Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | ) of tephra 2 − 10 micron in aerodynamic ≤ measurements were carried out at three c and hence remobilized into the air, due ffi ) after the basaltic explosive eruptions from 10 3926 3925 10 aerosol monitor a few hours after the end of the TM in the air. This is because the coarse particles, like 2 10 DustTrak ® levels measured a few hours after the 15 November lava fountain 10 and P. Del Carlo 1 measurements in urban settlements ects of volcanic ash on people’s health have been widely acknowledged and 10 ff erent sites using a TSI ective actions, first and foremost the prompt removal of the ash deposits from the By comparing PM ff ff This discussion paper is/has beenSystem under Sciences review (NHESS). for Please the refer journal to Natural the Hazards corresponding and final Earth paper in NHESS if available. Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Osservatorio Etneo, Piazza RomaIstituto 2, Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Sezione di Pisa, Via Della Faggiola 32, di Abstract In this paperof we volcanic focus ash on (particulateMt the matter: potential Etna PM risks volcanolast caused (Italy), 20 by which years. thein We have sub-10 present the micron dramatically results fraction air increasedEtna deriving following in on from the 15 frequency thethe November lava study over 2011, volcano. fountain of the which Short-duration episode the caused tests ash from tephra of concentration the fallout PM over Neweruption, the and South-East readouts eastern of Crater slope thewithout air of of volcanic quality activity. were Furthermore, repeatedcomponentry, at ash morphological the samples and same were petro-chemical sites characterized analyses. a by month later grain-size, and on 15 December, we found that relatively low amounts (500–1500 gm after lava fountain episodes atItaly: Mt pilot Etna, test to assesshazard volcanic on ash human health D. Andronico 1 95125 Catania, Italy 2 56126 Pisa, Italy Received: 5 May 2015 – Accepted: 5Correspondence May to: 2015 D. – Andronico Published: ([email protected]) 16and June P. Del 2015 Carlo ([email protected]) Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union. fallout cause high levelsbasaltic of ash, PM are readilyto broken their intrinsic, up physical by andimpact tra morphological from features. ash We fallout believe in thatto the in avoid Etnean the potential future territory health the problems; shoulde this receive proper may be attention achieved inurbanized by order areas. accomplishing simple but 1 Introduction The e documented in the2010, literature 2013; (e.g. Le Blond Hincksparticles, et et especially al., particulate al., 2010; matter 2006; Searl with et Horwell al., dimensions et 2002; al., Wilson et 2003, al., 2006, 2011). The finer PM Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci.www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci-discuss.net/3/3925/2015/ Discuss., 3, 3925–3953, 2015 doi:10.5194/nhessd-3-3925-2015 © Author(s) 2015. CC Attribution 3.0 License. 5 10 25 15 20 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | ) are also called 4 and PM 10 surveys of particulate matter 10 ects of ash fallout on the air quality ff 1). A thermal anomaly was observed + ects. ff 3928 3927 ) particles are called “respirable” since they can erent environmental conditions: (i) within a few 2.5 ff ), remain suspended in the air and may be inhaled, causing and PM 10 4 PM of Alparone et al., 2003; Fig. 3a). The Strombolian explosions slowly < erent degrees of injury depending on the particle size (Horwell and Baxter, 2006). The 15 November 2011 episode studied here was the 18th and occurred in partially To this end, we carried out short-duration PM Among basaltic volcanoes, Mt Etna (Italy; Fig. 1) has proved to be a great producer In this work, we quantitatively evaluate the e ff resumption phase by video-recordings from theGeofisica network e of Vulcanologia,anomaly, cameras located Sezione managed on di the by eruptive Catania-Osservatorio Istitutoadvancement fissure of cutting Nazionale a Etneo the lava di flow new (INGV-OE). that cone,explosions was The heralded began evident to the since be downward 06:05 visible GMT, from while( the discontinuous, upper low vent within the new cone after 