Authority's administration were vested in the Township Authority under the directions of the then protectorate Governor who appointed the district commissioner, the district medical officer and the executive engineer.

The Township Authority functioned until it was declared a town board in 1958. The board in addition to its other duties had to ensure that this area grows and develops to the well being and benefit of the residents. The town board continued to function until 1962 when it was elevated to the status of a town council. The council had 10 councillors including the chairman with some ex-officio members. In 1985, Kabale town council was elevated to the status of a municipal council.

1.3 KABALE DISTRICT ADMINISTRATION

Article 177 of the new constitution of the Republic of Uganda 1995, states that; subject to provisions of this constitution, for purposes of the local government, Uganda shall be divided into the districts referred to in the local clause (2) of article 5 of this constitution.

The specified in this article are Arua, Bundibugyo, Kabale, Kampala, Kasese, Kibaale, Kisoro, Botido, Kumi, Mbale, Moroto, Nebbi, Pallisa, Rukungiri, Soroti, Tororo, Kabarole, Kapchorwa, Moyo, Gulu, Kitgum, Apac, Lira, Iganga, Jinja, Kamuli, Hoima, Masindi Kalangala, Kiboga, , Mpigi, Mubende, Mukono, Luwero, Rakai, Bushenyi, and Ntungamo.

2 Article 179 Clause 4 of the Constitution of the Republic of Uganda states that any measure for the alteration of the boundaries of or the creation of districts or administrative units shall be based on the necessity for effective administration and the need to bring services closer to the people and it may take into account the means of communication, geographical features, density of population, economic viability and the wishes of the people concerned.

There are five main administrative organs set up to manage and administer Kabale district. These are Kabale Municiple Council, the office of the Resident District Commissioner (RDC), the Chief Administrative Officer (CAO), the District Local Councils (DLC) and the District Development Committee (DDC).

1.3.1 The Kabale Municipal Council

Kabale municipal council was incorporated by the Royal Charter dated 28th September, 1962. It is a municipal council in accordance with the provisions of section 2 (2) of the urban authorities act. Section 4 there of states that every council shall be a body corporate by the name of the municipal council with the addition of the name of the municipality having perpetual succession and power:-

a) To sue and be sued in its corporate name; and b) To purchase, acquire, hold manage and dispose of movable and immovable property. And according to section 6 or the said Act, every council shall have a common seal of design approved by such council which shall be kept in custody of the Town Clerk.

Section 23 of the Act provides for the appointment of a fit person as a Town Clerk who shall be the Chief Officer of the council and shall have the charge and the custody of and be responsible for all books, deeds,records and other documents of the council. The Town Clerk may, subject to the general directions of the council, exercise the powers of the council may, subject to the general directions of the council, exercise the powers of the council and all acts done by him in the exercise of such powers shall be deemed to have been done by the council.

Despite the above mentioned powers, the Town Clerk may not perform the duties or exercise the powers of the Treasurer without the consent of the minister.

Under Section 42 of the Urban Authorities Act, the council has powers to make bye-laws in respect of such matters as are necessary or expedient for the maintenance of health, well being and safety of the inhabitants of the municipality, for the good order and government of the municipality; or for the previous and supervision of nuisances in the municipality.

According to Section 29 (1) of the Act, Kabale Municipality council is vested with the following duties and powers:

a) To control, manage and administer the municipality b) To safeguard public health c) To develop, control and manage land taken on lease from any land board, including any housing estates thereon, and

3 d) To administer primary schools, Junior Secondary Schools, home craft centres and such medical and health services as the Minister may, by statutory instrument declare.

It is also the duty of the Municipal council to do it that the town is not polluted or environmentally degraded. Government ministries can give expert advice on these matters. The council collects taxes from the local people and is empowered to apprehend defaulters, using its law enforcement units.

1.3.2 Office of the Resident District Commissioner (RDC)

The RDC is also the District Chairperson and according to Article 183 Clause 1 of the Constitution. There shall be a district chair person who shall:

a) be the political head of the district and b) be elected by universal adult suffrage through the secret ballot.

Clause 2 of the same article goes on to stipulate that a person is not qualified to be elected District Chairperson unless he or she is

a) qualified to be elected a member of parliament; b) At least thirty years and not more than seventy five years of age and c) a person ordinary resident in the district

Clause 3 of the same article clearly states the responsibilities and duties of the District chairperson, which are:

a) To preside at meetings of the Executive Committee of the district b) Monitor the general administration of the district c) Coordinate the activities of urban councils and councils of the lower administrative units in the district d) Coordinate and monitor government functions as between the district and the government and e) perform such other functions as parliament may prescribe.

Finally Clause 4 of the same article states that in the performance of the functions under Clause (3) of this article the Chairperson shall be subject to the rules, decisions and recommendations of the district council and be answerable to the council.

Article 185 Clause (1) of the constitution states that the District Chairperson or the speaker of a district council maybe removed from office by the council by resolution supported by the votes of not less than two-thirds of all members of the council on any of the following grounds: a) abuse of office b) Misconduct or misbehaviour or c) Such physical or mental incapacity as would render him/her incapable of performing the duties of his/her office.

4

The district vice Chair person.

Article 186 Clause 6 of the constitution states that of the District Chair person dies, resigns or is removed from office, the Vice Chairperson shall assume the office of the chairperson until the election of a new District Chairperson, but the election shall be held within six months after the occurrence of the event.

1.3.3 Office of the Chief Administrative Officer (CAO)

The third administrative office in Kabale district is that of the Chief Administrative Officer (CAO). According to Article 188 of the constitution, section or clause (1 to 3) states that there shall be a Chief Administrative Officer for every district. The Chief Administrative Officer shall be appointed by the District Service Commission and shall be the chief accounting officer for the district.

Parliament shall by law establish the qualification and functions of the chief administrative officer.

The CAO is also responsible for any economic activities that is taking place in the district.

The Deputy Chief Administrative Officer shall deputise for the Chairperson and shall perform such other functions as maybe assigned to him other by the Chairperson.

Under the CAO and his Deputy are the Assistant chief Administrative Officers (ACAOs) each on represents a different county in the district. This brings the number to 4 in Kabale district.

1.3.4 Local Government Councils

According to Article 180 Clause (1) of the Constitution of Uganda, 1995, a local government shall be based on a council which shall be the highest political authority within the area a jurisdiction and which shall have legislative and executive powers to be exercised in accordance with this Constitution.

Elections of local government councils Article 181 Clause (1) of the constitution states that a District shall be divided by the Electoral Commission into electoral areas which shall be demarcated in such a way that the number of inhabitants in the electoral areas are as nearly as possible equal.

Clause 3 of the same clause states that; the demarcation of electoral areas shall ensure that a subcounty, a town council or an equivalent part of a municipality is represented at the district council by at least one person. Clause (4) goes on to state that all government councils shall be elected every four years.

The local council system is made up of local Council Representatives ranging from LC1 at the village level to LCV at the district level.

5

The first unit (LC 1) is the cell local council which comprises between ten and twenty homesteads is a village.

The second (LC II) is the village local council which comprises between ten and fifteen cells.

The third (LC III) is the parish local council which comprises between ten and fifteen villages

Fourth (LC IV is the division local council comprising between ten and fifteen parishes. And fifth is the LCV which is the overall local council representative.

The Chairman of the LCV is also the mayor of Kabale, that is the head of the town. This title was conferred upon the LC V by the government.

1.3.5 The District Development Committee

The District Development Committee (DDC) is a political committee, it is made up of nine LC V executives, four LC IV county council representatives, 8 directors who act as technocrats and the Chief Administrative Office who is the Secretary of the DDC.

According to the RC statute of 1987, the functions of a DDC are the following:

- To prepare, evaluate, monitor and implement development plans of a district

- To discuss, evaluate, and monitor district projects which are funded by the government.

- To integrate and coordinate all development activities of government departments in a district

- To ensure the free flow of information between government departments and a district Resistance Council. $ To review and report, at least quarterly to the Minister responsible for development, on the progress of the development plans and projects in the district.

$ To scrutinise and approve departmental proposals before they are submitted to their respective ministries and

- to do any duty that may be assigned to it by the District Resistance Council.

6 * PART TWO *

II. THE NATURAL RESOURCES

2.0 PHYSICAL FEATURES

2.1 TOPOGRAPHY

The relief of Kabale ranges between 1,800m and 4,000m above sea level. With the highest points being to the southern part of the district. Most of Uganda forms part of an interior high plateau which is lower both to the north and south than it is in Uganda. The Uganda section of the plateau comprises a number of levels which represent several stages of truncation across underlying structures of the ancient rock basement. These stages of truncation are the result of long continued sub-aerial denudation, which progressed in phases related to continental cyclic changes but which was complicated in this region by the direct and indirect effects of warping and rift valley development. The interaction of these sub-aerial processes with the underlying structure and late tectonic deformation have produced the present landscape. In the South-West of the country the plateau reaches its greatest heights with hill summit levels above 2000m in Kigezi.

The rise of the plateaux levels to the west is emphasised by the impressive mountains topography found along the borderlands. The major volcanoes of the west in Kigezi consist of young conical hills rising to a maximum of over 4000m.

Relief Characteristics of some selected areas in Kabale district

NAME OF AREA APPROXIMATE APPROXIMATE RELATIVE ALTITUDE OF ALTITUDE OF AMPLITUDE LOWEST POINT SUMMIT A.S.L (M) A.S.L (M) Kabale Town 1800 1829 29 Rusooroza 1829 1981 152 Kashambya 2012 2134 122 Kitooma 1951 2265 314 Kyabagwira 1829 1951 122 Rubaya 1981 2164 183 Kihiira 2195 2375 180 Kikungiri 1823 1952 128 Kitumba 1829 2103 274 Kyonyo 1981 2134 153

7 Buramba 2134 2317 183

2.2 DRAINAGE

A mature drainage pattern of major and minor streams covers most of Kabale district, juvenile drainage patterns with V-shaped valleys are present in some of the upland and mountainous areas but in general , major valleys are aggraded, frequently clay or silt floored and seasonally swampy. Stream courses in valleys in many parts of the district are poorly defined and the valleys are subjected to temporary waterlogging during the wetter periods of the year. In a few upland and mountainous areas the streams are permanently active.

As with many other surface features, the drainage pattern of Kabale has been considerably modified by the latest earth movements involved in rift formations . Swells and depressions which developed in the land surface along the adjustments in the rift valleys drastically interrupted the drainage pattern to the extent that rivers were reversed, land drowned and new routes formed. The faulting and upwarping which followed the drainage routes along the Kafu, Katonga, Ruizi and Kagera were reversed and the combined waters were impounded in a depression which became and in the north .

The effect of the Western province was to produce an approximate water shed running through out its length, approximately parallel with the rift valley. As already indicated, the flow in the main routes to the west was reversed int the Victoria basin but eventually the old routes were rejuvenated as they found a way into the rift valley either by capture from new rivers cutting back from the escarpment or rejuvenation of their old channels. The head ward reaches of the victoria drainage are either papyrus swamp, particularly in South Kigezi and West or merge into the extensive clay swamps occupying the lower ground among the eastern parts of the province.

Lava dams in addition to back tilting at the rift are responsible for a series of lakes in South Kigezi. The largest, Bunyonyi occupies a wide streak valley drowned to a depth of about 43 metres. The water is held back by a small larval flow near muko over which it escapes into the Ruhuuma swamp thence via a small cross valley into Mutanda which with Mulehe is damned by lavas from Muhavura and Mgahinga. Smaller lakes of Chahafi and Kayumba also owe their origin to lava flows impounding former drainage lines.

2.3 GEOLOGY

2.3.1 Precambrian rocks

More than 80% of Kabale district is underlain by the oldest rock system, the precambrian age which consists of the basement complex system as the oldest overlain in some areas by a succession of sedimentary strata which have undergone a variable degree of dynamothermal metamorphism.

8 The absolute age of the precambrian formations has not been determined with any accuracy and their chronological relationship to one another often remains obscure.

a) Basement Complex

This formation occupies large areas throughout East . It consists of a variety of metamorphic largely granitoid rocks, acid gneisses, schists and foliated granites. Most of these rocks are highly weathered and, where exposed, give rise relatively low and gentle relief.

b) Karagwe-Ankolean System

The rocks belonging to this system are much younger and generally less altered than the Toro group with the exception of the upper facies of the series containing phyllites ,slates and mudstones which also occur in the Karagwe - Akolean system . Recent age determinations place the Karagwe-Ankolean rocks at an estimated 1,000 million years (Holmes and Cohen,1955).

The Karagwe-Ankolean rocks are mostly argillaceous and a small portion of higher grade metamorphosis, mainly mica (serecite) schists.

2.3.2 Canozoic rocks

A very tiny portion of Kabale district is underlain by canizoic rocks of the pleistocene series. The rocks comprise sediments, alluvium, black soils and moraines.

The western volcanic formations of pleistocene age and of unusual potash-rich character, form the potential volcanic cones of Bufumbira in the extreme South-West of Kigezi, where they are part of the still active and more extensive virunga volcanic field of neighbouring Rwanda and the Congo republic.

2.4 GEOMORPHOLOGY

To the west, the upland surface rises at approximately 30 feet a mile into western Ankole and Kigezi. The upland surface possesses a considerable local relief as well as these regional variations. It never formed a peneplain but had wide open valleys and rounded interfluves; in some places reliable relief was considerable. The original differences have frequently been exaggerated in the course of subsequent incision particularly in zones where contrasting lithologies abut.

The lowlands surfaces are also locally well developed over the arena floors of central and Southern Ankole and Northern Kigezi. These variably developed lowland surfaces resulted primarily from rejuvenation and drainage incision ,the drainage lines being superimposed on

9 the underlying structures from the earlier sub-mature and deeply weathered upland surface.

In Koki, South Ankole and the Rukiga mountains of Kigezi there are high level laterite remnants which represent at least two other erosion surfaces apart from the upland and lowland surfaces. Wayland accepts that the Ankole surface as a higher, older surface than the Buganda II which is continued into the Rukiga which is upwarped from 1981 m to over 2439 m and downward in Koki to 1524 m.

2.5 SOILS

The soils of Kabale District are mainly volcanic, ferralitic and peat soils. The volcanic soils are mainly found in Muko sub-county in Kabale District. The ferralitic soils are the most widespread in the district and are in the advanced stage of weathering and have little or no mineral reserves to draw on. They largely depend on bases held in the clay and organic complexes for their fertility. Productivity of the ferralitic soils depends on favourable, adequate depth and maintenance of the humic top soil.

The peat soils in Kabale district are mainly papyrus swamps. The peat soils are formed as a result of accumulation of a thick layer of organic matter below swamp vegetation due to slow decomposition. Peat swamps produce the rich organic soils for agriculture which dominate the valleys of Kabale district.

2.5.1 Soil Types

The soil survey carried out between 1957 and 1959 covered the western province of which the former Kigezi district was part. Kigezi district comprised of the present Kabale, Kisoro and Rukungiri districts. No detailed soil survey has been carried out for Kabale district and so generalisations are inevitably made.

Within a mapping unit, the range of soils may gibe rise to several profiles which are related to the topography. Where this profile- topography relationship occurs repeatedly the sequence is referred to as a catena. Other variations in the units may arise from changes in parent rock or patchy distribution of laterite and rock outcrops which do not conform to any regular pattern. In such circumstances the unit is described as a complex on the other hand, a few of the units display sufficient uniformity of profile morphology to be regarded as soil series, this is especially true of soils developed on alluvium.

Soil units may show gradual changes which take place over great distances and the choice of a boundary in such instances is unavoidably subjective. The ability of the soil to form aggregates and retain them under some form of mechanical disturbance such as cultivation operations and impact of rainfall is referred to as soil structure. The size, shape and permeance of these aggregates has an important bearing on soil productivity. Sandy textured soils breakdown almost to single grains when cultivated and would be described as virtually structureless. Clays tend to crack into hard angular blocks which may be almost indestructible when dry. Soils in the loam class show more varied structure depending on the relative amounts of sand and clay present and the organic matter content. Organic matter is

10 of great importance in maintaining structure in the cultivated layer and its depletion due to prolonged cultivation may be one of the most serious causes of loss of productivity. Not only does its destruction mean a loss of plant nutrients but also a reduction in the capacity of the soils to form aggregates, receive and retain rainfall and permit aeration of the upper soil. Below is a summary of soil types in kabale District.

2.5.2 General Characteristics

2.5.2.1 Soils developed or derived from volcanic rocks

Two units are distinguished for the volcanic soils, sabinio complex and the Bufumbira complex.

(i) Sabinio Complex:

This unit is for the alpine and semi-alpine areas. Between 7,500 and 8000 ft. The soils change from the brown colour characteristic of the plains to almost black and in the undisturbed state the soils appear peaty. There is some degree of soil zoning according to elevation but since the soils on the south Kigezi volcanoes are all dark coloured, increases of organic matter content are not so apparent in the field. In the bamboo zone, the maximum is reached especially on flat, non-eroding sites where drainage is likely to be slow.

(ii) Bufumbira Complex:

The Bufumbira complex is for the plain complex with soils confined to the lava plains which spread out from the foothills of volcanoes in the south-west corner of Kigezi. The superposition of one lava flow on another has given to the plan a fairly complex mezzo-relief which is of particular significance to the ultimate soil pattern.

2.5.2.2 Soils derived from volcanic and pre-cambrian rocks i) Muko Series:

On many of the hills near the Bufumbira lava field the phyllite soils are covered with a thin layer of volcanic ash and dust. The thicker ... yield soils which are essentially the same as the ash-derived members of the Bufumbira complex. Where the ash forms the upper layer of the soils they have been grouped with the muko series.

The original phyllite paleosols which would be similar to the Kabale unit were probably very acid in reaction and low in basis but the ash contamination raised both the PH and base status of the contaminated soils.

2.5.2.3 Soils derived from Pre-cambrian rocks: Soils developed on the Ankole surface and its remnants:

(i) Mafuga Series:

11 this unit occurs mainly in upland sites and is the most widespread of the dark horizon latosols occupying much of the highlands of Kigezi. Like the other dark horizon soils, it usually shows a two layered arrangement in its profiles. The upper of the two, varying in thickness from one-and-a half to about four feet is usually stoneless and sharply separated from the underlying layer, consisting mainly of weathered rock rubble with varying amounts of clay loam.

The characterising dark horizon nearly always occurs in the upper stoneless layer which throughout is weakly structured or structureless and becomes very loose and friable as it dries out. This physical condition renders it very susceptible to erosion when the soils are freshly cultivated on moderate slopes. There is a considerable risk and damage by rainstorms because of the topography which makes these sites so unstable to cultivation for example the cultivation of slopes just south of Kashambya was followed by widespread gully erosion.

Soils of this unit more than any other suggest either a superficial drift deposit or re-sorting of an upper layer to form the present profiles. The two layers differ in texture, colour and structure and would, therefore, seem to be of different origins. This is especially so with a variant that occurs in the bamboo forests of south-west Kigezi.

(ii) Kabale Catena

These soils represent not only the most widespread unit in the district but the most intensively cultivated areas, particularly around Kabale itself. On the principal ridges and more particularly in saddles of the steep topography there is usually a transition sometimes quite sharp to dark horizon soils of the Mafuga unit. Within the Kabale catena, as would be expected from the complexity of its topography, there is much local variation, often attributable to changes in parent rock in the form of outcropping bands of quartzite. Many of these phyllite soils probably owe their productivity to the more retentive nature of they clay fractions and rooting depth, for even on some of the steeper slopes 10 to 20 degrees, the soils are remarkably deep. This, in most cases is due to clay loam textures which promote a firmer and more stable soil structure.

(iii) Ntendule Series:

Over a large part of north Bufumbira and the area covered by the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park the soils are derived from Karagwe-Ankolean phyllites but they differ from soils of the kabale unit by their more pronounced acidity and their generally paler colour. They are in this respect intermediate between soils of the kabale unit and the Mafuga dark horizon latosols and sometimes a slight dark horizon is discernible in their profiles.

