4.9. Quantitative Methods of Ceramic Analysis

The Pre-Aksumite to Aksumite Transition in Eastern Tigrai, Ethiopia: The View from Ona Adi

Habtamu Mekonnen Taddesse

M.A. (Archaeology), Addis Ababa University, 2010 B.A (History), Addis Ababa University, 2001

Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

in the Department of Archaeology Faculty of Environment

Copyright in this work rests with the author. Please ensure that any reproduction or re-use is done in accordance with the relevant national copyright legislation. Approval

Name: Habtamu Mekonnen Taddesse Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Title: The Pre-Aksumite to Aksumite Transition in Eastern Tigrai, Ethiopia: The View from Ona Adi Examining Committee: Chair: Jonathan Driver Professor Catherine D’Andrea Senior Supervisor Professor Sarah Walshaw Supervisor Senior Lecturer Department of History Lynn Welton Supervisor Postdoctoral Fellow Department of Archaeology Durham University Ross Jamieson Internal Examiner Associate Professor Michael Harrower External Examiner Associate Professor Department of Near Eastern Studies John Hopkins University

Date Defended/Approved: August 12, 2019

ii Abstract

The Pre-Aksumite to Aksumite transition (PA-A transition) is a critically important period in the culture history of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa (ca. 400 BC – 1st century AD). Previous hypotheses derived from archaeological surveys, that the settlement of large sites in Eastern Tigrai was continuous during the PA-A transition, are tested in this study. A main objective of this dissertation is to develop the first systematic ceramic chronology of the PA-A transition and the Aksumite period in Eastern Tigrai, based on excavation and ceramic analysis completed at the site of Ona Adi. The work involved the definition of main features of the Agame Ceramic Tradition. This research, in addition to completed survey data, highlights the distant political and economic relationship between the putative centres of Aksum/Yeha and the outlying region of Eastern Tigrai during the PA-A transition and the Aksumite period. It also provides a glimpse into the social dynamics of the PA-A transition at Ona Adi and the political role of Eastern Tigrai during the PA-A transition and the Aksumite period in the Horn of Africa. The work also explores the local cultural development and the impacts of cultural contacts between Eastern Tigrai and surrounding areas during the PA-A transition and Aksumite period. The results represent important baseline data to facilitate the development of future archaeological investigations in the region.

Keywords: ceramic seriation; Agame ceramic tradition; Pre-Aksumite; Pre-Aksumite to Aksumite transition; Aksumite; northern Ethiopia; social complexity

iii Acknowledgements

Many thanks to all those people who have generously provided me their critical assessments and advice to accomplish the writing of this thesis. I would not be, let alone accomplished this project, an archaeologist if not for my senior supervisor, Professor Catherine D’Andrea. When I first met Professor D’Andrea, I was a historian not an archaeologist. I have been involved in a number of her archaeological field projects in Ethiopia. Professor D’Andrea’s tireless work, her ability to persevere in building team spirit and her extraordinary industriousness totally changed my academic life. I developed a strong desire to become an archaeologist like Dr. D’Andrea. As a mentor, Dr. D’Andrea was also my MA degree co-supervisor. She shared with me not only her great intellectual supervision and her practical-based skills, she also stimulated me to think critically and creatively. In addition, she has covered parts of my dissertation research expenses from her own project grants (SSHRC Standard Research Grant No. 410-2011-1646 and SSHRC Insight Grant No. 435-2014-0182). I am grateful to Dr. Lynn Welton and Dr. Sarah Walshaw, members of my supervisory committee, for their critical assessments and advice, Dr. Ross Jamieson, my internal examiner, Dr. Michael Harrower, my external examiner and Professor Jonathan Driver, my examination committee chair.

This project was mainly funded by Wadsworth International Fellowships. I was also benefited from a research grant from Simon Fraser University Graduate School for funding and support for travel to and from Ethiopia and partial monthly salary payment from Aksum University in Ethiopia. The Authority for Research and Conservation of Cultural Heritage (ARCCH) in Ethiopia and the Tigrai Culture and Tourism Office, Mekelle, granted the needed permission for this work.

I would like to thank all the Eastern Tigrai Archaeological Project (ETAP) team members for their continued work and help. In particular to Shannon Wood, for teaching me how to use the total station and introduction to topographic mapping techniques and Dr. Michela Gaudiello for assisting me to understand how to deal with and handle large ceramic data in the field. I benefited from the knowledge of Dr. Cinzia Perlingieri, she practically showed and trained me on how to analyze ceramic materials in her field laboratory at Aksum Archaeological Museum. I am grateful to my friend Laurie Darcus and all her

iv family members for creating a second home to me in Canada. I celebrated a lot of memorable and great holidays with them eating, drinking and chatting in their house.

Finally, I am immensely indebted to my lovely and very strong wife Nebiat Desta and our gorgeous daughters. In spite of the many challenges we have faced with, Nebiat has the courage and stamina to inspire me to complete my studies so that I can create a better future for us. I feel very proud and honored to officially dedicate this dissertation to Nebiat and our kids.

v Table of Contents

Approval ...... ii Abstract ...... iii Acknowledgements ...... iv Table of Contents ...... vi List of Tables ...... x List of Figures...... xiii

Chapter 1. Introduction ...... 1 1.1. Main Research Goal and Objectives ...... 4 1.1.1. Objective 1 ...... 5 1.1.2. Objective 2 ...... 7 1.1.3. Objective 3 ...... 8 1.2. Eastern Tigrai Archaeological Project (ETAP) ...... 9 1.3. Chapter Summary ...... 11

Chapter 2. Background: Later Prehistoric/Early Historical Periods of the Northern Horn ...... 13 2.1. Geographical, Environmental and Cultural Context ...... 14 2.2. A Brief History of the Archaeology of the Northern Horn of Africa ...... 18 2.3. Culture History of the Northern Horn: Indigenous/Exogenous Debate ...... 27 2.4. Existing Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite Chronologies ...... 37 2.5. Chapter Summary ...... 43

Chapter 3. Theory of Ceramic Studies and Social complexity ...... 44 3.1. Theoretical Issues in Archaeological Pottery Classifications and Typology ...... 45 3.2. Seriation ...... 48 3.2.1. Definition of Seriation ...... 48 3.2.2. Underlying Assumptions of Seriation ...... 49 3.2.3. Methods of Seriation ...... 51 3.3. Ceramic Classification ...... 52 3.3.1. The Type-Variety Classification Method...... 55 3.3.2. Multiple Classification ...... 58 3.4. Ceramics and Social Complexity ...... 59 3.4.1. Definition of social complexity ...... 60 3.4.2. Theoretical Background ...... 61 3.5. Chapter summary ...... 69

Chapter 4. Methodology ...... 71 4.1. Ona Adi Ceramic Processing and Recoding Methods ...... 73 4.1.1. Retrieval Procedures ...... 73 4.1.2. Cleaning and Drying ...... 77 4.1.3. Sorting and Registration Procedures ...... 78 4.2. Classification Methods ...... 80

vi 4.3. Ceramic Morphology and Function ...... 82 4.4. Metric Analysis ...... 83 4.5. Manufacturing techniques ...... 84 4.6. Fabric ...... 85 4.7. Surface Treatment ...... 86 4.8. Decoration ...... 87 4.9. Quantitative Methods of Ceramic Analysis...... 87 4.9.1. The Chi-Square Test ...... 89 4.9.2. Correspondence Analysis ...... 91 4.10. Chapter Summary ...... 92

Chapter 5. The Ancient Town Site of Ona Adi: Excavation and Stratigraphy ...... 93 5.1. Gulo Makeda and Ona Adi today ...... 96 5.2. Ona Adi Excavations and Stratigraphy ...... 102 5.3. Field A Excavations: Square A1 ...... 105 5.3.1. Phase 1 (Early Aksumite) Occupations, Loci 5 and 6...... 107 5.3.2. Phase 2 (Middle Aksumite) Occupation, Loci 4, 10 and 13 ...... 109 5.3.3. Phase 3 (Late Aksumite) Occupation, Loci 3, 11 and 12 and wall L9 ...... 110 5.3.4. Phase 4 (Post Aksumite) Occupation, Locus 2 and walls L7 and L8 ...... 112 5.4. Field B Excavations: Square B1 ...... 114 5.4.1. Phase 1 (Middle Aksumite) occupation, Locus 9 and Loci 11 to 15 ...... 115 5.4.2. Phase 2 (Late Aksumite) Occupation, Loci 5 (lower part) to 8 and Locus 10 118 5.4.3. Phase 3 (Post Aksumite) Occupation, Loci 1 to 5 (upper part) ...... 119 5.5. Field C Excavations: Square C1 ...... 121 5.5.1. Phase 1 (PA-A Transition) Occupation, Loci 22, 23 and 25 ...... 122 5.5.2. Phase 2 (Early Aksumite) Occupation, Loci 19-21, and Locus 9 ...... 123 5.5.3. Phase 3 (Middle Aksumite) Occupation, parts of Loci 2&3, Loci 5-8 and Loci 18, & 24 125 5.5.4. Phase 4 (Late Aksumite) Occupation, parts of Loci 2, 3 and 13, Locus 14, 15, 16 and 17...... 128 5.6. Field D Excavations: Squares D1 and D2 ...... 130 5.6.1. Squares D1 and D2, Phase 1: Late Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition occupation ...... 132 5.6.2. Squares D1 and D2, Phase 2, (Early Aksumite) occupations ...... 137 5.6.3. Squares D1 and D2 Phase 3 (Middle Aksumite) Occupations ...... 139 5.6.4. Squares D1 and D2, Phase 4, (Late Aksumite) Occupations ...... 140 5.7. Field E: Squares E1 and E2 ...... 141 5.8. Chapter Summary ...... 149

Chapter 6. Results: Ona Adi Ceramic Types ...... 150 6.1. Rim and Rim Profile ...... 150 6.2. Lip shapes ...... 152 6.3. Fabric ...... 153 6.3.1. Orange-Red Ware (ORW) ...... 154

vii 6.3.2. Brown Ware (BW) ...... 157 6.3.3. Gray and Black Wares (GW and BLW) ...... 161 6.4. Surface Treatment ...... 163 6.4.1. Scraping ...... 164 6.4.2. Basket/mat-impressed ...... 165 6.4.3. Cord-marked/impressed ...... 166 6.4.4. Smoothing ...... 167 6.4.5. Slipping...... 169 6.4.6. Polishing/burnishing...... 170 6.4.7. Rough surface finish ...... 171 6.5. Decorations ...... 172 6.5.1. Incisions ...... 172 6.5.2. Black-topped and notches on the lip ...... 177 6.5.3. Bossing...... 179 6.5.4. Punctate ...... 180 6.5.5. Grooving ...... 181 6.5.6. Combing ...... 183 6.6. Painted Vessels ...... 184 6.7. Sasanian Blue Glazed Wares ...... 186 6.8. Amphorae ...... 187 6.9. Cruciform Motifs ...... 188 6.10. Vessel Shapes ...... 192 6.10.1. Basins ...... 193 6.10.2. Bowls ...... 197 6.10.3. Jars and Bottles ...... 215 6.10.4. Cauldrons ...... 222 6.10.5. Cups ...... 227 6.11. Chapter Summary ...... 234

Chapter 7. Results of Ona Adi Ceramic analysis ...... 235 7.1. Field D Ceramic Analysis Results ...... 235 7.1.1. Field D Fabrics ...... 238 7.1.2. Field D Ceramic Forms ...... 243 7.1.3. Field D Surface Treatment ...... 249 7.1.4. Field D Decorations ...... 251 7.2. Field C Ceramic Analysis Results ...... 253 7.2.1. Field C Fabrics ...... 255 7.2.2. Field C Ceramic Forms ...... 259 7.2.3. Field C Surface Treatment ...... 265 7.2.4. Field C Decorations ...... 266 7.3. Field B Ceramic Analysis Results ...... 268 7.3.1. Field B Fabrics ...... 270 7.3.2. Field B Ceramic Forms ...... 272 7.3.3. Field B Surface Treatment ...... 277

viii 7.3.4. Field B Decorations ...... 278 7.4. Field A Ceramic Analysis Results ...... 280 7.4.1. Field A Fabrics ...... 282 7.4.2. Field A Ceramic Forms ...... 284 7.4.3. Field A Surface Treatments ...... 290 7.4.4. Field A Decorations ...... 291 7.5. Intrasite Comparison of Ona Adi Ceramics ...... 293 7.6. Chapter Summary ...... 318

Chapter 8. Discussion ...... 319 8.1. Research Goal and Objectives ...... 320 8.2. Ceramic Phasing/Chronology ...... 320 8.2.1. Late Pre-Aksumite Phase ...... 323 8.2.2. The Pre-Aksumite to Aksumite (PA-A) Transition Phase ...... 333 8.2.3. Early Aksumite Ceramic Phase ...... 337 8.2.4. Middle Aksumite Ceramic Phase ...... 344 8.2.5. Late and Post Aksumite Ceramic Phases ...... 347 8.3. Socio-Political Groups at Ona Adi ...... 351 8.4. Ona Adi in global, regional, and interregional settings ...... 358 8.5. Chapter Summary ...... 382

Chapter 9. Conclusions ...... 383 9.1. Ceramic Phasing/Chronology ...... 384 9.2. Socio-Political Groups at Ona Adi ...... 387 9.3. Ona Adi in a global, regional, and interregional setting ...... 389 9.4. Future Directions ...... 391

References ...... 393

Appendix A. Ona Adi pottery pail description (gufa count) ...... 425

Appendix B Ona Adi ceramics registrations (2013, 2014 and 2015 field seasons) ...... 436

Appendix C Ona Adi Distribution of Vessel Forms Across Fields...... 447

Appendix D Illustrations of samples of the Ona Adi Materials ...... 456

ix List of Tables

Table 2.1. Summary of Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite Chronologies ...... 38 Table 3.1. Preliminary outline of components of the sub-systems of pottery making (after Prudence Rice 1984:240 ...... 44 Table 3.2. Types of societies according to cultural evolutionary models, after Ames 2010 ...... 62 Table 4.1. Summary of methods, selected ceramic attributes for analysis and significance of collected data...... 81 Table 4.2. Formal Attributes of Different Functional Categories and Rim Diameter Size Ranges (after Henrickson and MacDonald 1983)...... 82 Table 5.1. Arable and Non-Arable Land Distribution of Gulo Makeda Woreda ...... 97 Table 5.2. Tabias in Gulo Makeda and their respective total population (2007 national census) ...... 98 Table 5.3. Summary chart of identified occupational phases at Ona Adi ...... 148 Table 6.1. Ona Adi rim profile types and varieties (definitions of attributes after Hoard et al, 2003) ...... 151 Table 6.2. Orange-Red Ware (ORW) Fabric Type Varieties ...... 155 Table 6.3. Brown Ware (BW) Fabric Type Varieties ...... 159 Table 6.4. Gray Ware (GW) Fabric Type and Varieties ...... 163 Table 6.5. Black Ware (BLW) Fabric Type ...... 163 Table 6.6. Ona Adi decoration types and varieties ...... 175 Table 6.7. Identified basin vessel types at Ona Adi ...... 195 Table 6.8. Identified bowl vessel types at Ona Adi ...... 201 Table 6.9. Identified jar and bottle types at Ona Adi ...... 216 Table 6.10. Identified cauldron vessel types at Ona Adi ...... 224 Table 6.11. Identified cup vessel types at Ona Adi ...... 229 Table 7.1 Square D1 diagnostic sherd counts, Gufa (basket like container) counts (representing estimate of soil voilume) and diagnostic sherd density by excavated loci ...... 236 Table 7.2. Square D2 diagnostic sherd counts, Gufa counts and diagnostic sherd density by excavated loci ...... 236 Table 7.3. Field D diagnostic sherd densities gained by dividing sherd counts by gufa counts for each stratigraphic phase ...... 237 Table 7.4. Fabric group distributions across Field D stratigraphic phases ...... 239 Table 7.5. Frequency distributions of fabric types in Field D stratigraphic phases . 241 Table 7.6. Field D vessel shape type totals by occupational phases ...... 243 Table 7.7. Percentage of large and small bowl types by Field D occupational phases ...... 244 Table 7.8. Surface treatment type distributions across Field D stratigraphic phases ...... 250

x Table 7.9. Decoration type distributions across Field D stratigraphic phases ...... 251 Table 7.10. Field C diagnostic sherd counts, gufa counts and diagnostic sherd densities by excavated loci ...... 253 Table 7.11. Field C diagnostic sherd densities gained by dividing sherd counts by gufa counts for each occupational phase ...... 254 Table 7.12. Fabric group distributions across Field C stratigraphic phases ...... 256 Table 7.13. Frequency distributions of fabric types in Field C stratigraphic phases . 258 Table 7.14. Field C vessel shape type counts and percentages by occupational phases ...... 259 Table 7.15. Large and small bowl types counts and percentages by Field C occupational phases ...... 261 Table 7.16. Surface treatment type distributions across Field C stratigraphic phases ...... 266 Table 7.17. Decoration type distributions across Field C stratigraphic phases ...... 267 Table 7.18. Field B diagnostic sherd counts, gufa counts and diagnostic sherd densities by excavated loci ...... 268 Table 7.19. Field B diagnostic sherd densities gained by dividing sherd count by gufa count for each occupational phase ...... 269 Table 7.20. Fabric group (count and %) distributions across Field B stratigraphic phases ...... 270 Table 7.21. Field B vessel shape type totals and percentages by occupational phases ...... 273 Table 7.22. Frequency distributions of large and small bowl types by Field B occupational phases ...... 274 Table 7.23. Frequency (count and percentage) distribution of surface treatment types by Field B occupational phases ...... 278 Table 7.24. Frequency (count and percentage) distribution of decoration types by Field B occupational phases ...... 279 Table 7.25. Field A diagnostic sherd counts, gufa counts and diagnostic sherd densities by excavated loci ...... 280 Table 7.26. Field A diagnostic sherd densities obtained by dividing sherd count by gufa count for each occupational phase ...... 281 Table 7.27. Fabric group (count and %) distributions across Field A stratigraphic phases ...... 282 Table 7.28. Field A vessel shape type totals by occupational phases ...... 285 Table 7.29. Frequency distribution of large and small bowl types by Field A occupational phase ...... 286 Table 7.30. Frequency (count and percentage) distribution of surface treatment types by Field A occupational phases ...... 291 Table 7.31. Frequency (count and percentage) distribution of decoration types by Field A occupational phases ...... 292 Table 7.32. Diagnostic sherd density calculated by dividing diagnostic sherd count by gufa count for each excavated field ...... 294

xi Table 7.33. Diagnostic sherd density calculated by dividing diagnostic sherd count by gufa count for each occupational phase ...... 294 Table 7.34. Ona Adi ceramic ware (fabric) type totals by excavated field (diagnostic sherds only) ...... 296 Table 7.35. Ona Adi ceramic ware (fabric) type totals by occupational phases (diagnostic sherds only) ...... 296 Table 7.36. Distribution of fabric types across Ona Adi excavated fields and occupational phases ...... 297 Table 7.37. Cross tabs showing the observed and expected counts of ceramic ware types by occupational phase. Significant adjusted residuals underlined ...... 298 Table 7.38. Distribution of vessel formal types across Ona Adi excavated fields and occupational phases ...... 306 Table 7.39. Eigenvalues associated with the successive dimensions (axes) estimated by CA of all Ona Adi vessel formal types. The eigenvalues measure the amount of inertia accounted for by each axis and can be re-expressed as percentages of the total inertia in the dataset...... 308 Table 7.40. Distribution of surface treatment types across both field and phase ..... 314 Table 7.41. Distribution of decoration types across both field and phase ...... 315 Table 8.1. Synthesis of the most frequent attributes of Ona Adi ceramic phases . 322 Table 8.2. Summary of the most popular vessel forms during the Late Pre-Aksumite period ...... 324 Table 8.3. Summary of the most popular vessel forms in the PA-A transition period ...... 336 Table 8.4. Comparison of the ceramic sequences of sites in Eastern (Mezber and Ona Adi) and Western (Aksum and Bieta Giyorgis) Tigrai ...... 338 Table 8.5. Summary of the most popular vessel forms in the Early Aksumite period ...... 340 Table 8.6. Summary of the most popular vessel forms in the Middle Aksumite period ...... 345 Table 8.7. Summary of the most popular vessel forms in the Late and Post Aksumite periods ...... 348 Table 8.8. Summary of frequency distribution of elite artefacts across excavated squares ...... 357 Table 8.9. Examples of regional parallel ceramic types collected at Ona Adi ...... 378

xii List of Figures

Figure 1.1. Map of Northern Ethiopia showing the location of important archaeological sites both in Eastern and Western Tigray. (modified from Sernicola and Phillipson 2014)...... 2 Figure 1.2. The archaeological site of Ona Adi...... 11 Figure 2.1. The topography and major drainage systems of Ethiopia (Image modified from: Sadalmelik, I. (2007) Topographic map of the Ethiopian Highlands and major lowlands including the Great East African Rift Valley, and fractured mountain ranges)...... 15 Figure 4.1. Different vessel forms from the same rim sherd illustrated at different angle (after Collett 2012) ...... 73 Figure 4.2. Topographic map of Ona Adi. (Map by Shannon Wood) ...... 74 Figure 4.3. ETAP Identification Tag used at Ona Adi Excavations ...... 77 Figure 4.4. Excavated ceramics washing and drying (photo by C. D’Andrea) ...... 78 Figure 4.5. Ceramic sorting (A) and Registration (B) ...... 79 Figure 4.6. One of ETAP’s storerooms. Dr. D’Andrea explaining ETAP’s antiquity storage systems to community representative visiting guests from Ona Adi...... 80 Figure 4.7. OA13.C1.2.534.187: a globular jar fragment with evidence of a handle scar attached across the shoulder/neck junction point of the vessel using the coiling method. Coiling was one of the major ceramic manufacturing techniques used to produce Ona Adi ceramic assemblages...... 85 Figure 4.8. Application of combined surface treatment techniques on individual sherds body surface ...... 87 Figure 5.1. Some of Ona Adi’s Aksumite period pillars remain inside Enda Tekle Haymanot church yard ...... 94 Figure 5.2. Location of Gulo Makeda and Eastern Tigrai in the Tigrai Regional State of Ethiopia ...... 95 Figure 5.3. Location of Tabia Shewit Lemelem and Ona Adi in Gulo Makeda Woreda ...... 96 Figure 5.4. Archaeological sites of Gulo Makeda known before ETAP’s investigation (Map by Michael Harrower) ...... 100 Figure 5.5. Site of Ona Adi. The red line indicates the boundary of the site and the red circles illustrate mounds, structures and the disturbed burial at Etchmare East (Map by Michael Harrower) ...... 101 Figure 5.6. The site of Ona Adi. Trees indicate the location of the modern church of Enda Tekle-Haymanot...... 103 Figure 5.7. Sketch plan of Ona Adi showing the location of the excavations and approximate area of ancient settlements...... 103 Figure 5.8. Upper and lower architectural phases at Ona Adi ...... 105 Figure 5.9. Ona Adi, Dahane ridge (Amba Fekada Rock Art) and parts of the longer Mezber-Segelat-Kilat valley system (photo taken from the top of Amba Fekada (south)) ...... 106