08:20 GMT increased in frequency and intensity,about extending 11:15 also GMT, along when the they eruptive began fissure, to until to produce almost continuous magma jets up to On 11 January 2011, thethat South-East gave Crater rise (SEC; to Fig. abeing 1) lava fountain resumed the episode its first in eruptive of the activity gradually night a built between up sequence 12 a of and new 13 25(hereafter cone January NSEC; events on 2011, Fig. the over 1; east the Andronico flank next et of months. SEC, al., named The 2014a, New b; intense South-Eastcloudy Behncke activity Crater et conditions al., 2014). aroundphenomena, the in particular volcano of whichmorning the prevented eruption around column. full 05:45 The GMT visibility eruptive (local activity of time: resumed the GMT in the eruptive 2 The 15 November 2011 lava fountain episode in the airhours at after ash threesimilar fallout sites weather following with conditionsSedimentologic, the di but morphoscophic 15 without November andash any 2011 samples petro-chemical evident lava collected analysessize, at fountain, air componentry, were shape the and pollution and performed measurement (ii)potential composition by on sites, risk of in volcanic caused particles. in by Furthermore, ash. measures order tephra to we to prevent fallout discuss and in determine the mitigate the such the e Etnean grain- urban areas, suggesting simple equivalent diameter (PM di Coarse particles of 4–10 µm aerodynamic diameter (i.e. PM et al., 2008, 2009). Paroxysmal events arestyle characterised from by Strombolian explosive to activity lava ranging fountains, in of often as weeks sequences of to episodesthese months within periods at paroxysmal the sequencesAndronico summit have and craters been Corsaro (Branca (2011). considered Mostthe and production of single of Del these ash “episodic” paroxysms injected Carlo, into are eruptionsand 2005). the typically atmosphere further, associated by Recently, and where dispersed with they all may around the cause volcano light to relatively heavyduring and explosive activity serious from fallout. Etna, namely the(25 2011–2012 and and 21 2013 paroxysmal episodic eruptions episodes,South respectively; East Andronico et Crater al., (Fig. 2014b)because 1). from approximately the The 900 New- 000 problem inhabitants forthe live largest human on city health the with is 300 slopeswhich 000 potentially numbers of inhabitants considerable more Etna, and than Catania comprising 20 000. being another twelve towns each of more readily penetrategas-exchanges into take the place (QUARG, lungs, 1996).particles thus The at limit involving between the the thoracicparticles sub-4 and µm alveolar respirable during ash region long-term fraction where2001). also exposure the reflects (Expert the Panel greater on hazard Air from Qualityof the ash Standards, in fine the 1995, last 20explosive years activity and consisting more. of Indeed, more since than 1989,lasting 200 Etna paroxysmal explosive has episodes, and undergone eruptions two recurrent main inet long- al., 2001 2005) that (Scollo produced et prolonged ash al., emissions (Taddeucci 2007) et al., and 2002; Andronico 2002–2003 (Andronico “thoracic” because theythroat, may while reach fine the ( bronchioles of the lungs via the nose and 5 5 20 25 15 10 20 25 10 15 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | c. ffi Site is at is on c here c at this ffi ffi erent sites Site 2 ff Site 1 c. c light pole. ffi ffi usive and explosive ff (hereafter DT) aerosol ected by the ash fallout ff TM was collected very close to 1 c lights. There is more tra samples were selected for textural ; Fig. 3c). This activity lasted with DustTrak ; Fig. 3d); also the eruption column, ffi 3 ® c flow crossed by a secondary, quiet ffi and PM 2 3930 3929 ) for each site was collected on a measured 3 concentration in the air at three di . PM 2 10 erent features in terms of road tra conclusive phase ff paroxysmal phase and PM 2 over 10–16 min periods; the DT was set with a time constant , PM 1 10 levels in Montserrat: a network of static test sites by which to carry 10 is about 1.5 km north on the same road and 20.4 km from SEC, while is on the SS114 road linking Acireale with Catania at 21.3 km from the eruptive is on the SP148 within the Fleri village, 12.8 km