2.5.2.4 Soils developed on the African surface and the end-tertiary pediments

Bugangari Series

12 These soils are associated with rejuvenated landscapes in areas affected by Rift Valley faulting. They do not occur exclusively along the fault itself but extend considerable distance beyond in the drainage basics of those rivers which were reversed by the upwarping of the land towards the rift. Their distribution follows those areas from which all or nearly all the weathered detritus that had accumulated prior to the faulting has been removed by post-rift valley geological erosion. Detached from the main soil areas are smaller isolated patches of similar soils on granite and quartzite hills. These soils have considerable amounts of weatherable minerals but little capacity for the retention of released plant nutrients. Therefore the fertility of these soils is likely to fall off rapidly with the destruction of the humic top soil.

2.5.2.5 Soils derived from rift valley sediments:

(i) Nyakashari Series:

The highest and, therefore oldest beds of the lake sediments adjacent to the Rift escarpment in north Kigezi. The Nyakashari soils differ from their northern counterparts in that virtually no laterite is present. The soils are deep and except for a very dark brown or black sandy loam top soil, reddish coloured throughout. Their red coloration suggests a more advanced state of weathering and certainly from a comparison of exchangeable bases the red soils are more thoroughly leached.

(ii) Rwanga Series:

The soils range from sands to sandy clay loams with varying amounts of water-worn gravel. Top soils are usually very dark in colour and probably because of the sandiness, moderately deep often exceeding 12 inches. Subsoils are yellowish-brown or occasionally red sandy or sandy clay loams freely or excessively drained when gravely, weakly structured or massive blocky when dry.

2.5.2.6 Alluvial soils:

Papyrus peat:

Population pressure in Kabale district has led to drainage of papyrus swamps. For example the northern half of Kashambya swamp was reclaimed from papyrus and sweet potatoes, sorghum and maize crops are raised on the beds. The Kiruruma valley system which contains a 15 km long papyrus swamp was extensively drained to allow the development of dairy cows. However, the drainage of wetlands for agriculture may initially provide substantial crop yields and support dairy herds but these initial high yields eventually decline due to many problems including oxidation, acidification and shrinkage of soils and there is concern that agriculture practised in wetland soils may not be sustainable. Soil found under a wetland is quite different from normal soil because it is formed under low oxygen conditions, and is very heavy with clay or has large amounts of plant remains referred to as peat. The immediate effect of drainage is the shrinkage of the soil and the oxidation of the organic matter over a period of time. In special circumstances, for example where there is excess sulphur, oxidation will convert reduced sulphides to sulphates leading to extremely acid soils that are non-productive. The most serious effect, is the loss of water holding capacity.

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Table... TOP SOIL CHARACTERISTICS (APPROX. 0-50CM) IN KABALE DISTRICT

SOIL UNIT PARENT DOMINANT SOIL SOIL COLOUR AND SOIL PH ORGANIC C.E.C. B.S (%) P2O5 PRODUCTIVITY ROCK TYPES STRUCTURE CARBON (%) (M.E) (PPM)

Sabinio Bufumbira lava Black humose loams Very dark brown (10YR, 5.2-5.1 3.4-9.5 6.7-15.5 6.0-37.5 7-70 Nil to moderate complex 2/2) to dark brown; strongly acid granular when dry to very little structure in the subsurface.

Bufumbira Ash and lava Humose brown loams Very dark brown (10YR, 6.2-5.8 slightly 3.4 -11.9 24.6-36.8 25.2-39.1 3-11 Moderate to high complex 2/2) to dark brown (10YR, acid to medium 3/3); small crumb structure acid to structureless in the subsurface.

Muko series Pumice ash and Brown loams and clay Dark brown (10YR, 3/3) to 5.6-5.2 1.3-1.7 15.0-16.9 44.8-50.2 2-4 Moderate to high phyllite loams dark yellow-brown (10YR, medium acid to 3/4); moderately firm sub- strongly acid angular blacky structure to moderately firm angular block structure.

Mafuga series K.A. phyllite Dark horizon latosols, Very dark brown (10YR, 5.2-5.0 4.8-13.8 6.4-41.4 0.2-15.0 5-28 Low loams 2/2) to dark brown strongly acid to (7.5YR, 4/5); loose and very strongly structureless to compact acid and structureless in the subsurface

14 SOIL UNIT PARENT DOMINANT SOIL SOIL COLOUR AND SOIL PH ORGANIC C.E.C. B.S (%) P2O5 PRODUCTIVITY ROCK TYPES STRUCTURE CARBON (%) (M.E) (PPM)

Kabale catena K.A phyllite a) Kabale "dark horizon Dark brown (7.5Yr, 4/2) to 4.8-4.7 very 1.6-4.0 14.7-16.5 8.4-14.9 N.Da Medium to high latosols" light reddish-brown (5YR, strongly acidic Brown loams overlying 6-7/4); sandy to small reddish-brown stony loam quartz pebbles

b) "Kabale ferruginous" Dark brown (7.5Yr, 3/2) to 5.7-5.9 3.7-4.5 36.9-45.5 75.3-83.7 N.D Medium to high brown to yellowish- bright yellow-red (5YR, medium acid brown sandy loam over 5/6-8); sandy loam to massive conglomeritic round and subangular ironstone crimson ironstone

c) Kabale "red-pink" Reddish-brown (5YR, 4/2- 6.1-5.3 slightly 2.3-4.7 N.D N.D N.D Medium to high brown or reddish-brown 3) to yellow red (5YR, acid to strongly humose loams overlying 4/6); angular quartz or acid uniform pale brownish- rock fragments to loam full red to pinkish-white of ironstone and abundant loams which may contain rock fragments in the murram at any depth. subsurface.

d) Kabale "yellow" brown Dark brown (7.5YR, 4/2- 6.2-5.8 slightly 1.4-6.9 31.7-44.6 83.3-86.3 N.D Medium to high humose loams, on 4) to reddish-yellow (5YR, acid to medium yellowish to orange- 6/6); friable loam to very acid brown brashy loams compact concretions in the which may contain subsurface. murram

e) Kabale "hillwash" dark Dark brown (7.5YR, 3- 6.4-6.2 slightly 2.7-13.7 32.0-37.5 87.5-88.3 N.D Medium to high brown almost black 4/2) through greyish- acidic humose loam on reddish brown (10YR, 5/2-3) to or yellowish-brown loam light yellowish-brown a Not determined.

15 SOIL UNIT PARENT DOMINANT SOIL SOIL COLOUR AND SOIL PH ORGANIC C.E.C. B.S (%) P2O5 PRODUCTIVITY ROCK TYPES STRUCTURE CARBON (%) (M.E) (PPM)

10Yr, 6/4-6); humose soil through crumby loam to compact and moist clay loam

Ntendule K.A phyllite Clay loams and silt clay Very dark brown (7.5YR, 3.9-2.9 1.4-14.3 7.4-9.4 N.D 17-89 Low series loams 3/2) to brown (7.5YR, extremely acid 5/4); very little structure to structureless in the subsurface

Bugangari Granites and Shallow black sandy Black (10YR, 2/1) through 5.8-5.7 0.5-2.3 18.0-25.5 76.0-82.3 10-15 Low series gneisses loams dark grey-brown (10YR, medium acid 4/2) to reddish-brown (5YR, 5/4); crumb structure to structureless in the subsurface

Nyakashuri Kaiso beds Deep, reddish-brown Dark reddish-brown (5YR, 5.9-5.6 0.6-1.2 5.4-8.0 32.8-50.2 10-11 Low series sands 3/2) to reddish-brown medium acid (2.5YR, 5/4); weak subangular blocky structure to structureless in the subsurface

Rwanga Kaiso beds Deep brown sands, Dark grey-brown through 5.9-5.6 0.5-1.0 N.D Low to N.D 100-177 series occasionally gravelly brown to orange-brown; medium acid medium very weak structure and almost structureless in the subsurface

Papyrus peat Papyrus peat Peaty clays Dark brown N.D N.D N.D N.D Medium to high peat to reddish

16 SOIL UNIT PARENT DOMINANT SOIL SOIL COLOUR AND SOIL PH ORGANIC C.E.C. B.S (%) P2O5 PRODUCTIVITY ROCK TYPES STRUCTURE CARBON (%) (M.E) (PPM)

brown rooty peat in the subsurface

.Cation Exchange Capacity. .Base Saturation. .Available phosphorus.

17 Comments

In the table several properties characteristic of soils in Kabale district have been summarized. These properties, among several others are useful in determining the potential of soils for agricultural production. In assessing productivity the following should be borne in mind.

The soil reaction (pH) range for high fertility is generally 5.0-8.0 but varies with crops. All primary and most other nutrients have their maximum availability in the pH range of 6.0-7.5. At pH values below 5.5, primary and secondary nutrients become less available especially phosphorous.

Available phosphorus (P2O5) is required by plans and is present in soils in very small quantities but is classified as a primary nutrient because it is essential to plant growth, especially roots. Soils with phosphorus levels of <10 ppm are considered deficient while values >40 ppm are considered high.

Base Saturation is a measure of the extent to which the exchange complex is saturated with the base cations which in turn greatly influences availability of nutrients to plants. A linear relationship exists between the pH values of 5.0-6.0 and saturation values of 25-75%, and soil fertility tends to fall with decreasing saturation.

A soil to be of high fertility requires medium to high levels of C.E.C (>20 m.e/100g clay in top soil, >10 in lower horizons). To get the organic matter content in soils, the organic carbon figure is multiplied by 1.72. Organic matter int eh top soil may be considered low if it falls below the following percentages:

$ 1.5% for heavy textured soil (sandy clay and clay); $ 1.0% for sandy soils (sandy clay loams and sandy loam).

2.6 CLIMATE

2.6.1 Rainfall

Rainfall in Kabale district is bimodal. The long and heavy rains are in the first half of the year starting from around March to May. It is in this season that virtually all crop varieities are grown. The shore rains are experienced from around October to November. These are usually moderate. During this season mainly short term corps like benas,peas, irish potatoes, sweet pototoes and vegetables are grown. June, July and August are generally the driest months of the year with July showing a reasonable probability for getting nil rainfall. The mean anuals vary from 800mm - 1000mm Kabale's anual rainfall sseems to be stable although frequent below average epochs do exist.

2.6.2 Temperature

In reference to the 1993 data from Kabale meteorological station, the district records a mean annual maximum temperature of 24.4#. The station records 10.9# as the mean annual minimum.

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This indicates slightly high temperatures throughout the year. An analysis of temperature covering the period from 1960 to 1985 shows a positive trend in both the minimum and maximum temperature covering all the months. The rate of raise of the annual temperature is found to be 0.39# per decade. This rate is warming is quite high and is very much above the global average (about 0.3# C per decade). One posible explanation for the micro-climatic warming in Kabale could be that due to massive land and swamp reclamation it is possible that the local radiative balance in this region could have been affected.

2.6.3 Evaporation

The estimated average rate of evaporation for Kabale district is around 3mm per day (climatological statistics for East Africa). The variation in daily evaporation rates is mainly due to variation in solar radiation.

2.6.4 Relative humidity

The 1993 Kabale meteorological station recordings indicate that the relative humidity ranges between 90% - 100% in the mornings and decreases to between 50-65% in the afternoons during all the months. The recordings show that the relative humidity for both the mornings and afternoons decrease in the months of July, August, September, and October.

The implication is taht the morning recordings are within limits to induce rainfall thorugh the afternoon recordings are not. But relative humidity varies so much with tiem and is liable to change any time in relation to other climatic factors. So the non-conducive afternoon recordings may not necessaily correlate to the rainfall and temperature recordings.

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MONTH Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total 95.6 28.4 172.0 86.5 159.7 33.3 NIL 60.8 9.7 58.9 94.9 76.6 Mean 3.1 1.0 5.5 2.9 5.6 1.1 NIL 2.0 0.3 1.9 3.2 2.5

KABALE STATION MEAN MONTHLY RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND TEMPERATURE

RECORDINGS IN PERCENTAGES RELATIVE HUMIDITY % TEMPERATURE MONTH 0600 GMT 1200 CMT MAXIMUM # MINIMUM# Jan 96 65 23.9 11.4 Feb 96 59 25.2 11.4 Mar 97 64 24.3 10.6 Apr 99 65 24.2 11.4 May 98 70 23.6 12.4 June 98 65 22.8 11.3 July 94 48 24.7 8.3 Aug 93 51 24.2 10.3

20 Sept. 90 47 26.0 9.6 Oct. 95 58 25.5 11.1 Nov. 96 63 24.5 11.8 Dec. 97 63 24.2 11.6

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2.7 VEGETATION OF KABALE

VEGETATION ZONES

The vegetation of Kabale district was last studied in 1964 by Landale Brown et al, (1964). Looking at the district as a whole, five categories of vegetation can be distinguished, although most of the area has been greatly modified through cultivation.

2.7.1 HIGH ALTITUDE FOREST

The high altitude forests comprise those which lie at altitudes over 5,000 feet, mainly on the lower slopes of the major mountains, but also in the highlands of Kigezi. Though not including such a large number of species as the forests at medium altitudes, these forests are quite varied in form and composition; a variation which reflects the wide range of sites that they occupy.

a) B1 Pgyeum Moist Montane Forest

This includes all the montane forest of south-west Uganda and most of that on Mt. Elgon, between 5,000 and about 9,000 feet. Pygeum africanum is present throughout, though it seldom forms pure stands, and locally the dominant species may be any of the trees mentioned below.

If there is no intervening bamboo, this forest merges irregularly into the next type at about 9,000 feet and at 5,000 feet it merges with forest at medium altitudes, though there are very few places where this occurs (impenetrable, Namatele) and it is more often bounded by fire climate savannah at 6,000-7,000 feet.

Much of the forest contains only small trees up to 2 feet in diameter and 60 feet in height, but locally there are stands of much larger trees upto twice these dimensions, especially Entandrophragima excelsium (Mahogany), Aminageria adolfi-friederia, Chrysophyllum gorungosanun, and podocarpus milawianus.

The canopy is mostly very broken and irregular with many trees enveloped in chambers; only on small areas, usually ride tops or communities dominated by one or two species, is there any regular structure, usually consisting of a rather dense single storey of trees with a low or sparse ground flora often mainly ferns. Elsewhere there is a variety of under storey trees and shrubs such as Grumilea megistosticta, galimera coffeoides, lepidotrichilia volkensii, with in all gaps a dense tangle of herbaceous and semi-woody climbers in which mimulopsis SPP and sericostachy scandens are particularly common, and which may make walking impossible except on path. Even there large nettles can be very unpleasant. Tree ferns, cyathea deckenii, form decorative grooves along some streams, and succulent tree euphorbices are expected members of the vegetation on Mt. Elgon.

22 b) Hagenia - Rapanea Moist Montane forest

Above 8,500 or 9,000 feet the composition of the forest becomes much more restricted; Rapanea spp through also present below becomes abundant and often dominant, and the only other large trees are Arocrania volkensii and locally Hagenia abyssinia. The precise status of the latter tree is puzzling and one of the main reasons for its retention in the title of this community has been to provide conformity with the work of other workers.

Its growth in abundant cultivation below the bamboo in Kigezi and as pure stands in colonising forest on the Imatong mountains, suggests that it may indicate an early stage of forest succession rather than a climax community.

Forest/Savanna Mosaic at high altitudes

On the drier mountains only remnants of forest still survive, and at altitudes between 7,000 and 10,000 feet there is a mosaic of patches of forest, patches of savanna, and patches of scrub at various stages in the succession back to forest. In contrast its the mosaic at medium altitude, cultivation has played little or no part in the destruction of the forest, this being due mainly to fire.

The forest remnants which occur mainly but not exclusively in the valleys, are mostly dry montane forest, but at the upper levels there maybe some Hagenia Rapanea forest, and dry patches of high montane heath.

The savannas derived from three types of forest are barely distinguishable, the tree layer which is often sparse and usually 6-15 feet high, is characterised by protea gagwedi and faurea saligua, and the grass later, 2 to 5 feet high is dominated by Andropogon distachyus, cymbopogon validus, exotheca abyssiniaca of hyparrhenia cymbaria. At the lower limit this merges gradually into dry combretum savannah and above into a sparse stunted heath.

Further pennisetum claudestinum grasslands have developed on deep soils at a altitudes of 5500-7000 feet in southern Kigezi and on the south western slopes of Mt. Elgon following destruction of the original forest cover.

There is also much shallow soil in the south-western part of Kigezi, probably as a result of erosion following the clearing of the original forest cover. Skeletal soils now support grass lands dominated by londetia kagerassis while pteridium aquilinum, hyparrhenia fil pendul var. pilos, H. lecomtei, H. pilgeriana, melinis maitandii, m. minutiflora are found on slightly deeper soils. Small areas are covered by evergreen thicket which may be an early stage in the regeneration of forest.

Moist Thicket a) Montane thicket

These thickets are found in Kigezi between 6,500 and 7,500 feet on stony or shallow soils under mean annual rainfalls of 34 to 37 inches. They are mostly small in extent and are

23 interspersed with montane grassland. The trees and bushes form a discontinuous canopy 15 to 25 feet high. The status of these thickets is difficult to establish they maybe the natural climax vegetation of these shallow and stony soils. Forest trees are few and are usually associated with pockets of deeper soil. This doesn't rule out the possibility that these areas supported montane forest before a degradation of the soil. The commoner species are: Aconthus pubescens, Bersania abyssinica, Bridelia Dalbergia lactei, Dodonea viscosa, Erthrina tomentosa, Ficus spp lobelia sp, nuxia congesta philippia bengulensis, Polgala elliotii, protea sp pychyromeniodes.

The Y Swamp Forest

The forested swamps maybe divided broadly into permanent swamps where the water level never falls more than a few inches below the surface, and periodic or seasonal swamps which flood sometimes to a depth of several feet during the rains, but dry out and crack deeply during the dry season.

Permanent swamp forest is not shown separately on the map but is fairly abundant in south Mengo, where it consists mainly of nearly pure stands of mitragyena stipulosa, a species confined to such swamps and having well developed pneumatophore to lope with the lack of oxgyen below the water surface, which is a major factor controlling the vegetation.

There are also stands of Macaranga schweinforthii and xylopia eminii; small trees of no timber value. The peculiar montane swamps of Kigezi dominated by Syzygium cordatuns should also be included here. Palm swamps contained Phoenix reclianta (wild date), Elaeis guineensis (oil palm) or Raphia monbuttorim are found at medium altitudes and the climbing rather cane, Calamus decratus, grows in some forest swamps.

Limited areas of seasonal swamp forest occur throughout the medium altitude forests. The seasonal waterlogging appears to offer particular difficulties to tree growth, and even within forested areas the vegetation is often rather scrubby.

2.7.2 RANGE RESOURCES

Both the domestic livestock and the game animals of Uganda are dependent on unimproved rangelands grazing. The semi-natural communities that make up this resource are therefore of considerable economic importance, and since the distributions of domestic livestock, game and range types are inter-related they are shown together on a single map.

1) Mountain Grassland

Grass savannas with abundant Andrepogon distachyus Exotheca abyssinica and Hyparrhemia cymbaria have developed at altitudes of 7,000 to 10,000 feet in the North East as a result of burning and grazing. Valuable Penniseturu clandestinous grazing is found in the more favoured situations in southern Kigezi which previously supported moist montane forest. At the higher altitudes the high mntane moorland offers a certain amount of grazing. However,

24 owing to the coldness and remoteness of the moorlands it is unlikely that they could support more than the occasional itinerant grazier.

2. Loudetia Kagerensis

Loudetia Kagerensis dominates two distinct communities both of which occur on poor soils. The first is found on excessively drained old lauishine sands in .

The second community occurs on limited areas of skeletal soils between altitudes of 5,000 and 7,500 feet in Kigezi and Ankole under rainfalls of 34 to 65 inches a year. The composition is variable. On the poorer soils Londetia Kagerensis is associated with Eragrostis sp Microchloa indica and sporophus sp. While patches of Exotheca, abyssinica, Melinis spp and Pleridium aguilinum are found on pockets of deeper soils.

a) Forest Reserves

Only five forest reserves are found in Kabale District. These are: Mafuga, Kiirima, Muko, Echuya and the Kabale plantations. b) Location and sizes

Mafuga, Kiirima, Muko and Echuya forest reserves are situated in the northwestern part of the Kabale District.