xiii Figure 5.10. Square A1 earlier stage excavations...... 107 Figure 5.11. Architectural loci forming a corner of an elite building in Square A1 ..... 108 Figure 5.12. Possible cooking feature (left) and stepped wall (right)...... 110 Figure 5.13. A possible room floor, hearth with platform and deep sounding in Square A1 ...... 111 Figure 5.14. Eastern (top) and western(bottom) sides of wall L9 and its relationship with wall L6, Field A, Ona Adi ...... 112 Figure 5.15. Post Aksumite mendable vessels in Square A1...... 113 Figure 5.16. Square A1 northern wall profile, Ona Adi...... 114 Figure 5.17. Bottom of the top soil (L1) and the opening of locus 2 excavations in Square B1 (Image by Sarah Oas), Ona Adi ...... 115 Figure 5.18. Southwest corner Square B1, Ona Adi : a possible room floor sealed against walls L14 and L15 from bedrock.(Image by Sarah Oas) ...... 116 Figure 5.19. Square B1 Phase 1 loci, Ona Adi: eastern and southern wall profiles . 117 Figure 5.20. Square B1 base of possible kitchen (right: Image by Sarah Oas) and northern wall profile, Ona Adi (left: Image by Habtamu) ...... 119 Figure 5.21. Square B1 Post Aksumite period strata, Ona Adi (Image by Sarah Oas) ...... 120 Figure 5.22. Identified Square B1 loci just under the top soil (plough zone layer), Ona Adi (Image by Sarah Oas) ...... 121 Figure 5.23. Initiation of Square C1 excavations at the top of a small ridge, Ona Adi (Photo by Elizabeth Peterson) ...... 122 Figure 5.24 . Square C2, Locus 22 and Wall 23, Ona Adi. (Image by Elizabeth Peterson) ...... 123 Figure 5.25. Early Aksumite possible room surface (L20) with grinding stone, Square C1, Ona Adi (Image by Elizabeth Peterson) ...... 124 Figure 5.26. Three different structures in Square C1, Ona Adi (Image by Catherine D’Andrea) ...... 126 Figure 5.27. Coin from Middle Aksumite period context, Ona Adi (OA13.C1.18.65.927). King on obverse is unknown but Christian crosses are visible on the reverse. (Image by Elizabeth Peterson) ...... 127 Figure 5.28. A co-mingled child burial in Square C1, Ona Adi (Image by Elizabeth Peterson) ...... 128 Figure 5.29. Square C1 northern balk schematic loci map, Ona Adi (strata) ...... 129 Figure 5.30. Square D1 Excavations, Ona Adi. In the background is artefact recovery method from the sieve(Image by Catherine D’Andrea) ...... 131 Figure 5.31. Square D2 after the removal of the top soil (end of L2P2and 3 and top of L3P4 and 5), Ona Adi. In the background is Square D1 (Image by Elizabeth Peterson)...... 132 Figure 5.32. Square D1, end of excavation: bedrock and exposed lower architecture facing NE, Ona Adi (Image by Catherine D’Andrea) ...... 133

xiv Figure 5.33. Square D1 actual section profiles (top) and schematic plan (bottom, red box shows Late Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition occupation), Ona Adi ...... 134 Figure 5.34. Square D2, Locus 15, the pavement, Ona Adi ...... 135 Figure 5.35. Upper (L4, L6 L9 and upper L10) and lower (lower part of L10, L16 and L18) architecture recorded at in Square D2 excavations, Ona Adi ...... 135 Figure 5.36. Lower and Upper construction phases of wall L10 at Square D2, Ona Adi...... 136 Figure 5.37 . Square D2, Ona Adi, showing base of Wall L16, a large pot and grinding stone ...... 137 Figure 5.38. Square D2 upper wall loci and associated spaces, Ona Adi ...... 138 Figure 5.39. Square D1 northern, eastern and parts of southern profiles, Ona Adi .. 139 Figure 5.40. Sketch plan of Square D2 phase 3 loci locations, Ona Adi ...... 140 Figure 5.41. Top of Square E1, Ona Adi ...... 142 Figure 5.42 . Human burial in Square E1, Ona Adi ...... 143 Figure 5.43. Square E2, set on a possible pastoralist mound at the western margin of Ona Adi ...... 144 Figure 5.44. Co-mingled burials in Square E2, Ona Adi ...... 145 Figure 5.45. The position of Individual #3 burial in Square E2, Ona Adi ...... 146 Figure 5.46. The position of Individual 4 burial in Square E2, Ona Adi ...... 147 Figure 6.1. Parts of a pottery vessel. The pot is from Ona Adi Square C1 Locus 2 Pail 35 (OA13.C1.2.35) ...... 151 Figure 6.2. Major types of Ona Adi ceramic lip forms ...... 153 Figure 6.3. Notches on the lip of sherd #OA13.A1.1.11.10 (left) and irregular lip form sherd #OA13.A1.1.11.4 (right) ...... 153 Figure 6.4. ORW sherds from the different stratigraphic levels of Square D2, Ona Adi...... 154 Figure 6.5. Brown Wares (A(OA14.D1.9.836.56), B(OA14.C1.25.1077.23), C (OA13.A1.3.497.23) and D (OA13.C1.2.53427/63/95)) ...... 158 Figure 6.6. . Sherds from OA13.C2.534 ...... 162 Figure 6.7. Exterior and interior surfaces of sherd #OA15.D2.21.1451.12 using a scraping-wiping technique...... 164 Figure 6.8. The inside and outside surface finish of Ona Adi excavated potsherd #OA15.D2.12.1306.28...... 165 Figure 6.9. Basket-impressed external surface finish of potsherds # OA14.C1.14.665.16 (A) and OA14.C1.14.665.23 (B) from Square C1 . 166 Figure 6.10. Cord-marked external and scraped internal surfaces on sherds # OA14.E2.2.862.45/58 from Square E2 ...... 167 Figure 6.11. Smoothed external surfaces of sherds # OA15.D2.27.1188.33 and OA14.E1.2.762.194 ...... 168 Figure 6.12. Slipped surfaces (internal and external) of sherds A) OA14.E2.8.891.136 from Square E2, and B) OA14.C1.25.1070.6 from Square C1...... 170

xv Figure 6.13. Polished external and rough internal surface of sherd # OA14.E2.8.891.110 from Square E2...... 171 Figure 6.14. Ceramic piece with rough surface treatment (OA13.A1.4.40.22), brick/plastering agent? ...... 172 Figure 6.15. Thin incisions (A (OA14.E1.2.762.283/14), B (OA15.D2.26.1182.39), C (OA13.A1.2.189.38), D (OA14.C1.25.1057.7), E (OA14.D1.7.748.2/7/32)) ...... 173 Figure 6.16. Thick incisions ...... 174 Figure 6.17. A. Black-topped (OA15.D2.27.1188.7/28); B. wavy line (OA15.D2.1188.20/17); C. notches on the lip (OA15.D2.26.1182.12) and D. bossed motifs recorded from the deepest strata of Squares D2 and E1 ( OA14.E1.3.777.22/120) at Ona Adi...... 178 Figure 6.18. A unique type of appliqué/boss decorated sherd OA14.D1.3.702.49 ... 180 Figure 6.19 . Punctate decoration on Ona Adi sherds ...... 181 Figure 6.20. Ona Adi grooved motifs ...... 182 Figure 6.21. Ona Adi comb decorated sherds ...... 184 Figure 6.22. Painted Ona Adi wares ...... 186 Figure 6.23. Blue glazed imported sherds ...... 187 Figure 6.24. Amphora sherds collected from Ona Adi, A (external and internal surfaces of sherd #OA15.D2.5.1258.34), B (complete typical conical shaped amphora) and C (external and internal surfaces of sherds #OA13.C1.2.387.108/100/111)...... 188 Figure 6.25. Cross motifs recorded in Ona Adi ceramic collections ...... 189 Figure 6.26. Cross motifs: A (OA13.C1.3.621.52), B (OA13.C1.2.251.55), C (OA14.C1.15.668.7), and D (OA14.C1.18.929.13)...... 191 Figure 6.27. Miniature bowl (1 (OA14.C1.13.46), jar (2 (OA14.C1.2.61) and lid (OA15.D2.27.27) ...... 193 Figure 6.28. Internal and external surfaces of rim fragments of basins, 1 (OA14.C1.2.8), 2 (OA13.C1.2.36) and 3 (OA15.D2.7.17)...... 194 Figure 6.29. Identified basin types at Ona Adi ...... 197 Figure 6.30. Ring-based and round-bottomed bowls at Ona Adi ...... 198 Figure 6.31. Late Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition period vessel types ...... 199 Figure 6.32. Aksumite period large open and closed bowls, a (OA13.C1.2.7), b (OA13.C1.2.4), c (OA13.C1.2.4), d (OA15.D2.21.14), e (OA14.C1. 2.43), f (OA13.C1.2.36), g (OA13.C1.2.36), h (OA13.C1.2.36), i (OA14.C1. 2.43)...... 200 Figure 6.33. Selected pottery profile drawings from Fekada (Illustration by Dr. Stephen Batiuk)...... 205 Figure 6.34. Aksumite period small open and closed bowls ...... 206 Figure 6.35 . Middle and Late Aksumite Ona Adi vessel forms (from Square C1, Locus 2, Pails 7,12 and 36, and Square C1, Locus 3, Pails 51 and 58) 210 Figure 6.36. Purple Painted Aksumite sherds (from Square C1, Locus 2 and 18) ... 214

xvi Figure 6.37. Ona Adi jars and bottles collected from upper and lower contexts, 1&2 (OA13.A1.2), 3, 5 & 6 (OA15.D2.26), 7 (OA15.D2.27), 8 (OA14.D1.9), 4 & 9 (OA13.C1.2)...... 215 Figure 6.38. Ona Adi jars and bottles collected from lower, middle and upper occupational phases; ...... 222 Figure 6.39. Cauldron vessel types collected in Ona Adi excavations, ...... 223 Figure 6.40. Cauldron vessel types collected at Ona Adi excavations, 1 (OA15.D2.12.22), 2 (OA13.C1.18.66), 3 (OA13.A1.2.26), 4 (OA13.A1.2.26), 5 (OA13.A1.2.26), 6 (OA15.D2.21.50)...... 227 Figure 6.41 . Pottery cups from Ona Adi, 1 & 4 (OA13.A1.2.38 & 47), 2 (OA15.D2.8.19), 3 (OA14.D1.10.10.17), 5 (OA13.C1.2.299), 6 (OA13.A1.2.80), 7 (OA14.C1.3.65), 8 (OA13.C1.2.36)...... 228 Figure 6.42. Selected cup vessel profile drawings from Fekada (Illustration by Dr. Stephen Batiuk)...... 233 Figure 7.1. Field D total diagnostic sherd densities by stratigraphic phase ...... 238 Figure 7.2. Fabric type percentages across Field D stratigraphic phase...... 240 Figure 7.3. Percentages of fine, medium and coarse wares in Feld D Phases ...... 241 Figure 7.4. Major inclusion types used to produce Field D ceramic assemblages .. 242 Figure 7.5. Basin types percentage distribution by Field D occupational phases .... 244 Figure 7.6. Field D large bowl types percentage distribution by phase ...... 245 Figure 7.7. Field D small bowl types percentage distribution by phase ...... 246 Figure 7.8. Field D jar/bottle types percentage distribution by phase ...... 247 Figure 7.9. Field D cauldron formal type percentage distribution by phase...... 248 Figure 7.10. Field D cup formal type percentage distribution by phase ...... 249 Figure 7.11. Percentage of surface treatment types by Field D occupational phases ...... 251 Figure 7.12. Decoration type distribution in Field D stratigraphic phase deposits ..... 252 Figure 7.13. Field C diagnostic sherd densities by stratigraphic phases ...... 255 Figure 7.14 Fabric types (%) distributions across Field C stratigraphic phases ...... 257 Figure 7.15. Percentage of fine, medium and coarse wares in Field C Phases ...... 258 Figure 7.16. Major inclusion types used to produce Field C ceramic assemblages .. 259 Figure 7.17. Percentage distribution of basin types by Field C occupational phases 260 Figure 7.18. Field C large bowl types percentage distribution by phase ...... 261 Figure 7.19. Percentage distribution of small bowl types by Field C occupational phases ...... 262 Figure 7.20. Percentage distribution of jar/bottle types by Field C occupational phases ...... 263 Figure 7.21. Percentage distribution of cauldron types by Field C occupational phases ...... 264 Figure 7.22. Percentage distribution of cup types by Field C occupational phases ... 265 Figure 7.23. Surface treatment types percentage by Field C occupational phases ... 266 Figure 7.24. Percentage of decoration types by Field C occupational phases ...... 268

xvii Figure 7.25. Field B diagnostic sherd density by stratigraphic phases ...... 270 Figure 7.26. Fabric type (%) distributions across Field B stratigraphic phases ...... 271 Figure 7.27. Percentage distribution of fine, medium and coarse wares in Feld B Phases ...... 271 Figure 7.28. Percentage of major inclusion types used to produce Field B ceramic assemblages ...... 272 Figure 7.29. Frequency (%) distribution of basin types by Field B occupational phases ...... 273 Figure 7.30. Frequency (%) distribution of Field B large bowl types by phase ...... 274 Figure 7.31. Frequency (%) distribution of small bowl types by Field B occupational phases ...... 275 Figure 7.32. Frequency (%) distribution of jar/bottle types by Field B occupational phases ...... 276 Figure 7.33. Cauldron types frequency (%) distribution by Field B occupational phases ...... 276 Figure 7.34. Frequency (%) of cup types by Field B occupational phases ...... 277 Figure 7.35. Frequency (%) distribution of surface treatment types by Field B occupational phases ...... 278 Figure 7.36. Decoration types distribution by Field B occupational phases ...... 280 Figure 7.37. Field A diagnostic sherd densities by stratigraphic phase ...... 282 Figure 7.38. Fabric type percentage distribution across Field A stratigraphic phases ...... 283 Figure 7.39. Distribution (%) of fine, medium and coarse wares in Field A Phases . 283 Figure 7.40. Major inclusion types (%) used to produce Field A ceramic assemblages ...... 284 Figure 7.41. Frequency (%) distribution of basin types by Field A occupational phase ...... 285 Figure 7.42. Frequency (%) distribution of large bowl types by Field A occupational phase ...... 286 Figure 7.43. Frequency (%) distribution of small bowl types by Field A occupational phases ...... 287 Figure 7.44. Frequency (%) distribution of jar/bottle types by Field A occupational phase ...... 288 Figure 7.45. Frequency (%) distribution of cauldron types by Field A occupational phase ...... 289 Figure 7.46. Frequency (%) distribution of cup types by Field A occupational phase ...... 290 Figure 7.47. Frequency (%) distribution of surface treatment types by Field A occupational phase ...... 291 Figure 7.48. Distribution (%) of decoration types by Field A occupational phase .... 293 Figure 7.49. Total diagnostic sherd density by excavated field ...... 294 Figure 7.50. Total diagnostic sherd density by occupational phase ...... 295 Figure 7.51, Total ceramic ware (fabric) percentage by occupational phase ...... 297

xviii Figure 7.52. Ceramic fabric types percentage by field and phase ...... 298 Figure 7.53. percentage of vessel shape types by phases ...... 300 Figure 7.54. Basin types percentage by Phases ...... 301 Figure 7.55. Large bowl types percentage by occupational phase ...... 302 Figure 7.56. Percentage of small bowl types by occupational phase ...... 303 Figure 7.57. Percentage of jar/bottle types by phase ...... 304 Figure 7.58. Percentage of cauldron types by occupational phase ...... 305 Figure 7.59. Percentage of cup types by occupational phase...... 305 Figure 7.60. Correspondence plot of Dimension 1 (36.2% of variation) vs. Dimension 2 (17.3% of variation) ...... 309 Figure 7.61. Correspondence plot of Dimension 1 (36.2% of variation) vs. Dimension 2 (17.3% of variation) ...... 310 Figure 7.62. Correspondence Analysis plot of Dimension 1 (36.2% of variation) vs. Dimension 2 (17.3% of variation) ...... 312 Figure 7.63. Ceramic surface treatment type percentage by Phase ...... 313 Figure 7.64. Ceramic surface treatment types percentage by field and phase ...... 315 Figure 7.65. Ceramic decoration types percentage by field and phase ...... 317 Figure 8.1 . Amba Fekada Rock Art main panel ...... 327 Figure 8.2. The fertile valley between Ona Adi and Amba Fekada rock art site (Image by Zoe Walder-Hoge) ...... 329 Figure 8.3. Hypothesized overland trade route from Adulis to Aksum, through Ona Adi (Map by M. Harrower) ...... 331 Figure 8.4. Iron implement from Ona Adi, OA13.C1.2.8 (Image by Catherine D’Andrea) ...... 335 Figure 8.5. External and internal surface s of micaceous large brown open bowls, with thickened rounded rim and notches on the lip. From right to left: Top OA14.D1.10.1103.57 and OA14.D1.10.1103 Bottom : OA14.D1.10.1103.53 and OA14.D1.10.1103.46 ...... 336 Figure 8.6. Selected ceramic artefacts from a pit tomb at Fekada Maryam (Illustration by Stephen Batiuk) ...... 342 Figure 8.7. Red and gray mineral tempered Aksumite sherds with vertical corrugated decoration ...... 343 Figure 8.8. Late Aksumite ceramic phase formal types examples: OA13.C1.2.534.27, B) OA13.C1.2.251. 184, C) OA13.A1.2.470.54, D) OA13.A1.2.470.3 ...... 350 Figure 8.9 . Late Aksumite ceramic phase vessel fragment examples collected from OA13.C2.534 ...... 351 Figure 8.10. Black topped bowl fragments from Ona Adi: A) OA15.D1.15.1154.18, B) OA14.D1.10.1115.15 ...... 360 Figure 8.11. A) Example of stamp seal (MBR.C2.6.12.2884) found at Mezber and B) Middle Phase carnelian bead (MBR.A2.42.84.2662). Scale = cm (Image by C. D’Andrea)...... 361

xix Figure 8.12. Ayla-Aksum amphorae and blue glazed ceramic sherds from Ona Adi A) External and internal surfaces of amphorae sherds collected from OA13.C.2.251, B) External and internal surfaces of blue glazed sherd collected from OA14.C.18.952 ...... 362 Figure 8.13. Probably locally made amphorae sherds from Ona Adi, Square C1 (OA13.C1.2.116.28 and 52) ...... 364 Figure 8.14 . A possibly grape pressing (wine producing) ancient rock cut archaeological feature at Ona Adi ...... 365 Figure 8.15. Well-dressed pillar remains found c. 5m NW of the above rock cut features at Ona Adi, indicating an elite presence at the site ...... 366 Figure 8.16. The tank sets at Adi Tsehafi, plan and cross-sections: upper; northwestern set; lower; south-eastern set (modified after Phillipson 1997) . 367 Figure 8.17. Internal and external surface of African Red Slip ware fragments. Top (OA13.C1.3.223.60) and bottom (OA13.C1.3.414.10)...... 372 Figure 8.18. Eroded Ona Adi African Red Slip ware sherds decorated with wavy lines framed by two parallel incisions on the top of the rim, collected from OA14.E1.2.762.283 and 14 ...... 373 Figure 8.19. Aksumite coins: A) Gold coin of King Endubis (c. 270-300 AD), B) Coin of King Joel, 6th century AD (Images by Tsegay Alem, Tigrai Tourism and Culture Office) ...... 374 Figure 8.20. Prototypes of swastika cross motifs at Ona Adi ...... 375 Figure 8.21. An engraved swastika cross in the window of the 12 century AD rock hewn church of Lalibela...... 377 Figure 8.22. Percentage of local vessel types and those with connections to neighboring regions recorded in the Ona Adi ceramic sequence ...... 381

xx Chapter 1.

Introduction

The origin, development and collapse of ancient states has been a major emphasis of research and debate in anthropology and archaeology over the past several decades (e.g., Cohen and Service 1978; Tainter 1988; Yoffee 1993; Schwartz and Nichols 2006). A variety of reasons have been provided to explain the rise and decline of ancient states. Economy, ideology, ecology and social elements are some common examples of such factors. In Africa (apart from Egypt), systematic study of the origin and collapse of states using theories and methods informed by African data is a recent development. A lack of complex monumental architecture, public works and other related evidence which may indicate the presence of hierarchical political organizations may have been one reason for the absence of early investigations of ancient African states. Whenever evidence of hierarchical political organizations was found in Africa, it was explained in terms of diffusion or direct stimuli of products or peoples from the Mediterranean, Near Eastern, or European worlds. Recent studies (e.g. McIntosh 1999; Stahl 2005; Kim and Kusimba 2008; LaViolette and Fleisher 2005; Walshaw 2005, 2010; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014) have attempted to incorporate African data into the general social evolutionary debate through the application of alternative theories and interpretative frameworks including heterarchy.

The evolution of interpretations of the formation, consolidation and decline of state societies in the Horn of Africa have followed a similar trajectory. In past works, it was common to attribute the origin of state societies in Ethiopia/Eritrea as a direct consequence of migration and diffusion or contacts from Egypt (4th-2nd millennia BC), South Arabia (1st millennium BC), and the Roman empire (1st millennium AD) (Ludolf 1691; Bent 1893; Glaser 1895; Conti Rossini 1928; Ullendorff 1965; Michels 1994; Gerlach 2012). Many of these ideas have been revised due to the discovery of new data and the adoption of new interpretative frameworks by scholars who are investigating the 1st millennium BC and 1st millennium AD of Ethiopia/Eritrea (Curtis 2004, 2009; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014; D’Andrea et al. 2008; D’Andrea and Welton in prep.; Fattovich 2010, 2012; Phillipson 2009, 2012; Schmidt et al. 2008). In particular, some researchers

1 (Curtis 2004, 2009; D’Andrea and Welton in prep.), while not ignoring external impacts, are paying closer attention to the nature and development of societies indigenous to the Tigrayan highlands during these early periods.

The Pre-Aksumite to Aksumite transition (hereafter the PA-A transition), defined as the Proto-Aksumite Period only in the Aksum area (Fattovich and Bard 2001), is critically important for the cultural history of Ethiopia and the northern Horn. This transitional period (400/300 BC – 150 BC) in Western Tigrai, specifically at Aksum, is significant because it represents a cultural break between the Sabaean-influenced Pre- Aksumite polity (or polities) (≥800/700 – 400/300 BC) which was apparently centered at Yeha, and the predominantly indigenous kingdom of Aksum (Fattovich and Bard 2001; Phillipson 2012).

Figure 1.1. Map of Northern Ethiopia showing the location of important archaeological sites both in Eastern and Western Tigray. (modified from Sernicola and Phillipson 2014)1.

1 Traditionally archaeologist divided Tigrai into two major research regions: Western and Eastern Tigrai. This division, however, is not overlap with the present political administration division of the

2 Recent work has argued that Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite kingdoms in western Tigrai were not directly related and were marked by significant sociopolitical and cultural change (Fattovich 2010, 2018; Phillipson 2012). Separated by the Proto-Aksumite period, they “represent separate stages in the regional process of state formation” (Fattovich and Bard 2001: 4). A question that remains to be answered is to what extent this transitional period is represented outside the putative centers of the Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite polities at Aksum and Yeha.

The main archaeological evidence for the Proto-Aksumite period in the Aksum area includes: very few inscriptions despite their relative ubiquity during the earlier Pre- Aksumite period; elite residential structures; large platforms associated with elite burials and funerary stelae markers (in contrast with Pre-Aksumite sites where monumental architecture is usually associated with cult temples); and distinctive types of ceramic assemblages and imported exotic items showing affinities with Ptolemaic Egypt, Upper Nubia and the Middle Nile Valley areas, more specifically with Meroe (in contrast with the South Arabian-influenced Pre-Aksumite period) (Fattovich and Bard 2001; Fattovich 2010; Phillipson 2012). The morphological similarities of Proto-Aksumite stelae with those of the Kassala region (Eritrean-Sudanese border) may indicate a shift in contacts from South Arabia to Nubia (also known as the Kush/Meroitic kingdom) (Curtis 2008; Manzo 2009; Fattovich 2010; Munro-Hay 1989). This view is also supported by some similarities in ceramic traditions of the two neighboring regions.

Investigating the sudden appearance of new Aksumite cultural elements in Western Tigrai, Fattovich and Bard (2001) speculate that following the collapse of the Pre-Aksumite polity in the 4th/3rd centuries BC the region experienced the rise of several competitive small-scale chiefdoms through the Tigrayan highlands and Eritrea (see also Fattovich 2010; Phillipson 2009; D’Andrea et al. 2008; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014). These new small-scale polities are assumed to represent the formative stage of the Aksumite kingdom. As noted above, Proto-Aksumite chiefdoms distinguished themselves from the preceding Pre-Aksumite polity by the construction of funerary architectural monuments integrated with large platforms and stelae to signify the cult of the elite rather than monumental cult temples of the gods (Fattovich and Bard 2001).

province of Tigrai. The modern political division of Tigrai include: Southern Tigrai, Eastern Tigrai, Central Tigrai and Western Tigrai. The Aksum-Yeha region (the Western Tigrai proper based on archaeological literature) is in the present Central Tigrai administration zone.

3 The archaeological evidence in the Aksum area suggests a rapid decline in South Arabian influence and an indigenous origin of the Proto-Aksumite culture.

Despite these important discoveries in the Aksum region, our knowledge of the underlying factors in the emergence of the Proto-Aksumite period and its impact beyond the Aksum area is scant because the Proto-Aksumite period has been defined only at the site of Bieta Giyorgis (Fattovich and Bard 2001). The extension of Proto-Aksumite cultural developments during the PA-A transition beyond Aksum is an open question.