from NSEC. These sites were measurements were carried out by a TSI site 2 . At the Laboratory of Sedimentology, INGV-OE, we carried out grain-size analysis 2 10 Site 1 We repeated measurements a month later, on 15 December 2011, at the same time We measured PM In this work, we measured PM The eruption column was driven eastward by winds blowing above the volcano, , finally, is located on a road with regular tra a few hours afterthe the eastern 15 flank November of 2011 the lava volcano fountain. in The some sites inhabited were areas selected a on out continuous monitoring andhour. short-duration In both tests, cases ranging they between set 15 the min DT and for one 1 min average recording. monitor (Model 8520), aof portable laser airborne photometer particulates providingthe real-time (Fig. Caribbean digital 2a). readout islandthe In of Soufriere volcanology, Hills Montserrat the Volcanoislanders to between DT to 1996 respiratory evaluate was hazards and the (Moore extensively 1999produced et guidelines impact and used al., for air 2002; particularly of quality in Searl surveys the et inin the al., exposure volcanic areas 2002). urban ash of characterized These by settlements. Authors ash erupted fallout investigating Moore PM by et al. (2002), in particular, provided two strategies for investigation and morphological observation since PM by CAMSIZER (Lo Castro and Andronico, 2008) at 1/2-phi intervals (estimating vent, selected on the basis of their di 3 to busy road with a stop sign. The DT measured at 40 cm of height. The tra surface to evaluate the weight for m PM site 3 and with the same instrument set up and3.2 similar weather conditions. Sample analyses A tephra sample (PM (Fig. 1). Short-duration tests were donefallout during performed the soon mapping after and the samplingof eruption of tephra to the on tephra prevent the the ground. removal of the original amount than at site 1, and the DT operated at 80 cm of height just below a tra of 10 s, i.e.frequency/averaging the period display was showed fixed readingsintervals. to averaged We 1 over observed min, the thatlaterally i.e. previous by just readings the 10 cars s, a were causing while remobilization recorded fewof phenomena the the hours at and carriageway accumulation after 1 (Fig. at min 2b). both the sides tephra fallout ash was swept a road with “average” but continuous, fairlyMeasurements smooth were flowing (both carried cars and outa lorries) tra at main crossroads the where road cars side must stop at at about the 1 tra m of height. site is roughly intermediate between site 1 and site 2. at least 300 mseveral high km (Fig. above 3b), thesimilar volcano forming intensity ( (since and 11:30 featuresdramatically GMT) for dropped an more in eruption than intensityintensity column Strombolian 1 and explosions h; up ( in after to a 12:20 GMT, few the minutes lava the fountains activity passed to lower- no longer fed, became exhausted in a few minutes. All the e 3 Methods 3.1 DustTrak measurements PM causing tephra fallout onover the the east Ionian flank Sea of (Fig. Etna 1). and further towards the coastline and phenomena ceased completely after 13:00 GMT. 5 5 25 20 10 15 25 10 15 20 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | 3 2 the ) is 3 and . These 3 ) and 5 h site 2 − 0.125 mm) < ), while PM sites 1 2 site 1 ). Remarkably, 3 − 440 gm ), the weight amounted ∼ 1 ( erent from ff 1 mm, with respect to the 2 < . 3 − , finally, was again the site with the , far higher than the maximum value 3 Site 3 . − samples shows both a Gaussian pattern . confirmed the lowest values of particulate 2 3 , the average value is considerably higher c, we recorded an average of 0.084, with 3 − ffi 3931 3932 particulate matter between 2 h ( Site 1 site 2 all the statistic values are very high: average at 10 and PM 2 . At 3 − site 3 erent size classes in volume %) and ash componentry ected by car tra ff ff . In the most distal and lateral sample (PM ) which amounts to a good deal more than 60 % of particles below . Finally, at 2 samples are both mainly made up of basaltic sideromelane clasts . 3 (Fig. 4a–c, red lines). 