Mafuga is found in Rubanda County in Kabale district with a bigger part in ; Kiirima forest reserve is found in Ndorwa and Rukiiga counties in Kabale District and while Echuya forest reserve is located in Rubanda County and partly in Bufumbira County in and the Kabale plantations are located within Kabale Municipality.

On the next page is a summary of the road distances to Kabale Central, counties, types of forest reserves and the area covered by the reserves.

Reserve Road Distance County Type of Forest Total area (ha) (km) Mafuga 32 Kinkizi/Ruband Industrial 2,670 a Plantation Kiirima 25 Ndorwa/Rukiig " 1,028 a Echuya 48 Rubanda/Bufu Bamboo 3,405 partly in mbira Kisoro district Kabale within Kabale Kabale Eucalyptus pole 116

25 Plantation Municipality and fuel plantation

Note: The industrial plantations in Mafuga, Kiirima and Muko are mainly softwood plantations with species of pines and cyprus such as Pinus patula, Pinus radiata, and other pines.

c) Status

No cases of encroachment are reported in the industrial softwood plantations and in the Echunya Forest reserve although some cases of encroachment are reported in the swamp block of Kabale plantations.

In the Kabale plantations there is one person with an illegal land title and some farmers sneaked in the reserve and opened up some gardens.

These gardens are being planted with eucalyptus. Illegal pitsawing is not serious in Kabale district although some few trees were illegally sown in Kiirima Forest reserve.

Illegal grazing especially in the evenings weekends and holidays is reported in all reserves while Bamboo thefts are prevalent in Echunya Forest reserve due to its long boundary line.

There are also reports of illegal pole cutting in Kabale plantations especially on weekends and holidays..

Pests and diseases also exist in the reserves. Both the pine and cyprus aphid can be seen in the reserves. Moles are a menace in Mafuga; Baboons are a danger in mafuga while monkeys damage young crops in Kiirina forest reserve. Fungal diseases are also recorded and there is dumping off Podocarpus hilanjians.

There's also debarking of Cypress trees to get the bark used to thatch bee hives in Mafuga, Kiirima and Muko, this leads to the death of the trees. d) Production

Production is mainly by pitsawyers and sawmillers. Below is a summary of total production of pitsawyers and sawmillers in the period between July 1992 to June 1993.

Total production by both pitsawyers and sawmillers of roundwood overbark:

Reserve Pitsawyers M3 Sawmillers M3 Total M3 Mafuga 3,771.890 345.34 4,117.230 Kiirima 916.254 1,301.638 2,217,892 Muko 310.753 763.263 1,074.016

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e) Labour

It is hard to establish the number and percentage of the population that is currently employed by the forest reserves because falling of trees is done by pitsawyers and sawmillers with licences.

On the next page is a summary of the staff/workers employed by the Forest Department as at 30/6/94

Group Employees: Industrial Plantations Forest guards 23 Mafuga 90 Office staff 4 Kiirima 42 Other Group Employees/workers 48 Drivers 2 75 162

Natural Forest:

Echuya : 15 workers

1. Revenue Collection

In the July 1992 - June 1993 period, total revenue collected was shs 23,179,727 while total expenditure on wages was 16,916,731 on traditional Forest work.

The Forest Rehabilitation Project spent shs. 21,285,539 on industrial softwoods using IDA funds, and shs. 10,855,758 on Natural forest work by the Natural forest management and conservation Project funded by EEC.

Table... Summary or revenue collection per month from pitswayers and saw millers for 1992/1993.

Month Pitsawyers Sawmillers Others Total (roundwood) (Roundwood) July 1992 751.201 - 58,140 809,341 August 332,654 151,197 24,640 498,491 September 710,244 - 37,000 747,244 October 509,984 69,401 75,600 654,985 November 1,276,322 120,000 35,000 1,431,322

27 December 401,445 - 112,500 513,945 January 1993 1,057,254 - 2,332,000 3,389,254 February 126,560 300,000 249,584 676,144 March 1,078,078 - 304,800 1,382,878 April 2,918,134 - 198,900 3,117,124 May 1,779,807 1,190,113 64,000 3,033,920 June 5,945,323 796,356 183,400 6,925,079 16,877,006 2,627,067 2,875,654 23,179,727 March 1,078,078 - 304,800 1,382,878

Planting of Trees by Farmers

Following the collapse of the Farm Forestry component, there was a great reduction in extension nurseries. However, the Forestry Department continues to raise seedlings. Below is a breakdown of nursery stock at Kiirima, Mafuga, Muko, Echuya and Kabale plantations as at 30-9-92 and 31-9-93. This is the time seedlings were ready for planting.

Station Seedlings as at Seedlings as at Total number of 30/9/92 31/8/93 seedlings for 2 seasons Mafuga 162,288 220,104 384,392 Kiirima 30,800 52,893 83,693 Muko 33,860 36,900 70,760 Echuya 54,446 46,176 100,622 Kabale Plantations 15,378 72,732 88,110

These seedlings were mainly for departmental planting but several were issued outfree and some sold in the Kabale plantation nursery. Several individuals and groups also had private nurseries. The seedlings were mainly Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus robust and Eucalyptus grandis)

Problems

The main problem has been lack of funds, in helping farmers plant their own trees. This has left the extension staff ill equipped, with few people having access t technical advice from the Forestry Department as few places are covered. For example, out of the 16 counties and Kabale municipality, only 8 forests guards on exertion are employed. There is not any

28 professional officer a county level either.

The work of the forest guards includes representing the department of subcounty levels and carrying out general extension work. They help private farmers, groups and organisations to establish their nurseries and management of woodlots. They are also involved in spreading the knowledge of agroforestry.

Plans

The Forestry department is involved in disseminating the knowledge of multi-purpose so that farmers can integrate them in their cropping systems.

ICRAF/AFRENA is helping in on the farm trials of agroforestry. CARE's development through conservation project is doing some work on conservation, education and agroforestry programs in areas neighbouring Bwindi, Impenetrable National park and one forest officer is attached to them on part time basis.

2.8 THE BWINDI IMPENETRABLE NATIONAL PARK

2.8.1 Introduction

The Bwindi Impenetrable forest was originally gazetted in 1932 as Kasatoro Crown Forest and Kayonza Crown Forest. In 1942, the Kasatoro Crown Forest and Kayonza Crown Forest were combined and additional forest was added to establish the Impenetrable Crown Forest (324 km square km). In 1948, about 26 square km were deleted from the reserve and it was regazetted the Impenetrable Central Forest Reserve (298 square km). These gazettings were consolidated in the laws of Uganda in 1951. In 1958 additional small excisions were made in order to shorten the boundaries and make them easier to maintain and patrol. In 1961, it was gazetted as an animal sanctuary.

As of 1961 2 local Forest reserves bordered the Impenetrable; the Bukingi local forest reserve and the Ishaya local forest reserve. In 1966 these 2 local forest reserves were incorporated into the impenetrable central forest reserve.

In August 1991 it was declared a national park. The Bwindi Impenetrable National park is located in Southwest Uganda (Latitude 0053's to 108's; Longitude 290 35'E to 290 50E. It lies on the Zaire border about 29 km north west of Kabale, 18 km north of Kisoro and 40 km southeast of . It is situated in the Rubanda County of Kabale district and Kinkizi county of Rukungiri district. It is located just 25 km north of Mgahinga National Park (Kisoro district). It covers 330 square km of lowland and montane forest.

2.8.2 Natural Features

The impenetrable consists of narrow, very steep sided valleys which run in all directions and are bounded by hill crests lying between 1,400m and 2,600m. The only flat area of any size is Mubwindi swamp.

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The soils of the Impenetrable are derived primarily from Precambrian phyllite of the Karagwe-Ankolean system. In general, the soils are tropical and earths overlain with spongy humus. Clays occur under a layer of peat in the swampy valley bottoms. The soils are of poor structure of moderate of high acidity (ph 2.9 to 5.2) and very deficient in bases and this renders them low in productivity. The impenetrable is an important watch catchment area. It gives rise to several major rivers which flow to the drier country to the north and west of the reserve and to the densely populated agricultural areas to the south. It is a primary source of water for Lakes Edward, Mutanda and Bunyonyi. The impenetrable includes a wide variety of vegetation types that can be classified as: Undifferentiated moist montane forest; moist montane forest; tropical low montane evergreen rainforest; Parinari forest (below 1,500m) and Pygemn moist montane Forest (above 1,500); mixed forest with chrysophythum and moist lower montane forest. In the tall tree stratum (21-37m) the more important trees found include: chrysophylum gorungosanum, entandrophragma excelsium, podocarpus milanjianus, Prunus Africana, Newtonia buchanani, Parinari excelsa and Symphoria globutifera. The less important trees include: Balthasaria Schliebenia Fagaro Macrophylla, Allanblackia floribunda, Ekebergia capensis and ocolea usambarensis.

The trees found in the middle stratum (9-21m) include: Albizia gummifera, Allophyis abyssinicus, Beilschimiedia Ugandensis, Carapa grandiflora, Cassipourea ruwensorensis, Croton macrostachys, Dombeya goetzenii, Drypetes gerrardii, Faurea Saligna, Ficalhoa laurifolia, Guarea Mayombesis, Harungana Madagascarensis, Illex mitis, macaranga Kilimandscharica, Neoboutonia macrocalyx, Olea hochstetteri, Olinia Usambarensis, Polyscias fulva, Dichaetanthera Corymbosa, Strombosia scheffleria, Syzigium guineaus and Tetrorchidium didymostemon. In the lower stratum (0-9m) the trees include: Allophylus macrobotrys, Cyathea deckenii, Psychotria megistosticta, Loberia gibberoa, Myrianthus Lolstii, Rystigymia sp, Tabermaemontane holsti, Teclea mobilis, and xymalos monospora. The Impenetrable has ten tree species that occur nowerhe else in Uganda. They are:Croton bukobensis, strombosiopsis tetrandra, Brazzeia longipedicellata, Grevia mildbradeii, maesobotrya purseglovei, melchiora schliebenii, sylopia standtii, Allanblackia Kimbiliensis, Memechylon sp; and Leplea mayombensis. The only tree species from this park listed as endangered is lovoa Swynnertonii (FAO, 1986)

2.8.3 Fauna

The Bwindi Impenetrable National Park is not only the home to about 320 Mountain gorillas- half the world's population of mountain gorillas, but it is one of the richest forests in East African for birds and probably many other taxa including mammals and butterflies. The park has about 360 bird species and about 21 species of large mammals.

Bird's checklist: African Green Broadbill Pseudocalyptomena graveri Chaprin's Flycatcher Musicicapa Lendu Graner's Swamp Warbler Bradypterms graneri Crested Crane Balerica regulorum Gray-backed Camaraoptera Cameroptera bevicandata Black cuckoo-shrike Campephaga Sulphurata

30 Joyful Greenbul Chlorocichla laestissima Europea hobby Falco Subbuteo Brown-headed parrot Poicephalus Cryptoxanthus Harrier Hawk Polyboroides typus Gray Parrot Psittacus erithacus Buff-spotted crake Sarothrura elegans

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Rare or Vulnerable

The large mammals include: Elephants, mountain gorillas, chimpanzees, sitatunga, the giant forest hog, bush pigs, bush bucks, yellow backed duikers, black fronted duikers, black and white colobus, blue monkeys, hoest monkeys, red tailed monkeys, about 4 species of bush babies (galagos) and about 4-5 species of cats.

2.8.4 Management

The Bwindi Impenetrable National Park is staffed by 4 wardens; 2 camp keepers and 36 rangers. The management of the Impenetrable is assisted by the Institute of Tropical forest conservation (ITFC); and the CARE International in Uganda and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF-US) through their programme aimed at assisting in the integration of rural development and the conservation of forest resources in south western Uganda when Bwindi was still an Animal Sanctuary, there were a lot of conflicts of interests. When it became a national park in 1991, the community viewed this as a total insult. There had to be no access into the forest by the community and this resulted into some violence for example by burning some areas of the forest. However, the beekeepers met the Uganda National park's officials to establish some understanding on how they could still carry out beekeeping in the National Park. It was during that time, that the idea of multiple use activity was initiated too. This multiple use activity allows only a few sustainable resources to be used by the surrounding community and at the same time it allows the management and the community to discuss any problems affecting them. This has created good relationship between the management and the community and has reduced the level of crops raids from the animals in the park. This has thus given the park an opportunity to integrate the community into the management of the resources in the National Park. Illegal activities such as poaching, grazing, gold mining and pitsawying have thus reduced. However, the Park animals are reportedly causing a lot of damage to the peasants' crops. The most raided crops by the Park animals include beans, sorghum, maize, Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes and peas. Baboons, monkeys, rodents and seasonally the elephants are the most dangerous animals to the peasant's crops around Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. The chimpanzee are not yet crop raiders but the Park management is not sure for how long the chimpanzees will keep off from the crops. So currently, the peasants are demanding that the Uganda National Parks pays cash compensation for the crops destroyed by the animals and to position vermin guards on the borders between the farms and the national park.

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2.8.5 Biotic and economic values

The dense vegetative cover of the Impenetrable prevents soil erosion on its steep mountain slopes and this also protects water courses and lakes from siltation.

The Impenetrable is an important water catchment source of several major rivers flowing to Lakes Edward, Mutanda and Bunyonyi and the drier agricultural areas to the north and west.

The Impenetrable is by far the largest track of natural forest in south western Uganda and is a sample of vegetation which once covered nearly all of Kabale, Kisoro and Rukungiri districts. It is the only forest in East Africa and one of the few in Africa, where contiguous forest vegetation extends from 1,160 to 2,600 metres a.s.l. As a result of this altitudinal range, the species diversity of the Impenetrable is exceptionally high. It's one of the richest forests in Africa in terms of plant and animal species and harbours a number of rare and endangered species not found elsewhere in East Africa. It is thus an important evolutionary factory and storehouse of genetic wealth - a potential source of new foods, fibres and drugs as well as knowledge.

The is in danger of extinction. Mountain gorillas occur only in the Virunga volcanoes of Rwanda, Zaire and Uganda in the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. Other species of non-human primates occur in the Impenetrable. They include the chimpanzee (which is listed as vulnerable to extinction" in IUCN Red Data Book).

The Impenetrable offers a number of unique and interesting attractions for tourists besides the mountain gorilla and other large mammals. These include an exceptional mountain scenery, rich array of montane and lowland forest flora and fauna, and a comfortable climate. It has the potential of becoming a major tourist attraction and thus a source of local income and foreign exchange.

2.8.6 Conservation Efforts

Since 1986, there has been tremendous progress in the conservation of the Impenetrable. It has been the focus of numerous conservation efforts that reach far beyond the borders of the forest.

The institute of Tropical Forest Conservation(ITFC)

The original Impenetrable Forest Conservation Project established in 1986 became in 1991 the Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation committed to conservation activities in and around the Bwindi-Impenetrable and Mgahinga National Parks.

- ITFC works closely with National Parks and the Uganda government in the training and support of Park wardens and rangers.

- It is involved in the training of Ugandan students and government counterparts.

33

- Monitoring of the forest's gorillas.

- Provision of equipment/development of infrastructure for meeting,s workshops and administration.

Funding for this project comes mainly from WWF-International and USAID.

2.9 WILDLIFE IN KABALE

With increase in human population and human impact on Kabale's environment, both habitat and the dependent fauna were affected. The responses of those fauna to man's impact on the environment are varied but not unpredictable. Some species disappeared, many decreased in number, a few were introduced and others became adapted to a man modified environment; alot more remain poorly known.

The different wildlife species identified in this chapter are those present in the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park which gives a good representation of Kabale district. The Impenetrable Forest is a continuous from lowland to montane forest. Due to its sizes altitudinal range, and widely role as a pleistocene refugium, the impenetrable forest is characterised by a great diversity of plant and animal species with a number of regional endemics.

Bwindi supports at least 120 species of mammal, making it one of the most prominent forests in African in terms of mammalian species, richness.

There are seven species of divuranal primates, namely mountain gorilla, chimpanzee, blue monkey, red tailed monkey, black and white colobus, baboon and I'hoests monkey. Nocturnal primate species are the Potto, demidoff's galago and the needle clawed galago. A high conservation priority has historically been placed on this forest due to the presence of the endangered mountain gorilla.

Both leopard and buffalo were exterminated from Bwindi in the recent past; records indicate their persistence in the south sector o the park until the early 1970's. Elephants number no more than 23 within the forest, having suffered extensively from poaching in the past. Other mammals present within the forest include bushpig, giant forest hog, black fronted duiker, yellow-backed druiker, clawless otter, golden cat, side stripped jackal, civet, genet and numerous species of bat and rodent. BINP supports at least 346 bird species, of which 182 are typical forest species, and several are regional endemic species. Seven species are listed in the red data book of the international council for bird preservation.

There are at least 14 snake species, 27 species of frogs and toads, 6 chameleon and 14 species of lizards, skunks and gauchos which occur in Bwindi. Butterflies are the most conspicuous

34 of the rich insect fauna of the impenetrable forest, with 202 species identified this far.

Invertebrates

Apart from an inventory of butterflies and an inventory of moths currently being carried out, no other major invertebrate studies have been conducted in BINP. Nine families of butterfly are known to occur in the park. These include a total of more than 60 genera and at least 202 species. Of these, at least 8 species are endemic to the Albertan Rift and two are Red Data Book species (Omoding, 1992). There is urgent need to carry out detailed invertebrate inventories in BINP.

Vertebrates

In common with Uganda's western afromontane forests, there is meagre data available on the herpetrofauna of BINP. Some recent field work has, however been carried out in Bwindi (Oraves et al, 1992, Green 1992) and 28 species of amphibian belongings to four families have been recorded in the forest. Four species of amphibian: Afrixalus laevis, A. osoriori, ptychadena chrysogaster, and petropedetes sp are new records for Uganda. The latter found in Mubwindi Swamp is likely to be new science as the genus las until recently have been to known to occur only in West Africa. Evidence suggests that amphibian domesticity within the park increases with increasing elevation.

BINP was a rich montane reptile fauna: 14 species each of lizard and snake, which combines both western and eastern African faunal components. BINP is the only definite locality recorded in Uganda for the chameleon (chameleon adolfifriderici). The black marked green tree snake (Dipsadoboa unicolor) recorded in the park may either represent a new species or in distinctly different from that taxon as usually described.

Birds

1. General Bwindi is one of the few protected areas where in montane, medium altitudes, and lowland forest occur in a continuum, accounting in part for the high diversity of bird species recorded in the park. During the glacial periods, montane forest is thought to have been restricted to areas of high elevation in the region with those areas which remained forested serving as important refugia for mountain forest birds. Additionally the periodic isolation of the forests in the region from other montane African forests, such as those in West Africa, has encouraged speciation of montane forest birds. BINP consequently harbours one of the richest forest avifauna in East Africa. The total amounts to mere than 346 bird species (Kalina & Butyriski, 1992) more than 180 of which are true forest species.

There are no known bird species endemic to the forest, but Bwindi does have one endemic subspecies, the black-backed apalis (Apalis refogularis Kigezi) (Keith, 1980). Twenty one species are considered endemic to the Albertan Rift Afromontane region (Kalina & Buyriski, 1992). The lowland forest component in the north sector of the park has a higher species count of 105 than the montane clement with 70 species, but in comparison with other areas of African lowland forest, the count is low (Keith 1980). Species such as the double - toothed

35 barbet (Lybius bidentatus) and the snowy headed robin chat (cossypha nivcicapilla) are only seen in the north sector of the park (lowland area). In contrast, species such as Narina's trogon (Apaloderma narina) and Shelley's crimson-wing (cryptospiza shelleyi) have only been seen in the south (highland) sector of the park. ii) Rare Species

Of the 346 bird species recorded in the forest, six are regarded as under the threatened in ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book (Collar & Stuart, 1985; see Appendix) the six are forest species (Keith et al; 1969), the exception being Craners Swamp (Bradypterus graveri). Four are endemic to the East Congo montane region (Dows & Dowsett, 1990), the exception being chapins flycatcher (Muscicapa lendes) iii) Raptors

Twenty nine of the 346 bird species found in BINP are raptors. The parks altitude contributes to the domesity of the habitat types found in Bwindi which in turn supports an abundant supply of rupture prey species, fostering a high rupture diversity. As in other forests, rupture population density is low in the park although it increases as migration in creases. Common species such as the augur buzzard are estimated at 1-15 birds/km2 and others such as the Crowned eagle at 0.02 birds/km2. For a full account or rapton species and their ecology, see Muhwezi (1989, 1991).