The PA-A transitional period in Eastern Tigrai has only recently come under study (D’Andrea et al. 2008). The emerging picture based on completed surveys (D’Andrea et al. 2008; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014) and excavations in progress (D’Andrea 2013, 2014) is that the PA-A transition in Eastern Tigrai differs from that observed in the Aksum region, based on evidence of continuity in site occupation during the transition and an apparent absence of Sabaean influence, which is also noted for the Ancient Ona Culture (Schmidt et al. 2008). Although Sabaean peoples were clearly present in Eastern Tigrai during the Pre-Aksumite period (Wolf & Nowotnick 2010) their impact on the development of social complexity in the region may have been minimal or indirect (D’Andrea and Welton in prep). Recent surveys (Harrower and D’Andrea 2014) have found no evidence for centralized Aksumite polities in the Gulo Makeda region of eastern Tigrai and it is hypothesized that a heterarchical political system was in place at that time. Clearly additional work is needed outside the Aksum-Yeha region to explore the regional implications of the PA-A transitional period in the Horn of Africa.

1.1. Main Research Goal and Objectives

The Eastern Tigrai Archaeological Project (ETAP) is currently investigating the origins of Pre-Aksumite social complexity and the PA-A transition in the Gulo Makeda region of Eastern Tigrai. Two surveys have been completed by ETAP (D’Andrea et al. 2008; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014) and excavations have focused on two localities: the Pre-Aksumite site of Mezber and the town site of Ona Adi which has occupations that span the Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite periods. This dissertation research forms a crucial component of the larger ETAP research strategy. ETAP excavations at Ona Adi represent the first systematic archaeological study of an Aksumite town site in Eastern Tigrai and the results of the investigations complement work completed at Mezber. The

4 overall goal is to investigate the nature of the PA-A transition in Eastern Tigrai through the study of Ona Adi ceramic assemblages. The specific objectives of this dissertation research are to:

1. Establish a fine-grained ceramic chronology for the PA-A transition and the Aksumite periods represented at Ona Adi;

2. Understand the organisation of social groups via analysis of scale and organization of ceramic production, distribution and range of activities through the PA-A transition and the Aksumite period;

3. Investigate indigenous and external cultural elements present throughout the PA-A transition and Aksumite period as evident in ceramics.

1.1.1. Objective 1

The first objective of this dissertation is to establish a fine-grained ceramic chronology for the PA-A transition and the Aksumite periods represented at Ona Adi. In addition, because this ceramic analysis was first of its type completed for the PA-A transition and the Aksumite period in Eastern Tigrai, the emphasis was on the construction of a ceramic chronology, involving documentation of the pottery through photography and intensive recording of various attributes of recovered sherds. The results of the Ona Adi ceramic analysis have revealed the presence of pottery types and fabrics that can be compared with pottery from the Aksum-Yeha (western Tigrai) and Matara (southern Eritrea) areas. However, comparative work was challenging because very few or no systematic pottery studies have been published yet from these regions.

The analysis and classification of Ona Adi ceramic materials was based on the type-variety and multiple classification systems (see Chapter 3). Almost all collected diagnostic sherds from the site were included in the study. Within the framework of these systems, three interrelated approaches were employed in the ceramic analysis process, based on: 1) stylistic attributes; 2) formal attributes; and 3) technological attributes. Ona Adi pottery exhibits a wide variety of stylistic and decorative treatments- incising, punctate markings, combing, painting, and others. Archaeologists believe stylistic regularities constitute culturally guided choices rather than technological or functional limitations (Sharer and Ashmore 1987; Rice 1987; Shepard 1956). Generally, stylistic attributes often change faster than functional attributes, and they are usually assumed to

5 be specific to a particular culture, time and place. This makes ceramic styles excellent indicators of chronology and inter-regional relationships (Arnold 1983; Rice 2015). In this study Ona Adi ceramic styles were mainly used to date the archaeological site and chart its ancient community’s cultural links in time and space. Investigation of Ona Adi ceramic technological attributes aims to understand the nature of its pottery production. Important information about types of raw materials (chiefly clay and temper) used in pottery crafting, pottery forming techniques (almost all collected pottery sherds from Ona Adi were hand-made), types of finishing tools (paddles, scrapers, pebbles etc.), and firing techniques were collected through analysis of ceramic technological attributes. Ona Adi ceramic morphological/formal attribute analysis was also conducted mainly because a vessel’s form can provide clues as to how it was used. The pottery from Ona Adi is highly fragmented with very few complete or possibly reconstructable vessels recorded to date. Because of the fragmentary nature of Ona Adi ceramic collections, classification of vessel forms was mainly based on clustering of component shape attributes, such as forms of vessel lips and rims, neck, shoulder, or base. These classifications resulted in the identification of broad categories of formal types such as bowls, basins, cups, jars, and others.

Finally, Ona Adi pottery collections were classified into various types based on the most readily observable stylistic, technological and formal attributes. Chi-square test and correspondence analysis (CA) statistical analysis methods were employed to facilitate Ona Adi ceramic typological classification process. The chi-square test was used to compare the co-occurrence and possible patterns of relationships among identified pottery types and the application of CA helped to look for temporal and spatial patterning in the ceramic data. CA is an up-to-date method of seriation that can be easily applied in wide range of situations including frequency or presence/absence and continuous (i.e. measurement) data. In such a way, CA is used to analyze the relationships between and among not only rows and columns of categorical variables but also between them (row to row or column to column) in a wide variety of datasets. Identified pottery types were used as a basis for the comparative study of Ona Adi ceramics with neighboring regions.

6 1.1.2. Objective 2

The second objective of this work is to understand the organization of social groups via analysis of the scale and organization of ceramic production, distribution and range of activities through the PA-A transition and Aksumite periods. Based on analyzed ceramics and other archaeological data, the first occupation of Ona Adi occurred during the Late Pre-Aksumite period. This ancient settlement was the direct outcome of a significant increase in site occupation and an apparent settlement expansion of communities from nearby Pre-Aksumite village archaeological sites, possibly including Mezber during its Middle Pre-Aksumite Ceramic Phase (8th to beginning of the 4th centuries BC). Initially farmers and artisans (potters, hide workers and ground stone makers) were the two social groups identified at Ona Adi, through their direct and indirect material culture remains. Artisans possessed the technological knowledge and responsibility of crafting ancient Ona Adi’s household tools such as pottery and grinding stones. The large ceramic collections, grinding stones (Nixon-Darcus 2017) and stone scrapers (Peterson 2017) collected from the site are indicative of the work of artisans. Macrobotanical and faunal remains collected from Ona Adi contexts reveal the establishment of an agro-pastoral economy mainly based on the cultivation of barley, lentil, linseed, noog, and t’ef and husbandry of cattle, goat, sheep, and chicken (Meressa 2017, Woldekiros personal comm). This full-fledged agricultural economy and dietary system that favored the consumption of Near Eastern domesticates (C3 crops such as wheat, barley, lentil, etc.) over indigenous crops (C4 crops, for example t’ef) has been confirmed by ETAP’s discoveries at the nearby site of Etchmare East and Mezber (D’ Andrea 2005; D’Andrea et al 2011; D’Andrea and Welton in prep). Around 400 BC, changes in the socio-economic organization of the community at Ona Adi seem to appear, including the construction of the earliest stone-walled structures, the first appearance of metal and glass objects, the emergence of new formal vessel types and an increased presence of stone scrapers. This change was chiefly triggered by the consolidation or at least the presence of a new societal group consisting of elite people at Ona Adi. To achieve this objective, the identification and tracking of the frequency distribution of the following items were conducted in both elite and non-elite structures: 1) the location and frequency distribution of traded ceramic items (amphorae, Purple Painted Aksumite pottery (PPA), Sasanian ceramics); 2) the location and frequency distribution of luxury food (beer, wine, milk, meat, etc.) cooking/ processing ceramic

7 vessels; and 3) the location and distribution of metal, glass, beads, and other luxury items.

1.1.3. Objective 3

The third objective of this dissertation is to examine Ona Adi in terms of three scales of interaction which could have been crucial in the origin of the town and its development through time: first, the relationship between Ona Adi and surrounding farming communities, including Mezber, in its immediate vicinity; secondly, the nature of Ona Adi’s contact with other ancient regional towns including Aksum, Yeha, Matara, and communities of the Ancient Ona Culture; and thirdly, Ona Adi’s interaction with international polities along the Nile Valley corridor and the southern Red Sea networks, including Egypt and the Middle East, Nubia, and South Arabia. ETAP surveys in Gulo Makeda (including Ona Adi) (D’Andrea et al 2008; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014) and excavations at Mezber (D’Andrea and Welton in prep) and Ona Adi have documented the presence of both local and non-local ceramic artefacts. Vessels typical of Mezber and Eastern Tigrai include rim banded cups, open basins/large dishes, and particular styles of jars-bottles (Manzo and Gaudiello in prep). Black-topped pottery, surface- scraped wear and amphorae are the major examples of exotic pottery types found throughout the northern Horn, including at Ona Adi and Mezber (D’Andrea et al 2011). As these works suggest, this pattern may be the direct result of Eastern Tigrai’s involvement in a broader network of local, regional and global interactions during the Pre-Aksumite and later periods. Investigation of ceramic artefacts at Ona Adi in terms of stylistic (decoration), functional/formal and technological attributes, and review of previous pottery studies completed in select sites of the northern Horn (such as Aksum, Yeha, Matara and others), provide insights about the economic and social interaction of the polities through time. The degree of similarity or dissimilarity among ceramic assemblages of these interacting communities can be used as a proxy for the intensity and volume of interaction.

This study demonstrates that Ona Adi’s distinctive local ceramic tradition seems to have extended beyond the site and may have regional implications. Parallels to some of Ona Adi’s locally-made common ceramic markers have been reported from other Pre- Aksumite and Aksumite sites of Eastern Tigrai and in the Akale-Guzay area of southern Eritrea (Anfray 1966; Wilding 1989; Phillipson 2000; D’Andrea et al. 2008; Habtamu

8 2010; D’Andrea and Welton in prep; table 7.3). Specific archaeological sites of this pedigree include: Sobea (Habtamu 2010; D’Andrea 2010), Mezber (D’Andrea and Welton in prep) and Wakarida (Dugast and Gajda 2012) in eastern Tigrai and Kaskase and Matara in Eritrea (Fattovich 2012; Schmidt et al 2008; Anfray 1966).

1.2. Eastern Tigrai Archaeological Project (ETAP)

Since 2007, ETAP has been conducting excavations at two sites in eastern Tigrai (Mezber and Ona Adi) as well as completing intensive systematic survey covering over 200 sq. km around these localities. The main objective of ETAP is to examine the dynamics of early state formation in northern Ethiopia, including the Pre-Aksumite period (1600 BC-1st century AD) and the PA-A transition. Specific objectives include:

1) investigation of the role of indigenous (African) and exogenous (South Arabian) cultural elements in the development of the Pre-Aksumite state;

2) elucidation of Pre-Aksumite rural/urban political and agricultural economy through the analysis of palaeoethnobotanical and zooarchaeological evidence;

3) study of ancient trading/exchange relationships through the analysis of ceramic and obsidian artefacts; and

4) investigation of the nature of the PA-A transition in Eastern Tigrai.

These goals were achieved through excavations at the rural village of Mezber, and Ona Adi, which is a large town site with the remains of elite groups visible in the form of large-scale architecture. Investigations conducted in this dissertation research contribute to the first, third and fourth of the stated ETAP objectives.

Eastern Tigrai contains some of the most densely concentrated and varied archaeological site areas in the northern Horn of Africa (Curtis & Habtemichael 2008). This region has witnessed a long and apparently unbroken history of occupation through the early Pre-Aksumite to post-Aksumite times in the first millennium AD (D’Andrea et al. 2008). The archaeological sites present include dozens of rock art sites (D’Andrea et al. 2008; Meressa 2008), a number of ancient inscriptions in South Arabian and Geez (Wolf & Nowotnick, 2010), several elite rock-cut shaft tombs (Habtamu et al. in prep.), and extensive areas containing evidence of ancient settlement and specialized ceremonial or

9 ritual functions (Anfray 1968; Fattovich 1990). Despite this rich archaeological heritage, very little work has been completed in the region and the investigations of ETAP represent the first systematic surveys and excavations conducted in Eastern Tigrai. Investigations by ETAP have revealed the presence of rural and large town settlements dating to both Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite eras (D’Andrea et al. 2008; D’Andrea and Welton in prep; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014). Surface surveys and excavations indicate continuity in settlement of the region from Pre-Aksumite to post Aksumite times, which differs from the Aksum area, where sites demonstrate re-settlement during the PA-A transition. A critical result of the Ona Adi excavations to date is their demonstration that the site has undisturbed Pre-Aksumite deposits underlying Aksumite levels, making it an ideal location to investigation the PA-A transition in Eastern Tigrai.

Ona Adi is a large ancient town site located in the Gulo Makeda Woreda of the Eastern Tigrai Administration zone. The site covers 9.74 ha and is characterized by buried and exposed ancient wall ruins, an ancient crypt underneath a modern church, several mounds, and a modern plot of agricultural land littered with high concentrations of architectural debris and ceramics (D’Andrea 2005). The well-known Amba Fekada (Enda Guieh) rock paintings are also located very close to the site. There are many oral traditions associated with the history of Ona Adi and Gulo Makeda. According to Fetwi (2001), Gulo Makeda is believed to be the birth place of the legendary and controversial queen of Ethiopia, Queen Shaba. Citing oral tradition, Fetwi (2005) states three different names attributed to the queen: Shaba, Makeda and Azebe. According to this tradition, Gulo Makeda Woreda is named after the queen: Gulo represents the “backyard” of Queen Makeda. Fetwi (2001) states that the pillars and architectural ruins of Enda Tekle Haymanot church at Ona Adi were the place where Queen Makeda built her palace. Other oral traditional sources linked the site to craft specialization, where the shepherds of Queen Makeda processed wool (Fesseha 1987, cited in D’Andrea 2013). This story is very interesting but at the same time confusing because other regions in Ethiopia and neighboring countries, including Sudan and Eritrea, also have claimed different versions of a similar story (Munro-Hay 1989).

Figure 1.2. The archaeological site of Ona Adi.

According to D’Andrea and Welton (in prep), Ona Adi and its immediate surroundings have been sporadically visited and described by several early scholars (e.g. Coulbeaux 1929; Conti Rossini 1928; Mordini 1941; Franchini 1953; Leclant and Miquel 1959; Anfray 1973). However, the information produced by these investigators is contradictory mainly because of their interchangeable use of different place names such as Menabeyti, Etchmare, Gulo Makeda, Enda Tekle Haymanot, and Enda Maryam de Makeda for Ona Adi (D’Andrea, 2006). ETAP has conducted the only systematic and multidisciplinary research at the site to date. One of the most significant results of ETAP research at Ona Adi is the discovery in 2014 of undisturbed, sealed Pre-Aksumite levels underlying the Aksumite deposits. This is critically important to my research because the site was occupied during the time period (PA-A transition) I am investigating.

1.3. Chapter Summary

This chapter has introduced the goals and objectives of this dissertation and provided background on the larger ETAP study. The following chapters will provide an in-depth description of methods and theory, and systematic analysis of the results of the study and discussion of the Ona Adi ceramic collections during the Pre-Aksumite and

11 Aksumite periods. Chapter 2 presents a critical literature review of past archaeological studies in the region. This is followed by a discussion of the theoretical background of this study in Chapter 3 and the methods employed in Chapter 4. A detailed description of the Ona Adi excavations and stratigraphy is presented in Chapter 5. The results of the ceramic analysis are presented in Chapters 6 and 7. A discussion of the implications of the results is presented in Chapter 8 and final conclusions in Chapter 9.

12 Chapter 2.

Background: Later Prehistoric/Early Historical Periods of the Northern Horn

The northern Horn of Africa comprises the modern states of Ethiopia, Eritrea, and the Eritreo-Sudanese borderlands. It has been populated by a mosaic of ethnic groups since antiquity. Several crucial events took place in the culture history of the northern Horn during the later prehistorical/early historical periods. According to Fattovich (1999:3), the main developments characterising the later prehistory/early history of the northern Horn can be briefly summarized as follows:

1) the emergence of food producing communities along the western Eritreo-Sudanese lowlands and the plateau in the fourth to second millennia BC; 2) the rise of chiefdoms in the lowlands and perhaps on the plateau in the third to second millennia BC; 3) the rise of states on the plateau from the first millennium BC; and 4) the introduction of Christianity and Islam during the first millennium AD (see also Fattovich 1988, 2010; Munro-Hay 1993; Phillipson 2012).

Archaeological and historical evidence indicates the existence of diverse agro-pastoral economies, social inequality, nucleated settlements, specialized ceremonial centers with elaborate monumental architecture, complex tombs, dedicatory inscriptions, and ceremonial objects during this time (Fattovich 1988; Curtis 2004; Michels 2005). However, until recently, the later prehistory/early history of the northern Horn was given little attention. Scholars debated the potential factors stimulating the origin of food production, social complexity, and the ritual and ideological changes that appeared during the later prehistorical/early historical periods, based on very little evidence.

This chapter will present a critical review of the literature on the later prehistory/early history of the northern Horn of Africa in order to understand the current state of knowledge of the socio-economic and cultural patterns, chronology and interaction of peoples of the northern Horn at the local and regional level, as well as their involvement in the larger networks of trade and cultural contacts with the Mediterranean region, Near East and the African hinterland. The major question of contention among scholars lies in their identification of the role and extent of internal and external cultural elements in the development of the later prehistory of the northern Horn. This chapter

13 will: 1) introduce and describe the environmental dynamics, topography and location of Ethiopia and the northern Horn and their role in the development of various cultural systems within relatively short horizontal distances since antiquity; 2) present a critical review of the archaeological research history, field research, lab methods and sources of data for the northern Horn; and 3) conduct a critical review of different models and hypotheses generated regarding the role of indigenous and exogenous factors in the development of the later prehistory/early history of the northern Horn, specifically about the origins of agriculture and social complexity.

2.1. Geographical, Environmental and Cultural Context

The majority of the northern Horn of Africa, located in the northeastern part of the continent, is comprised of northern Ethiopia and Eritrea. It is bounded by Djibouti to the east, Somalia to the southeast, Kenya to the south, Sudan to the west and north, and the Red Sea to the northeast and north. The northern Horn possesses unique geographic, environmental, sociocultural, economic, and ideological attributes, owing to its location. The northern Horn’s contrasting and segmented ecozones and its strategic geographic location at the nexus of the Mediterranean, South Arabia and Indian subcontinent enhanced the development of different modes of socioeconomic and cultural systems in the region. Several river valley systems provided relatively easy access between physiographically separated peoples and thus fostered networks of interaction among different cultural groups both at local and regional scales since antiquity.

The topography of the region is characterized by a high and dissected mountainous terrain, with deep gorges and valleys, coastal plains, and arid lowlands, and is a component of the great east African Rift Valley system. The geology of the region is mostly of the result of volcanic activity but folding, faulting and large-scale metamorphism also played a significant role (Bard et.al., 2000; Brandt 1982). Although the northern Horn is located close to the equator, the climate is far from tropical in the normal sense of the term. The extensive high plateaux between 2000 and 3000 masl, where the region’s highest peak Ras Dashan (c. 4620 meters) is located, gives the northern Horn a much cooler and more temperate climate than its geographical situation suggests (Phillipson 1998; Fattovich 2012). The highlands are crisscrossed by several river valley systems which have provided transportation routes that link geographically

14 fragmented and separated highlands and lowlands (Dombroski 1971; Brandt 1982; Fattovich 2012). Highly punctuated by hills and mountains, including eroded flat-topped volcanic plugs known as amba, the northern Horn highlands are surrounded by an almost uninterrupted ring of lowlands. The transitions from highlands to lowlands are mainly characterized by escarpments of varying steepness. A very sharp and rugged escarpment, 2000 m high, abruptly descends from the northern-east highlands to the Red Sea plains; elsewhere, the descent from highland to lowland is more gradual

(Phillipson 1998).

Thestudy area

Figure 2.1. The topography and major drainage systems of Ethiopia (Image modified from: Sadalmelik, I. (2007) Topographic map of the Ethiopian Highlands and major lowlands including the Great East African Rift Valley, and fractured mountain ranges). Three major environmental zones have been identified in the northern Horn, which are defined on the basis of rapid changes in elevation within short geographical distances: daga (cooler highlands, > 2400 masl, with an annual average temperature of about 16 deg. C), wayna daga (a highly populated ecozone marked by warmer medium elevations, 1700-2400 masl) and qolla (hot valleys and plains, < 1700 masl, including the Rift Valley) (D’Andrea et.al 1997; Finneran 2007; Simoons 1960; Dombrowski 1971).

15 These ecological zones are associated with different human adaptations and modes of life including highland sedentary settlers and nomadic or semi-nomadic herder lowlanders (Brandt 1982; Fattovich 2012).

The climate of the northern Horn is marked by unpredictable and fluctuating rainfall linked to the seasonal shift of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). In recent history, the region has witnessed repeated episodes of severe drought, famine and epidemics, forcing people to migrate into relatively unaffected regions (Pankhurst 1988; Fattovich 2012). The rain that waters the region generally comes twice a year. The “heavy rains”, also known as kermt, constitute the main rainy season in Ethiopia and the northern Horn, and falls during the months of June to early October (D’Andrea et.al 1997; Finneran 2007; Phillipson 1998). These rains are generated by south-westerly moist air originating from the high-pressure area of the south Atlantic and Indian Ocean moving into the low pressure area of the Sahara Desert and Arabia (Finneran 2007). July and August experience the highest amounts of rain and during this period heavy showers occur almost every day, which makes travel away from paved roads nearly impossible. Gravel roads often experience severe erosion during this time. The “small rains”, also known as the belg (‘autumn’ in the Ethiopian context, but spring in North America), fall between February and April, and are significantly less predictable (D’Andrea et.al 1997; Finneran 2007; Phillipson 1998). They are the result of monsoon winds blowing from the Indian Ocean. However, a totally different rainfall pattern prevails in the coastal lowlands of Ethiopia, where the main annual rainfall occurs during the months of January and February (Phillipson 1998).

Rivers that dissect the landscape of the northern Horn into deep canyons and imposing gorges can be divided into four major systems. The Takkaze/Atbara, Abbay/Nile and Baro/Sobat form the first group of the region’s river systems. This system flows westwards into the Nile before reaching the Mediterranean Sea (Brandt 1982). The fertile river valley created by these water courses was one of the cradles of ancient civilization, including ancient Egyptian and Nubian civilizations, and they form the life blood of the peoples of Sudan and Egypt. There has been a history of intense contention and disagreement about the utilization of this river system among lower and upper riparian countries. The disagreement about the manipulation of the water resources of the Blue Nile (Abbay), for instance, has reached a climax after Ethiopia’s most recent move to initiate construction of the Grand Renaissance Dam. The

16 Ganale/Juba and the Wabe Shabale combine to form the second river system. Both rivers flow towards the Indian Ocean, crossing the eastern Ethiopian national boundary into Somalia. The southeastern plateau, situated to the east and southeast of the Rift Valley and the Afar Triangle, is the home of the third river system. The major river is the Gibe (Omo in its lower course) which originates and ends in the southeastern highlands, with Lake Rudolf (also known as Turkana) on the Ethio-Kenya border as its final destination. The Awash and its tributaries form the fourth river system. Unlike the other international rivers, it originates from the highlands west of Addis Ababa, and flows east into the rift valley, providing easy access between the Rift and the Plateau, until it finally vanishes in the northeastern sands before crossing the national border (Brandt 1984; Zewde 2002).

The northern Horn is the home to many nations and nationalities defined based on language. This diversity, coupled with the unique environment of the region, has clear implications for the archaeological and historical reconstruction of the northern Horn (Fattovich 2000). Scholars have classified the myriad of north Horn languages into four major families: Semitic, Cushitic, Omotic and Nilo-Saharan. The Semitic, Cushitic, and Omotic groups originated from a common parent language called proto-Afroasiatic (Zewde 2002; Ehret 1979). Semitic language speakers are relatively new arrivals in the region and are constituted by nine different languages, of which Amharic, Tigrinya and Tigre are the most widely spoken (Finneran 2007). Cushitic and Omotic are the most ancient, probably first spoken somewhere in the general range of 7000 BC, and now possibly outnumber Semitic speakers in Ethiopia and the Northern Horn (Ehret 1979; Finneran 2007). The southern, central and pockets of the northern highlands are populated by Cushitic language speakers, such as Agau, Beja and Oromo. A fourth group of languages is subsumed under a language family known as Nilo-Saharan (Ehret 1976; Finneran 2007). They are generally associated with cattle pastoralist populations, such as the Anuak, Nuer, Kunama and Gumuz, occupying the lowlands along the borders of Sudan and Kenya. Murdock (1959) and Clark (1976) referred to this language group as eastern Sudanic speaking Pre-Nilotes who were responsible for the introduction of domestication to Ethiopia and the northern Horn (Brandt 1984).