2 site 3 ) and the same is for the maximum value (1.285 mgm values, with an average of 0.081, a minimum of 0.061 and a maximum of . , a value fairly similar to the close sample PM 3 10 site 1 3 2 − − 10 , the least a and PM 1500 gm ) after the end of the lava fountain. All the loggings show a few peaks in the 2 site 1 490 gm ∼ erential among the statistics is increased though not significantly: average 0.060, ∼ At Bulk rock composition of scorias is K-trachybasaltic like the other recent volcanics PM Measurements carried out at the same sites a month later gave surprisingly very low ff site 3 values show a very limited variability between these three statistic values. At di minimum 0.026 and maximum 0.149 mgm was 4.1 DustTrak measurements On 15 November, we measured PM 4.2 Grain-size, textural and petro-chemical data The grain-size distribution of PM ( as observed during the readings. highest PM 0.192 mgm pattern (Fig. 4a–c, blue lines), indicating the significant influence of passing vehicles the percentagescharacterization of under di binocular microscopedi (Nikon Geofisica SMZ1500). e Vulcanologia, At Sezioneanalyses Istituto di of Nazionale Pisa Laboratory, clasts weelectron and performed microscope morphoscopic chemical Zeiss EVO analysessystem. MA of 10 glass equipped with and an minerals Oxford ISIS using microanalytical a scanning 4 Results The mass per square meter of the samples is significantly di peaked on 1 and 2 mm, respectively (Fig. 4d). The most proximal sample (PM with respect to to maximum value of 0.125 mgm obviously coarser, with only 17 % of the collected tephra (0.642 mgm matter: average of 0.033, minimum of 0.023 and maximum of 0.045 mgm values of PM distal sample (PM the same size of 1 mm. It should be noted that very fine ash particles ( the minimum value recorded is 0.337 mgm recorded at 0.935, minimum at 0.379 and maximum at 1.755 mgm more evolved and(Fig. alkali-rich 8 and as Table 1), wetrachyandesite where and the can the 15 phono-tephrite observe November fields. 2011 in samples plot the between the Total basaltic- Alkali Silica diagram of Etna (Viccaro etof al., plagioclase 2015). Ash(titaniferous-magnetite). and The samples groundmass are is clinopyroxene, glassy poorlyof with and porphyritic large plagioclase, abundance with microphenocrysts clinopyroxene, of phenocrysts microlites olivine of and olivine oxides (Fig. and 7). oxides Composition of glass is are practically absent in0.125 mm), the proximal while sample we (justbetween 0.045 0.1 measured % and 0.125 of a mm clasts in higher, sample in PM even the range if(ca. 0.09– 90 poorly %) consisting significant of lightshape value brown, and fresh, of vesicular smoothed clasts 0.9 with % black, surface irregular poorly (Figs. to subrounded vesicular, 5 blockyand and scorias) clasts 6). and (tachylite), loose The crystals raretypical rest (plagioclase). of lithic These most of morphological particles of the characteristics the (reworked are lava sample fountain lavas products. is formed of 5 5 10 15 25 10 20 25 20 15 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | 3 10 − and ects ff value ) fixed values 3 10 − ected by 10 ff ) were able sites 2 2 − concentrations concentrations . Further, Fig. 4 10 10 values are higher site 1 10 1500 gm > . 10 , the location least a 500 to ∼ with respect to but 13 and 19 times at as annual mean concentration. It is site 1 3 − ected by similar amounts of tephra, show site 2 ff site 1 are both characterised by average, maximum 3933 3934 over 24 h), there was no evident direct cause 3 3 − ects from particulate matter in the Etnean area pilot test ff erent than those measured on 15 November 2011, and , though a 10 ff 2 c, higher at concentration produced by explosive activity in order ffi 10 6–13 times higher a few hours after the 15 November lava and site 2 10 levels (at least during the short-duration tests) far exceeding sites 1 values measured in the same season but during years without 10 10 pollution problem and the Etna case are significantly di as the mean measured value over 24 h which must not be exceeded erences in the production of finer particles and this may be related to the should not be exceeded more than 7 times per year, while 0.020 mgm c. Conversely, 10 ff 10 3 3 ffi − − in the air was recorded for several days that greatly exceeded the threshold 10 Measurements carried out a month after the lava fountain have shown that the Given that the local authorities in charge of the territory