Mammals i) General Within the 330 km2 of BINP, 101 species of mammals have been recorded and apparently 120 species are though to occur (Butyriski, 1984; Alper, 1994). Of these, the majority of them are small mammals, while larger mammals include give antelope species.

BINP is one of the few forests with ten species of primates and the only which supports Mountain Gorillas and Chimpanzees. Mammals of limited distribution include the Crawshays have )(Lepus craneshay), and the tree Pangolin. For a full account of the mammal species in BINP, see Butynski/ 1984). ii)Small Mammals

It is estimated that there are 11 species of insectivore in Bwindi, 49 rodent species and a species of bat (Alper, 1994). Rodents constitute the majority of terrestrial mammals.

Several small mammals are limited in distribution, for example the Delany's Mouse (Delanyns brooski). The brown mouse/lophuronys Woosnami) is limited to the Virungas, Bwindi and Rwenzori forests, it is sensitive to habitat changes and not found outside the forest.

Some savannah small mammals such as the striped grass mouse (Limnisrongys stratus) occur at the forest edge.

36 iii. Large Mammals

Domesticity of large mammals is high in BINP. The area is believed to support some of the rarest species of forest mammals in Africa (Kingdom, 1971). Some of the large mammal species known to be in existence include the black fronted duiker (cephalophus sp), the forest hog (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni), yellow backed duiker (cephaloplus slyvicultor), the bush buck (Tragephalus scriptus) the elephant (loxodonta africana). The Buffalo (Syncerus caffer) and leopard (panthera pardus) are now extinct within the park.

There is little information on the history and abundance to harge mammals in BINP. Based upon knowledge of BINP habitat and the ecological requirements of the above large mammals,it is reasonably certain that they were once widely distributed throughout the forest. At present, the elephant, giant forest hog, and bush buck do not occur below 1800m above sea level (Butyriski, 1984). The elephant is restricted to the Bamboo zone, Mubwindi Swamp, and the surrounding forest, a total area of approximately 61km2, or 19% of the park. The bushbuk and giant forest hog are found only in the vicinity of Mubwindi Swamp, and the surrounding forest, a total area of approximately 61km2, or 19% of the park. The bushbuck and giant forest hog are found only in the vicinity of Mubwindi swamp while the two species of duiker and the bush pig occur throughout the park.

The population densities of all large mammals are very low and certainly below the carrying capacity of the park. Recent studies indicate that not more than 23 elephants survive in BINP (Babaasa, 1994) and Buyrisky (1984) suggested that the present low density is a result of extensive poaching in the past rather than habitat disturbance. iv. Primates

Ten species of primate occur in BINP, seven diurnal and three nocturnal species. Diurnal species include: Mountain gorilla (Corilla goriall beringei), Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), blue monkey (cercopithecus mitis), red tailed monkey (cercopithecus ascanius), black and white colobus (Colobus abyssinians), baboon (papio anubis), and L'Hoests monkey (cercopithecus L'Hoesti). Three of these are RBD species: the mountain gorilla is endangered and both L'Hoests monkey and the chimpanzee are vulnerable to extinction. Nocturnal primate so BINP include the potto (perodicticus potto), demidoffs galago (Galago demidovii), and the needle claimed galago (Galago inustus).

BINP supports close to half of the worlds remaining critically endangered mountain gorillas. Recent census suggests that the population counts of approximately 280 individuals (Butyuski, 1990) occurs in the Viunga volcanus. The closest distance between the two forests is 20 kilometres and there has been no connection between the two populations since the forests were separated by cultivation circa 500 years ago. The existence of the Bwindi population of mountain gorillas has been one of the prime motivations for protection of the forest by the governmental and non-governmental agencies that have been involved in management of the area overtime.

Red tailed monkeys are the most abundant primate in the park, but are restricted to lower altitudes, where as blue monkeys are the most widely distributed (Buyoki, 1984). It is notable

37 that all monkeys are most abundant on the periphery of the park and along the roads while gorillas and, to a lesser extent, chimpanzees strongly favour the forest interior (Butyiski, 1984).

Threatened bird species in the Impenetrable Forest

SPECIES COMMON NAME CATEGORY OF SIGHTINGS IN THREAT BINP Bradypterus graveri Cravers Swamp Vulnerable Swamps-Mubwindi warbler Pseudocalyptomena African Creen Rare Mubwindi - Ruhisa graueri Broadbill Muscicapa Lendu Chapiris Flycatcher Rare 2 sightings only (1 at Kitahurisa) Indicator pomilio Pygmy Honey guide Near threatened 1500-2130m (1 in Bamboo zone) Cryptospisa shelleyi Shelley's Near threatened Buhoma-Mubwindi crimsonwing Turdus Tanganjkae Kivu Ground Thrush Near threatened Buhoma

The categories of threat are defined by Collar & Struant (1985) as follows:

Vulnerable - Taxa believed likely to move into the endangered category in the near future if the causal factors continue operating.

Rare- Taxa with small world population that are not at present endangered or vulnerable; but are at risk/the risk commonly being merely in function of range restriction).

Near threatened - species which were not considered by the authors to be in any of the above categories but which they consider to merit maintains in order to be certain.

Tourism Programme

Immediately following official gazettement of BINP in August of 1991, Uganda National Parks began planning a tourism program offering gorilla tracking and other ecotourism activities in Bwindi. In order to develop a sustainable tourism programme based upon conservation principles, UNP requested assistance from the International Gorilla Conservation Programme (ICICP) for the development of the BINP Tourism Development Plan (TDP). This document was researched, produced and subsequently approved by UNP and the Ministry of Tourism, Wildlife & Antiquities in July, 1992. The plan mandates that tourism shall be developed in a manner that is sustainable, of low environmental impact, of benefit to local communities, of benefit to conservation, and economically viable in the

38 national context (IGCP, 1992)

International Gorilla Conservation Program (IGCP) 1991 - Present

Background

In June, 1991, the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF), World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), and the Fauna and Flora preservation society (FFPs) launched a joint programme with the governments of Uganda, Zaire and Rwanda - the international Gorilla Conservation Programme (IGCP)

Objectives:

IGCP aims at further conservation of primates and higher altitude forest habitat in eastern Zaire western Uganda, and Rwanda, encouraging international cooperation in management and development of these regional resources.

Objectives:

IGCP aims to further conservation of primates and higher altitude forest habitat in eastern Zaire, western Uganda, and Rwanda encouraging international cooperation in management and development of these regional resources.

Activities

1. BINP Tourism Development Plan

In response to a request from the Ministry of Tourism, Wildlife & Antiquities, IGCP produced a Tourism Development Plan for Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in June, 1992. This plan, reflects the growing interest in nature tourism in Uganda, and emphasises that gorilla tourism must be properly supervised and controlled. ii. Tourism Development Project

The plan was formally approved by the Government of Uganda and in December, 1992, IGCP undertook its implementation in collaboration with Uganda National Parks. Most of the aspects dealing with tourism development in Part Two and three of this document come directly from the Tourism Development Plan.

2.9.1 TOURISM

In 1993, the forest opened to controlled eco-tourism and gorilla viewing. The tourism project is now working with National Parks, local governments and local people to establish a system

39 for distributing 20% of tourism revenues to local communities.

Development through conservation project (DTCP)

The primary goal of this project is to help integrate the lives of local people with conservation of the forest. Activities include:

- Conservation education and agroforestry programs, including establishment of more than 150 tree nurseries and 600 woodlots.

- Surveys to collect baseline data on status, needs and agricultural practices of local communities.

- In collaboration with ITFC, undertakes biological inventories and ethnobotanical surveys.

- Working closely with national parks in developing multiple-use activities in the Bwindi-impenetrable forest.

- In collaboration with ITFC, National Parks and local communities to develop the first detailed management plan for the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park.

The Project was initiated by several groups and is support by USAID

- Working closely with national parks in developing multiple-use activities in the Bwindi impenetrable forest.

- In collaboration with ITFC, national parks and local communities to develop the first detailed management plan for the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. The project was initiated by several groups and is supported by USAID.

The Bwindi Impenetrable Forest Conservation Trust:

The trust is meant to generate funds that support projects designed to conserve biodiversity in Bwindi Impenetrable and Mgahinga forests. It was established with funding from World Bank.

The Community Reproductive Health Project:

The project was initiated to assist the Ministry of Health in introducing family planning services to districts around the Bwindi Impenetrable and Mgahinga forests. This is because population policy, family planning and health issues are intimately related to the conservation of forests and their wildlife. Several organisations from within and outside Uganda are involved in this project and include United Nations Population Fund, Family Planning Association of Uganda, CARE and USAID.

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3.0 THE HUMAN ENVIRONMENT AND LAND USE

3.1 LAND USE AND THE HUMAN POPULATION

3.1.1 Ethnic Composition

Kabale district is predominantly occupied by the Bakiga. However there are a few other ethnic groups also found in the district. These are mainly the Banyarwanda and . However, there are no records available about where the tribes are settled and in what numbers.

3.1.2 Population Density

The district is one of the most densely populated in Uganda with an overall land density of 246 persons per square kilometre (Population and Housing census, 1991), which amongst rural districts is exceeded only by the neighbouring Kisoro district. The probable reasons for the high population density include a good climate, fertile soils, the high fertility of women and in the past the absence of disease agents for diseases like malaria. Kabale district is predominantly rural and agriculture is the main activity of the population. Only 7% of the population is urban and the rest is rural.

Ikumba county is the least densely populated with about 120 persons per square kilometre while the subcounties that make up Kabale municipality are the most densely populated with about 620 persons per square kilometre.

3.1.3 Age-Sex distribution

The age group distribution indicates a high proportion of children (about 56% of the population) and quite a high dependency (about 50% under 15 or over 65 years of age). In the Housing and Population census 1991, the district recorded more female than males. About 53% of the population is female.

County Male Female Total Kabale Municipality 13,994 15,252 29,246 Ndorwa 72,556 80,671 153,227 Rubanda 69,181 78,531 147,712 Rukiga 41,964 45,069 87,033

41 Total 197,695 219,523 417,218 Source: Statistics Department, Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning.

3.1.4 Migration

Organised out migration started in 1948, decreasing from the 1970's. The migrant Bakiga moved out of the district in search of more land for agriculture. Their main destinations included Kinkizi, Kikagati, Rwampara and Kabuyanda. From 1945 up to the end of the colonial period, the government encouraged migration and some district officials were empowered to carry out reconnaissance trips to certain areas to earmark good land for the bakiga. There is still a resettlement officer in the district charged with resettling applicants to Kagadi in Kibale district. In those early days of the Bakiga migration land was given out freely but from the 1960's onwards, the Bakiga paid for the land wherever they went and more distant destinations were identified such as Bukanga, Ibanda, Kamwengye, Mubende, Kagadi and Kibale and other places in Tooro and Bunyoro.

Only small groups migrated to Zaire and Tanzania. In 1991, about 31,000 migrants moved at a go from Kabarole to after forest conservation measures were made very stringent in the part of Kabarole where they were living. With the exception of the arrival of a large number of Banyarwanda who fled the famine in Rwanda in 1942, no large scale movement of people into Kabale district is reported. The Bayarwanda settled in Muko and Bufundi sub-counties and some later migrated with the Bakiga to other destinations outside the district.

3.1.5 Population Growth

The earlier census records of 288,602 in 1969 and 328,757 in 1980 imply intercensal annual growth rates of 1.3% between 1969-1980 and 2.2% between 1980-1991. These growth rates are lower than the national averages ( 2.7 and 2.5 respectively) owing to post out migration from the district. The population of the district is projected to be around 630,000 by the year 2000 and about 750,000 by 2005. Concerted efforts, improved infrastructure and reduced child mortality are likely to lead to higher growth rates. The causes of child mortality in the district in the order of importance are; Respiratory infection's (43%); Malaria (28%); Diarrhoeal diseases (12%); Traumas and injuries (8%); Measles (2%); Anaemia (0.9%); Nutritional deficiencies (0.9%); Tuberculosis (0.9%); Complications of pregnancy (0.4%) and AIDS or HIV infections (0.1%).

Efforts by government and non governmental organisations to improve health services and facilities has contributed much to the reduction of infant mortality.

3.2 WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS

The water supplies system existing in the district heavily depends on natural resources some of which are considered unsafe. The district has about 1319 protected springs with 271 tap

42 stands, about 136 boreholes and about 15 gravity flow schemes (see table). But out of the 136 boreholes only 76 are operational.

The gravity flow schemes use the rain harvesting technique and the water from the gravity flow schemes is considered safe. Other sources of supplies relied upon in the district include unprotected springs, open wells, small dams, streams, rivers and lakes. These other sources are considered unsafe, and serve about 42% of the population. Most of the water resources in the district are reliable both in the wet and dry season. There are some few springs that dry up during the dry season but these are being improved on by constructing ferro cement tanks to store extra water during the dry season which can be released when the flow declines. It is believed by water authorities that there is no serious water resource problem in the provision of portable water to most areas but at times the terrain limits the provision of this water to some hilly areas.

In some instances like when gravity flow schemes are being set up, the local communities are expected to contribute their labour and at times some little money. But because the local community are poor and cannot afford to pay for the maintenance costs of the schemes, the provision of safe water becomes a bit difficult. There is also lack of staff to mobilise the local communities and in particular the technical staff involved in the construction work are also few. Inadequate inflow of materials to the district at times also hinders the progress of provision of safe drinking water. Only a few materials are provided by donors like UNICEF.

3.2.1 Livestock water supplies

Although Kabale district has relatively abundant natural water sources, the number of watering points for livestock is not known. In fenced farms the watering points are usually organised while in other places especially valleys, the streams through these valleys are used as livestock watering points. The district does not have a significant number of valley tanks and dams although a few exist in Kamwezi sub-county. In Kibanda parish (Kamwezi sub- county). the animals walk long distances in search for water and as such some tracks are created along their paths. In some areas siltation is recorded, as a result of overstocking and direct watering of livestock at the watering points. Although these watering points are used by livestock, there are popular sources of water for people who live in these areas.

3.2.2 Constraints

The provision of safe and reliable water for both human and animal consumption is a necessity for the development of the district. Only about 56% of the boreholes drilled in the district are operational and only 18% of the population in rural areas has access to safe drinking water.

Poor health resulting from drinking contaminated water has a negative bearing on the productivity of the rural population.

The problem of rapid environmental degradation around water points especially in the dry

43 seasons in area with high densities of livestock population especially in Kamwezi sub-county, is a likelihood.

This concentration of livestock around water points leads to rapid proliferation of livestock diseases.

Mechanical problems with pumps and the associated equipment are common in some areas with boreholes and because of a shortage of trained maintenance personnel and transport problems, repairs take long.

Table: Water Supply System per Sub-county

SUB-COUNTY POPULATION NUMBER OF NUMBER OF G.F.S. R.W.T. (1991) PROTECTED HAND PUMPS SPRINGS

Kashambya 22,162 71 6 1 0

Rwamucucu 23,668 65 8 3 4

Kamwezi 22,689 52 43 0 0

Bukinda 18,514 66 9 0 0

Kaharo 17,431 86 2 0 0

Maziba 18,759 84 3 0 0

Kyanamira 18,567 88 4 0 0

Buhara 24,642 58 6 1 1

Kitumba 14,618 73 3 1 0

Rubaya 34,508 65 0 1 3

Kamuganguzi 24,702 57 2 2 0

Muko 30,898 91 2 1 3

Ikumba 25,704 108 10 0 0

Hamurwa 22,055 79 11 0 0

Bufundi 29,151 120 0 1 0

Bubare 39,904 120 4 1 7

Municipalityb 29,246 36 23 3 2

G.F.S. =Gravity Flow Schemes R.W.T.= Rain Water Tanks

3.3 HOUSING

b includes all the 3 sub-counties of Kabale municipality

44

3.3.1 Housing Situations

Urban centres

Kabale municipality is the only designated urban centre in Kabale district.

Most of the houses found in kabale municipality are detached house which are owner occupied. Most of these houses are 10 years and above by age and are normally made of pole and mud as the wall material with rammed earth as the floor material. Most of these houses are roofed with iron sheets. Housing construction in Kabale municipality is dominated by the private sector. In some parts of the municipality especially around Kabale town most people live in rented rooms corresponding to tenements. Some of these houses have poor sanitary facilities and lack adequate ventilation. This has an adverse effect on the environment especially as far as domestic waste disposal is concerned. These houses are prone to such hazards as fire and outbreaks of disease epidemics.

According to the 1991 population and housing census Kabale municipality has a total population of 29,246 out of which 13,994 are males and 15,252 are females.

Rural Housing

Rural housing may be adequate in terms of numbers but not of adequate quality. At times there is only one opening to make a door and often the houses (or huts) have no windows. The majority of the population is rural areas (more than 90%) live in detached houses (or huts). Most of these houses are occupied by their owners and the age of most of these houses is 10 years and above. Most of these houses are made of mud and wattle as the wall material and grass as the roof material although some are often roofed with iron sheets. Rammed earth is widely used as floor material.

3.3.2 Household facilities

Source of Energy

95.2% of the population of Kabale district depend on firewood for cooking. 4% on charcoal and a mere 0.1% on electricity or gas. For lighting, 96% use paraffin and only 0.4% use electricity or gas (Population & Housing Census, 1991)

Water Source

A greater percentage (505%) of the population in Kabale use water from protected wells. 5.4% get their water from boreholes and a mere 0.4% have access to piped water sources. facilities

According to the population and housing census (1991) 93% of the population live in

45 detached houses, 4% are in semi-detached houses, only 1% are in tenants or mizigo and another 1% live in huts.

Of the households living in different housing type 7% live in one roomed houses, 18.3% live in 4 roomed houses, 23% in three roomed, 38% in four roomed, 9% in five roomed and 5.4% in six or more roomed houses.

93% of the dwelling units are built using rammed earth. 50% of the houses are roofed with iron sheets and a mere 0.3% are roofed with clay tiles.

3.4 ENERGY SUPPLY SYSTEMS

3.4.1 Wood fuel

Firewood is the major source of energy in the district. It provides more than 90% of the energy requirements of most households in the district . It is mainly used for cooking and lighting. It is becoming less available in most rural areas. It is usually got from forests, bushes or trees that are cut and used in form of twigs, branches and trunks. The use of charcoal is limited to won and its consumption has been on the increase. Most of the charcoal is burnt outside the town and its consumption has been on the increase. Most of the charcoal is burnt outside the town and is transported to town usually on foot. Charcoal is a source of revenue for the district treasury. Dues (taxes) are imposed on the charcoal sellers by the local authorities. The ban restricting charcoal production was never effected mainly because the majority of the urban dwellers depend on charcoal for cooking and heating. In some rural areas where most of the tree cover has been lost agricultural residues such as maize stems and sorghum stalks are used as a source of energy. But this is undesirable because it deprives the soils of a major source of nutrients. The high demand for woodfuel has resulted in destruction of many indigenous forests in the district. Some valuable trees such as blackwattle (Acacia mearnsii) have been lost and besides this serious soil erosion is already being experienced. Some hills are bare and have exposed rocks thus restricting agriculture and settlement in such places. The district authorities are emphasising planting of useful trees for example for nitrogen fixing, fruits, shade, pasture, hedge, wood and its products and planting them in appropriate ares.

3.4.2 Other renewable sources of energy

The use of new and renewable sources of energy in Kabale is very much limited. Direct solar energy is used for drying foodstuffs like beans, maize, peas, sorghum and millet. The use of photoveoltaics would be a viable technology especially in rural areas since there is generally high insolation in the district but its application is hampered by the high cost of devices and systems. The use of wind and biogas as alternative sources of energy is not developed or utilised in the district, although kabale district has a potential for operating windmills.

3.4.3 Petroleum and electricity

46 Petrol, diesel and paraffin (kerosene) are the petroleum sources of energy.

Petrol and diesel are primarily used in transportation although a few small scale industries especially flour mills use diesel to provide power.