17 2.2. A Brief History of the Archaeology of the Northern Horn of Africa

The Horn of Africa is strategically located at the crossroads of one of the busiest sea routes of the ancient world. Many Greek and Roman geographers, scholars, travelers, merchants, ecclesiastics, and ambassadors frequented this route. These people produced some of the earliest traveler accounts and important manuscripts relevant to the archaeology of the northern Horn. The earliest accounts are historical in nature and were written by classical scholars. Homer, the famous Greek eighth century BC author, and Herodotus of the fifth century BC mentioned Ethiopia in their writings referring to Africa south of Egypt but their accounts are regarded as unreliable (Beckingham and Huntingford 1958). Their writing is so vague that some claim that these writers probably never traveled to Ethiopia. Natural History, written c. AD 70 by Pliny the Younger, and the mid-first century AD unknown sailor’s account, Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, provide the earliest and most detailed accounts of the Horn (Peacock and Blue 2007). Both sources present a general description of the people and topography of Adulis, the main sea port of the Aksumite Empire (Casson 1989; Munro- Hay 1991). These documents mention the availability of luxury items such as ivory, tortoise-shell, rhinoceros horn and obsidian in the northern Horn (Casson 1989), which were exchanged with finished goods such as cloth, fabric, brass, glass, copper and coinage and smaller quantities of wine, olive oil and jewelry (Munro-Hay 1982). Other similar sources include Claudius Ptolemy of the second century AD and Cosmas Indicopleustes of the sixth century AD (Kobishchanov 1979). The work of Cosmas, Christian Topography, provides us with important background information about the Aksumite Empire’s maritime activities in the ancient port town of Adulis. Christian Topography incorporates detailed areal descriptions and a sketch map of the different topographic and landscape features that lie between the Aksumite hinterland and the coastal lowlands. Cosmas also describes the presence of a throne and an inscription which he recorded (Wolska-Conus 1968; see also Peacock and Blue 2007; Michels 1979; Munro-Hay 1991). These Classical sources and other written documents (mainly of religious content, both Christian and Islamic in origin), provide a more general picture of Ethiopia and the northern Horn until the decline of the Aksumite kingdom. The problems associated with these earlier historical documents include a lack of clarity in

18 terms of place names, vague locations, a romantic view of topics of discussions and little representation of ordinary people in their accounts.

Other historical documents consist of trilingual (Sabean, Geez and Greek) inscriptions on stone and inscriptions and representations on Aksumite coins and occasionally on ceramics. These potentially represent examples of historical evidence from indigenous perspectives, but the information they provide is restricted to important military exploits (e.g., Sergew 1972), religious matters, and personal names and titles (Pankhurst 1968; Phillipson 2012). It has also been claimed that inscriptions usually reflect the personal wishes and propaganda of their writers and therefore their reliability is less certain (Phillipson 2012; Munro-Hay 1991; Kobishchanov 1979).

In between the time period after the collapse of the Aksumite kingdom (CE 700) and the end of the fifteenth century, which represents the Ethiopian ‘Dark Age’, there are very few available external and internal historical sources (Taddesse 1972; Trimingham 1965). Externally, we have limited Arab and Western European accounts mainly related to the Crusades and writings related to the legend of Prester John, an apparently powerful Christian monarch of the eastern realms of the 14th century whom the Europeans petitioned to provide assistance in the reconquest of Jerusalem (Taddesse 1972; Trimingham 1965; Ullendorff 1965). The Kebra Negast (Glory of the Kings), a 14th-century account written in Geez about the origins of the Solomonic line of Ethiopian emperors, and hagiographies (biographical pieces about kings and saints) dominate internal historical sources of this period (Ullendorff 1965; Sergew 1972). These are difficult to interpret as they tend to be legends for the most part and usually described events that occurred long before the period to which they ostensibly relate. These sources also likely have incorporated information from oral traditions (Phillipson 2012).

The corpus of external historical sources increases again towards the end of the fifteenth century through the writing of European visitors, which shed light on contemporary traditional Ethiopian society. These reports reveal the presence of monuments in the highlands of Ethiopia and Eritrea and provide one of the richest sources of ethnohistory in this part of Africa. Some of these accounts include the writings of: the Portuguese Francisco Alvares, relating to the 1520-1526 Ethiopian Christian- Muslim conflict (Beckingham and Huntingford 1958); the French physician Charles Poncet (1709), relating to 1699-1700 health treatment of Iyasu I; and the Scottish

19 explorer James Bruce (1790), relating to journeys between 1768-1773 to discover the source of the Blue Nile. These scholars provide us with narratives of the landscape, climate, farming system and types of domesticated crops and animals, beliefs and customs of people and the administration system. A more advanced account of the area with detailed description of monuments and distributional maps was produced by Henry Salt, who was the first to identify the ruins of Adulis, conduct a survey of the Aksum area and provide a detailed description of the temple of Yeha in his book entitled Voyage to Abyssinia in 1814. Later, Theophile Lefebvre (1845) led the first French archaeological mission to Ethiopia and conducted a survey of Adulis, and Theodore Bent (1893) conducted a reconnaissance survey at Aksum. These scholars ascribed monumental features of the northern Horn to foreign sources.

The first archaeological excavation in Adulis was conducted in 1868 by the British army. The British Museum, represented in this excavation by Richard Holmes and William West Goodfellow, sponsored the expedition. Part of the excavation preliminary report was published in the book entitled The British Expedition to Abyssinia (Hozier 1869). The ultimate goal of the 1868 expedition was to rescue British diplomats held hostage by Emperor Tewodros II of Ethiopia. The excavations at Adulis (Hozier 1869) were a secondary mission, conducted with the intention of acquiring archaeological and ethnographic artefacts for the British Museum. This archaeological research is considered to be one of the earliest archaeological excavations undertaken in sub- Saharan Africa (Munro-Hay 1991; Peacock and Blue 2007).

The origin of the kingdom of Aksum, that is, inquiry into the people who founded the Aksumite kingdom, was the main goal of most of the writers discussed above. Based on their respective personal observations and direct interactions with the local communities, these workers speculate about the Ptolemaic Greeks and ancient Egyptians (Bruce 1790), Semitic-speaking South Arabians (Ludolf 1691) and a combination of indigenous Africans and immigrant foreigners (Salt 1814) as founders of the Aksumite kingdom. However, their claims remain subjective and speculative, and they were supported by very little evidence (see Fattovich et al. 2000 for an overview).

Scientific archaeological surveys and excavations began in the Horn at the beginning of the twentieth century. During that time, three main events profoundly influenced and shaped the archaeology of the region: 1) the 1906 German Aksum

20 expedition; 2) the establishment of the Ethiopian Institute of Archaeology in 1952; and 3) the prolonged Ethiopian civil war of 1960-1991. In the first half of the 20th century (1900- 1950), research to understand the origins of Aksum was still dominant, but with a different perspective. The speculative nature of classical interpretations was enhanced to include description and classification of archaeological data. The major problem related to this period is that scholars uncritically accepted earlier hypotheses (especially South Arabian colonization of the Horn) due to the discovery of several inscriptions executed in the Ancient South Arabian (ASA) script.

The multidisciplinary German Aksum expedition was conducted under the direction of Enno Littmann with a team composed of experts in paleography, ethnography, archaeology, architecture, technical drawing, photography and mapping (Littmann et al. 1913; Phillipson 1998; Fattovich et al. 2000; Finneran 2007; Michels 1979). The expedition took more than three months to undertake survey, test excavations, documentation, and mapping of both Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite sites located between Aksum and Adigrat, and Asmara and Senafe. As indicated above, their work heralded a shift away from speculation to description and classification of archaeological finds in the region (Brandt and Fattovich 1990). They recorded numerous inscriptions in Geez, Greek and South Arabian script, and prepared architectural plans and sketches of the foundations of ancient buildings and large monumental stone features (throne bases, stelae, altars etc.). Littmann published the results of the research in four volumes in German to promote the archaeology of the region to the rest of the world (Littmann et.al 1913). This project was so influential that almost all subsequent archaeological undertakings were conducted, in one way or another, on archaeological sites first reported by it (Phillipson 2000; Michels 1979). There were other important archaeological investigations carried out in Ethiopia and Eritrea during the first half of the twentieth century, however, the German Aksum expedition remained the source of nearly all information until the establishment of the Ethiopian Institute of Archaeology in 1952 (Fattovich et al., 2000; Finneran 2007; Michels 1979).

Italians R. Paribeni, G. Dainelli and O. Marinelli were responsible for the geological, geographical and archaeological survey of a large part of what is now Eritrea, as well as excavations of the ancient port of Adulis, after the German Aksum Expedition (Paribeni 1907; Dainelli and Marinelli 1912; Brandt and Fattovich 1990). Similarly, Kammerer (1926), Budge (1928), Conti Rossini (1928, in Italian) and Coulbeaux (1929,

21 in French) produced major syntheses of Ethiopian cultural history in the 1920s. But from the 1930s to the end of the 1940s very little archaeological research was conducted in Ethiopia and Eritrea due to the Second World War and Ethiopia’s liberation movement. The two important exceptions during these periods were projects conducted by Ugo Monneret de Villard, who was in Aksum to facilitate the removal of Stela No. 2 to Rome, and the stratigraphic excavation of Salvatore Puglisi in a residential palace of Addi Keletta in the southwestern part of the old town of Aksum (Munro-Hay 1989; Puglisi 1941; Fattovich et al. 2000). Despite introducing up-to-date fieldwork methodologies (stratigraphic excavations and geo-archaeological investigation) and employing various archaeological data other than epigraphic information, the results of their work did not alter the widely used colonization model

With the establishment of the Ethiopian Institute of Archaeology in 1952, large- scale archaeological excavation started in both Ethiopia and Eritrea, giving special emphasis to ceremonial and ancient urban centers such as Yeha, Matara and Aksum, for the purpose of creating culture historic sequences (Anfray 1968; de Contenson 1981; Michels 1979). French scholars Jean Doress, Jean Leclant, Henri de Contenson and Francis Anfray were the prominent figures who carried out various archaeological work in the 1950s and 1960s under the auspices of the Ethiopian Institute of Archaeology. Francis Anfray is a special figure in this regard. He conducted reconnaissance archaeological surveys and excavations in the Aksum-Yeha area, Matara, Adulis and many other important sites of Ethiopia and Eritrea. In particular, his research in Matara was of fundamental importance. The major archaeological research at Matara started in 1959 and continued until 1965. In his six seasons of archaeological fieldwork at Matara, Anfray documented several multi-room architectural complexes associated with inscriptions, ceramics, stelae, lithics and other important features such as rock-cut tombs (Anfray 1968). Some of the finest archaeological materials from Matara are displayed in the Aksumite collection room of the Archaeological Museum in Addis Ababa. However, almost all of his publications are in French and are not accessible to the great majority of Ethiopian and Eritrean archaeologists. In addition, except for the Matara project, much of his works constitute field reports and cursory description of sites. Even the publications on Matara are not detailed enough to justify six seasons of work. However, Anfray was one of the first scholars to challenge the colonization model by introducing the concept

22 of acculturation to explain the presence of South Arabian material remains in some ceremonial sites of the Horn (Anfray 1968, 1981,1990, 2012a&b).

In the mid-1960s and afterwards, further systematic archaeological research was carried out by American, Italian and British scholars. Both Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite sites were investigated in the Aksum-Yeha, Mekelle-Adigrat and Senafe-Asmara localities. Giuseppe Tringale, an Italian amateur archaeologist, provided a general description of Ancient Ona Culture sites, defined by specific ceramic features and bull- head ceramic figures along with other artefacts on the Asmara Plateau. Chronology building, stratigraphic excavations and construction of models on the origins of food production were the main themes considered during these periods (Dombrowski 1971; Barnett 1999; Brandt 1984; Clark 1980; Fattovich 1977, 1978; Trignali 1965; Trignali and Munro-Hay 1991). The beginning of the 1970s witnessed multidisciplinary field projects designed mainly for the reconstruction of palaeoenvironments and the establishment of radiometrically dated cultural sequences. The work of Butzer on the effects of environmental change and Michels’ settlement pattern survey provided data on the process of Aksumite state formation (Butzer 1981; Michels 1979, 1988). However, Michels’ 1974 regional settlement survey was only fully published in 2005 (after 30 years) and even then, was missing important elements such as pottery illustrations. Before 2005, Michels produced only summary reports (1979, 1988, 1994) of syntheses of regional site maps and chronological phases. Moreover, an attempt to relocate some of Michels’ reported sites was conducted in the summer of 2009 by Michael Harrower (Harrower et al. in press). The result revealed many discrepancies between information provided in Michels’ publication (2005) and the actual situation on the ground. This may be associated mainly with the time gap between data collection and final publication.

For the following 19 years, Ethiopia and Eritrea were practically closed to archaeological research activities due to a severe and protracted civil war. This period was characterized by careful examination of previously collected data, the development of new insights and the revision of already existing culture history models/stages (e.g., Fattovich 1977, 1988, 1990; Michels in Kobishchanov 1979; Munro-Hay 1989). An important development in this direction was initiated by Fattovich (1977, 1988, 1990) when he discussed the presence of possible links between northern Horn communities and eastern Sudan and Nubian Nile Valley communities. As such, his interpretation

23 underlined an African, not South Arabian, foundation to the culture history of the northern Horn.

In the early 1990s, the civil war was over, peace and security were re- established, and a number of archaeologists resumed investigations and new projects were initiated. This period marked the latest era in north Horn archaeology. Long-term, multidisciplinary, and problem-oriented research projects were explicitly designed to test different hypotheses and models developed in previous periods (D’Andrea 2003, 2008; D’Andrea and Haile 2002; D’Andrea et al. 2008; D’Andrea and Welton in prep; Fattovich 2004, 2009, 2012; Bard et al. 2000; Finneran and Phillips 2003; Phillipson 1998, 2000, 2012; Schmidt et.al 2008). For the first time in the history of the northern Horn, attempts and willingness to incorporate material culture of non-elite communities into an already existing systematic archaeological inquiry of monumental architecture and elite settlement were witnessed.

These kinds of holistic and systematic archaeological inquiries were initiated in the Aksum area through two main research groups: Instituto Universitario Orientale/ Boston University Archaeological Expedition (IUO/BU), led by Rodolfo Fattovich and Kathryn Bard (Bard et al. 1996; 1997, 2000, 2002; Bard and Fattovich 1993, 1995; Fattovich and Bard 1994, 2001, 2007; Fattovich et al. 2000), and the British Institute in East Africa (BIEA), led by David Phillipson and assisted by Jacke Phillips (Phillipson 1993, 1995, 2000). Both burial and settlement sites of elite character at Bieta Giyorgis, a hill top settlement situated northwest of Aksum, were intensively surveyed and excavated by IUO/BU. The major contribution of IUO/BU research at Bieta Giyorgis is “the establishment of a detailed archaeological sequence and chronology for the development of the ancient capital, based on the dating of finds and radiocarbon dates from well-defined archaeological contexts” (Bard et al. 2014:287). In particular, the identification of the Proto-Aksumite period, a new archaeological phase dated to the end of the 1st millennium BC, provides new insight and interpretations on the transition from the Pre-Aksumite to Aksumite cultural periods. The Proto-Aksumite culture has been characterized as a small-scale chiefdom occupying Bieta Giyorgis hill before the rise of Aksum as a state level polity (Fattovich et al. 2000). Grave goods, offering basins and subsidiary burials associated with tombs recovered from Bieta Giyorgis revealed greater affinities with the Nubian Nile Valley during the Proto-Aksumite period (Bard et al. 2002; Fattovich 2004). During the Pre-Aksumite period, the known monumental architectural

24 forms are almost always associated with cult temples. The discovery of monumental architectural forms associated with Proto-Aksumite burials to commemorate elites showed a significant decline of South Arabian influence. The results of IUO/BU research at Bieta Giyorgis also modified Fattovich’s earlier (1990) cultural sequences through the identification of the following cultural phases: Proto-Aksumite phase, 360(?) BC-120/40 BC; Aksumite 1 (Early Aksumite) phase, 120/40 BC- AD130/190; Aksumite 2 (Classical Aksumite) phase, AD130/190- AD360/400; Aksumite 3 (Middle Aksumite) phase, AD360/400- AD550/610; and Aksumite 4 (Late Aksumite) phase, AD 550/610- AD800/850 (Bard et al. 2014:304). IUO/BU also identified ancient plant and animal evidence from sealed excavations of stratigraphic sequences, such as cattle (Bos taurus), ovicaprines (Ovis aries/Capra hircus), dogs (Canis familiaris), wheat (Triticum durum/aestivum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare), suggesting a fully agropastoral subsistence tradition (Bard et al. 2014).

The 1993-1997 BIEA research at Aksum was the outgrowth and continuation of a previous BIEA project in the Horn initiated under Neville Chittick’s 1972-1974 excavations. A coincidence of several problems, including political instability in northern Ethiopia and Chittick’s accidental death, made the 1972-1974 BIEA archaeological expeditions incomplete. Some of the objectives of the most recent five years of BIEA research at Aksum (in the 1990s) was to complete what had already been started and to rectify previous deficiencies (Phillipson 2000). The BIEA conducted systematic and large-scale excavations focusing on both elite and domestic contexts in the main Stele Park, Gudit Stelae Field and a settlement at Kidane Mehret D sites near Aksum (Phillipson 1998, 2000). One of the most important BIEA research project contributions was the identification of a disturbed indigenous Pre-Aksumite local community’s cultural remains below the Aksumite period occupation at Kidane Mehret D (Phillipson 2000; Phillips 2004), bearing a rich assemblage of artefacts which were completely different from imported items of the contemporary elite material culture. There is very scant trace of South Arabian cultural material, such as inscriptions, at Kidane Mehret D, which are ubiquitous in other sites of Aksum. Archaeological and zooarchaeological analyses of evidence from the D site indicated the cultivation of wheat and barley, and the rearing of cattle, sheep and goat by people who lived in a stone-built village complex of angular rooms and associated courtyards (Phillipson 2000). This resembles the Pre-Aksumite domestic contexts of Ona Sites such as Sembel, Sembel Kushet, Ona Gudo and Mai

25 Hutsa (Schmidt and Curtis 2001; Curtis 2004) and Gulo Makeda sites of Eastern Tigrai (D’Andrea et al. 2008, D’Andrea et al. 2008b, D’Andrea and Welton. in prep.). Other new insights developed by the BIEA project include analysis of the relationship between tomb structures (such as the Tomb of the Brick Arches, Tomb of the False Door and the Mausoleum) and the stelae of the Stelae Park burial area. The project also proposed a new stelae chronology and documented significant information about the Gobedra Hill quarry site (Ayele Tarekegn 1996; Phillipson 1998, 2000). Although both the IUO/BU and BIEA projects were conducted in Aksum in the same period, there was no significant attempt to integrate and collaborate between the two investigations. Also, the IUO/BU work in particular lacks full publications of their data sets, i.e., comprehensive artefact analyses such as ceramic analyses.

One of the new encouraging trends developed since the beginning of the 21st century was the expansion of research outside of the Aksum-Yeha area. In this regard, systematic multidisciplinary archaeological surveys and excavations were conducted in Eastern Tigrai (D’Andrea et al. 2008; D’Andrea and Welton in prep.; Wolf & Nowotnick 2010), in western Tigrai (Phillips 2003, 2004) and in the Asmara area of Eritrea (Schmidt et.al 2008; Curtis 2009). These projects have produced fresh hypotheses and interpretations that both complement and contrast with existing theories. Eritrea achieved independence in 1991 and research projects from that year started to reveal contrasting results. Research conducted on the Asmara plateau between 1998 and 2003 represents the main archaeological project in the country after liberation, focusing on the Ancient Ona Culture (Schmidt et al. 2008). Researchers emphasized features bearing “both unique qualities and striking similarities to coeval communities in Tigray, Ethiopia” (Curtis 2009, see more about Ona Culture research project results below). One drawback resulting from the new situation is the politics of archaeology and nationalism—a tendency to use archaeology as an instrument to build a national cultural identity of the Eritrean people—which has tended to view this region without any exchange of material and symbolic culture with the outside world since prehistoric times (Schmidt et al. 2008).

In general, ancient documentary sources and some scientific and modern archaeological surveys and excavations highlight preoccupation with site-specific investigations and the impact of exogenous people (Phillipson L. 2009; Japp et al. 2011; Gerlach 2012). A great emphasis has been given to monuments and more prominent

26 types of settlement (ceremonial and a few urban centers), architecture and material culture. This has resulted in a paucity of data and interpretations concerning local culture histories, economics, political organizations, and settlement systems. More archaeological work has been devoted to historical sites, notably in the Aksum-Yeha area, but even here very little attention has been paid to the main agenda of the subsistence economy and indigenous lifeways of Aksumite and Pre-Aksumite societies. Furthermore, there has been an unfortunate tendency for excavations to be oriented towards royal cemeteries, temples and palaces. This trend was directly or indirectly linked to poor infrastructural development in the northern Horn, whereby expatriate archaeologists opted to do archaeology in more accessible areas endowed with rich archaeological sites that had not been previously investigated.

Despite these problems, Ethiopia and the northern Horn have enjoyed the benefits of the experience of amateur and professional archaeologists, sources of research funding and competitive archaeological methods and theories from different countries of the world. French, Italian, British, German, American, Canadian, Spanish and Russian scholars have actively participated in archaeological investigations in the northern Horn, resulting in important discoveries and they have provided field and laboratory training and scholarship opportunities to Ethiopians. The products of their work have played an instrumental role in the preservation and protection of cultural heritage both in terms of documentation and their impact on the drafting of heritage laws and rules in governmental policy-making endeavors. Their work has also played a positive role in promoting a positive view of the region, which was previously better known to the outside world as a place of drought, famine, civil war and human-made and natural hazards. This has had a direct impact on generating extra sources of income through tourism.

2.3. Culture History of the Northern Horn: Indigenous/Exogenous Debate

The later prehistory/early history of the northern Horn has been archaeologically less investigated compared to early prehistory and the Aksumite period. Available research on this period has had two main objectives: 1) to document the beginning of agriculture in the northern Horn (Dombrowski 1971; Brandt 1982; Barnett 1999; D’Andrea 2008; D’Andrea and Mitiku 2002; D’Andrea et al. 1997, 1999, 2008b, 2011;

27 Phillipson 2000; Fattovich et al. 2000); and 2) to understand the development of state level societies in the region (D’Andrea and Welton in prep.; D’Andrea et al. 2008; Fattovich 1988, 2013; Phillipson 2012; Schmidt et al. 2008; Curtis 2004; Michels 2005). The second objective, involving the study of the origins of complex societies, is of direct relevance to this dissertation.

The rise and development of social inequality in the northern Horn of Africa is no longer viewed as a direct result of migration, as envisioned by earlier scholars who argued for a colonization event (Fattovich 1990, 2004, 2009, 2012; Fattovich et al. 2000; Munro-Hay 1991, 1993; Phillipson 2009, 2012; Schmidt and Curtis 2001; Schmidt et al. 2008; D’Andrea et.al. 2008; D’Andrea and Welton in prep; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014). Recent advances in method and theory in the archaeology of the region, coupled with discovery of fresh data, have significantly altered explanations of emergent complex society. The new trends indicate that the genesis of moderately complex polities in Ethiopia and the Horn went as far back as the fourth millennium BC and seemed to first appear at Mahal Teglinos near Kassala along the Eritreo-Sudanese border (Fattovich 1990, 2004, 2009, 2012; Munro-Hay 1991).

The northern Horn of Africa has long been an important corridor of cultural contact and trade. Intensive economic and political interactions with other contemporary ancient societies impacted early cultural development in the region (Fattovich 2012). Its close and repeated contact with the powerful kingdoms of Pharaonic Egypt and other Nile Valley polities, including Napata, in the west, the kingdom of Saba in South Arabia in the east, and the Roman and Byzantine empires in the north played a great role in shaping the origin and advancement of social complexity in the Horn (Fattovich 1990, 2004, 2012; Munro-Hay 1993; Phillipson 1998). It is argued that the Horn had economic and political interaction with ancient Egypt (4th-2nd millennia B.C.) and South Arabia (1st millennium B.C.), and with the Mediterranean world (early 1st millennium A.D.) (D’Andrea and Welton in prep; Fattovich 1990, 2004, 2009, 2012; Fattovich et.al. 2000; Munro-Hay 1993; Phillipson 1998, 2000). In addition to these exogenous elements, others have emphasized the role of indigenous Pre-Aksumite peoples in the origins of social complexity in the Horn (D’Andrea and Welton in prep.; D’Andrea et al. 2008; Fattovich 2012; Schmidt and Curtis 2001; Curtis 2004, 2008, 2009; Schmidt et al. 2008).