should take these data into A stimulating research on the e substantial di proved to be very sensitivequantities after of the tephra fallout deposit from per lava square fountains, meter because relatively (from low and minimum values of PM fountain. Interestingly, varying intensity of vehicular tra the recommended limit for a 24 h exposure. In particular, PM on the ground) in several townsthe and key re-mobilization infrastructure around of the ash volcano,class showing may that of particles considerably in increase the the air. concentration of5.2 the study- The 15 November 2011 PM documenting that tephra fallouts onair the quality, ground from with Etna PM may significantly pollute the though within the same order of magnitude in values of PM was previously conducted byin Fano the et cities al.eruption of (2005), Catania with who and PM compared Acireale the during levels the of intense PM fallout from thefixed by 2002–2003 law atof that time respiratory (0.050 diseases mgm cardiovascular from diseases, the particularly ash among theto fallout. elderly, be They which related however did uniquely they note to assumed on the the a cardiovascular stress system temporary caused have also by increaseAir been the documented in in Quality eruption. non-volcanic Nonetheless, areas Guidelines such (WHO et e al. Global, (2010) simulated 2005; the concentration Delfino of 10 µm et volcanic particles al., (both in 2005). the air More and recently, Barsotti In good agreement with thegrained latter tephra research, in our the ground study mayin shows be that the highly the hazardous air presence in when of terms not fine- of PM quickly removed. Sites usually characterised byto low produce PM significant concentrations of particulate matter in the air. vehicular tra highlights that the 1 min,flow, see-saw which averaged by line disturbing iscloud heavily the of dependent tephra fine on deposit particles the is including vehicular a able high to percentage raise ofconsideration, a PM we clearly think visible, they irritating shouldrecorded during reflect our especially tests, on: whichby (1) remains law the well at average over PM the all 24-H three limit sites, (0.050 mgm i.e. only twice at volcanic activity. ThesePM Authors concluded that, although a significant increase of was the mean limit value for the calendar year. 5 Discussion 5.1 The PM The frequent tephrathe emissions potential recorded respiratorysystematically in monitor hazards the recent PM toto years the better at local understand Etna2001), population, the the have real suggesting European increased levels the legislation of establishes need exposure. the to In limit the values Directive of 2001/81/EC PM (EU, not to be0.050 mgm exceeded over 24more h than and 35 yearly timesworth per for noting year the that anddate the protection 0.040 from mgm EU of which directive more human0.050 mgm 99/30 severe health, limits had i.e. would fixed have 1 to January be 2010 respected, as i.e. a the limit starting value of 5 5 20 15 25 10 15 20 25 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | , 3 − site 1 ects of ff limits set 10 ) and 94.8 % 3 at Piedimonte on 2 − (0.337 and 0.379 mgm 3 for several days in the urban ected the roads causing ash 6000 gm ff 10 ∼ and c could lead, on one hand, to the correlated with the transit of cars c. Notably, during the removal of ffi 3 ffi − is not due to the direct ash fallout but sites 2 10 3935 3936 cloud within the first 2–3 m of height above the and Ragalna) are not located in highly urbanised 3 10 , 2 erana Etnea and Piedimonte Etneo, located 10 km , ff ects on the human health could be significantly higher in ff sites 1 peaks up to 0.300 mgm values have been measured by the network of air monitoring 10 erana on 16 March 2013, and 10 7 times the limit fixed to safeguard human health over periods of ff ∼ at Za ), reached very high readings at 2 3 − − measurements ( specifically for volcanic environments. Although our measurements represent 10 10 ) higher than 1 mm, and the total percentage higher than 10 micron. Hence, 2 ce of the municipality of Catania, confirm our warning on the potential e The study of collected tephra show that their grain-size is 99.8 % (PM These results are also supported by measurements taken on 6 October 2011 in Recently, the villages