Paraffin is mainly used for lighting although a few families in the urban centre use it for cooking. But paraffin is increasingly becoming expensive especially for the rural people and so its use is usually limited to lighting. In the rural areas paraffin is at times not readily available.

Electricity is transmitted from the Owen Falls Dam via Kampala to Kasese then to Kabale through the 33KV line from Kasese.

Another transmission is from the Maziba power station in Kabale district. The station is still under rehabilitation. Currently it can provide 500KW but it is expected to provide 1000 KW (1MW) after rehabilitation. The district is at times experiences power failures. This is mainly because of the long old lines between Kampala and Kabale. Kabale being at the end of the line, any disturbance along the line affects electricity supply to Kabale. The district is also vulnerable to load shedding but this is mainly due to under capacity at the Owen Falls Dam. It is expected that after the rehabilitation of the Maziba power station, the electricity supply within the district will be stable. The Uganda Electricity Board has built a line between Masaka and Mbarara and plans to build another between Itojo and Mbarara so that power can be got from Mbarara thus ensuring a stable and sufficient electricity supply. The board also plans to improve on the quality of the distribution lines within the district.

There are plans to take power to as a beginning of rural electrocution but due to limited resources power cannot be extended to other rural areas.

3.5 ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

The health of any given population in an area is directly related to the state of the environment in the area. Diseases that affect human health can be borne in air, water or land and are transmitted by various vectors that have different characteristics and habitats within the environment. Programs for improving health conditions in the district, should, therefore aim at achieving a clean and healthy environment.

3.5.1 Morbidity and Mortality

Most of the health problems in Kabale district stem from diseases caused by poor living conditions. There is poor sanitation in homes, about 80% of the rural population use unsafe water, besides there is ignorance and poverty in the district. The leading causes of death are mainly malaria and diarrhoea. These diseases are preventable and can be controlled with improved health facilities and better living conditions. Other diseases affecting the health and productivity of local people in the district are dysentery, tuberculosis and AIDs - related diseases.

47

Malnutrition and lack of clean drinking water and sanitation have led to growth retardation and considerable mortality among the children. According to the 1991 population and Housing Census, the infant mortality rate for Kabale district is 114 per 1000 infants which is below the rational rate of 122 per 1000 infants. Similarly, the district records on early children mortality (1-4 completed year) of 86 per 1000 which is also below the national figure of 93 per 1000. Of 1000 live births, 190 die before they reach the age of 5 years (national figure is 204 out of 1000). These rates are below those of most districts in the country.

The main cause of infant morbidity and mortality is a combination of diarrhoea and malnutrition and the two seem to occur in very close association. Malnourished children have higher incidence of severe diarrhoea leading to dehydration and related mortality. This is especially common in children under five years. The major causes of malnutrition include underfeeding (too little), poor feeding (unbalanced diet), poor weaning practices, infestations and infections like measles, diarrhoea and pneumonia.

To improve the situation, women should be taught the importance of proper nutrition, women should be encouraged to attend antenatal clinics and to have hospital deliveries, immunisation of infants from 0-1 years against childhood diseases like measles and whooping cough should be encouraged, all traditional birth attendants should be registered and trained.

3.5.2 Health Facilities

Public health care in the district, both for the rural and urban population is provided by one hospital, eight Grade I health centres, 2 Grade II health centres and 29 Grade III health centres. There is only one government hospital in the entire district and the doctor to patient ratio is believed to be 1:200. With increasing cases of AIDs related complications in the district, the health facilities are becoming overstretched and inadequate.

The health staff establishment is shown below.

Health staff establishment in Kabale district:

Doctors Midwives Paramedics Support Staff 7 102 39 80

3.5.3 Health Programs

Most of the programs underway aim at combating diseases and reducing the mortality and morbidity in young children and their mothers. These include community Based Health Care programmes, AIDs Control, school health programmes, sexually transmitted diseases, tuberculosis, leprosy and their control, control of diarrhoea, river blindness (onchosiiasis), medical programmes, family planning and nutrition and water quality improvement.

48

These programs are pursued by both non-governmental organisations and the Ministry of Health.

The most notable NGOs involved in health programs in the district are the Community Based Health care which is involved in preventive measures; the Red Cross which handles both Preventive and relief aspects; the African International Christian Ministry (AICM) which is involved in Preventive measures; the African Medical Research and Education Foundation (AMREF) which is involved in school health programmes; and the Cooperative Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE) which is involved in Environmental Protection and Family Planning.

3.5.5 Constraints

There has been a significant improvement in health services in the district. Both the government and non-governmental organisations have instituted several health programs to provide for the immediate health requirements in the district. However, a lot of problems have been limiting proper development of the health services in the district. These include:

- shortage of health personnel - Inadequate transport facilities - Inadequate physical infrastructure like buildings for dispensaries, health centres - shortage of supplies and equipment - Geographical features such as hills make certain health centres inaccessible for example Karu sub-dispensary in Maziba sub-county. This problem of geographical features combined with poverty have led to the use of a locally made stretcher called "Engoozi" in the local language for carrying patients for both short and very long distances. - Poverty and ignorance of the local population have led to low level of community participation. - low morale of the health staff due to poor remuneration.

However, there is the District Health Education Programme which is comprehensive in nature. As a result of this programme; the understanding of the purpose and effectiveness of health facilities in the district has increased among the people; use of safe water is being expanded in the district and better sanitation is being understood by the people; to tackle the problem of poverty, income generating activities have been emphasised such as zero grazing due to land shortage in the district, handicraft making and improved farming techniques. Despite the efforts made by the District Health Education Programme, and other community based health care organisations, a good number of people especially in the rural parts of the district still support traditional medical service in preference to modern practice and some only seek modern medical help when the traditional healers have failed, which is sometimes too late for the patients. Superstitions have even made this worse. For example, denying sick children eggs, milk, meat and not bathing them; not giving a child with diarrhoea fluids, washing a child with measles with cows urine which increases chances of tetanus; avoiding the use of latrines by patients with dysentery which increases its spread.

49 To overcome this, therefore, more efforts and support should be put into the District Health Education Programme and any other community based health care programmes in the district that have been initiated by various organisations.

3.5.6 KABALE DISTRICT HEALTH FACILITIES

NAME COUNTY SUB- GOVT/NON- POPULATION COUNTY GOVT SERVED

1 Kabale Kabale Kabale Government 12393 Municipality Northern

1. Mparo Rukiga Rwamucucu Government 18691

2. Kamwezi Rukiga Kamwezi Government 18770

3. Bukinda Rukiga Bukinda Government 19760

4. Rubaya Ndorwa Rubaya Government 22899

5. Kamuganguzi Ndorwa Kamuganguzi Government 26378

6. Bufundi Rubanda Bufundi Government 17714

7. Muko Rubanda Muko Government 25222

8. Rugarama Kabale Kabale NGO 13533 Municipality Northern

HEALTH CENTRE: GRADE II

1. Buhara Ndorwa Buhara Government 13399 2. Kaharo Ndorwa Kaharo Government 18607

HEALTH CENTRE: GRADE III 1. Ibumba Rukiga Rwamucucu Government 6876

2. Kyogo Rukiga Kamwezi Government 77223

3. Kafunjo Rukiga Kashambya Government 12132

4. Rwanjura Rukiga Government 5866

5. Kashambya Rukiga Kashambya Government 53807

6. Kitanga Rukiga Kashambya NGO 12225

7. Maziba Ndorwa Rubaya Government 10241

8. Karujanja Ndorwa Rubaya Government 11411

9. Kahondo Ndorwa Maziba Government 6721

10. Kakoomo Ndorwa Kitumba Government 15598

11. Habubare Ndorwa Rubaya Government 5044

50 NAME COUNTY SUB- GOVT/NON- POPULATION COUNTY GOVT SERVED 12. Kavu Ndorwa Maziba Government 4127

13. Kitooma Ndorwa Rubaya Government 12603

14. Kahungye Ndorwa Rubaya Government 7859

15. Buhara Ndorwa Buhara NGO

16. Kashasha Rubanda Bufundi Government 7007

17. Hamurwa Rubanda Hamurwa Government 23171

18. Ruhiija Rubanda Bubare Government 6446

19. Kagarama Rubanda Bubare Government 25279

20. Butanda Rubanda Bufundi Government 4575

21 Ikumba Rubanda Ikumba Government 7256

22. Bwindi Bubanda Bubare Government

23. Mugyera Rubanda Bufundi Government 5135

24. Muko Rubanda Muko NGO 20644

25. Rubanda Rubanda NGO 21589

26. Rushoroza Kabale Kabale NGO Municipality Southern

27. Kabale Kabale NGO 14282 Municipality municipality Clinic

28. K.D.A Government 1274

29. Kakutunda NGO

51 3.6 LAND ADMINISTRATION AND TENURE

3.6.1 Land Administration

Kabale district is divided into four counties namely Kabale municipality, Ndorwa, Rubanda and Rukiga. Apparently Rubanda is the largest with a total area of 691 sq.km while the centrally placed Kabale municipality is the smallest with an area of 47 sq.km.

There are 19 sub counties in the district; 3 in the Kabale municipality, 7 in Ndorwa, 5 in Rubanda and 4 in Rukiga county. Further to these the sub counties are sub divided into a total of 116 parishes.

According to the conventional administrative set up, the counties are headed by county chiefs, the sub counties by sub county chiefs and the parishes by the parish chiefs.

However, with the introduction of the Resistance Council (RC) system, the authority at the sub county is shared between the chiefs and the RC III Chairmen and at the parish level between the parish chiefs and the RC II Chairmen.

Table... Counties in Kabale district and the distribution of sub counties and parishes

COUNTY SUB COUNTY PARISHES AREA (SQ.KM)

Kabale Municipality 3 12 47

Ndorwa 7 45 650

Rubanda 5 34 691

Rukiga 4 25 431

Totals 19 116 1,819

3.6.2 Land Tenure a) Like elsewhere in Uganda, land in Kabale district is presently owned under the following tenancy systems.

i) Customary tenure hold ii) Freehold iii) Mailo iv) Leasehold

In Kabale district, mailo tenancy does not exist.

Customary tenure

This is official recognition of the Uganda nationals who by birth have the right to own land without necessarily having it registered with the Registrar of Titles. So far, 1,300km2 (75%) of the land in Kabale district is owned customarily. Only 25% of the land in the district is surveyed and owners issued with certificates of titles.

Freehold tenure

This is tenancy where land is surveyed and registered with the Registrar of Titles and the proprietor has it in perpetuity. Only 2.4% (41.4 km2) of the land is surveyed and owned under this system.

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Leasehold system

This is tenancy where land is surveyed and leased to a tenant for 49 years. The tenant pays annual rent to government and the land is assumed to revert back to Uganda Land Commission at the expiry of the lease period. It is estimated that 22.6% (391.2 km2) have so far been surveyed and leased to the people in different parts of the district.

Recommended tenancy systems for Kabale district.

Studies carried out in the district highly recommend the freehold system as a suitable tenancy system due to the following reasons:-

1. No premium and land rent costs are involved especially realizing that most people live peasantry life and are generally poor.

2. Since small parcels of land are involved freehold system would be some kind of incentive to the small landholders.

3. It is easier to carry out block survey under the freehold than the leasehold.

3.6.3 Land Fragmentation

This is a very serious problem in Kabale district. Land has been fragmented to pieces much smaller than once acre (i.e. 0.4 hectares) and most families live on 3 acres (1.2 hectares) at average. Family members walk as many as 5 km to till their numerous small fragments of land scattered in their locality.

Measures to combat land fragmentation

1. Land Consolidation:

District authorities have launched a program to teach and encourage people to consolidate land. This involves exchanging land that is far away from the homestead with that are near the homestead. They can exchange or sell it.

2. Extensive Rural Land Surveying:

Whereas unsurveyed land can be sold off anyhow, this is not the case with the surveyed land. All surveyed parcels of land are only transacted with the knowledge of the Department of Surveys and Mapping and the Department of Land administration respectively. This gives the land office an opportunity to reject outright any land transactions that will sub divide land into un economically viable parcels.

The Department of Surveys and Mapping has also launched a campaign to educate and convince people to survey land under cooperative societies. This will involve say 40 people in one area forming a cooperative society under which their land can be surveyed, registered and a certificate of title issued. The people under such land title can develop the land as one unit, or every individual may not opt to develop his parcels of land as originally owned.

The main advantage with this system is that land will be surveyed in acreage of about 60 acres (25 hectares) per society. Land surveyed and registered under such an arrangement

53 cannot suffer any further fragmentation. Members in such society will be encouraged to transfer land amongst themselves and hence encouraging further consolidation.

3.7 AGRICULTURE

Agriculture and agricultural related activities are the main occupation of the district. It is estimated that over 90% of the population is engaged in agriculture. The available land for agriculture is estimated to be 1,695 sq.km, while the area under agriculture is estimated to be 1,186 sq.km. The average farm size is 0.5 hectare and the district receives an average rainfall of 1000 mm per year.

3.7.1 Farming systems and crop seasons

The farming patterns are influenced by climate, soils and topography. The farming system is generally a food crop farming system. Agricultural production is subsistence in nature for home consumption with little reserves for sale and agricultural production per unit are is generally low.

There are two growing seasons, according to the two rainy seasons in a year. The first rains are due in February to April and the second in September to December. However, the rains are becoming increasingly unreliable with prolonged dry periods. The bulk of the crops grown are the traditional food crops. The include:-

- sorghum - irish potatoes - sweet potatoes - wheat - beans - vegetables - maize - peas - finger millet

Others include:

- coffee - pyrethrum* - snow peas*

* have recently been introduced and are still grown on a small scale.

The following figures show the estimated yields for the main crops for the period 1986 - 1993. (The figures are in metric tones).

Crop 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

Maize 81856 32496 47560 12208 52997 19936 12208 63490

Finger 24238 3162 4700 4260 4400 1146.5 2000 4500 millet

Wheat 1690 3680 2906 1395.15 - - 1395 4600

Beans 9888 18465 23310 5775 15703 19190 15750 15703

54 Crop 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

Field peas 12486.70 9650 9750 6844 22281 33406 29080 17010

Sweet 327040 150619 29440 18347 187266 267862 236950 18760 potatoes

Irish 84000 55720 67704 1955 317660 475939 145890 158000 potatoes

Bananas 7438.8 176.50 262.08 451 8514 1625 8514 8760

Sorghum 83018 23388 3042 25884.9 37258 29924 25880 37258 Source: Annual Reports File, Kabale district

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3.7.2 Crop marketing

Most of the crops produced are consumed at household level, it is only the surplus that is put to market. Most of the crops are consumed in local markets although some of the food eventually finds its way to urban markets. There is no pricing structure, prices are controlled by the supply and demand of the food and transport to urban centres. Farmers normally hold part of the produce waiting for prices to go up. There are no organised agencies particularly handling the marketing of crops. It is only pyrethrum and snow peas that are grown with the assistance of interest companies.

3.7.3 Agricultural inputs

The agriculture practised in the district involves low capital inputs. There is heavy dependence on family labour, most of whom are women. The terrain of the area and the way the land is fragmented does not favour the use of tractors. There are programmes to train oxen for ploughing. Labour remains a problem. The major agricultural implement is a hoe, some farmers buy improved seed, spray chemicals and implements but they are not readily available in a timely manner.

Agencies handling agricultural inputs are not widely spread. The SWRARP inputs depot and Kigezi vegetables cooperative union both selling inputs are based in Kabale town.

3.7.4 Problems affecting agriculture

The high population density and nature of the terrain have resulted into excessive soil erosion, land fragmentation, cultivation in the same pieces of land without rest. The end result is soil degradation and exhaustion hence low yields.

Un predictable weather conditions, the dry periods are increasingly becoming longer, affecting productivity since there are no irrigation facilities. Another problem that farmers face is the high cost of agricultural inputs in relation to agricultural produce. Farmers can hardly afford fertilizers, spray chemicals, hoes, etc. There is lack of labour. The family labour is comprised of only women, it becomes difficult to carry out timely activities at peak periods, men generally have a lot of leisure. Even where men cooperate, some activities like planting, weeding, harvesting are exclusively for women. There is low level of mechanisation largely because of the nature of the terrain and land fragmentation.

The marketing structure is poor. There is tendency for most farmers to sell at harvest time, when the price is low. They have poor storage facilities and there are thefts of food from granaries. Farmers lack forum to address their problems and participate in policy issues. Because of low production, farmers have less surplus, and are generally poor. Consequently, there is little money to cater for their basic needs.

3.7.5 Implication on Environment

The high population density and the nature of the terrain in Kabale district have led to excessive soil erosion. There is continuous cultivation of land without rest leading to soil degradation and exhaustion thus soils have low values of infiltration and soil water retention capacity. The end result of this has been highly leached soils that have consequently lost fertility. All these problems have been aggravated by land fragmentation and inadequate soil conservation measures such as terracing, mulching, contour strip planting especially on

56 hillslopes.

3.7.6 Implication on development

The over-exploited land and unfavourable weather conditions have adversely affected productivity. Because of decreased crop yields, farmers have less surplus for sale and are thus generally poor. This has led to a low standard of living and a poor health situation. The land being less productive, it has a low value when sold. The crop marketing structure in the district is unsatisfactory. There is lack of proper crop marketing cooperation and storage facilities so farmers tend to sell at harvest time when prices are low. The poor pricing adversely affects farmers' incomes which in turn hampers agricultural development.

3.7.7 Projects and other agencies participating in agricultural development

1. SWRARP:

This is a project funded by World Bank and its activities include rehabilitation of roads, providing production loans to organised groups, inputs depot where production inputs are sold.

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2. Kalengyere Highland Crop Research Station:

This is under the National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO) and is mandated to develop technologies to increase production of highland crops.

3. ICRAF:

This is involved in developing technologies on agro-forestry and soil and water conservation.

4. Development Through Conservation:

This is a CARE project funded by USAID. Activities are meant to increase productivity in areas around Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, hence reduce dependence/encroaching on the park.

5. CAAS:

This is funded by USAID and is involved in the production and marketing of snow peas.

6. Agro Business Management Inc.

This is involved in the production and marketing of pyrethrum.

3.8 LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

Livestock management is an important economic activity in Kabale district. The district has about 70,000 heads of cattle, about 40,000 goats, 30,000 sheep, 10,000 pigs and 100,000 poultry. Out of the 70,000 heads of cattle about 2,500 (about 3.6%) are exotic (mostly friesian) and 7,500(about 11%) are grades, the rest being indigenous.

The land area devoted to grazing is estimated to be 12% of the total arable land in the district. However, due to population pressure grazing land is gradually shrinking though encroachment. The distribution of livestock within the district is almost even except for Kamwezi sub-county which has a slightly higher concentration. The dominant pasture in the district is ... grass and it can be found both on grazing land and on individual farms. This grass is usually well managed on individual farms unlike on grazing land where its poorly managed. The traditional method of husbandry still prevails in the district with only a few exceptions, the only processes used to manage pastures being periodic burning and local migration of herds (for Kamwezi sub-county)

The main source of water for livestock is in valleys where springs, wells and streams exist. In Kamwezi sub-county, there are seasonal movements of cattle in search of water. However, there is minimal seasonal cattle movement in other areas of the district. Sheep and goats are raised mainly for meat and are kept by small scale herders and farmers throughout the district and at times serve as a source of income for many of these farmers. Pig production is found both in urban and rural areas especially around population centres in the district. Pigs are mainly kept for economic reasons.

Most of the poultry (chicken, ducks, etc) is in the traditional sector where families keep a few chicken in the backyard primarily for home consumption. Only rarely are the excess eggs or

58 chicken sold to neighbours or in local markets. However, modern ways of poultry keeping are picking up especially around Kabale municipality mainly due to economic reasons.

There are no ranches in the district. Communal grazing land is scarce and at times farmers support their animals on any following land from previous cultivation.

3.8.1 Livestock Marketing

As far as the marketing of livestock, especially cattle is concerned, the major problem the farmers face is being far from big markets like Kampala and Jinja. This makes the farmers rely on the local markets in the district thus earning little money from the sale of their cattle. The major markets for cattle in the district are Rushebeya and Karukara. These markets are used by farmers in marketing goats, sheep and sometimes poultry.