28 Ancient Egyptians depicted numerous short and long distance naval expeditions directed to sources of luxury trading items and slaves, as well as to areas of potential enemies threatening to undermine their dominance of Nile Valley trade (Phillips 1997). More has been said and studied about the nature of ancient Egyptian contact with the Levant and the Mesopotamian world, Libya and Nubia, compared to their interactions with a land in the southern Red Sea region called Punt. The land of Punt, well known for its rich exotic resources and with which ancient Egyptians had several successive trading missions, was suggested to be situated somewhere in the northern Horn of Africa and was populated by sedentary chiefdom-level communities engaged in the herding of humpless short-horned cattle (Jarus 2010; Finneran 2007; Phillips 1997; Kitchen 1971, 1993; Fattovich 1988; Pankhurst 1968).

Egyptian expeditions to the southern Red Sea region began as early as the First or Second Dynasty (3400-2980 B.C.), when there is clear evidence that Pharaohs were interested in obtaining myrrh, one of the exotic products of Punt (Pankhurst 1968). However, the name Punt (“God’s Land”) appears in Egyptian records starting from the reign of King Sahure in the Fifth Dynasty until that of Ramesses III in the Twentieth Dynasty, a span of some 1250 years (Phillips 1997; DiBlasi 2005). Slaves, fragrant wood, myrrh-resin, gold, ebony, ivory, cinnamon-wood, incense, eye-cosmetics, panther skins, baboons, monkeys and dogs were some of the items collected from Punt through successive naval expeditions in exchange for bread, beer, wine, meat, fruit, beads, axes, daggers and bracelets (Pankhurst 1968; Phillips 1997). Such expeditions to Punt continued intermittently during the New Kingdom and probably reached a peak during the time of Queen Hatshepsut (Pankhurst 1968; Phillips 1997). Queen Hatshepsut (1473-1458 B.C.) sent a successful naval expedition to Punt and recorded detailed accounts of this voyage in relief on the walls of the Deir el-Bahri temple. This is the main source of information on Punt and the nature of the relationship between ancient Egypt and the northern Horn (Phillips 1997; Pankhurst 1968). The Deir el-Bahri relief provides useful information not only about the hardships of traveling to Punt, the products gained from the expeditions and the great respect given to successful expedition leaders, but it also provides a visual glimpse of Punt, its people and its queen (Phillips 1997). Ramses III (1198-1167 B.C.) was supposedly the last Egyptian Pharaoh to conduct an expedition to Punt (Pankhurst 1968). It has been suggested that this vast trading network and extended interactions broadened the economic basis of the Horn and facilitated the

29 emergence of status inequality and social complexity in the region (Fattovich 2012; Diblasi 2005).

However, until recently, the land of Punt has never been situated with certainty on any map and scholars speculated that it was located somewhere in the northern Horn of Africa with very little or no archaeological evidence (Phillips 1997). Previous suggestions about the location of Punt have included several locations between Sinai and Somalia, such as Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan, Socotra (a small archipelago of four islands in the Indian Ocean), Yemen, Mozambique and northern Uganda (Jarus 2010). However, the opinion that the location of Punt was as far south as the northern coastal areas of modern Somalia has now been rejected due to recently discovered new evidence. The eastern coastal regions of the modern state of Sudan, Eritrea and northern-most Ethiopia, i.e., the northern Horn, is generally considered to be a strong candidate for the location of Punt (Finneran 2007). This is supported by a recent analysis of mummified baboons in the British Museum, which revealed the location of the land of Punt as the region between Ethiopia and Eritrea (Jarus 2010). According to this new research, ancient Punt includes all areas of modern Eritrea and eastern Ethiopia.

The collapse of Egyptian commercial expeditions to Punt forced northern Horn communities to find other trading partners. The best available option at that time was to strengthen ties with commercial networks dominated by South Arabians (Fattovich 2012). This exchange network was probably reinforced by the Sabaean desire to control the strategic resource-rich western lowlands of the Nubian Kingdom which was dictating the flow of products from the African hinterland to Egypt along the Nile Valley (Edwards 2004; DiBlasi 2005; Fattovich 2012). Much of what is known about northern Horn-South Arabian economic, political and religious interaction in this period comes from epigraphic sources and related temple architecture/iconography (Schmidt et al. 2008; Phillipson 2009; Curtis 2008). Europeans who visited the highlands of the northern Horn since the late 17th century (e.g., Ludolf 1691; Bent 1893; Glaser 1895; Conti Rossini 1928; Ullendorff 1965) were the first to recognize the relationship between early northern Horn inscriptions and those of South Arabia. They documented parallel and roughly contemporary inscriptions and monumental ruins such as temples in both the highlands of the northern Horn and in Yemen. Bent (1893), for instance, understood the unvocalized name of MKRB (a title bearing connotations of overlord of some sort of

30 federation) both in the inscriptions of Yeha (northern Ethiopia) and Marib (Yemen) (Schmidt et al. 2008). These inscriptions represented the earliest historical evidence from Ethiopia and the northern Horn. From the inscriptions some have inferred that Sabaean was the official language of the region during the Pre-Aksumite period (Fattovich 1990). According to some authorities, this reveals tangible evidence for close contact between the Horn and South Arabia (Fattovich 1990; Michels 2005; Finneran 2007).

Ancient South Arabian inscriptions (ASA) were investigated mainly by Pirenne (1956) and those of the northern Horn by Drewes (1962) and Drewes and Schneider (1967). A critical comparative chronological assessment of these studies (where scholars have difficulty finding agreement) hinted at the importance of both local and external factors in the evolution of Pre-Aksumite polities. The fact that many ASA inscriptions of the Horn bear traces of indigenous names of places and people not found across the Red Sea in Saba suggests a degree of internal/local political control. It is also argued that there are very few true ASA inscriptions (only 40 words) in the Horn during the Pre-Aksumite period and most of them represent names of people and places (Phillipson 2012). While Fattovich (1977) mentioned the existence of fifteen ‘royal’ inscriptions that suggest that “D‘MT” was a hierarchical society at a state-level scale of complexity, Phillipson (2012) reduced the number of these inscriptions to seven. Phillipson (2012) also claimed that all of these inscriptions are found in secondary contexts and all are dedicatory. Some inscriptions (e.g., from Gobochela, modern Eritrea) are dedicated to the South Arabian moon god (LMQ) and followed the format of their South Arabian counterparts, revealing the existence of strong external cultural influences. This inscription also mentions individual titles called GRBY, translated by Bernard et al. (1991; cited in Finneran 2007: 122) as “mason”, and was interpreted as showing the existence of South Arabian artisans in the Horn (Phillipson 2012). Therefore, while inscriptions are important sources of evidence to reconstruct the culture history of the first millennium BC in the northern Horn, great caution and critical assessment is required in using them.

Until very recently, the Aksum-Yeha region (traditionally known as Western Tigrai by archaeologists, although it is actually located in the Central Tigrai administrative zone) was the main focus of research and the source of most of the evidence relating to the early historic period. Scholars investigating the first millennium BC in the northern

31 Horn unanimously agree that there is indisputable material evidence of South Arabian origin in this region. Elaborate monumental architecture, complex tombs, dedicatory inscriptions, stone sculpture, ceramics, Sabaean script, worship of the disc and crescent moon symbols of the God Almaqah (LMQ), and other ceremonial objects are some of the South Arabian cultural traits discovered in Western and Eastern Tigrai, as well as in the Akale-Guzay region of Eritrea (D’Andrea et al.2008; Schmidt et al. 2008; Fattovich 2004; Curtis 2008). However, researchers debate the nature of the Pre- Aksumite/Ancient Ona Culture polities, the role of South Arabian vs. indigenous elements in Pre-Aksumite/Ancient Ona cultures, and the presence/absence of Sabaean colonists in the Horn (Fattovich 2004; Schmidt & Curtis 2001; Curtis 2004; Schmidt et al. 2008; D’Adrea and Welton in prep.).

Seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth century scholars were the first to suggest migration and diffusion as external factors in the origin and development of social complexity in the northern Horn (Fattovich et al 2000; Munro-Hay 1989). Ludolf (1691) credited the ‘Habashat’, a Semitic speaking people from South Arabia, as founders of the Aksumite kingdom on the basis of very little linguistic evidence. Bruce (1790) speculated that Ptolemaic Greeks rather than South Arabians were the agents who initiated the development of complexity in the northern Horn. Salt (1814), who conducted the first archaeological survey of the Aksum area, and Lefebvre (1845) both supported Bruce by claiming that Greek craftsmen were responsible for the construction of magnificent Aksumite monuments, including the stelae (Brandt and Fattovich 1990). Other arguments were presented by Bent (1893) and Glaser (1895) who provided epigraphic and archaeological evidence to support a South Arabian migration origin theory of social complexity in the northern Horn.

Although economic interactions between communities on opposite sides of the Red Sea (northern Horn and South Arabia) began as early as 7000 BP (Zarins 1990), the mid-first millennium BC is the earliest period for which we have convincing evidence of South Arabian material culture elements in the northern Horn (Fattovich 1990, 2004). Early twentieth century historians, epigraphists and archaeologists interpreted South Arabian material cultural elements (monumental architecture, royal inscriptions, elite tombs, state form of political organization etc.) as clear evidence of a South Arabian colony present in the northern Horn (see for e.g., Conti Rossini 1928). Lack of significant archaeological work in Ethiopia and the northern Horn during the years of the Second

32 World War (WWII) and afterward meant that Conti Rossini’s speculative colonization theory remained widely accepted and some scholars (e.g, Ricci 1984; Michels 1988; Gerlach 2012) have supported it in recent times. The ‘sudden’ appearance of South Arabian cultural elements, such as writing, monumental stone architecture and sculpture during the second half of the first millennium BC into the northern Horn region was used as evidence to support the colonization model.

After the 1960s, several archaeological excavations were conducted at major sites in the northern Horn, including Matara (Anfray 1968), Yeha (Anfray 1968), Aksum (Anfray 1972; de Contenson 1962; Chittick 1974), Hawelti-Malazo (de Contenson 1963), and Seglamen (Ricci 1984) under the patronage of the Ethiopian Archaeological Institute. The discovery of the contemporaneous presence of elements representing the culture of the indigenous non-elite population (mainly pottery and lithics) along with South Arabian features forced the modification of previous hypotheses. Over the years, more than 6,000 ASA have been discovered in South Arabian archaeological sites but none of them have mentioned the existence of colonies or vassal polities in the northern Horn of Africa (Curtis 2004). Thus some archaeologists have rejected the colonization model and justified the presence of exogenous cultural traits as a cumulative result of an acculturation process through long-term interaction between peoples of northern Horn and South Arabia (Drewes 1962; Anfray 1968; Schneider 1976). This model, the acculturation model “where a small group of South Arabian migrants were initially absorbed into an indigenous African population” (Curtis 2004: 59), was first developed by Anfray (1968) and has been subjected to continuing and important modifications by Fattovich (e.g., see Fattovich 1977, 1990, 2004, 2012). Curtis (2004, 2005, 2008) also suggested that only local elites adopted the South Arabian material culture for the sake of legitimizing symbolic power and to control the lucrative long-distance trade routes. Both colonization and acculturative models are primarily based on epigraphic sources and have been initiated from analysis of Western Tigrai archaeological sites and data.

During the last three decades extensive systematic archaeological investigations have been conducted beyond Aksum-Yeha: in Western and Eastern Tigrai of northern Ethiopia, the Akale-Guzay and Asmara areas of Eritrea and the Eritreo-Sudanese borderlands (e.g., Bard et al. 2000; Fattovich 1988; Fattovich and Bard 2001; Phillipson 2000; D’Andrea 2008; D’Andrea et al. 2008a; D’Andrea et al. 2011; D’Andrea and Welton in prep; Schmidt et al. 2008; O’Connor 1993). The results of this research have

33 spawned new interpretations of the role of endogenous and exogenous cultural elements in the origins of sociopolitical inequality of early first millennium BC northern Horn communities. Complex societies on opposite sides of the Red Sea (northern Horn and South Arabia) are viewed as independent but interacting contemporary polities (Schmidt et al. 2008).

Scientific and well-organized archaeological research in Eritrea did not begin until the end of the 20th century. The most intensive and multidisciplinary archaeological surveys and excavations were conducted in the Greater Asmara Area by a joint American and Eritrean team from 1998 to 2003 (Schmidt et al. 2008) and by a German archaeological project (Wenig 1997) which resulted in the documentation of new material culture remains and settlement patterns called the Ancient Ona Culture (Schmidt et al. 2008; Curtis 2009). Ancient Ona sites were first noted by Italian archaeologists Franchini and Tringali during the 1960s (Tringali 1965). The 1998-2003 archaeological surveys and excavations conducted at ancient Ona sites produced interesting results which in some ways modified the widely accepted interpretations and models of culture history in the northern Horn.

The Ancient Ona Culture is characterised by distinctive ceramic types (smaller cups and bowls, coarse brown wares and red-slipped burnished wares), ubiquitous bull head artefacts, and unique household features, subsistence and settlement patterns (Schmidt et al 2008; Curtis 2009). It is noted that Ancient Ona agro-pastoralist communities lived in circular and rectangular stone built houses with settlements ranging from scattered homesteads and hamlets to nucleated villages and towns (Schmidt et al. 2008). Excavations at the sites of Sembel, Sembel Kushet, Ona Gudo, Mai Hutsa, Mai Chiot, Kehawta and Adi Abeito present evidence that inhabitants of the Ancient Ona Culture herded domesticated cattle, goats and sheep and cultivated a wide range of crops such as barley, wheat, linseed, lentil and possibly the earliest t’ef in the northern Horn (D’Andrea et al. 2008b). The most interesting result from the palaeoethnobotanical data is the emergence of two different crop regimes within Ancient Ona cultures; one dominated by wheat and barley in well-watered and open low lands and the other dominated by t’ef, lentil and flax in the uplands with smaller fields and rockier soils (Schmidt et al. 2008; D’Andrea et al. 2008b; Curtis 2009). Faunal remains seemed to reflect a similar pattern, where subsistence based on sheep and goat is dominant in the uplands and cattle in the lowlands. Ancient Ona Culture communities were also engaged

34 in the exploitation of mining, especially gold, and participated in ritual and ceremonial activities within intentionally constructed communal places (Schmidt et al. 2008; Curtis 2009).

A critical review of the data from Ancient Ona sites also revealed minimal, almost non-existent, South Arabian influence. Unlike the Pre-Aksumite southern and central Eritrean and northern Ethiopian contexts, there are no South Arabian material culture remains (monumental architecture, inscriptions, motif altars, sculpture, etc.) in the Greater Asmara area (Schmidt et al. 2008). The ceramic chronology and radiocarbon dates obtained from excavated sites point to the occupation of Ona sites between the 9th and 4th centuries BC. It is argued that Ancient Ona Culture communities had close contact and strong cultural affinities with Nile Valley kingdoms, particularly with Gash Group communities near the Sudan-Eritrea border (Schmidt et al. 2008; Curtis 2008).

South Arabian material culture, monumental architecture and writing appears in some ceremonial and elite sites of the northern Horn such as Yeha, Addi Gelamo, Addi Akawih, Hawelti Malazo, and Kaskassa, mainly towards the middle of the first millennium BC, 300-400 years after complex societies developed in Ethiopia and the northern Horn (Schmidt et al. 2008; Brandt et al. 2008; Curtis 2004, 2009; D’Andrea and Welton in prep). Investigations of domestic contexts at Ona communities, the Pre-Aksumite polity at Kidane Mihret in Aksum, and Mezber in Eastern Tigrai suggest strong evidence for the local origin of sociopolitical complexity with no indications of inscriptions and South Arabian inspired monumental architecture (Curtis 2004, 2009; D’Andrea and Welton in prep; D’Andrea et al. 2008; Phillipson 2000; Schmidt et al. 2008). Archaeological evidence of continuous permanent settlement systems, craft specialization (Peterson 2017), ritual practices and means of organization and integration reflect a trend toward more complex social systems (D’Andrea and Welton in prep; Schmidt et al. 2008). The work of Harrower and D’Andrea (2014), D’Andrea and Welton (in prep) in Eastern Tigrai and Schmidt et al. (2008) in Eritrea are important in this regard. Based on systematic archaeological surveys, excavations and ethnoarchaeological studies in recent decades in northeastern Tigrai, ETAP researchers argue for: 1) an absence of clear hierarchical polities in Eastern Tigrai, i.e., the settlement pattern of the region reveals distributed political authority, which may be based on the principle of a heterarchical model (Harrower and D’Andrea 2014); 2) continuity in settlement, i.e., large settlement sites occupied in the Pre-Aksumite period significantly expand to become larger during the

35 Aksumite period (D’Andrea et al. 2008; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014); and 3) an absence of significant South Arabian influence in the Pre-Aksumite period (D’Andrea and Welton in prep.). Schmidt et al. (2008) reach similar conclusions from their archaeological investigation of the ancient Ona Culture in Eritrea. However, unlike what happens in Eastern Tigrai, the occupation of Ancient Ona Culture settlements in Eritrea terminated around 400/300 BC (Curtis 2009). As already mentioned above, according to these studies (Eastern Tigrai and Ancient Ona culture), complex societies of the northern Horn and South Arabia are generally viewed as interacting autonomous contemporary polities developing in a similar environmental setting but characterized by a combination of similar and unique/different material culture and settlement patterns.

The gradual incorporation of South Arabian material culture into the northern Horn’s elite community may be described as a phenomenon stimulated by a small number of South Arabian traders (D’Andrea and Welton in prep; Curtis 2004; DiBlasi 2005). Trade-diasporas were special arrangements developed to facilitate and guarantee the mutual security of two sides of exchanging communities. This special arrangement is described as follows:

Commercial specialists [trade-diasporas] would remove themselves physically from their home community and go to live as aliens in another town, usually not a fringe town, but a town important in the life of the host community. There the stranger merchants could settle down and learn the language, the customs, and the commercial ways of their hosts. They could then serve as cross-cultural brokers, helping and encouraging trade between the host society and people of their own origin who moved along the trade routes” (Curtin 1984:2).

As such, the type of contact and interaction between the northern Horn and South Arabian communities during the first millennium BC was not that of colonizer/colonized, dominant/dominated, stronger/weaker or unidirectional. Instead, it was likely based on mutual interest and bidirectional influence at the beginning and in the course of time local elites tended to adopt some South Arabian cultural traits for the purpose of prestige and legitimation to control long distance trade routes and the sources of exotic commercial items (D’Andrea and Welton in prep; Schmidt et al. 2008; Curtis 2004).

36 2.4. Existing Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite Chronologies

The northern Horn of Africa has experienced at least a century-long history of archaeological research. However, scholars are still debating several basic issues of culture history, including chronology. Despite significant variations in the detailed chronological frameworks, scholars investigating northern Ethiopia and Eritrea identified three major cultural periods: 1) the Pre-Aksumite period; 2) the Pre-Aksumite to Aksumite (PA-A) Transition (proposed here)/Proto-Aksumite period; and 3) the Aksumite period (Table 1). As will be discussed in detail throughout the following chapters, the identification of the PA-A transition period at Ona Adi is one of the major achievements of ETAP’s research in eastern Tigrai

The Pre-Aksumite period (900/800-400/300 BC) has been identified as an Ethio- Sabaean or DMT state based on the presence of various Southern Arabian material culture manifestations in some archaeological sites (see discussion above). This period is mainly characterised by: the existence of complex settlement patterns in terms of size and function (urban, ceremonial, rural villages, scattered hamlets, etc.); centers of craft specialization, including elaborate ceramic and lithic artefacts; monumental architecture; inscriptions and writing systems; and developed agriculture (D’Andrea and Welton in prep; Fattovich 1990, 2004; Schmidt et al. 2008). Several scholars have subdivided the Pre-Aksumite period into phases related to the formation/consolidation, advancement/development, and eventual collapse of the existing polity (D’Andrea and Welton in prep; Fattovich 2004; Table 1). However, they also disagree about the origin, development, nature of collapse and even about the use of the “Pre-Aksumite” nomenclature as a whole (see detailed discussion above; D’Andrea et al. 2008; Phillipson 2009, 2012). There are three major issues about which almost all agree: 1) the Pre-Aksumite period is a time of emergent social complexity in Ethiopia and the Horn; 2) Pre-Aksumite polities generally developed in well-watered, agriculturally fertile valley bottom environments; and 3) there are undisputable South Arabian material culture remains found in some important Pre-Aksumite centers of the Horn.

To date, the most secure and earliest Pre-Aksumite levels are documented at Mezber (D’Andrea and Welton in prep) (Table 1). The interpretation and systematic analysis of exposed stratigraphic units and their associated ceramic artefacts, coupled with AMS (Accelerator Mass Spectrometry) radiocarbon dates, has provided a reliable

37 chronological sequence for the site. In the Aksum-Yeha area, an intensively researched region, ironically very little is known about its earliest phase. The presence of the modern town of Aksum and important Aksumite periods (Early, Middle, Late) features overlaying the Pre-Aksumite deposits (earlier phases) has greatly restricted access to and investigation of the deepest occupational levels. In this region, the earliest phase of occupation was encountered only at two locations, a burial site at Bieta Giyorgis and in the church yard of Maryam Tsion (Phillipson 2012). However, the stratigraphy was very confused in both instances and our understanding of the sequences are incomplete (ibid).

Table 2.1. Summary of Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite Chronologies Catherine D’Andrea (D’Andrea and Welton in prep) Cultural Periods Years Main characteristics Initial Phase 1600-900 BCE An Initial Mezber Ceramic Phase characterized by a gray and brown/red ware ceramic tradition with abundant micaceous temper. Early Pre-Aksumite 850-750 BCE Associated with the construction of the lower architecture exposed at Mezber and elite group formation at the site.

Middle Pre-Aksumite 600-400 BCE Associated with the construction of the upper architectural level; fully developed agro-pastoral economy, which is already initiated during the previous phase of occupation Late Pre-Aksumite 400 BCE-1 CE Associated with reuse and renovation of the upper architectural level, and production of goods for exchange/trade. Stuart Munro-Hay (Munro-Hay 1989:20-21) Period 1 100BC-200AD Covers the reign of king Zoskales. Period of Greek inscriptions (Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Ptolemy of Alexandria’s Geography). Period 2 AD200-270AD Represents the pre-coinage levels. Extends from the reign of King Gadarat to King Endubis Period 3 AD270-330AD Beginning of Aksumite coinage struck in gold, silver and bronze and appearance of first decorated stelae.

Period 4 AD320-520AD Spans the period from Ezana’s Christian reign to king Kaleb.Brown ware ceramics bearing cross motifs become dominant.

Period 5 AD520- Ca. 630 AD King Kaleb invaded and administered places in South Arabia.

38 Period 6 Ca. after 630 AD The beginning of the post-Aksumite period and the emergence of gray ware ceramics replacing brown ones. Joseph Michels (Michels 2005: 55-217) Early Pre-Aksumite 700BC-400BC Appearance of the first south Arabian material culture (South Arabian traits in the Horn, locally made ceramic tradition, i.e., phase) absence of any trace of exotic pottery. Middle Pre-Aksumite 400BC-150BC Sign of South Arabian-like cultural break and renovation of the temple of Yeha . Late Pre-Aksumite 150BC-150AD Signs of abandonment of some Pre-Aksumite settlements especially the southern drainage system of the Aksum plateau.

Early Aksumite AD150-450 AD Marked by the development of several semi- independent medium level polities (chiefdoms) around Aksum which leads to the emergence of the Aksumite kingdom.

Middle Aksumite AD450-750AD The heyday of the Aksumite empire. Aksum become a full fledged, expansionist and strong monarch state.

Late Aksumite AD800-1000AD Highlights the gradual decline of the Aksumite kingdom and a huge contraction in the settlement around Aksum.

Post Aksumite After ca. 1000 AD, Aksumite kingdom decline and a shift in the political center to the south. This is the period of rock hewn churches. Rodolfo Fattovich (Bard et al 2014:304; Fattovich 2004:71) Early Pre-Aksumite 900/800-700/600 BC South Arabian immigrants accessed and started to control the eastern coastal region (Red Sea maritime activities) of the Horn. Beginning of societal inequalities and elite formation in the northern Horn. Middle Pre-Aksumite 700/600-400 BC The consolidation of South Arabian-like culture in the Horn such as language, religion, political organization systems, plough agriculture, etc. Important ceremonial and administrative centers such as Yeha emerged in this phase. Proto-Aksumite 360(?) BC - 120/40BC Political fragmentation; beginning of strong indigenous cultural development; emergence of different worldview and belief systems; and change of external allies toward the Eastern Sudan and Nile Valley areas. Aksumite 1 120/40 BC - This phase is best known by its unique burial system. 130/190AD The tradition of building rock cut tombs at Bieta Giyorgis and marking them with stelae, the earliest in the area, began.