of Za Finally, it should be remembered that physicochemical analyses carried out on ash Our tests urge the adequate planning of the monitoring survey and the assessing of 7000 gm ffi , respectively, and (2) the minimum values, which, though not so high as at 23 November 2013,causing respectively a (Lo few Castro days et of al., temporary 2013; closure Andronico of et tra al., 2013), the accumulated tephra, a high re-suspension of ash a exposure and inevitable inhalation for several days (Fig. 9). samples from the 2002–2003generate Etna hydroxyl eruption radicals, an also2007), additional showed thus source that increasing of fine the respiratory potential ash health toxicity particles hazard. (Horwell may et al., 6 Conclusions Tephra fallouts are a sourcethe of east particulate sector matter of in Etnasettlements the may air around maintain and high the their levels volcano.not high of We frequency PM entirely in are follow awarefor the PM that EU the legislation methodologypreliminary for adopted short-duration urban does tests to areas evaluateash and the at exposure Etna, also of they exposure the may nonetheless community guidelines represent to a volcanic startingrespiratory point (and for cardiovascular) future hazards researches. to theafter Etnean tephra population fallout during, from but paroxysmal above activity. It all, our is PM noteworthy that all the sitesareas selected in for terms of peoplethat passing the (whether risks walking, and cycling, thus motorbiking the or e driving), so the town centres. Here the continuous vehicular tra formation of a quasi-permanent PM ground, and on the other,to to a protect continuous human and health. marked exceeding of the PM > (0.49 mgm 3 the lava fountain episode.1 mm Here, sized the particles) tephra hadsignificant cover not thicknesses been (96 (up % completely to of swept severalwe away centimetres) which measured from in high made the specific PM streets, up points. reaching Also of in 0.25– this case, Ragalna town (Fig. 1), 8 days after the tephra fallout on 28 September 2011 during respectively), i.e. 24 h. tephra fallout in the Etna region. over the ash mounds. eastward and 17 kmtephra north-eastward fallout deposits of produced by the high-energy lava NSEC, fountain events. were These cumulated covered by unusually thick (PM we infer that the air contamination by PM 5.3 Tephra fallout in urban settlements In the past, high PM to the breakup ofThe the breakage coarser could clasts be afterrepresent enhanced mechanical ca. to 90 pressure % the from of fragility vehicular the of samples. transit. the sideromelane particles, which stations located in the cityup of to Catania, some which tens have of exceededmonitoraggio times the greater ambientale, EU after set 2002) long-lasting threshold or fallout even data, single (2002–2003 eruption; paroxysmal easily Rete events di accessible (e.g.,O at July 2011). the These web-page maintained by the Environmental Pollution 5 5 20 25 10 15 10 15 20 25 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | measurements 10 cult, if not impossible, to ffi entirely, this goal might be achieved 10 3938 3937 airs, London, available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives. ff ective actions and precautions; first and foremost, the swift ff We thank S. Scollo for her collaboration during the PM ce, London, 1995. ffi ective removal of the ash deposit in the urbanized areas and public roadways ff We conclude by hoping that the impact from ash fallout in the Etnean territory and Scollo, S.: L’attività parossistica deldel 23 deposito novembre di 2013 caduta e al caratteristiche2013, Nuovo dei Cratere available prodotti di eruttati, at: Rapporto SE:,http://www.ct.ingv.it UFVG2013. dispersione del last 28 access: novembre 1 June 2015, Rapporti,dynamics Vulcanologia, and tephra dispersal fromMt. the Etna, 24 Italy, November J. 2006 Volcanol.2014a. paroxysm Geoth. at Res., South-East Crater, 274, 78–91,, 10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.01.009 doi: sampled fall depositsJanuary in 2011 estimating lava eruptiondoi:10.1007/s00445-014-0861-3, fountain 2014b. source deposit parameters: from a Mt. test Etna usingHincks, volcano, T.: the Quantitative Italy, 12–13 assessment B.at of Volcanol., volcanic Mt. 76, ash,doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2010.02.011 861, Etna 2010. hazards for (Italy) health and by infrastructure numerical2012 summit simulation, activityVolcanol. of J. 