As far as piggery is concerned, the district does not seem to have a surplus, so most pigs are slaughtered and consumed locally. problems affecting livestock production

Some of the diseases prevailing in the district include tickborne diseases, mastitis, foot and mouth disease, worms and liverflukes. The prevalence of such diseases is attributed mainly to:

(a) traditional methods of husbandry which encourage movement of livestock from place to place thus spreading disease. For example, the outbreak of the foot and mouth disease in Kamwezi sub-county has been attributed to uncontrolled movements of cattle in the area.

(b) Lack of extension services in most areas which leaves farmers ignorant of how diseases are spread and how they can be avoided.

(c) Lack of water catchment points in some areas encourages migration in dry seasons thus enhancing the spread of diseases.

The other major problems in the livestock sub sector in the district is that the cost of inputs has continually gone up and yet pries from marketing are low for both the stock and the products. Theirs makes livestock keeping unprofitable especially to the small scale farmers.

3.8.2 Implication on environment

The development of dairy farms in Kabale district was mainly done by drainage of swamps to establish pastures. Although the full consequences of this environmental change are as yet not fully understood, there are claims that the average and annual temperatures have risen, that the rainfall pattern has changed, that crop yields have decreased and that acidification of soils has occurred in some areas such that no crops or pasture can grow anymore. Detailed studies on the environmental effects of swamp drainage in Kabale district need to be carried out. Some of the grazing in the district takes place in areas that may not support agriculture. Although cattle grazing may probably be the most beneficial form of land use in such marginal areas,the area are vulnerable to degradation resulting from overgrazing. Worse still the grass species usually present in these areas provide only a small bulk of the food preferred by cattle.

59 Overgrazing occurs in areas with shortage of pastures as a result of cultivation pressure. In some of these area communal grazing is practised. Under this practice there are no limitations on animal numbers that may be grazed on a piece of land. The situation is made worse by the fact that communal grazing takes place on hill tops and hillsides, where the soil is not sufficiently deep to support a good crop of grass.

3.8.3 Implication on development

Cattle rearing is a very important economic activity in the district. Although some grazing is supported on common pasturage, mixed farming is gaining grounds in the district and some farmers support their animals on communal grazing land and on any following land from previous cultivation. This leads to optimum utilisation of the land especially where the holdings are limited for communal grazing. Some farmers have adopted modern animal husbandry such as padlocking pastures and supplementary feeding with crop residues.

The main indigenous types of cattle kept in the district have their attributes that have enabled them to survive in the local environment even under poor management regimes. The attributes include: some level of resistance to some tropical diseases such as Ngana, ability to withstand unfavourable temperatures and possession of along and productive life. These local types however tend to be small in size, flow growing and of limited milk potential. They are thus unsuitable for farmers who want dairy farming as a high income enterprise.

Animal health and extension services in the district tend to disregard the small ruminants (sheep and goats) and yet they play a vital role in the subsistence economy of most poor families. Re-organising the marketing infrastructure for these animals and improving the breeding stock would play a significant role in uplifting the well being of many families. Pig production is particularly suitable to small holder development especially in a district like Kabale which is experiencing the problem of land shortage. This is because pig production requires intensive management and very little land. However, the success of a pig industry will largely depend on the availability of pig feeds at reasonable prices.

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3.9 FISHERIES

3.9.1 Lake Fishery

There is only one lake in Kabale, . Fishing is done mainly at the subsistence level. The main specie of fish in the lake is as Clarias mozambicus.

3.9.2 Fish farming

There are two fish farming centres in Kabale district:

a) Kyanamira Fry Centre

This centre supplies fish seedlings to farmers who introduce them into their local domestic ponds.

b) Kitanga Demonstration Fish Farm

This farm demonstrates to the local fish farmers on better methods of fish cultivation and pond management.

These 2 fish farm centres lie under the Fisheries Department of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Apart from the fishing practices that take place on lake Bunyonyi, the local people in Kabale have prepared fish ponds to supplement on the fish obtained from the lake. Up to 78 fish ponds have been established and they are distributed as follows:

County Number of Fish Ponds

Rukiga 4

Ndorwa 35

Kabale Municipality 19

Rubanda 20

Total 78

3.9.3 Fishing Methods

In the lake Bunyonyi, the main fishing methods are:

- basket traps - hooks - nets

Basket traps are used the most. The hooks and the nets are only used occasionally. In the ponds, the following methods are:

- pond seining - draining of ponds

3.9.4 Processing

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Considering that the market for the fish is readily available, the local people do not usually process their fish. However, for those who do, they use the following methods: - smoking - sun drying

3.9.5 Fish marketing

It should be mentioned that some common species of fish like perch and Tilapia are not common in the deep lake Bunyonyi. Therefore these species are usually brought into the local markets from neighbouring districts. This fish comes from two main places:

- Masaka district - Rwenshama

Kabale district has no major fishing activities and so fish comes from other districts. The fish supplies to Kabale district mainly came form Rwenshama on Lake Edward and from Masaka. The fish from Rwenshama is usually smoked while the fish from Masaka is supplied fresh. Even then the fish supplies are at times irregular and are only confined to the Kabale Central market in Kabale municipality where the fish is usually sold.

3.9.6 Fisheries administration

The administration is organised as follows:

- The District Fisheries Officer:

This is the head of the district Fisheries Department

- The Assistant Fisheries Development Officers

These ones are situated in each country.

- The newly introduced Field Extension Workers (FEWS) whose work is multipurpose are also involved in the fishing industry.

Although fishing is not a major economic activity in Kabale district, there is great potential for fish farming in the district. Fish farming began in Uganda in the 1950s during the colonial period and Kabale was one of the pioneer districts. Fish farming was practised. Fish farming was booming even after post colonial period until the 1970s. Fishing started declining gradually after the 1970s and reached almost a total collapse in 1980 and some of the reason that caused its decline include: political instability, lack of technical services from the fisheries department, dependence of farmers on the government for supply of fry and so when the breeding centres went out of production the farmer was equally affected. A breeding centre was constructed in Kyanamira in the 1950s to serve former districts of Kigezi, Ankole and Fort Portal but this collapsed in 1978\79 during the war. Kitanga had a demonstration fish farm that was set up by a parish priest in the 1960s to serve the communities with fish but this also collapsed in 1978\79. By that time there were many fish ponds in the then Kigezi district. They were Mirror carp, Tilapia zilii, Tilapia nilotica and Tilapia leoucasticta. But because the growth of Tilapia leucastica was poor and it could not attain its required size, it was slowly removed. Presently, lake fishery takes place only on

62 lake Bunyonyi (the only lake in the district). Fishing on lake Bunyonyi is done on a very small scale because the lake is not productive. All the fish that were stocked in the lake have no shallow grounds for breeding.

The lake has 7 landing sites which include Isesero, Rutinda, Mulandi, Kyevu, Nyarurambi, and Ishanga. Presently, the only active landing site is Isesero. But it is also active when it rains. The species got from Isesero include clarias species, mirror carp (not daily) and rarely tilapia species. There are only about 5 licensed fishermen.

3.9.7 Fishing methods

Basket traps are the most commonly used method for catching clarias cassoni (sonzi) on lake Bunyonyi. The basket traps are usually laid in the evening and removed in the morning. A fisherman can get about 20 sticks per mouth of clarias cassoni but the catches are usually better in the rainy season. Hooks are also used on Lake Bunyonyi for catching clarias Mozambica (Emale). The average weight of claias mozambica usually got is 2 kg. But this species of fish is rarely got. Fish nets used to be popular on the lake but they are no longer available in the district. The fishnets used to be purchased through the fisheries department but the department no longer gets the nets. They were mainly used for catching clarias mozambica.

On individual fish ponds, seine nets were popular but the nets are not available in the district. Each county used to get at least one seine net through the fisheries department but the department no longer provides the nets. So draining of the ponds is the method that is commonly used on those fish ponds.

3.9.8 Problems affecting fishing

One of the problems that has hit the fishing industry in the district is lack of equipment for fishing such as nets. Fisherman do not have nets and so they rely on hooks and basket traps which they only catch few fish. This makes fishing in the district remain at subsistence level. Lack of extension services to educate the people on the importance of fish, how to carry out fish farming and how to sustain and improve on the catches has led to neglect of fish farming as an important economic activity. The fisheries department is too ill-equipped to carry out any extension work. Lake Bunyonyi is the only lake in the district where fishing can take place but the lake has its own limitations. The lake is too deep to allow the breeding of fish species like Nile Perch and Tilapia. This makes the district rely on fish from other districts. Transport is a problem to the fishing areas for example the road to Rwonshama is bad in addition to being far from the district. This makes the piece of fish higher and only affordable by few families.

3.10 Transport

Kabale district has a total of about 98.5 km of tarmac and about 91.8 km of class 1 murram road (all weather). In addition to these there is about 11 km of class 2 murram road (see table). There is also an unknown length of motorable tracks known as "bulungi bwansi". The tarmac, class 1 and class 2 roads are a responsibility of the works department of the central government, while feeder roads are a responsibility of the local district administration. The motorable tracks are a responsibility of the local communities through which they pass.

There is no rail service in the district. There is currently no operating airstrip in the district,

63 but the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) plans to construct an airfield in Nyamiringa village about 4 kilometres from Kabale town. There are plans to repair the Kabale-Ntungamo and Kabale-Katuna roads which have been damaged by heavy trucks. The Kabale-Kisoro road is to be upgraded to tarmac under the Preferential Trade Area (PTA) arrangement and the road has already been surveyed and material testing done.

Table: Road network in Kabale District

NAME OF ROAD CATEGORY LENGTH (KM) WIDTH Kabale-Ntungamo Tarmac 76.0 8 Kabale-Katuna Tarmac 22.5 8 Kabaale-Kisoro- Class 1 murram 91.8 8 Bunagana Kisoro- Class

3.11 Communications

The district has only one post office (the Kabale post office) located within Kabale municipality. In addition, there are 6 sub-post offices in the following centres: Bukinda, Mparo, Kisiizi, Katuna, Rubaya and Murore. The post office handles the sale of stamps and receives and distributes mail. The sub-post offices handle delivery of mail and selling of stamps.

Telephone services are available at the Kabale post office. The exchange is automatic and connections can be made both within and outside the country. Radio call services are available at Kisiizi, Mparo and Rubaya centres.

There is a radio link to Kampala and this can reach where radio stations are.

There are plans to extend communication services to the sub-post offices and rural areas in the district.

4.0 EDUCATION AND TRAINING

4.1 Introduction

The educational facilities, and in particular the standard of education in Kabale district has risen for some institutions and declined for others. With a population of 417,218 (197,695 are males and 219,253 females), there is considerable disparity in the educational levels of males and females. For example only 29.6% of the males and 13.4% of the females above 15 years had completed primary school according to the 1991 population and housing census.

Administratively the schools in the district fall under the Kabale District Administration (KDA) and Kabale municipality.

The Kabale District Administration schools include those located in the counties of Rubanda, Ndorwa and Rukiga while in the Kabale Municipality. Education in the district is faced with various problems which include the inadequacy of qualified teachers, insufficient number of

64 infrastructure in schools, poverty, lack of scholastic materials and lack of morale on the part of teachers due to poor remuneration.

4.2 PRE-PRIMARY EDUCATION

Pre-primary education helps the child's health, mental, physical and social growth and its duration varies from one to three years. It mainly prepares children for admission to P.1. Pre-primary institutions in Kabale district are entirely in private hands. There are about 15 nursery schools all located in Kabale municipality, most of the being day institutions. Sunday schools are not yet established in the district.

Foundation bodies for the nursery schools are mainly individuals and churches for example Ain'Mbabazi pre-primary school and Auntie Norah Nursery School.

Information on the enrolment of children in nursery schools in the district was not available, however classes are usually crowded. Most of the pupils enter P.1. The drop out rate is very low, the main reason for dropping out of nursery schools being financial. Qualified nursery school teachers are available in the district although few nursery schools employ them. The nursery schools depend mainly on infant teachers. There is no institution in the district undertaking pre-primary teacher education. Most of the pre-primary teachers are training in Kampala for example by YMCA and YWCA. No male pre-primary teachers are reported in Kabale district.

A syllabus\curriculum for pre-primary education is in place. The nursery schools are privately owned and yet their products have to go to government schools. The education officials in the district seem to look at nursery schools are money minded and the teachers who join nursery schools as "deserters".

Most of the nursery schools are expanding and so several structures are being set up in these institutions. There are no income generating activities in nursery schools.

4.3 PRIMARY EDUCATION

Primary education offers the minimum packages of learning which every individual should receive so as to live as a good and useful person in society. The majority of children do not go beyond this stage. The district has a total of 274 primary schools with the highest number of primary schools being in Ndorwa county and the lowest in Kabale municipality. See table below:

County Number of Schools Number of teachers Ndorwa 98 977 Rubanda 90 847 Rukiga 64 642 Kabale Municipality 22 N.A. N.A.= not available

About 30% of the primary schools are grade I and II, 40% grade III and 30% grade IV schools. Grade I primary schools have 750 or more pupils and 25 teachers or more.

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Grade II primary schools have between 450 - 750 pupils and 16 teachers but a boarding primary school 450 or more pupils is regarded as Grade I.

Grade III schools have 200 - 450 pupils and 8 teachers. Grade IV schools have 80 - 200 pupils and 2 or more teachers.

The total number of teachers in primary schools in Kabale district by 1992 was 3,122 and by 1993 was 2,524 only. By 1992 the district had 6,8110 pupils in primary schools and by 1993 it had 6,8611 pupils in primary schools.

The number of primary schools is not increasing although enrolment in primary schools is increasing. The total number of classrooms in government aided primary schools in the district by 1989 were 2,770 of which 1,250 were permanent, 1,335 semi-permanent and 182 temporary. Therefore the permanent classrooms were only 45.1% of the total number.

The performance of candidate in the Primary Leaving Examination has been fair. For example in 1989, 75.4% of the 5,424 candidates who had registered passed; in 1990, 68.7% of the 4,734 registered; in 1991, 81.9% of the 5,013 candidates and in 1992, 71.7% passed in the period 1989-1992.

By the end of second term 1994 Ndorwa county had the highest enrolment of 22,384 pupils. In the recent past, the number of orphans, refugees and children of NRA soldier has been growing which means that the number of non-paying pupils in primary schools in the district has increased.

For example, KDA primary schools have 1,1840 orphans and 160 children of NRA soldiers while the municipality primary schools have 1,373 orphans and 27 children of NRA soldiers. The number of drop-outs in primary schools is increasing the main reason being lack of school fees and the number of female drop-outs is higher than that of males.

The number of qualified teachers in primary schools in the district is inadequate. For example in KDA primary schools there are 1,159 unqualified teachers and 1,307 qualified teachers. 47% of the total number of teachers are unqualified.

The majority of the teachers in primary schools are full-time grade III teachers. Most of the teachers are in the age group of 20 - 30 years.

The rate of attrition of teachers in increasing due to poor conditions of service and low enrolment. In order to improve the quality of teachers in the district, there is need to train more teachers in the Bukinda Teachers College.

Problems

The major problems faced by Primary Schools in the district include:

(i) Poor academic standards due to few training teachers; weak school administration due to weak teachers and headmasters; inefficiency of PTA and management committees, lack of some scholastic materials and the increasing number of drop outs (ii) Poor infrastructure. Classrooms in most schools are not enough. Teachers have no accommodation and almost all the schools in the district are

66 experiencing a serious shortage of furniture. Some schools lack stores and do not have enough latrines

(iii) Poor remuneration of teachers has led to low morale by the teachers in service

(iv) Poor teachers-parents-pupils relationship has also contributed to the low academic standards in schools.

On-going projects

The projects being embarked on by primary schools in the district include rehabilitation and construction of basic school buildings, art and crafts, brick-making, tree planting and growing crops on school gardens.

4.4 SECONDARY EDUCATION

Secondary education consists of 4 years of the ordinary level and 2 years of the advanced level course. Many of the students in Secondary schools are in the age group of 13 - 19 years. The district has 20 government aided secondary, 15 of which are under KDA and the other 5 under Kabale Municipality.

All the secondary schools in the district have attained `O' level status and most of them are within the range of 5km from the nearest primary school.

By 1992, the district had a total number of 7,022 students enroled in secondary school in the district.

There is a wastage at secondary level through drop outs and lack of adequate opportunities for post secondary education. The majority of teachers have attained UACE and are trained. Most of them are in the age group of 20 - 40 years.

Most of the government-aided secondary schools in the district require rehabilitation in terms of construction or repair of physical facilities and provision of equipment, furniture and instruction materials.

Most of the schools are adequately equipped with facilities for teaching science subjects, as a result this has led to ineffective teaching and learning of both science and vocational subjects.

Problems

(i) Lack of physical facilities, unqualified teachers and a poor development curriculum.

(ii) Lack of textbooks and other teaching aids, furniture, transport for food items, firewood and students when they are going out for educational tours.

On-going projects

Most of the secondary educational institutions in Kabale district have embarked on either rehabilitation or construction of new physical facilities. Such as classrooms, staff houses, laboratories, dormitories and libraries.

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4.5 TEACHERS EDUCATION

The quality of education of any district depends on the quality of its teachers. However, people apparently give less preference to teaching as a career. Therefore there is need for a campaign to attract and retain devoted person in the teaching profession. Kabale district has one primary teachers college (Bukinda Teachers College) and one national teachers' college (Kabale National Teachers College).

Enrolment at kabale Teachers college, Bukinda has been increasing from year to year. For example, 302 students were enroled for the 1992/93 academic year; 378 students for the 1993/94; 417 students for the year 1994/95 and 502 students for the year 1995/96. The major reasons for the increase include expanded accommodation facilities, greater need for qualified teachers in the district, improved facilities like power supply and a better trained staff at the college.

The minimum requirements for admission include; 4 passes (1 in Mathematics and another in English) and the other passes related to primary teaching subjects. The college has 21 lecturers who are mostly diploma holders. 4 are University graduates. This number is adequate but not enough. The college has a number of problems which include lack of funds, lack of teaching facilities, lack of staff houses and the land is limited which makes the college lack room for expansion for example it lacks a play ground. However, the college has embarked on the construction of an administration block, seminar hall and a kitchen. It has a poultry keeping project and a small dairy farm and the students have agricultural plots and participate in brickmaking which has made the construction work a success. The college is not yet connected to the U.E.B power supply line but has acquired a generator.

The Kabale national teachers college has a well equipped library, adequate lecture rooms and laboratories which need to be more equipped. Students who are admitted in the NTC are selected by the Joint Admissions Board (JAB) which comprises of members of the secretariat from the ministry of education; principals, directors and registrars of all tertiary institutions under the ministry of education. Students who are selected by JAB in a plenary session and not by individual member institutions. The minimum requirements are 1 principal pass and 2 subsidiary passes for sciences and 2 principal passes and 2 subsidiary passes for arts. For a diploma in business education one principal pass should be in economics. The student's performance at `O' level is also considered. The candidate should have obtained a credit in a commercial subject, and credits in english and mathematics.

Enrolment in the NTC is rising. The intake cut off points for Makerere University are high quite and private universities are very expensive and so those who can't make it to Makerere University opt for tertiary institutions especially NTC's where a job is certain at the end of training.

The curricular is suitable for UACE holders who training for a diploma in secondary education to teach `O' level in secondary schools. Grade III trained teachers are also absorbed and their curricular is geared towards broadening and deepening their skills to go back and teach in primary schools. They get a diploma in education for primary education.

Problems

(i) The grants given to the college are quite inadequate to meet the requirements of the college and the students

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(ii) The college lacks running water. The men's residences have no electricity because the buildings are incomplete and no wiring has been done.

(iii) the college has a shortage of furniture and the library lacks some textbooks

(iv) The college has transport but the maintenance of vehicles is difficult because of limited funds. The college has no on-going project because of lack of funds.

4.6 TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

Kabale district has only one government aided technical institute and one government aided technical school. In addition to these there is one private technical institute that offers technical education. It is owned by the African International Christian Ministry. The Kabale technical institute admits students who have completed `O' level while the Kyiainga technical school admits students who have completed P.7 Craft training in the technical institute takes 2 years while in the technical school it takes 3 years. The technical institute offers 2 courses. They are brick\block laying and concrete practice; and carpentry and joinery.