39 Aksumite 2 130/190 AD – 360/400 This phase is a continuation of phase 1. However, AD ceramics of this phase are attributed by different decorations consisting of grooved vertical lines alternating with bands of incised lozenges filled in with impressed ovoid dots. Aksumite 3 AD 360/400 – 550/610 This is a transition period separating the early and AD middle Aksumite phases. Aksumite 4 AD 550/610- 800/850 Contains Fattovich’s (1994) pervious Middle and Late AD) Aksumite periods. Domestic settlements at Ona Nagast continued during this period David Phillipson (Phillipson 2000:474) Pre-Aksumite period BC 700- BC 400 Marked by the first discovery of “peasant” settlement at the D site which contrasts (both in function and status) with contemporary elite residences of the area and its dense concentration of south Arabian material culture remains Proto-Aksumite 3rd to 1st BC A poorly understood phase in the BIEA Aksum investigations, but Phillipson (2000) adopted the IUO/BU definition of the phase as a cultural break between the Pre-Aksumite and the later Aksumite period. Early Aksumite 1st- 3rd AD The construction of stelae park, Cathedral area and Gudit stelae park Classical Aksumite 4th -5th century AD The heyday of the Aksumite kingdom. Introduction of Christianity, construction of the mausoleum, Tomb of the False Door, Tomb of the Brick Arches, Dungur, Tekamariam, Stelae 1, 2 and 3 all occurred during this phase Late Aksumite 6th-7th century AD K site, and the tomb of Kaleb and Gebre-Meskal construction.

Around 400 BC, researchers witness a change in the main attributes of the material culture and settlement pattern in Western and Eastern Tigrai, and the Eritrean highlands, although this process is different in different places. The material culture change recorded in Western Tigrai has been characterised as radical, which ushered in the end of the Pre-Aksumite period and the beginning of what Fattovich and Bard (2001) labeled the Proto-Aksumite period. Archaeological signatures for the Proto-Aksumite period in the Aksum area include: political fragmentation; beginning of strong indigenous cultural development manifested in the ceramic, lithic and architectural technology; emergence of different worldview and belief systems; and change of external allies, with the Eastern Sudan and Nile Valley areas now becoming the preferred trading partners of the region at the expense of South Arabians. Based on these data, Fattovich and Bard (2001) concluded that the Proto-Aksumite Period is the formative phase of the Aksumite kingdom. The direct implication of this interpretation is that the Aksumite kingdom did not

40 develop directly from Pre-Aksumite precursors, but that the Aksumite and Pre-Aksumite cultures were distinct cultural phenomena (Fattovich and Bard 2001; Phillipson 2012). Despite these important discoveries in the Aksum region, our knowledge of the underlying factors in the emergence of the Proto-Aksumite period and its impact beyond the Aksum area are unknown because the Proto-Aksumite period has been defined only at the site of Bieta Giyorgis in Aksum and was not a regional phenomenon (Fattovich and Bard 2001). The extension of cultural developments during the Proto-Aksumite period beyond the Aksum area may be open to question. During this period, Ona Culture sites in Eritrea were completely abandoned (Curtis 2008). We need to patiently await future archaeological survey and excavations in Eritrea to further enrich our knowledge of the nature of the transition between the Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite periods in this region.

The Pre-Aksumite to Aksumite transition (PA-A transition) in Eastern Tigrai has only recently come under study (D’Andrea 2013, 2014, 2015; D’Andrea et al. 2008; Nixon-Darcus and D’Andrea 2017; Peterson 2016). The emerging picture based on completed surveys (D’Andrea et al. 2008; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014) and excavations (D’Andrea 2013, 2014, 2015; Nixon-Darcus and D’Andrea 2017; Peterson 2017) is that the PA-A transition in Eastern Tigrai differs from that observed in the Aksum region, based on evidence of continuity in site occupation during the transition and an apparent absence of Sabaean influence. ETAP excavations at Ona Adi represent the first systematic archaeological study of an Aksumite town site in Eastern Tigrai and the results of the investigations complement work completed at Mezber. The overall goal of this dissertation is to investigate the nature of the PA-A transition in Eastern Tigrai through the study of Ona Adi ceramic assemblages. The specific objectives of this research are to: 1) establish a fine-grained ceramic chronology for the PA-A transition and the Aksumite periods represented at Ona Adi; 2) understand the organisation of social groups via analysis of scale and organization of ceramic production, distribution and range of activities through the PA-A transition and the Aksumite period; and 3) investigate indigenous and external cultural elements present throughout the PA-A transition and Aksumite period as evident in ceramics.

The kingdom of Aksum was one of the most powerful ancient sub-Saharan states that emerged in the northern part of Ethiopia and dates between 150 BC to AD 700. Herodotus described Aksum as one of the four most powerful states in the world of late

41 antiquity, along with Egypt, Greece and Rome D’Andrea and Welton in prep). The Kingdom of Aksum was a highly expansionist state, with ill-defined boundaries. In its heyday during the sixth century AD, the kingdom of Aksum ruled parts of South Arabia (Munro-Hay 1991; Phillipson 2000; Fattovich et al. 2000; Finneran 2007). Both primary and secondary sources of information are available for reconstructions of ancient Aksum. The primary sources include inscriptions, coins, architectural, sculptural and other archaeological remains. Secondary sources consist mainly of travelers’ accounts or references from second-hand accounts made in the works of classical Greco-Roman authors. Aksum minted its own coin currencies in copper, silver and gold by AD 270 or earlier (Munro-Hay 1991; Phillipson 2000; Fattovich et al. 2000; Finneran 2007). The Aksumite state officially embraced Christianity at about AD 330, second only to Armenia (Munro-Hay 1991). The kingdom is known for its advanced mixed agricultural system, control of international trading exchange circuits along the Red Sea, its writing system, architecture and magnificent stelae. However, we still need additional sources of information to understand the full account of this kingdom. Very little is known about its origin, population groups, system of administration, exact territorial extent and the mechanisms behind its downfall and collapse around AD 700.

During Aksumite times, sites in Eastern Tigrai seemed to enjoy greater economic prosperity, political stability, and frequent contacts with various communities at local, regional, and global scales. Control of major resources such as trade routes and high agricultural productivity were the main sources of economic prosperity and led to the formation of elites in the region (D’Andrea et al. 2008). Recent surveys (Harrower and D’Andrea 2014) have found no evidence for centralized Aksumite polities or pronounced South Arabian influence in the Gulo Makeda region of Eastern Tigrai and it is hypothesized that a heterarchical political system was in place at that time. Although Sabaean peoples were clearly present in Eastern Tigrai during the Pre-Aksumite period (Wolf & Nowotnick 2010), their impact on the development of social complexity in the region may have been minimal or indirect (D’Andrea and Welton in prep). In general, although excavations and surveys in eastern Tigrai have shed new light on the nature of the culture history of ancient Ethiopia and the Horn, more work is needed. A clear understanding of the origin, development, and collapse of the Aksumite kingdom; its internal political structure; and the nature of relationships between ancient western and eastern Tigrai polities require further multidisciplinary archaeological research.

42 2.5. Chapter Summary

This chapter presented a description and review of the geography, people and culture history of northern Ethiopia and the Horn. The region possesses diverse ecozones and is strategically located in a position to control one of the busiest sea routes of the ancient world. Particular emphasis was given to a critical review of past archaeological and historical research in the region. The chapter demonstrated that past archaeology of Ethiopia and the Horn was characterized by uneven distribution of research in terms of themes, space and time. Western Tigrai and elite material culture have been the main research targets of investigations. As a result, many past scholars have tended to emphasize exogenous factors as a cause for the emergence of social complexity and culture development in Ethiopia and the Horn. The later prehistoric/early historic periods have been given minimal research attention. Building upon this background, the following chapter reviews the theoretical approaches utilized in this study to provide a context for the analysis and interpretation of the Ona Adi excavated ceramic collections.

43 Chapter 3.

Theory of Ceramic Studies and Social complexity

This chapter presents an overview of the theoretical assumptions used to formulate the classification, seriation and typology of ceramic collections. Systematically excavated pottery assemblages provide archaeologists with an ideal medium to study the past. Pottery normally preserves very well in a myriad of forms and because of its high plasticity it is believed to be a highly sensitive indicator of various cultural behaviors including existing socio-economic organizations and interactions (Rice 1987; Sinopoli 1991; Orton and Hughes 2013). Thus, detailed and systematic analysis of stylistic, functional and morphological attributes of Ona Adi excavated ceramics were used to understand the pottery-production system at the site. According to Rice (1984), the pottery-production system is a sub-system of the cultural system and is created by both the pottery (the product) and the people (the craftsmen who manufactured the pottery). She also subdivides the system into technical and socio-economic sub-systems (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1. Preliminary outline of components of the sub-systems of pottery making (after Prudence Rice 1984:240

The Technical Sub-System of Pottery Making Technology Resources (clay, water, temper, pigments, fuel) Tools (wheel, kiln, scraping and smoothing tools, brushes, tools for impressing or incising, etc.) Forming Techniques and associated tools Repertoire of vessel shapes made Decoration (including surface finish) Resources (paints, glazes) Elements, motifs, compositional arrangements Techniques (paint, impressing, incising, firing variants, etc.) Firing Fuels Equipment (kilns, saggars) Procedures (including drying and cooling) The Socio-Economic Sub-System of Pottery Making Skills and techniques Locating and processing resources Forming, decorating, and firing vessels Transmission of skills from generation to generation Organization of production (family, workshop)

44 Context/Activities Use/function of vessels (domestic, ritual, or other) Distribution Local demand and patterns of use Extra-local demand (distance, means of transport) Financial recompense to potters Existence of middlemen Status Roles of potters and consumers of pottery vis-à-vis each other in the society

3.1. Theoretical Issues in Archaeological Pottery Classifications and Typology

In archaeology, the history of pottery analysis is divided into different developmental phases, each phase being separated by factors such as the objectives of analysis, the methods and theories employed to conduct studies, and the specific types of pottery attributes subject to analysis (Orton and Hughes 2013, Rice 1987, Sinopoli 1991). Orton and Hughes (2013) summarized these pottery analysis developmental phases as: (1) the art-historian phase; (2) the typological phase; and (3) the contextual phase. During the first phase, pottery analysis was conducted by “antiquarians” who provided a general description of vessels, mainly for museum display. Only attractive, decorated, glazed and fine ware ceramics were the subject of analysis at this stage of investigations.

The typological phase started in the 1880s and is typified by the works of Pitt- Rivers (1906) and Flinders Petrie (1899). The concept of “Seriation”, the general idea that the distribution of ceramic types across a secure stratigraphic sequence followed a regular pattern, was developed during this phase and sherds served as “index fossils” along the dimensions of space and time to suggest crude relative dating (Dunnell 1986, Lyman et al.1997).

The main agenda of archaeology during this period was to strengthen collective identities and national unity for newly created independent countries (created after the late 19th century) via analysis of archaeological evidence (Trigger 1989). This led to the recognition of the importance and the need to exhaustively analyze ceramic data to achieve archaeology’s crafted goals of the time (Jones 1997, Shennan 1994, Trigger 1989).

During the typological ceramic analysis phase, style was almost always the single dominantly used ceramic attribute type for interpretation of the data. Artefact types

45 were regarded as independent and equally important. Established ceramics types were viewed as representing archaeological cultures, directly linked to past socio-ethnic and linguistic groups (Trigger 1989). The implication of this association is that each established ceramic type was equated with discrete past human populations and the discovery of new types (a change in the already existing ceramic typological assemblage) revealed an equivalent change or replacement in population either through migration or diffusion via influence from outside (Trigger 1989). As such, significant changes in material culture were interpreted as representing a very rapid, abrupt, and catastrophic change in past human society, wherein one state of being was completely replaced by an entirely new one. As will be explained below, archaeologists from the 1960s and later have realized the unequal significance of artefact types in signifying change and the presence of associated types at the same site indicating contemporaneity and contact.

The publication of Shepard’s (1956) monumental book, Ceramics for the Archaeologist, heralded the next stage of ceramic analysis, the contextual phase. During the contextual phase, archaeologists tried to use pottery analysis to understand the details of different aspects of past human lifeways. The purpose of pottery analysis was no longer restricted to merely defining relative chronologies. The timing of the commencement of this phase is also very important because it occurred during a major shift in the general method and theory of archaeological approaches to collecting, analyzing and interpreting the archaeological record- the development of New (processual) Archaeology. The tide of change in general approaches to archaeology obviously also affected the method and theory of ceramic analysis. During this stage, ceramic analysis was employed to answer a wide variety of research questions related to technological developments, site functions, regional settlement patterns, social and economic organization, trade and mobility, identity, and several other related issues. A myriad of research on ceramic production, ceramic distribution, ceramic classification, ceramic composition, ceramic styles, ceramic forms/function etc. were done through scientific and systematic means. However, within the contextual phase itself, there are many different methods and theories of ceramic analysis. The methods and theories used to analyze ceramic evidence and ways of explaining variability within the ceramic data were very different. The following paragraphs present a more specific view of the

46 theoretical developments associated with the analysis of ceramic artefacts during the contextual phase.

The term chaîne opératoire has become a pervasive concept in archaeology and ceramic studies. The concept is coined after Leroi-Gourhan (1964), who developed a means of characterising techniques of operational sequences which enabled the break down of each technological process into its constituent elements (links in the chain). This allowed analysis of interrelationships between the technology itself, the sociocultural, the political and the ideological aspects expressed through human courses of action and speech. The chaîne opératoire theory acts as a middle range theory (Binford 1977) because its success in archaeology is mainly connected to studies in the anthropology of techniques and ethnoarchaeology to draw analogies about the past (Arnold 1985, Lemonnier 1992, Roux 2015). In ceramic studies, this theory is becoming crucial as it “describes the main components of the ceramic chaînes opératoires and the principles for identifying them on the archaeological material through diagnostic attributes including both surface features and microfabrics” (Roux 2015:1). This involves the description of all actions and operational sequences from collecting and preparing raw materials (such as drying, ponding, sorting etc.) to finished products (such as shaping, decorating, firing etc.) which display potter’s natural and cultural environmental behaviors (Roux 2015).

The concepts of hybridity and entanglement have also become very common in more recent archaeological literature (example Feldman 2006, Knapp 2008, Stockhammer 2008, 2012). These terms are used in postcolonial contexts to deconstruct (decolonize) archaeological studies and interpretations. For instance, whereas Bhabha (2007) describes hybridity as “a strategy of the suppressed and subaltern against their suppressors in colonial context, archaeologists particularly perceive those objects as ‘hybrid’ which seem to resist classification within a predefined taxonomy” (cited in Stockhammer 2013:11). Therefore, the term hybridity is usually linked to an object or phenomena which cannot be easily defined (grouped) as a member of a specific archaeologically defined culture. Hybrid objects, practices or phenomena in archaeology could be described as an in-between object, objects resistant to classification, or artificial bridges between artificial categories etc. (Stockhammer 2013). Entanglement is an alternative but different term to hybridity with “the same epistemological meaning” (Stockhammer 2013:16).

47 The theory of entanglement is employed to understand the complicated relationship between material culture and identity (i.e. the pots-equal-people problem in studies of diffusion) (Cipolla 2017, Cruz 2011, Croucher and Wynne-Jones 2006). Stockhammer (2012) identifies two degrees of entanglement: material entanglement (entangled objects, i.e., the creation of something new/alteration of an appropriated/foreign object) and relational entanglement (the entanglement of past practices with an object through the process by which a foreign object is appropriated and integrated into local cultural system). At the relational entanglement stage, the materiality of an appropriated object remains unchanged. However, the function of the object and thus the human-object relationship (human perception of the object and related practices) have been altered. Researchers could only recognize an appropriated object through careful study of archaeological contexts. Therefore, the term entanglement refers to “the focus on the networks, on the connectivity of humans, objects and practices that enables us to achieve new insights into past social worlds” (Stockhammer 2013:23).

3.2. Seriation

3.2.1. Definition of Seriation

There are a wide range of methods available for dating in archaeology. Seriation is one of these methods and is a type of relative dating. In its simplest definition, seriation is the act of applying consistent principles or rules in the arranging of data into a series. It is a method by which artefacts from different contexts at different sites can be computed statistically to establish a relative chronology. Thus, seriation is a technique for ordering artefacts, artefact types, or artefact assemblages in a series, or linear sequence, that is expected to reflect chronology (see, e.g., Dunnell 1970; Cowgill 1972; Michells 197; Marquardt 1978; Rice 1987; Sharer and Ashmore 1987; Lyman et al. 1997; O'Brien and Lyman 1999; Ihm 2005; Liiv 2010).

Not all arrangements of archaeological data into a correct order/series can be called seriation. One can arrange different phenomena or data, such as those showing geographical or functional variation in culture, into an order following consistent ordering principles. However, this kind of order is not seriation. For example, in analyzing Proto- Aksumite period ceramic collections in northern Ethiopia, we may observe different

48 ceramic types in Western and Eastern Tigrai. We cannot arrange these contemporary ceramic types in order to show chronology because the variation is due to variation in geographic distance not in time. The same will hold true if we take in to consideration functional dimensions in the seriation process. In archaeology, seriation is primarily devoted to chronological and time-ordering of data, i.e., time is usually the only dimension utilized to seriate artefacts (Willey and Sabloff 1980; Dunnell 1970; Rowe 1961; Rouse 1967; O’Brien and Lyman 1999). This entails the selection of chronologically sensitive attributes when employing methods of seriation. If materials selected to be seriated are not time sensitive, the resulting order may reflect a dimension other than time, as mentioned above, such as geographic distance.

3.2.2. Underlying Assumptions of Seriation

As a relative dating method, seriation is based upon several fundamental assumptions. The most basic underlying assumption is that the groups or classes included in the seriation must be of comparable duration (Dunnel 1970; Rouse 1967). This assumption reveals that the units to be seriated represent components roughly equivalent in temporal duration. To be more operational, “units of seriation are products of particular actions, it being the times of these actions that we arrange in series” (Rouse 1967:166). The literature on seriation shows differences among scholars in their view of units of seriation. For instance, Rowe (1961) includes individual artefacts (e.g., pottery vessels, stone axes) and units of archaeological associations (e.g., tombs, single deposition units of refuse); Ford (1962) includes mixed surface and excavated collections; Petrie (1899) includes graves; and others include components (habitation by successive communities) as the units of seriation (Rouse 1967). The assumption that the units seriated (individual artefacts, archaeological associations, graves or components) are representative of the particular period of time for which they were deposited reconcile the different positions of these authors.

A second underlying assumption is that types originate in one place at one time and then continue for a certain period of time before their occurrences decline and eventually disappear. According to this assumption, a type must never make a reappearance and the pattern underlying seriation (the shape of the production curve for each type) is expected to be unimodal. This idea is best known in the archaeological literature as the "battleship-shaped" curve (Brainerd 1951; Robinson 1951; Ford 1962;

49 Neiman 1995; Lipo et al. 1997). When evaluated in terms of frequency, all types will exhibit a gradual and constant increase to a peak and will then decline in abundance through time. This shows that seriation is based on the fact that certain types may be found in more than one analytical unit. That is, if type A and B are located near each other in a given seriation, some members of type B will inevitably resemble type A more than other types found further along the time continuum, say type D. Seriation is the relationship between units evaluated by common types that are used as the basis for ordering the units chronologically. However, research conducted on testing this hypothetical underlying assumption has demonstrated some negative results. For example, Grange (1976) tested this assumption against historical data and the result indicted only very few types conformed to the classic unimodal distribution curve. Grange’s study concludes that it is logical to expect that some types may have witnessed a rapid rise in popularity followed by a long period of decline or a period of gradual increase may have been followed by a sharp and rapid decline in popularity.

The third assumption is related to the second assumption. It concerns the means by which the actual ordering of units, termed “criteria of selection” by Rouse (1967), is conducted. These include the recurrent qualities (common characteristics) connecting several units together during seriation. According to Dunnell (1970), there are two assumptions behind this concept: individual units to be seriated must always display the common attributes which define the groups to which they belong; and events, not objects, are the basis of seriation. An example will help to operationalize this idea. A potter’s ceramic production is usually influenced by the needs, norms and standards of societies of his/her time. The influence can be manifested in the shapes, functions, styles and types of decoration and raw material selection of pottery production. Ceramics manufactured by several contemporary potters under the overall guidelines set by the standards of the culture reveal a great deal of similarity. This is the similarity that Rouse (1967) has termed the recurrent qualities/attributes of artefacts. But at the same time, because of differences between potters’ technical skill level, variation in the ceramic artefacts produced is also inevitable. The criteria of seriation, the mechanism by means of which groups/units are to be ordered during seriation, are thus related to the recurrent qualities/attributes of artefacts. During seriation, archaeologists collect artefacts of similar character into groups to identify the recurrent attributes either through intuition (Ford 1962) or statistical methods (Robinson 1951; Spaulding 1953). The

50 resulting group of artefacts sharing common recurrent attributes is called a type. What is most important to seriation in this process is the event of group formation, that is, “the time at which the various constituents of the group come together as a physical aggregate” (Dunnell 1970:307). The time difference between the first and the last addition is the duration of the group and it is this event, not the objects involved, which forms the basis of seriation.

A further assumption is that seriation should be limited to the same cultural tradition, that is, seriation should indicate “phylogenetic relationships” and “decent with modification (Ford 1962; Rowe 1961; Rouse 1967; Dunnell 1970; O’Brien and Lyman 1999; Teltser 1995:52). In principle, seriation implies continuity and it should be employed to order material remains of culturally related human groups. Put another way, the cultural groups that produced artefacts should be related via a process of cultural transmission from one generation to the next. And so, a tradition is just a measurement device of this cultural change along generations. This assumption will assist archaeologists in identifying the existence of any potential different cultural tradition in seriating a given artefact collections.

3.2.3. Methods of Seriation

Several authors have produced important recent works on seriation. For instance, O’Brien and Lyman (1999) present a detailed discussion of seriation in their book Seriation, Stratigraphy, and Index Fossils. A review of the literature has revealed variations in the techniques and principles of ordering. But we can generally divide seriation techniques into two major categories based on the principle of ordering employed: evolutionary seriation, “seriation by rule of cultural or stylistic development” and similiary seriation, “seriation by resemblance” (Rowe 1961: 326). According to O’Brien and Lyman, both similiary and evolutionary seriation order artefacts based on a “like goes with like” principle: the more alike two artefacts are, the closer they are situated in the ordering process (O’Brien and Lyman 1999:65). The main difference between similiary and evolutionary seriation lies in the use of a universal rule of cultural development, such as assuming the development from simple to complex by evolutionary seriation to determine order and direction. To be more specific, during evolutionary seriation we can assume the direction of the ordering. In order to determine the direction of similiary seriation, we have to use other chronological methods such as

51 stratigraphy as points of reference. In other words, to determine which ends of the order are later or earlier in time, we need to have a reference point with a known date. The importance of evolutionary seriation directly depends on the validity of the universal rule assumed to guide the ordering. Many archaeologists reject the use of evolutionary seriation because they have reservations about its underlying assumption, the universality of the rules it uses for ordering (Rowe 1961).

O’Brien and Lyman (1999) further divide similiary seriation into frequency seriation, occurrence seriation and phyletic seriation. Phyletic seriation (Rouse 1967 refers to it as developmental seriation) uses individual artefacts or objects to create the ordering. In this method an artefact’s attributes or characteristics are the main criteria used to determine its placement in the series. In contrast, assemblages or collections are the units of seriation in both occurrence and frequency seriation and position in the seriation order is determined by the categories and quantities of artefacts contained within the assemblages/collections. Occurrence and frequency seriations differ in their way of using assemblages/collections to create the ordering. Choosing to use frequency or occurrence seriation varies from case to case based on specific circumstances. In occurrence seriation, the relative chronological order is made in terms of presence or absence of the units to be seriated. The order of the units in occurrence seriation is assumed to be continuous. Therefore, the basic theoretical principle of occurrence seriation rests on the assumption that “the distribution of any historical or temporal class is continuous through time” (Dunnell 1970: 308). Frequency seriation also supports the idea of continuous distribution. But in addition to continuous distribution, frequency seriation requires the frequency of occurrence or “popularity” of the types to be seriated. This is nicely expressed by Dunnell (1970: 309) as: “the distribution of any historical or temporal class exhibits the form of unimodal curve through time”. The logic behind this assumption is that types originate in one place at one time and then will exhibit a gradual and constant increase to a peak and will then decline in abundance through time before they disappear.