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A., Damby, D.Fano, E., V., Cernigliaro, Delmelle, A., P., Scondotto, S., Cuccia, M., Forestiere, F., Nicolosi, A., Oliveti, C., 5 5 30 15 20 10 25 30 10 15 20 25 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | # 10 SD 2.19 0.22 0.82 0.20 49.29 0.72 16.11 0.40 3942 3941 3 5 O 4.59 0.15 2 2 O 2 OO 3.32 0.15 2 2 2 SiO TiO Total 98.06 Al FeOMgO 10.13MnO 0.37 3.68CaO 0.26 0.22 Na 7.56 0.10 K 0.30 P SEM-EDS analyses of major elements in glass of 15 November 2011 ash fragments Hudson eruption, southern Patagonia, Chile, B.,010-0396-1 Volcanol., 73, 2011. 223–239, doi:10.1007/s00445- Global Update 2005, Summary1–22, 2006. of Risk Assessment, World Health Organization, Geneva, (wt % average value); # number of analyses; SD: standard deviation value. Table 1. WHO Air Quality Guidelines for Particulate Matter, Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide and Sulfur Dioxide, 5 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | (white rectangular 3944 3943 on September 2011 (courtesy of INGV – Cartography Laboratory): NEC measurement carried out on 15 November 2011 in Acireale at site 2 (SS114 10 Digital elevation map of Mt Etna showing the sites (full yellow circles) chosen for DustTrak working; the display shows the averaged reading over the previous 10 s; PM (a) measurements and the collected samples (site 1, site 2 and site 3). The broken yellow transit of cars at the crossing. 10 Figure 2. road): (b) represented in a) Northeast Crater, VORCrater, Voragine, NSEC BN-1 New Southeast and Crater. BN-2 Bocca Nuova pit-craters, SEC Southeast line shows the extentrepresent of the tephra main fallout citiestop from in the inset: 15 this location November volcano of 2011 sector, Sicily. lava especially Left-bottom fountain. those inset: Blue reported areas map in of the the text. summit Right- craters Figure 1. PM Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | (b) the last (d) the beginning of the explosive (a) the eruption column formed above; 3946 3945 (c) : true-colour camera) showing the main phases of the 15 c : thermal camera; d Images extracted from the INGV-OE video-camera recordings of La Montagnola , b usive activity in the upper vent and eruptive fissure of the new cone, respectively; , ff a Figure 3. site ( and e lava fountains from theexplosions before eruptive the cessation fissure; of each eruptive phenomena. November 2011 lava fountain at the new cone of SEC: Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | site 1, Hotel statistics data: (a) 10 Grain-size histograms (d) minimum value. = 3948 3947 measurements in three studied sites: 10 . 3 site 3, Fleri. The time interval of the number measurements is maximum value; Min (c) = and PM 2 Plots showing PM site 2, Acireale; (b) average value; Max = Aloha; Figure 4. (a–c) 1 min. Blue lines and diamonds:hours values after measured the in tephra thein fallout; afternoon absence red of of 15 lines volcanic November and event. 2011, At squares: a the values few side measured of each on plot 15 are December reported the 2011, main PM Ave concerning samples PM Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | erent morphological types of ash particles ff sample at Acireale. 2 PM 3950 3949 (c) samples. sample at Fleri; (c) 1 3 ) PM b and PM and a (a, b) Binocular microscope images showing di Scanning electron microscope secondary electrons (SEM-SE) images representative 2 Figure 6. of the textures identifiedfragments in with studied tephra(tachylite). fluidal showing ( moderately texture vesicular, glassy (sideromelane) scoriaceous and scarce poorly vesicular, blocky clasts from PM Figure 5. Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | 3952 3951 Scanning electron microscope secondary electrons (SEM-BSD) images Total alkali-silica classification diagram of Le Bas et al. (1986). Figure 8. Figure 7. representative of textures identified in the 15 November 2015 ash; pl: plagioclase; ol: olivine. Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | erana ff 3953 The remobilization of ash in the air after the 16 March 2013 tephra fallout at Za Etnea. Figure 9.