In future the institution intends to offer electrical installation, motor vehicle mechanics, shoe making and leather tanning, tailoring and garment making.

The students who complete their courses can undergo further training leading to an advanced craft certification under the same speciality. After the advanced craft certificate they can opt for the Food Technology Certificate (FTC) whose duration is one year. After the advanced certificate or FTC a students can upgrade to an ordinary diploma in civil engineering then to a higher diploma in civil engineering then to a degree in civil engineering.

There is a demand for graduates from the technical institutions and some students even leave before completion of their studies. However, there is a negative attitude towards technical and vocational education in Kabale district and most students come from . Some have began coming from as far as Kampala.

Problems

(i) Low funding coupled with the high cost of equipment and materials affects the quality of technical education at the technical institute. In addition to this, the little that the institute gets doesn't come promptly.

(ii) Lack of teaching staff due to poor pay has adversely affected the technical institute

(iii) The technical institute lacks transport and so transportation of students, food and tools is quite difficult.

5.0 RURAL DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES

Rural development activities in the district can be categorised under:

69 (i) Private initiatives to promote individual and group welfare; (ii) National government programs to promote the well-being of the community

In both cases, considerable amounts of resources (financial and human) are involved and proper administration of how these initiatives are organised, promoted and implemented is important.

5.1 COOPERATIVES

There are 235 registered co-operative societies in Kabale district 101 of which deal mainly with categories of activities undertaken by co-operatives in the district include agriculture produce marketing, savings, and credit, multipurpose, hides and skins and livestock\Dairy (see table)

The cooperative movement in the district has about 32,824 members according to the 1993 survey. Some of the crops handled by the agricultural produce marketing societies include irish potatoes, beans, maize, sorghum and wheat. The multipurpose co-operative societies are engaged in agricultural produce marketing, savings and loaning and running consumer shops. The transport and consumer co-operative societies transport agricultural produce and goods for both co-operative and non-cooperators, market agricultural produce and sell consumer goods to members and the general public. The livestock co-operatives deal mainly with the selling of milk. The Kigezi cooperative union coordinates all the activities of the other cooperative societies and finances some of the societies and markets their products.

Constraints

Despite the fact that the number of cooperative societies in the district is increasing, some of them are dormant or do not function effectively. For example out of the 235 registered co- operative societies only 180 are active and doing fair business to the members and general public. The other 54 have not achieved the purposes they were registered for, their membership is not clear and their management is difficult to trace. This can be attributed to several reasons, some for which are:

- Most of the agricultural produce marketing societies have been affected by lack of capital. The societies lack enough capital to finance their projects. In addition to this, the district lacks cash crops to boost the cooperative societies and so the societies have low savings. Pyrethrum has only recently been introduced in the district as a cash crop.

- Transport is a problem and it makes the marketing of the products difficult and the movement of the produce from villages to town quite difficult. Besides, the transport societies have the problem of the high cost of spare parts and running costs which makes their business unprofitable.

- For savings and credit societies, most of the members have small incomes and this makes savings from their salaries and farming difficult.

- Many members of the various societies are illiterate and often lack skills, cooperative knowledge and commercial knowledge and the cooperative staff/department which is supposed to help them with transport and other facilities. Lack of motorised means of transport by the cooperative staff has made provision of advice, supervision and auditing of cooperative societies difficult thus affecting their performance and

70 efficiency.

However, there is a high potential for cooperative development in the district but this can only be realised when some of the existing problems are overcome. Most of the members of the various societies being illiterate, management and keeping of proper books of account is difficult and the funds end up being misused or embezzled. The marketing structure and transport facilities are unsatisfactory. This poses a serious problem especially for those cooperative societies dealing in agricultural produce and dairy as their stocks get damaged due to poor storage facilities. In addition, the societies face serious competition from established private entrepreneurs who often offer better prices especially for agriculture produce.

However, the cooperative department tries to conduct rural education programmes at the grassroots level. The topics emphasised include hints on the new cooperative law, cooperative rules and regulations, statutory requirements and obligations, the competitive business environment whereby managers have to take appropriate and quick decisions. Courses are at times conducted for all committee members of all societies in the district at sub-county level.

Types of Cooperative societies in Kabale District:

TYPE OF COOPERATIVE SOCIETY NUMBER OF COOPERATIVE MEMBERSHIP SOCIETIES

1992 1993 1992 1993

Agricultural Produce Marketing 100 101 13,501 13,966

Savings and Credit 39 39 13,813 13,813

Multipurpose 38 39 2,619 1,880

Transport and Consumer 28 28 1,378 1,378

Industrial Production 9 9 249 249

Hides & skins 3 3 112 112

Livestock/Dairy 13 13 1,244 1,244

Cooperative Union 1 1 183 182

TOTAL 231 235 33,099 32,824

Self help movement

This includes social welfare programs, community development programs, and community schemes in the district.

5.2 SOCIAL WELFARE PROGRAMS

These programs cover the public welfare activities in the district. This includes relief of distress, rehabilitation day care centres, voluntary organisations, sports, culture, youth and women programs. The programs are mainly concerned with displaced people like those displaced due to the war in Rwanda, orphans, juveniles; abandoned children and widows.

The names of the displaced people are usually forwarded by the RC 3 Chairman of the area in

71 which the displaced people are to the concerned government authorities who then try to secure the immediate requirements for the displaced people. For example, in 1990, several blankets, plates, food and shelter were provided to displace people. Several school children who were displaced by the war in Rwanda were admitted in schools within Kabale municipality and schools under Kabale District Administration (K.D.A.) This program has been supported by relief organisations like the Red Cross and World Vision. The program caters for orphans schooling, shelter, food, clothing and general well begin. Some non- governmental organisations involved in carrying for orphans include the African International Christian Ministry (A.I.C.M), Nalongo orphanage home and Rugarama Health Centre.

The program also caters for juvenile with crimes, pregnant girls who lack care, abandoned children and widows who often have problems with their in-laws.

5.2.1 Disabled People's Programme

The social welfare workers go out to all parts of the district to identify and register disabled people, once their locations have been established medical officers are called upon to recommend various appliances to reduce the disability or for some surgery depending on the nature of the problem.

Some of the disabled persons are referred to various special schools for the handicapped or to rehabilitation centres where they may undertake courses like carpentry, metalwork, tailoring and shoe making. Some of these schools are Ruti Centre in Mbarara, Salama School for the Blind in Mukono, a school for the blind in Mukono, a school for the disabled in Kireka, Kampala and Tukole invalids salvation school for the deaf and some other disabilities located in Mbarara.

Training Activities

The parents of the disabled persons are educated on issues like causes of their children's disabilities, how to effectively management their disabilities and how to make appliances at home that would teach their children how to stand, move or even walk by the one of these simple gadgets. On their part the disabled people are taught about the causes of their disabilities and how they can be avoided in future so that their offsprings may not suffer in a similar manner.

They are also taught income generating activities so that they can in a way support themselves in future.

Funding of programmes for the disabled people in Kabale District is by the Norwegian Association of Disabled Persons (NAD)

Constraints

The major constraint is lack of funds. Due to lack of funds, the program administration often faced problems in feeding, clothing and providing medical care to displaced people, orphans and abandoned children.

-Lack of transport makes monitoring of the social welfare situation in the district hard. As a result, many destitute children live under bad conditions in the remote parts of the district.

72 -There is a serious shortage of staff to handle the social welfare programs in the district.

5.2.2 Child Welfare Programmes

The major objectives for the probation and social welfare department is to provide advocacy for children rights, in other words to implement laws that regard child protection and care.

Children may be protected from the law in many ways, for example if a child is an offender, it is the work of the probation and welfare officer to be an advocate for the child before the Court of law, the officer has to carry out enquiries about the offender, make a report and submit it to the court. The officer is trusted to make a very appropriate and honest report.

The office of Probation and welfare has the responsibility of looking for foster parents for these children who may look after them temporarily. The office also guides foster parents on how to take up fostering . Another objective of this probation and welfare office is to coordinate the activities of non-government organisations (NGOs) which may have any programmes with the aim of uplifting the welfare conditions or children in the district.

Accomplishments of the child welfare programmes

- More child welfare cases have been handled in the district than in the past years'. More specifically vulnerable and handicapped children have been looked after especially orphans.

- making the family unit intact such that there are minimum divorces and separations within the family. Children are better protected and cared fro when they are living with their parents. Activities aimed at keeping the family intact include counselling of divorced parents or separated families, engaging the family in communal activities which being them together and help them to work hand in hand.

Some of the homes that look after children from Kabale district are:

1. Kabale Remand Home and Hostel

This is a government institution under probation and welfare department of the Gender and Development Ministry of Uganda

- It takes up the care and protection of juveniles on remand. It is a substitute remand for children instead of taking them to prisons where they may be abused.

The house also takes in persons of other categories such as the care and protection cases, these are also called status offenders, beyond control cases, it may even take up adults who have other welfare needs like those who are travelling and fail to get by due of lack of funds.

2. The African international Christian Missionary (AICM) which is sponsored by the Church of Uganda (C.O.U.) Kigezi Diocese.

3. The Nalongo Orphanage house. This home looks after orphans and any vulnerable children who can not look after themselves.

73 Training programmes are conducted for the child welfare programme staff so as to teach them how to communicate with their needy children and find out their problems. For example the children are open learning programmes (CCOP) which are meant to uplift the nature of vulnerable children. The programmes are called open because the staff are taught to open up to these children so that they in turn may open up to the people concerned.

Problems/Constraints of the Child Welfare Programme

- The biggest problem has been the shortage of staff. In Kabale district there is only one Probation and welfare officer coordinating everything. This makes counselling of people very difficult, and besides this the same probation and welfare officer has to direct other activities in the district.

- Resources are limited especially the financial resources little money is given to the department of social welfare and child care of Kabale District. Therefore the social welfare activities cannot all be carried out effectively.

- Lack of reliable transport means

One of the duties of the Probation and welfare office is to transport juvenile offenders from the remand homes to the courts of law. This is most conveniently done in a vehicle. Unfortunately the probation and welfare office has no such vehicle and for this reason offenders may not appear in court when they should have. The office requires at least a Land Rover not only to transport these juvenile offenders to and from court but for easier access of the probation and welfare stuff to the different needy children some of whom are located in very remote areas in the district.

- A very irregular supply of food stuffs to the child welfare institutions, this is because the who supplies food to these institutions (homes) on a tender basis is never paid in time, so he tends to supply the food only after he has been paid or is sure of future payment.

- The staff members of the institutions are not properly motivated for example its about 14 months since they were last paid their monthly salary.

Funding

Presently they are still depending on the local government of Uganda to finance these programmes.

They are optimistic about funding from other bodies and more funding from the government became recently a district action plan for children was completed, and its meant to extend for five years up to the year 2000 various organisations are expected to fund this programme. Also the children bill in parliament still awaits approval by the President of Uganda.

Some funding bodies currently financing some child welfare activities are

$ UNICEF $ World Vision especially in Kamwezi Sub-county $ Church of Uganda, Kigezi Diocese $ CARE $ ICRC (Red Cross) which si helpful especially in tracing and resettling of

74 children e.g. in the recent Rwanda Crisis $ NAWOU which campaigns against child sexual abuse.

5.3 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS

Community development programs in Kabale district are started through the local people's own initiative. The people identify their need or problem and decide on how to solve it and then seek support and guidance from the community development department. When the projects have been initiated by local communities the community development officer passes on this information to the concerned government authorities or any interested non- governmental organisation who decide on projects to be assisted. Several self-help projects have been initiated by various rural communities. The projects include primary and secondary schools, health centres, protection of springs, roads, churches, tree planting and providing care to people with disabilities. Income generating activities have also been covered. For example various income generating activities were covered under the South West region Agricultural Rehabilitation Project (SWRARP).

The activities covered include agricultural production (crops, livestock,fisheries and bees), processing of food crops, marketing of finished goods, tools, manufacturer, handicrafts production and marketing. Various youth groups and women groups have also organised themselves into associations which are actively engaged in income generating activities like bee keeping, tree nurseries, handicrafts making, tree nurseries and brick making. Under community development programs, courses are organised through the RC system at different sub-counties for leaders of the self-help projects and community leaders by the community development department, often in collaboration with some NGOs that are involved in assisting such projects. In these courses, the problems facing the projects are reviewed and discussed. Various skills are taught such as basic project planning and management skills and leadership skills.

Constraints:

-The district lacks skilled staff (community development staff). For example the district has only 5 community development officers. In addition, these lack transport to support and monitor the local activities in rural areas. Even when in rural areas the community development workers are not given incentives.

-The low literacy level is a problem to the management of some of the projects. Illiteracy at times makes mobilisation in rural areas difficult and slow.

- Lack of inputs such as agricultural tools, cement, iron sheets which have to be purchased with cash delays most of the projects as the communities do not have funds to buy these items.

- The district lacks training centres for the local people, so the local people lack skills that would help facilitate the smooth running of their projects.

The community development activities in the district are concentrated in the suburbs where the majority of the low income and disadvantages groups live. A number of programmes are ongoing covering the following areas:

75 $Sanitation and water programmes $Small scale agricultural programmes $Adult education/literacy programme

Sanitation and Water Programme

The community development officers have been educating people on how to keep community water resources as well as domestic water clean and full of any contaminants.

The officers have the responsibility of mobilising the people to engage in voluntary work for example if a water well or boreholes is being constructed the village people may contribute physically by carrying the building materials like sands, stones and cement, to the construction site. After a water source has been constructed a water source committee is established to overlook the maintenance of the water source (well or borehole). This committee is also responsible for the collection of money from the local people to carry out repairs on the water system should it require any.

Small Scale Agricultural Projects

The community development officers also have the responsibility of mobilising the people through groups to undertake small scale agricultural projects like livestock and crop farming. The south west region agricultural rehabilitation project (SWARP) is one such project in Kabale district, the projects main role is to lend out money to potential rural farmers who intend to carry out profitable agricultural projects. The money is usually lent out on condition that after a year, the loans should be repaid. Therefore apart from mobilising people, the officers have the responsibility of recovering the loans from the people.

SWARP being funded by IFAD and World Bank. Its activities in Kabale will end in June 1996

5.3.1 Adult Education/Illiteracy Programmes

The adult education programme needs money and for this reason there are no adult education programmes being conducted in Kabale. The literacy programmes are few and scattered, they are mostly in the sub-counties of Kyanamira and Kashambya, where there is an on-going poverty alleviation programme which involves people of all age groups including the elderly, so these elderly people have to be educated by availing then with simple literature to teach them to read and write and also to inform them on development activities.

Major constraints to the community development activities:

- The community development office is understaffed with only four officers who have to coordinate all the activities in the district.

- The off community development workers (officers) face a problem of trying to recover funds from debtors who are unwilling to pay back the loans they obtained for small scale agricultural projects.

- There is lack of sufficient funds to carry out all development activities as most of the funding bodies completed their terms of service and withdrew, this means that the community development programmes may come to a halt, unless the government of Uganda intervenes by providing funds to promote

76 the programmes.

5.3.2 Uganda Veterans Assistance Board in Kabale

The Board

The Uganda Veterans Assistance Board (UNAB) in Kabale works under a district committee called the District Veterans Assistance Committee (DIVAC). The Chairman of this committee is the District Commissioner.

Other members of the Board are:

- the District Security Officer (DISO) - the Chairman LCV - the Secretary for Security LCV - the District Police Commander (DPC) and the District Resident Veterans Representative (DVR) - the District Veteran officer (DVPO)

When soldiers are demobilised they report to the district veterans officers office (DUPO) where they are registered and told to obtain letters from their local council villages. These letters are carried back to the DVPO's office for where they receive letters permitting them to receive their package(s) from the bank.

They are also provided with Parents Teachers Association (PTA) fees for their children so that they can go to school.

Activities of the UVAB in Kabale.

- Vocational training for veterans in basic skills e.g. 3 months programmes

- Counselling of veterans so that they can successfully re-integrate themselves into the community. The office encouraged the veterans to be self-sustaining.

- To mobilise the leadership in the local areas to welcome the veterans as their sons and daughters.

- Initiating the veterans to appoint themselves as leaders at sub-county level.

- The Board elects the district veterans Executive Committee which is charged with carrying out responsibility when the main office is phased out.

Categories of people being demobilised

- Those who are tired of being in the army (voluntarily) - Those physically handicapped - those medically sick especially those with chromo diseases - those who are undisciplined ie who can not live up to the expectations of the army

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5.3.3 The Poverty Alleviation Project (PAP) in Kabale District

PAP is a government of Uganda project funded by the Uganda government and a loan from the African Development Fund. The project is designed by government to assist in the firth against poverty among the very poor.

The main objective of PAP IS to held address in the short term the adverse effects of war, natural hazards like Aids and economic mismanagement which destroyed all the socio- economic infrastructure. PAP is thus instituted to provide affordable accessible credit scheme for the target groups in Uganda particularly in selected districts (including Kabale) within a four year period.

A micro project is a small scale economic venture/undertaking in any of the following areas/sectors: farming, woodcraft, tailoring, brick-making, apiary etc.

What does PAP do?

PAP provides credit/loans with simple interest directly to targeted beneficiaries or through intermediary entities operation at district level e.g. Cooperative societies, registered groups.

PAP will therefore do the following:

- help to set up economically viable and employment generating micro projects.

- provide technical assistance including vocational training and institutional support to beneficiaries and executing agencies

- avail market informtion to the beneficiaries and enable organised marketing of the products

- create a revolving fund for sustainability of the credit facility.

Who benefits from PAP?

Demobilised soldiers, war widows and orphans, women groups, youth, disabled persons and retrenched civil servants and other vulnerable groups.

How one can access PAP benefits

After the beneficiaries/target group have been introduced PAP, the following will be done:

- identify a viable micro project - Formulate a proposal with the assistance of an intermediary - submit the proposal to the project areas office directly or through the intermediary with recommendations from the area RCs - the proposal will be approved and submitted to the district committee for

78 approval

If approved the loan is then processed.

- An operational agreement is signed with the intermediaries and or beneficiaries where necessary and a collateral or security is produced.

Loan repayment

$ After the maturity of the project, the beneficiary is expected to start paying back the loan $ Simply interest will be charged on the loan.

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* PART THREE *

KABALE'S MAIN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS ON THE ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

6.0 NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION

6.1 PHYSICAL FEATURES

6.1.1 Topography, Geology and Soils

The topography, geology and soils of Kabale district are associated with environmental problems and/or limitations that have different implications on the development of the district.

6.1.2 Soil productivity

The soils of Kabale district are mainly volcanic, ferralitic and peat soils and are naturally fertile. The volcanic soils such as those under the Kabale catena owe their productivity to the retentive nature of their clay fraction and to the rooting depth. The ferralitic soils present a saturation of the exchange complex of about 40% and have a good soil texture and are generally fertile. However, soil productivity levels are determined by a number of environmental factors. One of the important factors that determine the availability of the essential plant nutrients in the soil is the Ph, which is directly related to Base Saturation and cation Exchange capacity. The soil reaction (ph)range from high fertility is generally 5.0 - 8.0 but this varies with crops. Most of the nutrients have their maximum availability in the ph range of 6.0 - 7.5. At ph values below 5.5 primary and secondary nutrients become less available especially phosphorous. Available phosphorous (p205)is essential to plant growth especially roots. With increasing acidity both productivity and the range of crop alternative decline. For example, the peat soils in Kabale district mainly the papyrus swamps show the top soil ph values ranging from 2.4 - 2.7 and this renders the soils unfavourable to plant growth especially to those that can't tolerate such acidity levels. But generally the soils of Kabale district are acidic though the soils' acidity in some cases can be closely associated with the environmental geology of the area. The acidity of the soils has been worsened by the leaching of the soils in the area. A number of other environmental processes operating on soils such as soil erosion and drainage are considerably influenced by the parent rocks that gave rise to the soils. Another limiting factor is the rooting depth. Most of the soils on hill tops in Kabale district are shallow to moderately deep and his maybe explained by limited conditions on weathering and paedogenesis which are in turn explained by highly active erosion processes on steep slopes on one hand and weathering resistant rocks on the other. This shallowness of the soils limits crops which require deep anchorage and retrieval of water and nutrients from greater soil depths. This still limits the process of nutrient recycling and thus a continuous reduction in the soil nutrient levels is the result. Therefore, most of the soils in Kabale district are not particularly productive and are highly susceptible to degeneration processes. But with proper management and careful choice of crops, the soils can support a prosperous agricultural economy.