3.3. Ceramic Classification

Systematic classification is at the heart of any scientific study because it facilitates answering research questions through the structure and organization of data (Rice 1987, 2013; Dunnell 1986). It represents the first level of systematic archaeological

52 ceramic studies, and is conducted before analysis and interpretation, the next stages in the ceramic investigation processes respectively (Hill and Evans 1972, Rouse 1962). The logic behind classification (also called taxonomy and systematics) of archaeological ceramics, and any other artefacts for that matter, lies in two major basic assumptions: the necessity to understand the detailed past history of the region under study through micro-level and fine-grained evidence (pottery collection) across the dimensions of time and space, and the grouping of the smallest units into relatively similar larger groups of study (Wheat, Gifford and Wasley 1958). With regard to the first assumption, it is impossible to describe ‘all of the observed attribute combinations on an equal basis’ and thus in the second, the selection of obvious attribute combinations is implemented (Spaulding 1953: 306). The main problem related to the second assumption is a lack of exhaustive use of the data at hand to understand cultural implications. Classification generally involves intentional ordering of objects for the sake of creating similar groups, so that “high within-group homogeneity” is achieved, based on selected criteria of interest (Dunnell 1971: 115; Rice 1987: 274-76).

There is a major difference between classifying a newly discovered archaeological ceramic assemblage from an unexplored area or time period where no such previous analysis has been conducted and from an area where a well-defined typology and systematic study of ceramics has already been established (Rice 2013). In a systematic analysis of collected archaeological ceramics from a previously uninvestigated area, as is the case with Ona Adi, the main challenge is to devise an appropriate ceramic classification method that can produce a good result of general interest. Rice’s (2013) division of classification into categorization and identification explains the case in point: “categorization is the creation of groups of previously unclassified or ungrouped materials” (Rice 2013: 12). The result of categorization is the establishment and definition of new pottery types in a previously unexplored area/time period, based on selected variables or combinations of variables of interest.

In contrast, “identification is the process of assigning individual objects to previously established classes” (Rice 2013: 12). This involves the assignment of newly discovered pottery sherds into already known pottery types following the principle of “high within-group homogeneity”. The main activities during the identification process include evaluation of the various attributes of a sherd, comparison of these attributes

53 with already existing pottery types, and finally placing sherds into the type which fits best based on common qualities of individual artefacts.

Methods of classification are not well agreed upon in archaeology. Several definitions, principles, assumptions, and discussions on the utility of classification have been presented by archaeologists. In ceramic studies, the meaning and utility of types (the end products of ceramic classification) are also hotly debated. The intense and extended “typological debate” began in the 1950s and continued for about half a century. Arguments centered on problems associated with classification procedures and their end products. Hill and Evans (1972:231) eloquently articulated this problem based on the following points;

(1) Are types ‘real’ or are they ‘invented’ by the archeologist to suit his own purposes? (2) is there a continuum of variability among artefacts (and other things), or are there non-random attributes to be discovered? (3) is there a single, ‘best’ type division or classification of a given body of materials, or can there be many equally ‘good’ divisions? (4) can we formulate standardized types? (5) do types in some sense represent ‘basic data’? (6) do we need more or fewer types? (7) what should our types mean? Should they represent ideas, preferences, customs, or mental templates (i.e., something in the minds of the maker), function, chronology, something else, or all of these?

Hill and Evans (1972) concluded their article by providing answers to some of the questions listed above. According to them, the “empiricist’s” claim about the presence of single best typology does not hold true. This is mainly because the criteria (attributes) for classification are determined by each analyst based on his/her research questions. The initial types created will vary based on different research questions posed by various archaeologists and their biases. This is the general concept most widely accepted today (Adam Adams 1991, Rice 2013). Hill and Evans (1972) also believed in the presence of both “real” and “arbitrary” types. The presence of “real” types is justified by discovery of non-random attribute clusters from ceramic collections. Hill and Evans (1972: 261) quoted a personal communication from Albert Spaulding, who says, “Any number of archaeologists employing the same analytical techniques on the same variables in the same collection should come up with the same result” to support the presence of real types in any data set. However, case studies conducted on consistency of typology by Whittaker, Caulkins and Kamp (1998, and the references within) revealed that

54 Spaulding’s prediction is not achieved in any circumstances due to variations in analysts’ consistency, perception and individual biases.

Below is an overview of the major types of classification methods most commonly used in the analysis of archaeological ceramics and a justification of the methods used in this dissertation.

3.3.1. The Type-Variety Classification Method

The type-variety ceramic classification method originated in the American Southwest and is the most dominant artefact grouping technique used to date (Wheat et al. 1958, Phillips 1958, Smith et al. 1960, Sabloff and Smith 1969, Adams 2008, Rice 2013). Type-variety is applauded by several authors (e.g., Adams 2008, Aimers 2009, Rice 2013) as the most efficient and effective method of comparing ceramic assemblages across time and space. The main objective of type-variety classification method is to conduct a hierarchical organization of artefacts and concepts for the sake of developing a refined typology and smooth intercommunication between ceramic specialists (Phillips 1958, Hills and Evans 1972).

The concept of type-variety has been modified many times during its history. However, the standard type-variety is a taxonomic approach or a form of classification, hierarchically designed to solve research questions relating particularly to spatiotemporal aspects (Wheat et al 1958, Rice 2006). It is generally considered to be an improvement upon the 1920’s binominal nomenclature system mostly used by biologists (Hill and Evans 1972, Willey and Sabloff 1980). Attributes of surface treatment and local geographical names were respectively used as equivalent to the “genus” and “species” names in biological taxonomy during the classification of pottery using binominal nomenclature (e.g., Kidder 1927). For example, a red pottery vessel found in the Aksum area could be classified as “red Aksumite” by applying a binominal pottery classification system. The basic principle behind this kind of classification was considering every excavated potsherd as a discrete unit embodying inherent meaning standing on its own (e.g., “ideas, customs, mental templates; functional meaning; or historical-index meaning”, Hill and Evans 1972: 234). The immediate consequence of this activity, especially in the American Southwest, was a proliferation of rigid (immutable) pottery types emerging in circumscribed geographic regions and time periods:

55 During the past 20 years, the number of named pottery types in the Southwest has increased at such a rate that it is now virtually impossible for an archaeologist to know and be familiar with more than a small percentage of them. Some of these types are totally new, but a surprisingly large number represent refinements in terminology or segregations from more inclusive categories, resulting from further study and increasingly complex technological analysis (Wheat et al. 1958: 34)

The type-variety classification system appeared as a solution to this problem through the creation of easily comparable and flexible types and varieties (Wheat et al. 1958). Wheat et al. (1958) approached the problem by introducing the taxonomic concepts of variety, type, type cluster, and ceramic system into the equation. They used their new scheme to regroup many of the existing several similar types into subtypes or varieties under the umbrella of an established type, rather than types in their own right. A holistic approach was introduced to organize sherds of a pottery assemblage into types and varieties in terms of combinations of similar noticeable attributes/variables. The approach is holistic because ceramic analysts attempted to incorporate all observable attributes of the sherds in creating ceramic types and varieties. In the new system, defined types and varieties are considered to represent whole vessels.

The basic units of the type-variety classification method are types and varieties. Before the emergence of the type-variety system, very minor differences between sherds led to the creation of different types, i.e., both minor and major ceramic attribute variations were given equal weight and significance in the classification process. This resulted in the creation of many unnecessary pottery types. On the other hand, as indicated above, artefact variabilities (both minor and major ones) are important sources of information. Faced with this situation, Wheat, Gifford and Wasley (1958) suggested the allocation of different values to the criteria (attributes/variables) used to classify assemblages into hierarchical groups. Accordingly, they devised the flexible type-variety method of classification, where established types could be lumped or split into a series of types and varieties based on prevailing specific circumstances. Types are formed based on major ceramic attribute variations and subsumed under them can be many other minor variations, appearing as subtypes or varieties. For example, we can have an established type called a small closed bowl based on attributes of ceramic shape, and within it a few subtypes/varieties based on minor attributes, such as a small closed bowl with everted rim, small closed bowl with direct rim, small closed bowl with horizontal handle, etc. All the varieties under the type small closed bowl in this example are very

56 close to each other in terms of their overall shape attributes, and thus it is not necessary to give them a type status in their own right. Thus, the concept of variety is introduced into the type-variety system to fulfill “the need to designate entities which do not differ markedly from a described type and yet are very useful if given separate recognition” (Wheat et al. 1958: 35).

From the above description, the criteria used to define a specific type is very important in the designation of the potential varieties subsumed under it. A variety should only slightly differ from its parent type in terms of visual attributes, areal coverage, and time span. A significant departure of a given variety from its related type in terms of these criteria may result in splitting the variety from its parent type and establishing a new type. The union of slightly different established types and varieties formed “type clusters” and these in turn were organized into larger “ceramic systems” (Wheat et al 1958, Phillips 1958, Smith et al 1960, Hill and Evans 1972, Adams 2008, Aimers 2009, Rice 2013). Varieties are most suitable to tackle fine-grained typological issues at the local level, while type clusters are useful to solve research problems related to regional scope, and ceramic systems are designed to formulate “generalizations for interregional and areal studies” (Phillips 1958: 117).

After its inception in the American Southwest, the type-variety classification method has been introduced and further developed in many parts of the world including Southeastern America, Mesoamerica, and Africa. The British Institute of East Africa (BIEA) partially used the type-variety ceramic classification method to analyze Aksumite ceramics collections in Aksum in the 1970s (Wilding 1989). A modified form of the type- variety classification method was applied to the analysis of ceramics in the southeastern United States by Phillips (1958). The high number of ceramic types and lack of understanding between ceramic analysts of the American Southeast, as occurred in the American Southwest, forced Phillips (1958) to introduce the type-variety system in the region. Smith, Willy and Gifford (1960) introduced the type-variety classification system in the analysis of Maya pottery assemblages. They employed the method to develop analytical ceramic units, fine-grained chronological and area studies, as well as systematic interpretation of the culture especially in less known habitation areas outside of ceremonial centers. They tried to develop a standardized procedure for type-variety ceramic analysis and for the nomenclature of the resulting analytical units. Ceramic units were formed by sherds which had one or more attributes in common. For the

57 nomenclature, “place names have been used for primary type term and for the variety name, but a descriptive term is used for the second part of the type name” (Smith et al. 1960:330). For example, if we have a red ceramic type established in the Aksum area and its variety is found in the mausoleum (stelae field area), Aksumite Red (type): Mausoleum Variety, would be its typical nomenclature based on this method. After their work (Smith et al. 1960), type-variety classification was and still is the most dominant and repeatedly used method of ceramic analysis (e.g., Gifford 1960, Willey et al. 1967, Sabloff 1970, Sharer 1978, Adams 1971, 2008, Aimers 2009, Rice 2013), despite some criticism (e.g. Wright 1968, Hammond 1972, Smith 1979, Culbert and Rands 2007).

The type-variety method has been subject to criticism since its inception (e.g, Wright 1968, Dunnell 1971, Hammond 1972, Smith 1979, Culbert and Rands 2007) for various reasons. The most important and repeatedly mentioned complaints include: lack of clarity in understanding the type-variety method; the theoretical implications of the system (Dunnell 1971); the scope of the applicability of the method (Rice 2013); the method’s handling of variations within a collection (Hammond 1972); and a lack of temporal sensitivity (Rowe 1959).

All types of classification systems have both strengths and weaknesses. The methods employed should be those best suited to the research question at hand. The type of classification methods employed should be flexible enough to accommodate the various needs of the researchers and the specific research questions to be addressed. The application of different classification methods by different researchers may influence the comparability and communication aspect of research results. However, explicit and detailed presentation of how we are structuring our classification and designing types can remedy this problem (Aimers 2009).

3.3.2. Multiple Classification

The basic assumptions and methods of ceramic classification used by proponents of the type-variety and multiple classifications systems are similar. These two ceramic classification methods are complementary rather than contradictory. The main difference between them lies in the scope of classification. Unlike the unitary (singular) type-variety method described above, the multiple-classifications approach strongly advocates for the implementation of at least three separate classification

58 systems, based on surface finish, vessel shape (form) and paste attributes, to group any given ceramic corpus (Culbert and Rands 2007). The logic behind the need to devise multiple classifications is that “ceramic complexity is too great to be subsumed in a single typological system such as type-variety” (Culbert and Rands 2007: 181). According to adherents of the multiple-classifications system, lumping the independent ceramic variables of shape, surface finish, decoration and paste into a single typological system will result in the loss of important information. This includes variation that will ostensibly be hidden and revising the pattern of already lumped individual attributes (shape, surface finish, decoration, and paste) will be difficult later on with the addition of new data.

3.4. Ceramics and Social Complexity

Theories of social complexity have been a major topic of investigation and debate in archaeology and anthropology for many years on a global stage. Different causal factors have been attributed to the emergence of social inequality in ancient societies. These include: specialization and regional interaction (Ames and Maschner 1999); population pressure (Hayden 2001); resource stress and drought (Matson 1985); competition and warfare (Ames 2003); controlling resource bases (Park 1992); production and distribution of goods or ideology by individuals or specific groups (Spielman 2002); feasting (Hayden 2001); and subsistence intensification (Price and Brown 1985).

There are various reasons for archaeologists to believe in the underlying assumption that systematic analysis of ceramics can address issues of social complexity. As a component of an advanced cultural behavior, information on social complexity is often encoded within at least some attributes of the ceramics (see Table 3.1 above). For instance, within the hierarchical type-variety classification system, varieties reflect “individual and small-scale group variation and the type portrays a combination of pottery traits that were acceptable not only to the potter but to most others adhering to a given cultural pattern” (Gifford 1960: 343). Because ceramics are produced and utilized in a given social context, identified patterns of ceramic variation could be the result of: 1) differing levels of social complexity; 2) variations in ethnic identity; 3) temporal changes; 4) inter-workshop influences; 5) consumer choices in vessel type and decoration; or 6) vessel function (Sinopoli 1999: 52). Of all these factors

59 the concept of social complexity can be the most difficult to define. The following section presents an overview of the definition and theoretical assumptions regarding social complexity.

3.4.1. Definition of social complexity

The definition of social complexity can be difficult to pin down, because of ambiguities relating to the very broad and general nature of the word “complexity”. It has been defined in a number of ways by different authorities such as: having many interrelated parts; simultaneous hierarchy (e.g., Johnson 1982), differentiation (differentiation in structure and behavior, and/or degree of organization or constraint) (e.g., McGuire 1983), labor relationships and hereditary leadership (Hayden 1996) and heterarchy (e.g., Crumley 1995). McGuire (1983:4) defined complexity in terms of heterogeneity (“the distribution of populations between social groups”, including- age, sex, kinship, occupation, power and wealth) and inequality (“the differential access to materials and social resources with in a society”). Flannery (1972) also defines complexity in terms of two important variables, segregation (the level of differentiation and specialization within an individual system) and centralization (the scale in which component parts of a system are linked to each other and to the various level of social control). The term is generally associated with unequal access to goods, information, decision making and power. Hence, complex societies are the product of people occupying a myriad of social and economic positions who are differentially affected by societal transformations (see for example Crumley 1995; Dumont 1980; Fried 1967; Lenski 1966; McGuire 1983; Weber 1968).

The main factor in the concept of social complexity is status differentiation (Ames 2010). Differences in status and access to resources, which ultimately lead to social hierarchies, are associated with age, gender, birth order, class, race, and a number of other factors. However, defining social complexity in terms of levels of organization, i.e., social hierarchies has been highly criticized (Crumley 1995, 2007; Souvatzi 2007). It has been argued that using political organisation (technological sophistication and subsistence strategy) as the measure of complexity, without including other forms of social complexity, for instance kinship structure, provides an incomplete picture of the story.

60 3.4.2. Theoretical Background

No single body of social theory is sufficient to explain emergent social complexity and its development. Several theories, ranging from Darwinian evolution to humanistic approaches (e.g., Sahlins 1963; Fried 1967; Service 1971; McGuire 1983; Crumley 1995; Blanton et.al. 1996; Yoffee 2005; Ames 2010; Angelbeck and Grier 2012) have been used to deal with the concept. In the period between roughly 1960 and 1990, the theory of cultural evolution was the preferred model used by archaeologists to explain social complexity (e.g., Sahlins 1963; Fried 1967; Service 1971; Flannery 1972). Processually oriented variants of ecological and systems theory are related concepts that were used during this period. Cultural evolution theory is primarily based on data collected from modern ethnographic examples and argues for developmental stages of prehistoric ancient societies using direct analogy. The central theme of cultural evolution consists of: defining types of societies (e.g., bands, tribes, chiefdoms, sates); creating ideally conceived similarities within types by lumping real world variation (i.e., variation is suppressed in an attempt to fit real world cases into these idealized forms or types) and proposing unilinear stages of development (from primitive to more advanced) (e.g., Service 1971; Fried 1967).

Cultural evolutionary terminology (social hierarchies, social stratifications, centralized power and authority) was often employed by processual archaeologists of the 1960s and 1970s. Elman Service’s (1971) evolutionary typology of band, tribe, chiefdoms and states and Morton Fried’s (1967) evolutionary classification of egalitarian, ranked and stratified societies were the benchmarks for such trends in social complexity studies. Terms such as “big-man society” (Sahlins 1963) and other related concepts, such as “complex chiefdoms” (Earle 1991), “archaic states” (Feinman and Marcus 1998) and “middle-range” or “transegalitarian societies” (Hayden 1995; Angelbeck and Grier 2012) have also been employed to discuss the level of sociopolitical organization and the degree of social integration with in a given society.

The concepts of “complex chiefdoms”, “archaic states”, “middle-range” or “transegalitarian societies” are associated with intermediate ancient polities (Earle 1991; Feinman and Marcus 1998; Hayden 1995; Angelbeck and Grier 2012). These polities are neither simple egalitarian nor complex state level societies. Their level of complexity and political configuration is situated somewhere between autonomous acephalous

61 societies and hierarchical states. These intermediate societies attracted the attention of researchers during the late 1980s and 1990s (e.g., Arnold 1996; Earle 1991; Upham 1990). Earlier concepts of intermediate societies, formulated mainly from the works of Service and Sahlins, have been much criticized. The emphasis to describe heads of intermediate societies (such as chiefdoms) as a mere central leader who acts to mitigate ecological and economic problems through various mechanisms such as redistribution (Earle 1991) is changing. Chiefdoms as a uniform unilinear stage of evolution were almost abandoned due to the presence of noticeable variation within the category. As a result, chiefdoms are now viewed as unstable and cyclical where an attempt at political centralization often fails (Earle 1991; Feinman and Neitzel 1984; Arnold 1992). The nature of political processes and other internal societal factors has gained greater weight than external ecological and economic prime movers as being responsible for the creation and maintenance of regional polities.

Table 3.2. Types of societies according to cultural evolutionary models, after Ames 2010

Typology Description References

Bands Egalitarian; Service 1971; Fried 1967; Paynter Demographically small; 1989 Unstable membership based on kinship, friendship, hunter-gatherers; Tribes Egalitarian; Price and Brown 1985; Sahlins Demographically larger; 1963; Membership fixed, based on kinship; Hunter-gatherer and farmers Chiefdoms Consist of various lineages sharing some Earle 1991; Feinman and Neitzel distant ancestor; 1984; Arnold 1992 Ascribed leadership positions; Demographically larger; Centralized with a two-tier decision-making hierarchy; Leadership lacks coercive power; chiefs usually have social power States Ranked, with minimally a three-tier decision- Yoffee 2005; Feinman and Marcus making hierarchy; 1998 Leadership has both tactical and strategic power; Territorial sovereignty Transegalitarian Terms for societies neither egalitarian nor Angelbeck and Grier 2012; Blake ranked; and Clark 1999

62 Typology Description References

There may be unequal access to prestige, but numbers of high-prestige positions are fluid; Positions are achieved based on generosity, ability to attract followers, social power; Middle-range Broad term for societies falling between Hayden 1995; Ames 2010 societies bands and states; Complex societies Refers to societies: Arnold 1992; Johnson 1982 having advanced technology; occupational specialization; permanent ranking.

The lumping of social groupings using cultural evolutionary models can be helpful for comparative and descriptive purposes and to understand how societies and their entities maintain integration and cohesion. This is because classification of societies into manageable conceptual categories from bands to states systematizes diverse social forms. However, much of the dissatisfaction with evolutionary theory (Kohl 1981; Yoffee 1979) originates from the model’s inability to adequately explain real world societal variation, as well as the static nature of the classification. Despite its evolutionary claim, the model fails to explain the trajectories by which a given society has arrived at its present form (ibid). Dealing with belief systems, multifaceted power struggles, and internal socioeconomic differentiation of cultural systems became very limited in evolutionary models, and critiques of culture evolutionary theory reveal the existence of simultaneous hierarchies and horizontal variation besides "class" and "stratum" in complex societies (see Crumley 1995; McGuire 1983).

At the same time, such generalizing models and simplification of diversity limits the discourse on social complexity only within the realm of external factors such as environment, climate and population, which are seen as prime movers (Wynne-Jones and Kohring 2007). The diverse nature of relationships and webs of interaction of societal entities are reduced to a few arguments about economic manipulation, resulting in a dichotomous classification of societies either as simple or complex, egalitarian or hierarchical, equal or unequal (Chapman 2003). Variability and change, action and contradiction and historical process seem to be marginalized and complexity is treated as out of the reach of non-state and small-scale societies because of the absence of visible permanent hierarchical structure (Souvatzi 2007).

63 In particular, Sub-Saharan Africa is virtually missing from theoretical discussions of emergent social complexity and analysis and interpretation of social, economic and cultural transformations of pre-colonial states in Africa are still in their infancy (Eisenstadt et al. 1988; McIntosh 1999a; Connah 2001). It has been argued that several factors played a significant role in the absence of Africa in theoretical discussions of social complexity. Several researchers have focused on topics of early prehistory and the origin and spread of food production in Africa to the exclusion of the later prehistoric and early historic periods which encompass the origin of social complexity and the formation and decline of ancient states (see, for example, Phillipson 2005; Stahl 2005). The problematic nature of African ethnographic literature can also be mentioned as a potential factor. The earliest writings on social complexity in Africa were crafted from the strict view point of state/stateless classificatory scheme (Fortes and Evans-Pritchards 1940; see also Taylor 1975). This led to the absence of discussion of chiefdoms and other intermediate-level polities in the available literature in Africa. As the focus on social complexity gradually started to concentrate on the analysis and investigation of chiefdoms at the global stage after the 1980s (e.g., Arnold 1996; Hayden 1981; Earle 1991; Upham 1990), the African data became a less preferred discussion point because scholars already believed that they could not find chiefdom level societies in the continent. This situation led to the perception that there are difficulties in identifying coherent archaeological indicators of social complexity in Africa (for example, Flannery 1972; Johnson and Earle 2000) and a conclusion that early African complex societies often do not articulate with the anthropological parameters of socio-political classification (Fortes and Evans Pritchard 1940; McIntosh 1999).

Some scholars have argued (e.g., Robertshaw 1990, 2009; Trigger 1990; Holl 1990) that the study of social complexity in Africa was a direct victim of changing global politics. Trigger (1984) divided African archaeology into colonialist and nationalist period to explain this situation. During the colonial era there was a growing tendency among scholars to view ancient African societies as small-scale, dispersed, mobile and practicing occasional agriculture (McIntosh 1999a). According to these scholars acephalous pre-colonial African populations were viewed as simple, primitive, incapable of self-improvement and were civilized by colonialists who migrated into the continent from elsewhere in prehistoric times (Killick 2009; Lane 2005; Trevor-Roper 1963). During the colonial period availability of funding for archaeological investigations, types of

64 research questions, and interpretations were dominated by colonials in positions of authority (see the Great Zimbabwe example below) who supported a particular argument (Kense 1990; Holl 1990; Trigger 1990; Stahl 2005). Robertshaw (2009) argues that the main emphasis of research in Africa during the colonial period focused on prehistory and developing hypotheses to explain the origin of modern humans. He also explains how ethnographic studies were conducted in the continent at this time. He coins the term “core” to describe the western world where most archaeological fieldwork had been conducted, where issues of theory have been formulated and debated and where major archaeological training centers were situated. The term “periphery” applies to Africa and other third world regions used to test the validity of the theories developed in the former regions- to put theory into practice. Based on this scheme many scholars from the “core”- traveled to Africa and conducted ethnographic studies among extant hunter- gatherer populations following a social evolutionary model and considered them as “survivors from the Palaeolithic era” (Robertshaw 1990: 4). This phenomenon was best expressed by the phrase “Cambridge in the Bush” (Murray and White 1981, cited in Robertshaw 1990: 4) in the context of Australian archaeology.