6.1.3 Soil Degradation

One of the most important environmental problems in Kabale district is soil degradation. Soil erosion, which is influenced mainly by topographic factors and soil types, is the main

80 degradation process. The district is hilly with Kalengyere in Muko sub-county with the highest peak at 8,110 ft a.m.s.l (2,433m) and Lake Bunyonyi at 6,500 ft a.m.s.l (1,950m). Kabale town is at 6,100 ft a.m.s.l. (1,830m) and some areas record angles of slope up to 200. With such steep gradients and high altitudes there is generation of high and erosive run-off resulting in severe soil erosion. The process of soil erosion has also largely been accelerated by human activities. The district experiences continuous cropping of land without ample rest and there is serious leaching leading to soils with poor chemical and physical structures that are highly vulnerable to soil erosion. Besides this , continuous cropping is carried out without appropriate soil and water conservation measures. Overgrazing is also a major factor contributing to soil degradation in some places. Overgrazing especially on steep slopes in the district combined with annual burning to provide fresh grazing has led to loss of vegetation cover on these slopes thus severe sheep erosion has resulted. However, the problem of soil erosion is not limited to the hilly areas in the district. There is rain splash and sheet wash which pose a problem on a gentle slopes.

Therefore, appropriate physical and agronomical soils and water conservation measures such as contour bunding, terracing, grass strips, mulching need to be incorporated in the farming systems if soil degradation is to be minimised.

6.1.4 Drainage

Drainage has not been a serious problem in Kabale district. The uplands are well drained and in the hilly ares there are quite a number of streams and a few rivers flowing thriftily. All the sloping land has good drainage conditions implying that soils on these slopes have no drainage limitations especially as related to agriculture. Likewise, in terms of transport networks and other economic activities, drainage does not pose any serious limitations. Poorly drained areas such as swamps have been reclaimed mainly for cultivation and for dairy farming. The reclaimed wetlands largely for farming are estimated to cover over 27.05 square km (2,705 hectares). However, this has had detrimental effects on the formally good climate of Kabale District.

6.2 Wetlands in Kabale

A wetland is an area of vegetation which is permanently or seasonally water logged. Wetlands often have distinct vegetation charactistics. The soils are found under a wetland are also quite different from normal soils because they are formed under low oxygen conditions and are very heavy with clay and have large amounts of plant remains known as peat. A swamp is a wetland with large plants such as papyrus although grass such as Miscanthidium violaceum can also be found.

Kabale district has numerous wetlands. Most of these wetlands can be linked with the topography and drainage of the district. The major wetland systems are associated with Lake Bunyonyi and the others are swampy areas. The wetlands include Michumbi Swamp, Ruhuhoma swamp, Muko, Kyabahinga, Rubaya Swamp and Kitanga.

Michumbi Swamp system is located 11kms along the Kabale - Katuna Road.

Climate

It is moderately cool with a temperature of 15-20 C Humid (>270 days of growing period) Average annual mean temperature 18.7 C maximum available soil moisture 109mm. Rainfall

81 1000-1200mm, bimodal with peaks in April and November. Driest months June-July.

Ruhuhuma Swamp )Nyamiriiro) system is located 2 kms north west of Kabale twon near Nyamuriro. It covers an area 4000 ha and is at an altitude of 1,990m above sea level.

Wetland Features

An area of permanent swamp dominated by papyrus, about 10km long from East to West. The swamp receives water from Lake Bunyonyi to the south and from the Kigenyo river entering in the east; it drains north via the Ruhuma river into . The eastern and central positions of the swamp (over 80% of the total area) have been almost entirely drained for agriculture, and only a narrow strip of papyrus swamp in the west remains intact. This stretches for about 7km along the Ruhuruma river and is up to 1km in width.

Climate

Moderately cool (15-20C) Humid (>270 days of growing period). Average annual mean temperature 18.7 C. Maximum available soil moisture - 109mm, rainfall 1000-1200mm, bimodal with peaks in April and November. Driest month June - July.

Conservation measures taken in the swamp:

Papyrus swamp along the Ruhuhuma river in the west is protected by a local ordinance.

Fauna

The papyrus yellow warbler (chloropeta gracitirostris) was discovered at the site in October 19934.

Flora

The site contains one of the finest stands of papyrus surviving in the upland swamps of Kabale district.

Kitanga wetland is located 17km north of Kabale town.

Climate:

Moderately warm (20-25C)

Sub-humid climate (180-270 days of growing period) two reliable growing periods. Average mean annual temperature is 24C. Maximum available soil moisture 98mm. Rainfall 1200- 1500mm, showing a bimodal pattern with peaks in April-May and October - November. The driest month is July.

The wetlands of Muko, Kyabahinga and Rubaya swamp share a common parent site which is Lake Bunyonyi, for this reason the wetland features, physical features, climate and fauna ...... will be those of the Lake Bunyonyi area.

Area: 6,100 ha Altitude: 1,973m above sea level

82 Wetland features:

A deep fresh water lake with 23 small islands, fed by Kibirita river. Swamp extend back up to the Kibirita for 8 km, and are present at the heads of 25 of the little arms of the lake. In total these cover about 1,500ha. The lake drains sluggishly from its north end via the Ruhuma river into Ruhuhuma swamp.

Physical features:

Maximum depth 39.3m. The physical and chemical characteristics of the lake and its vegetation have been described by Denny (1972,73) see Hughese Hughes (1992)

Climate

Moderately cool (15-20C). Humid (>270 days of growing period). Average annual 1 mean temp - 18C. Max available soil moisture 109mm. Rainfall 1000-1200mm; having a biomodal pattern with peaks in April and November.

The driest month is July.

Fauna

The papyrus yellow warbler (chloropeta graciliroshtris) was collected in 1927.

Locations: Muko wetland is located 25km north west of Kabale town. Kyabihinga wetland is located 5 km east of Kabale Town.

Rubaya swamp is located 20km south of Kabale town near Lake Bunyonyi.

6.3 Solid Waste Management

6.3.1 Domestic refuse (waste)

Domestic waste which includes food peelings, used polythene bags, used plastic containers etc are carried in baskets or dustbins and dumped into the councils refuse banks located near every 3 or 4 homesteads in the town. In case there is no refuse bank in the near vicinity a dumping site is located where families may throw their refuse temporarily. Some deep sand pits is where all the refuse from the town centre is dumped.

6.3.2 Solid waste

Most homesteads in Kabale town have toilet flashing systems all connected to septic tanks and a central sewerage system.

Unfortunately this sewage is dumped raw and untreated and it is ina river called Mugogo.

6.3.3 Abbatoir waste

This involves horns, cow dung, hooves and unwanted offals.

83

There is a channel which takes the refuse and soil into the valley and eventually into the same river Mugogo. The horns are collected and burnt off.

6.3.4 Hospital waste

This includes human wastes like foetuses, placenta's amputated body limbs etc and used hospital equipment like syringes, bandages, used utensils etc.

Problems associated with solid waste management

- untreated sewage is dumped into the river, this can be dangerous to the people who use the water from this river

- the sewage line is too small to accommodate all the sewage lines from the houses.

84

APPENDICES Appendix A List of tree species recorded from the Bwindi Impenetrable Forest Reserve.

Cyathea manniana C. camerooniana Podocarpus milanjianus P. gracilior Raphia farinifera Dracaena laxissima Arundinaria alpina Chrysophyllioi albidum C. gorungosanum Co. Pruniforme Manilkara dawei Pachystela brevipes Anitaris toxicaria Ficus natalensis Celtis zenkeri C. Africana Trena Orientalis Macaranga Schwein furthii M. monandra M. lancifolia M. Kilimandscharica Neoboutonia macrocalyx Croton Macrostachyus C. Sylvatius C. Bukobersis C. Megalocarpus Discoglypremn a caloneora Alangium chinese Ehretia cymesa Pterygota mild braedii Cola gigantea C. bracteata Dombeya mukole D. goetzenii Leptonychia mildbraedii Strombosia scheffleri Strombosiopsis tetrandra Brazzeia longipedicellata Glyphaea brevis G. mildbraedii L. mildbraedii Dasylepsis eggclingii D. racemosa Oncoba routledgei Rinorea devitata Ouratea hiernii Cassine aethipica

85 Maytenus Undata M. acuminata Naeasa Lanceolata Illex mitis Alchornea floribunda A. hirtella Maesobotrya purseglovei Sapium ellipticum S. leonardi-crispi Drypetes gerrardii Drypetes spp D. pibindensis Ficalhoa laurifolia Melchiora Schliebenii Maesopsis eminii Pronus africana Parinari excelsa Beilschmiedia ugandesis Ocotea usambrensis O. Kenyensis Casearia engleri Diospyros abyssinica Xylopia staudtii Tetrorchidium didy mostemon Bridelia micrantha Antidesma membranaceum Phyllanthus discoideus Pittosporum mannii P. Spathicalyx Peddiea Fischeri Myrica Salicifolia Faurea saligna Agauria salicifolia Nuxia congesta Premna angolensis Pleiocarpa pycnantha Fontania africana F. elastica Tabernaenontana holstii T. odoratissima Symphonia globulifera Garcinia huillensis Harungana madagascariensis Allanblackia kimbiliensis Anthocleista Zambesiaca A. vogelii A. schweinfurthii Memecylon jasminoides Memecylon spp Dicha etanthera corymbosa Cassipourea ruwensorensis C. congoensis

86 C. gummiflua MItragyna rubrostipulata Pauridiantha callicarpoides Oxyanthus speciosus Tarenna parettoides Galiniera coffeoides Psychotria megistosticta Canthium volgare Aidia micrantha Xyranlos mospora Olea welwitschii O. hochstetteri O. africana Linocrerea Johnsonii Olinia usambarensis Syzygium guineense Balsamocitrus dawei Tedea nobitis Allophylus abyssinicus A. macrobotrys Pitchiea albersii Scheftlera barteri Myrianthus arboreus M. holstil Musanga cecropioides M. leo-errerae Marklamia platycalyx Fagara macrophylla F. leprieurii F. mildbraedii Clauseana anistata Bersana abyssinica Hagenia abyssinica Hanno Longipes POlyscias fulva Pseudospondias microcarpa Lannea welwitschii Canarium schweinfurthii Ekerbergia capensis Trichilia martineauri Lepidotrichilia volkensii Carapa grandiflora Leplaea mayombensis Entandrophragma utile E. excelsum Lovoa swynnertonii Zanha yolungensis Pancovia spp Blighia unijugara Aphania senegalensis Cynometra alexandri Milletia dura

87 M. psilopetala Piptadeni astrum africanum Newtonia buchananii parkia filicoidea Albizia Coriaria A/ gi,,mofera A/ adoamtjofp;oa A. grandibracteata

88 APPENDIX B

List of birds species recorded from the Bwindi Impenetrable Forest Reserve

Great sparrow hawk Accipiter melandevcus Rufous Sparrow hawk A. rufinventris AFrican goshawk A. tachiro Mountain Buzzard Buteo lachardus Cassin's Hawk Eagle Hieraetus africanus Crowned Eagle Stephanoaetus Coronation Handsome Francolin Francolinus nobilis Scaly francolin F. squarnatus Crested guinea fowl Guttera edouardi Buft spotted Pygmy Cake Sarotwura degans White spotted pygmy cake S. Pulchra Lemon donea PHOPELIA LARVATA Olive pigeon Columba arquatrix Western Bronze Naped Pigeon C. malherbii Afep pigeon C. unicincta Red headed lone bird Agapornis pullaria Red fronted parrot Poicephalus gulielmi Brown parrot Psittacus erithacus Great blue Turaco Corythaeola cristatu Ross's Turaco Tauraco Joustoni Black billed Turaco T. Scheutti Dusky longtailed Cuckoo Cercococcyx mechowi Barred long tailed cuckoo C. montanus Emerald cuckoo C. cupreus Klass Cuckoo C. Klass Levaillants cuckoo C. Livaillantii Red chested cuckoo C. Solifarius Yellow bill Ceuthmocares aereus African wood owl Ciccaba woodfordii Red chested owlet Glaucidium tephronotum Fury necked night jar Caprimulgus pectorates Montane nighjar C. poliocephalus Scarce swift Schoutedenaphus myoptilus Mottle throated spinetail Telacanthura ussheri Narina's Trogon Apaloderma navina Bar tailed Trogon A. Vittatum Giant Kingfisher Ceryle maxima Shinning blue kingfisher Alcedo quadribrachys Blue brested kingfisher Halcyon chlituil Blakc bee eater Merops gularis Broad billed roller Eurystomus glaucurus Blue throated roller E. gulanis White headed wood horpoe phoeniculus bollei Forest wood hoopoe P. castaneiceps White thiged hornbill Bycanistes cylindricus B & W casqued hornbill B. subcylindricus Crowned hornbill Jockus alboterminatus Yellow spotted Barbet Buccanodon duchaillui

89 Greu tjrpated narnet Gymnobucoo bonarpatie Hairy chested barbet Lybius girsutus Yellow rumpted tinkerbird P. bilineatus Western green tinkerbird P. coryphaeus Speckled tinkerbird P. coryphaeus Speckled Tinkerbird P. scolopacus Yellow throated tinkerbird P. subsuleheueus Yellow billed barbet Trachylaemus purpuratus Thickbilled Honeyguide Indicator Conirostris Least Honey guide I. exislis Lesser Honeyguide I. minor Drarf Honeyguide I. purnilio Scaly throated honeyguide I. variegatus Willcocks Honeyguide I. Willcocksii Cassin's Honeybirdq Prodotiscus insignis Brown Eared woodpecker C. Nivosa Finebranded woodpecker C. Tullbergi Elliots woodpecker Mesopicos ellioti Olive woodpecker M. griseocephalus Yellow crested woodpecker M. Xantholopus African green Broadbill P. Granuri African Broadbill Smithornis rufolateralis Green brested pitta P. Neichenowi Black rough wing Psalidoprochnepristaptera Western Black headed oride O. Brachyrhynchus Stripe breasted tit Parus fasciiventer Dusky tit P. Ferucus African Hill Bubbler Alcippe ayssinica Grey Chested Illadopsis Kakamega poliothorax Capuchin Babbler Phyllanthus atripennis Scaly breasted Illadopsis Trichastoma albipectus Brown Illadopsis T. fulvescens Mountain Illadopsis T-Pyrrbiopterum Black Cuckoo Shrike Campephaga flava Petits Cuckoo Shrike C. Petiti Red Shouldered Cuckoo Shrike C. Phoenicea Grey Cuckoo Sarike C. Caesia Gravers Cuckoo Shrike C. graveri Cameron Sombre greenbul A. Graveri Cameron sombre greenbul A. Curvirostris Slender gilled greenbul A. gracilirostrus Yellow whiskered greenbul A. latirostris Shelleys Greenbul A. Masukuensis Moonkiin greenbul A. tephrolaemus Little Greenbul A. Vireus Honeyguide Greenbul Baepogon indicator Bristle bill Bleda syndactyla JOyful greenbul Chlorocichla laetissima Red tailed greenbul C. calurus Nicater Nicater chloris Toro Olive greenbul P. baumani Yellow streaked greenbul P. Flavostriatus

90 Olive mountain greenbul P. placidus Fire Crested Alethe A. poliophrys Blue shouldered robin chat Coesypha cyanocampter Red capped Robin chat C. Natalensis Snowy headed robin chat C. Niveicapilla Wite- bellied Robin chat C. Roberti Archers ground robin Dryochichloides archeri Grey winged ground robin D. poliopterus White tailed anthrush Neocosyphus poensis White starred forest robin pogoncichla stellata Equatoria akalat Sheppardia aequatorialis Rufous Thrust Stizorhina fraseri Northern olive thrust Tordus abyssinius African thrust T. pelios Abyssinian ground thrust T. Piagyial Kivo ground thrust T. Tanganyical Masked apalis Apalis bimtata Grey apalis A. Cinera Black trhoated apalis A. Jacksoni Chestnut throated apalis A. Prophyro laema Buff throated apalis A. rufogularis Collared apalis A. ruwenzori Black faced Rufous warbler B. Cerviniventries Evergreen forest warbler B. graveri Grey backed Camaroptera C. superciliaris Mountain yellow warbler C. similis Olive green camaroptera C. chlornata Gravers warbler Graueria vittata Short tailed warbler Graueria vittata Green hylia Hylia prasina Red faced woodland werlder Pholidornio laetus Banded prinia Prinia bairdii White chinned prinia P. Leucopogon White browed grombec Sylvietta leucophrys Yellow eyed black flychatcher M. ardesiaca White eyed slaty flycatcher M. chocolatina Dusky flycatcher M. cassini Dusky blue flycatcher M. comitata Grey throated flycatcher M. Griseigularis Chaparins flycatcher M. Lendu Rwenzori Batis Batis diops Black and white flycatcher Bias Musicus Shrike Flycatcher Megabyas flammulata Jameson's wattle-eye Platysteira blissetti Chestnut wattle-eye P. Castanea White failed Blue Flycatcher Erannoris albicauda Blue flycatcher E. longicauda Paradise Flycatcher T. viridis White bellied crested Flycatcher T. Albiventris White tailed crested flycatcher T. Albonotatus Dusky Crested Flycatcher T. Nigromitratus Pink footed buffback Dryscopus angolensis

91 Northern puffback D. Gambensis Fulteborns Black Boubou L. Fuelleborni Lunders Bush shrike L. Lucherdi Grey green bush shrike Malaconotus bocayei Dohertys Bush shrike M. dohertyi Lagdens bush shrike M. logdeni Many coloured bush strike M. multicolor Violet backed starling Cinnyricinclus leucogaster Sharpes starling C. Sharpi Purpose headed glossy starling L. Purpureiceps Slender blyed chestnut winged starling O. Tenuirostris Wallers Chestnut - winged starling O. Walleri Narrow tailed starling Poeptera lugubris Stuhlmann's starling P. Stuhlmanni Collared sunbird Anthreptes collaris Grey headed sunbird A. fraseri Cween sunbird A. rectirostris Blue headed sunbird Nectarinia aliniae Olive bellied sunbird N. chloropygia Blue throated Brown sunbird No. Cyanolaerua Montane double collared sunbird N. ludovicansis Olive sunbird N. Olivacea Northern double collared sunbird N. ludovicansis Purple breasted sunbird N. Porpureiventris Regal sunbird N. regia Green throated sunbird N. rubescens Little Green sunbird N. Seimundi Superb sunbird N. Superba Variable sunbird N. venusta Green headed sunbird N. verticals Yellow white eye Zosteropssenegalensis Red headed malimbe Malinbers rubricollis Strange weaver Ploceus alienus Stuhlmanis weaver P. Baglafecht Brown capped weaver P. Insignis Black billed weaver P. melanogaster Vieillots Black Weaver P. Nigerrimus Compact weaver P. Superciliosus Yellow mantled weaver P. Tricolor Dusky twinspot Clytospiza cinereovinacea Disky crmson wing Crytspiza Jacksoni Red faced crimsonwing C. reichenovii Abyssinian crimson wing C. Salvardorii Shelleys crimson wing C. Shelleyi Blackheaded waxbill Estrilda atricapilla Greenbacked Twinspot Mandigoa nitidula Grey headed Negro finch N. Luteifrons Red headed Bluebill S. Ruficapilla Black and white mannikin Lonchura bicolor Oriole Finch Linurgus olivaceus Thick billed seed eater S. burtoni

92

Appendix c

List of diurnal forest primate species recorded from the Bwindi Impenetrable Forest Reserve.

1. Black and white colobus - Colobus guereza occidentalis

2. Baboon - papio anubis

3. Red tail monkey

4. L'Hoests monkey - Cercopithecus mitis stuhlmanni/doggetti

6. Chimpanzee - Pan troglodytes

7. Mountain gorilla- Gorilla gorilla beringei.

93

94