Growing dissatisfaction with traditional models of social complexity has led to the search for new ways of conceptualizing what constitutes complexity and how it can be identified and studied and is reflected in the work of several scholars in the 1990s and later (e.g., Crumley 1995; Blanton et.al. 1996; Feinman 1995, 2000, McIntosh 1999; Rowlands 1988; Morris 1997; Yoffee 1993; D’Andrea et al 2008; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014). Researchers of this period moved away from categorical approaches to social organization and there has been a near universal rejection of a unilineal model of cultural evolution, such as that represented by the band, tribe, chiefdom and state continuum (Crumley 1995; Blanton et.al. 1996). The agenda of inequality, i.e., what inequalities existed and how they shaped social relations became the focus of social complexity research. Archaeologists started to decouple economy, kinship, politics, and ritual from the highly general typological categories (band, tribe, chiefdoms and state) of evolutionary model nomenclatures. The concepts of heterarchy (Crumley 1995) and dual process theory (Blanton et.al. 1996; Feinman 1995, 2000) were employed as frameworks to structure studies of inequality, leadership and social power.

This dissertation employs the theory and frameworks of heterarchy to understand the establishment of social complexity in the study area. Harrower and D’Andrea (2014)

65 and Curtis (2009) conducted systematic surveys in Gulo Makeda and the Asmara Plateau to investigate emergent social inequalities in these regions. Both site size and rank-size analysis results revealed little evidence of hierarchical political systems in the regions. These studies observed patterns of distributed authorities, lacking site-size hierarchies and site boundary walls/fortifications, and a nonnucleated settlement pattern which led the authors to suggest that non-hierarchical political systems characterized these regions (Harrower and D’Andrea 2014: 532; Curtis 2009:332). Harrower and D’Andrea (2014:532) specifically stated that “…Pre-Aksumite polities in Gulo Makeda may have lacked a highly structured local political hierarchy and might be better described as heterarchical or simply may not have been expressed in spatial clusters”.

The theory of heterarchy was introduced to archaeology by Crumley (1979, 1995). She defines heterarchies as systems having several component elements. Some component elements of heterarchy have the possibility of being unranked relative to other elements, whereas other component elements have the potential of being ranked but in terms of multiple rankings. In her own words heterarchy is “the relation of elements to one another when they are unranked or when they possess the potential for being ranked in a number of different ways” (Crumley 1979: 144). The study of heterarchy in organizational structure would reject the idea of permanent lineal (direct) ranking- hierarchy. It tries to find alternative bases of power and emphasizes a paradigm of weak centrality and temporary hierarchy. Thus, heterarchy represents counterpoised rather than ranked power (Crumley 1979: 144). To illustrate the concept of heterarchy, Crumley (1995) presents the case of three cities of equal size which gained their importance from different sources. In her illustration, cities A, B and C are important because they are military, manufacturing and university bases respectively. She also points out that a spiritual leader might be well known globally but lacking any significant influence in the local market community. Based on these observations, she argues that “the relative importance of these community and individual power bases changes in response to the context of the inquiry and to changing (and frequently conflicting) values that result in the continual reranking of priorities” (Crumley 1995:3).

The main objective of the heterarchical approach is to re-evaluate—not to discard— already existing paradigms and account for individual and organizational interaction on many different levels. Using heterarchy avoids the dichotomous thinking of the hierarchical approach. Therefore, while heterarchy is not hierarchy, heterarchy can

66 still be a useful concept to be employed in a system dominated by hierarchy. "Heterarchical relationships among elements at one spatial scale or in one dimension (members of the same club) may be hierarchical in another (the privilege of seniority in decision making). Heterarchy is both a structure and a condition" (Crumley 1995:4). As such, heterarchy helps archaeologists to investigate a greater diversity of social categories and the multiple ways these categories can interact. Instead of grappling with how to classify societies, researchers give more emphasis to identifying the cross-cutting influences of status and power and the changes in these influences (Crumley 2007). In this way, heterarchy tries to explain the human interaction experience in terms of both vertical (the case of multiple ranking) and horizontal (unranked relations) axes of society (Crumley 1995, 2007). Critics of heterarchy theory, however, have questioned the ability of the concept to deal with causality and change. For them, the great utility of heterarchy to understand how complex human inter-relations can be structured is compromised by its inefficiency to examine the internal dynamics of change within those relationships (Saitta and McGurie 1998). Furthermore, according to some scholars the criteria for recognizing heterarchy in the archaeological record are not well defined (e.g., Stein 1998).

The dual process model is another concept developed to explain social complexity as a result of dissatisfaction with traditional cultural evolutionary theory. Blanton et al (1996) present the concept of dual process theory to investigate social complexity in Mesoamerica. They try to explain the tension between cooperation and dominance in human behavior as an important factor leading to different forms of leadership and organization of inequality over time and space. Their main emphasis is to understand the nature of the specific ways in which inequality is manifested. Focusing on political economy, they proposed the theory to explain “interactions and contradictions of two main patterns of political action, one exclusionary and individual- centered and the other more group-oriented” (Blanton et al. 1996:1). In the exclusionary pattern (also called network mode), power is concentrated with individuals and their networks. The main objective of this kind of power strategy is to guarantee a monopoly control of a source of power. Blanton et al. (1996) constructed two major sources of power: objective sources of power, which represent wealth and means of production (e.g., wealth, political-economy, material, allocative resources, economic interests, material interests and so areas that are natural and objective), and symbolic sources of

67 power, which includes parts of cognitive codes (e.g., knowledge, ritual, magic, authoritative resources, authority, ideal interests and hence moral and symbolic areas). Individual-centered exchange relationships are usually created outside of one’s own local group through different cross-culturally important mechanisms, such as exchange of marriage partners, exotic goods and knowledge (Hayden 1996, 2001; Blanton et al. 1996). By contrast, in corporate mode (group-oriented pattern), power is shared across different groups (chiefs, rulers, bureaucracies and governing councils) and is a product of group membership. The purpose of a corporate power strategy is to avoid or at least minimize monopoly control of sources of power, i.e., exclusionary mechanisms. Here, leaders do not monopolize wealth directly but have special access to belief and ritual systems to impose their power and influence. As such, the prevailing corporation establishes a set of cognitive code limits to determine, distribute, control and structure power within the group. Blanton et al. (1996) argue that both network and corporate modes can be achieved at any level of complexity. Network and corporate modes expand our comparative concepts and help us search for general patterns of cultural variation and change.

Other anti-cultural evolutionary models to explain the concept of social complexity are related to the development of post-processual archaeology. As part of post-processual movements in archaeology, concepts of both gender and agency play an important role in our contemplation of power and inequality and social complexity research. Conkey and Williams (1991) argue that previous archaeological works totally neglected investigating the role of women in ancient societies and their contribution to evolutionary change and creating inequality. Feminist scholars tried to emphasize the relationship between gender and power in terms of craft production, settlement patterns, rock art and domestic violence (Mills 1995). Agency theory in archaeology developed out of the critiques of ecosystemic approaches which were intensively used by processual archaeologists. Agency theorists believe that the conscious, creative and active role of individuals in shaping social life and change was ignored by the followers of the New Archaeology paradigm of the 1960s and 1970s (Hodder 1982; Paynter 1989). Agency approaches generally give special attention to the question of whether people had the ability to act outside of their social structure. The theory is based on the assumption that reveals the existence of power differences and conflicts of interest among individuals in all societies (Paynter 1989; Miller et.al. 1989).

68 In the first decade of the 21st century, archaeological and anthropological theory and research started to give priority to identity and ritual and these themes have become more predominant in the literature (e.g., McIntoch 1999; Wynne-Jones 2007). More recently, Angelbeck and Grier (2012) have proposed the theory of anarchism for analyzing decentralized societies, which are societies exhibiting chiefly authority and stratification but in the absence of centralized political organizations. They state that “in an anarchist view, hierarchies are resisted through mutual aid, consensual decision making, and the maintenance of decentralized networks” (Angelbeck and Grier 2012: 550). Furthermore, archaeologists have used the concept of political landscapes (Smith 2003) and ideology (Kohring et al. 2007) to speak of the interrelationship between ritual, belief, elite groups and inequalities. “However, despite these conceptual advances, many archaeologists continued to look at social power and inequality in categorical ways” (McGuire 2011:66), i.e., in cultural evolutionary terms (Marcus 2008).

In conclusion, there have been many efforts to understand the transition from relatively egalitarian societies to more hierarchical organizations and to identify and discuss different experiences of social complexity. However, our knowledge about when and why social complexity appeared and how it operated in the past still eludes scholarly agreement (Ames 2010). While past theoretical frameworks have been more or less effective for understanding the concept of egalitarianism found among small-scale foragers and the political devices involved in pyramidal chiefdoms and states, we still require some insight about societies displaying social complexity but lacking centralized authorities (Angelbeck and Grier 2012).

3.5. Chapter summary

This chapter demonstrated the major theoretical assumptions and other related issues relating to this dissertation and sets the context through which Ona Adi excavated ceramic collections were analysed and interpreted. As chronology building was one main objective of this study, an overview of the definitions, underlying assumptions and types of seriation methodologies are discussed. Archaeological ceramics provide an infinite number of attributes which could be used to reconstruct ancient human behaviours. However, due to time and other resource limitations, it is practically impossible to exhaustively treat every single identifiable ceramic attribute with equal intensity during the analysis process. Researchers therefore select and systematically classify pottery

69 attributes which they think are best suited to answer their respective research questions. Furthermore, various quantitative methods have been used to enhance the process of the investigation. An in-depth discussion of archaeological issues and assumptions related to classifications, statistical methods and ceramics and social complexity are presented in this chapter.

The other important concept raised in this chapter and closely related to the objectives of this dissertation is social complexity. Several theories, ranging from Darwinian evolution to humanistic approaches are discussed to deal with the concept. In this dissertation the concept of social complexity is defined in terms of the theory of heterarchy. The heterarchy paradigm presents new perspectives on many important aspects of sociopolitical interpretations. Hierarchy was often viewed as the only alternative to egalitarian social relations. It argued that unless every individual has equal access to resources a hierarchy must exist. As a challenge to this proposition, Crumley (1995) stresses the examination of relationships between individuals or institutions from a number of perspectives and claims that the resulting social order will be the function of the prevailing conditions. According to her, human relations are very complex. This complexity is more apparent when we try to understand social organization from the corpus of ancient societies material remains.

70 Chapter 4.

Methodology

Excavations at Ona Adi produced a large collection of potsherds, comprising 996.79 kg of pottery in total. Most of this collection is highly fragmentary with few complete and reconstructable vessels. The Ona Adi ceramic analysis represents the first of its kind completed for the PA-A transition and the Aksumite period in Eastern Tigrai. Great emphasis was therefore placed on basic issues such as the construction of a ceramic typology and seriation, involving extensive documentation of the pottery through photography and drawings. The systematic ceramic analysis results revealed pottery types and fabrics that can be compared with pottery from the Aksum-Yeha (Western Tigrai) and Matara (southern Eritrea). However, this comparison was challenging because very few or no systematic pottery studies have been published yet from these regions.

The analysis and classification methods used for studying the Ona Adi ceramic materials are discussed below. All collected diagnostic sherds from the site were included in the study. Generally, three interrelated steps were carried out during the investigation. The first step involves description of diagnostic potsherds based on fabric (texture, inclusion and color), surface treatment (color and finishing), morphological attributes (shape, profile and size) and decoration. Secondly, a typological classification of the Ona Adi ceramic assemblage was conducted, and chi-square tests were used to examine the co-occurrence of established types and to identify possible patterns and relationships. The chi-square test facilitates the identification and differentiation of pottery types at Ona Adi. Pottery types identified at this stage were then used as a basis for the comparative study of Ona Adi ceramics with neighboring regions. Finally, correspondence analysis (CA) of Ona Adi ceramic assemblages was conducted to look for temporal and spatial patterning in the data. CA is an up-to-date method of seriation which can be easily applied in wide range of situations, including frequency, presence/absence and continuous (i.e. measurement) data (Spaulding 1953; Shennan 1997; Vanpool and Leonard 2011; Baxter 2003; de Leeuw 2011). In such a way, CA is used to analyze the relationships between and among not only the rows and columns of categorical variables, but also within these variables (row to row or column to column) in

71 a wide variety of datasets. Stratigraphic phasing of Ona Adi deposits complemented these steps.

In the process of analysis of the excavated pottery sherd collections from Ona Adi, three important questions were always asked: 1) how were Ona Adi ceramics made? 2) how were Ona Adi ceramics used?; and 3) what kind of decorations did Ona Adi ceramics bear and what did these decorations mean? Properly answering these questions required systematic and detailed investigation of the collected sherds in order to gather data that could be used to achieve the research objectives formulated by this thesis project. To put these issues in perspective, my overall PhD research goal is to investigate the nature of the PA-A transition and Aksumite period in Eastern Tigrai through the study of Ona Adi ceramic assemblages.

Most of Ona Adi excavated ceramics are fragmentary in nature. Only a few complete and nearly complete vessels were recorded from the site. Since the most appropriate unit of ceramic analysis is the vessel, the nature of recorded ceramic sherds from Ona Adi placed some limitations on their interpretive potential. This problem mostly affects the formal and stylistic analysis of Ona Adi collections because both are crucial aspects of a pottery that are difficult to fully understand from a broken piece. Fortunately, the few available published ceramics works in Ethiopia (Anfray 1966, Wilding 1989, Phillips 2000) have demonstrated that stylistic variation is limited with most decorations found in the upper parts of vessels. A similar pattern was observed in Ona Adi ceramics where most decorations are found on rims, lips, and shoulder-neck areas. Also, we have collected a few mendable pots which also demonstrate this same pattern. Vessel shape can be reconstructed through a systematic illustration of rim and base sherds (Kooiman 2012; Skibo 2013). However, great care is required because the same rim sherd drawn at different angles and orientations can suggest a different vessel form (Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1. Different vessel forms from the same rim sherd illustrated at different angle (after Collett 2012)

4.1. Ona Adi Ceramic Processing and Recoding Methods

4.1.1. Retrieval Procedures

All analyzed ceramics incorporated into this dissertation were collected through systematic excavations. Three seasons of ETAP excavations (in 2013-5) were completed at Ona Adi. Both vertical and horizontal samples were employed to understand the nature and extent of past activities in time and space. By the end of the 2015 field season, a total of 7 excavation units (squares “A”, “B”, “C”, “D1”, “D2”, “E1” and “E2”) had been excavated in selected areas of the site, the locations of which were dictated by the depth of deposits, surface artefact concentrations and presence of exposed monumental and domestic architecture and other surface features (Figure 4.2, see further discussion in Chapter 5). This allowed us to sample a range of activities through time and across space. Some excavated squares were relatively large (5x5m or larger) and we did this intentionally to maximize collected artefact assemblages from periods throughout the occupational sequence.

Figure 4.2. Topographic map of Ona Adi. (Map by Shannon Wood)

74 Excavations were conducted with a combination of picks, hoes, and trowels. To ensure a systematic collection of ceramics and other artefacts, all deposits were dry sieved using 5 mm mesh. The use of sieves to screen excavated soil deposits was crucially important for the creation of quantifiable samples. Great attention was paid to integrating sherds collected from sieves and those recovered by hand directly from each excavation unit. Precise stratigraphic locations of excavated layers, radiocarbon samples, and objects, including ceramics, were captured in terms of an x-y-z coordinate data system using Leica Flexline TS06 (from SFU in 2013) and Pentax (from Adigrat University in 2014 and 2015) Total Stations. This process of recording the spatial relationships of finds was constantly supported by square supervisors’ drawings which involved plan and profile drawings of excavated layers, features, architecture, installations etc.

ETAP excavations at Ona Adi were mainly focused on chronology building and aimed to sample a cross section of the site. Excavation was by stratigraphic levels, i.e., arbitrary levels (often 5-10 cm increments) used within a given natural layer until a new stratigraphic unit was identified. Archaeological data recovered via excavation procedures are organized into loci and pails. A locus “represents a discrete depositional unit or feature in a square, such as a wall, a surface, an oven, an earth layer, a burial, etc.” (ETAP Manual, p.9). It has three dimensions, which are recorded in terms of length, width, and thickness. At Ona Adi there are three main types of loci that are frequently encountered: soil, architectural and installation loci (see Chapter 5). Soil loci are the most significant units in the ETAP method of excavation because they contain almost all collected ceramics analyzed for this dissertation. Soil loci also incorporate other datable artefacts such as coins, charcoal and organic remains.

Pails are subdivisions within a locus and have both horizontal and vertical significance in the excavation process. Horizontally, pails may represent various activity areas within a given locus, and vertically pails may reveal minor temporal variation between upper material removed from a given locus vs. lower material. Organizing recovery of the excavated Ona Adi ceramics at both the locus and pail levels is crucially important for various reasons. First, they help to identify any potential sources of contamination in groups of sherds. That is, “if an entire locus is collected as one unit, and contamination has occurred in one particular area of that locus, it would be impossible to separate potentially contaminated material from this locus from

75 uncontaminated material” (ETAP Manual, p.13). Pails therefore enable excavators and analysts to limit the potential danger of contamination only to a restricted part of a given locus, while the remainder of the material may still be useful for analysis. Secondly, sherds collected in pails often have functional significance. Pottery collections in separate pails may help us to infer aspects of human behavior, for instance activity areas within a room. Thus, the separation of the locus into pails allows us to create discrete spatial subgroups of artefacts that can be analyzed separately for evidence of spatial patterning.

During excavations, two buckets, one for the square itself and another for the sieve, were specifically assigned to recovered pottery artefacts. An identification tag was attached to the pottery bucket immediately before excavating a new pail to avoid missing information and prevent any danger of confusion. The identification tag contains detailed provenance information for all collected potsherds (and other artefacts) from a unit under excavation, i.e. the locus and pail combination. It includes a unique serial number, square supervisor name/initials, field, square, locus, pail, date and the type of artefactual material it represents. Figure 4.3 shows an example of a standard ETAP identification tag used at Ona Adi. The tag is made of Tyvek, consisting of high-density polyethylene fibers which are conservation-grade, highly durable, and cannot tear or be penetrated by water. The tags are labelled with indelible pen (Sharpie) which make a permanent mark that does not smear when exposed to water.

Figure 4.3. ETAP Identification Tag used at Ona Adi Excavations

4.1.2. Cleaning and Drying

At the end of each excavation day, collected potsherds were transported to the town of Adigrat, in large securely sealed plastic bags to be ready for the next stages of pottery processing. Ceramic materials were cleaned and dried by trained workers from the local community by gently washing the sherds using scrubbing brushes and tooth- brushes (Figure 4.4). Assistants washing pottery were instructed not to wash delicate items or sheds that were painted or had any other form of decoration that could be obscured by washing.

Figure 4.4. Excavated ceramics washing and drying (photo by C. D’Andrea)

4.1.3. Sorting and Registration Procedures

Dried potsherds were sorted and stored in plastic bags. Sorting involved division of pottery pail collections into body and diagnostic sherds. Separated non-diagnostics, generally consisting of plain body sherds, were placed into large plastic bags which contained a copy of all provenance information. Non-diagnostic sherds were minimally analyzed to understand fabric and firing conditions. Mendable body sherd pieces were placed into separate bags for further analysis. Body sherds constituted the majority of Ona Adi ceramic collections in terms of quantity. Diagnostic sherds include rims, bases, handles, and any decorated sherd. With few exceptions (such as very small pieces, generally smaller than 3cm x 3cm), all diagnostic sherds were examined and form the basis of this dissertation. All diagnostic sherds were registered with a unique registration number, including the site, season, field, square, locus, serial number, and sherd number (Figure 4.5 B). For example, one of the sherds in Figure 4.5 B is registered as OA14.D1.10.1103.26. This represents the site of Ona Adi, 2014 season, Field D, Square 1, Locus 10, Serial Number 1103, and Sherd Number 26, respectively. At the end of registration, diagnostic sherds and relevant identification tags were placed into a plastic bag and stored in boxes together with associated body sherd groups for further analysis.

Another important ceramic analysis activity carried out at the sorting and registration stage was metric analysis. The weight of all excavated ceramics was recorded in kilograms up to two decimal places using an electronic scale. All body and diagnostic sherd groups were weighed. Unlike body sherds, all analyzed diagnostic sherds were also counted.

Figure 4.5. Ceramic sorting (A) and Registration (B)

Due to the abundant nature of the collected ceramics and Ethiopian antiquity laws, which prohibits the exportation of artefacts, all ceramic analyses took place in Adigrat. Only small samples for destructive analysis, such as charcoal, bone or body sherds for petrological/thin-section analysis are allowed to be exported. All ceramics were therefore analyzed in the Adigrat field lab and were stored in secure ETAP storage magazines to ensure that antiquities from Eastern Tigrai remain in the region. At the end of every excavation season, sorted and registered ceramics in cardboard boxes were stored in these rooms (Figure 4.6).

Figure 4.6. One of ETAP’s storerooms. Dr. D’Andrea explaining ETAP’s antiquity storage systems to community representative visiting guests from Ona Adi.

4.2. Classification Methods

Ona Adi ceramic collections were organized following the general guidelines of the type-variety classification method (see Section 3.3.1 above). However, following Sabloff and Smith (1969), and more recently Culbert and Rands (2007), elements of the multiple classification system were also included in the Ona Adi ceramic analysis to determine questions regarding both spatio-temporal and other aspects of intra-site ceramic variation. The identification of systematically selected modal features (Rouse 1960) and surface treatments, styles of decoration, and attributes relating to shape and techniques of production were recording using a taxonomic classification procedure (Wheat et al. 1958, Gifford 1960, Smith et al. 1960). This helped to maximize the information extracted from the ceramic collections. Organizing and structuring the Ona Adi ceramic analysis in this manner helped to answer not only chronological questions (time-space dimensions) but other archaeological questions of scale, as considered in the second and third research objectives of this thesis.

80 In the Ona Adi ceramic assemblage, paste and elements of surface finish were the attributes employed to identify fabric groups. The term “ware” is also used in the fabric analysis of the Ona Adi ceramic collections, but only as a shorthand term to facilitate comparison with ware types identified in other sites of Tigrai and Eritrea. Wares are debated groups among ceramic analysts. Some ceramic analysts, such as Rice (1987, 2013), argue for the use of only paste attributes to identify ware groups, while the majority of others (e.g. Pollard 1972) suggest that the incorporation of both paste and surface finish is necessary to identify ware types. Ona Adi ceramic types are identified mostly by using paste, form/shape, surface finish and decoration attributes. Ona Adi ceramic varieties are subsets of established ceramic types and are identified through minor variations in attributes such as form, finishing techniques, and styles of decoration.

Table 4.1. Summary of methods, selected ceramic attributes for analysis and significance of collected data. Ceramic Method of Data Collection Attributes Technology Fabric Macroscopic/naked-eye identification of fabric types (ceramic composition elements, matrix, color, firing) (Chapters 6 and 7) Manufacturing Visual identification of signs/marks such as depression, scars, paddle impressions technique etc. on sherds surface which suggest the use of slab, coiling and paddle pottery manufacturing techniques (Chapter 6) Drying Visual identification from surface treatment (e.g. leather-hard burnish) (Chapter 6) Firing Visual identification of degree of oxidization on surfaces and throughout the section/profile (Chapter 6) Quantification Weight Metric recording of weight with a scale (Chapter 7) Number Counting of diagnostic sherds (Chapter 7) Morphology Form Recognizing orientation of rim sherds and matching to recorded variations (Chapters 6 and 7) Rim and lip Recognizing orientation of rim and lip shape of sherds and matching to recorded variations (Chapter 6) Rim Diameter Orienting rim sherds on rim diameter chart (Chapter 6) Body thickness Measuring of the body thickness (cross-section) of sherds Surface Surface Visual identification of surface treatments such as combing, smoothing, polishing, treatment scraping (Chapter 6) Decoration Visual identification of decorative effects such as incisions, punctate markings, grooving (chapter 6)

81 4.3. Ceramic Morphology and Function

After ceramic styles (decoration), vessel morphology is the most widely and consistently analysed attribute type in ceramic studies. It represents a “very basic unit of cultural behaviour” (Arnold 1985:5). Along with decorations, changes in the forms of ceramic vessels have been considered in the study of chronology and stratigraphic comparisons since Petrie established his sequence dating of Egyptian pottery in 1899 (Rice 1987; Van Der Leeuw and Pritchard 1984). In more recent studies, vessel morphology is often discussed with other related variables, such as raw materials, function (Table 4.2) and manufacturing techniques to provide integrated data on site size, site function, site occupation continuity, demographic change and food preparation (Arnold 1985; Nelson 1985).

Table 4.2. Formal Attributes of Different Functional Categories and Rim Diameter Size Ranges (after Henrickson and MacDonald 1983). Function Formal attributes Physical features Size range (rim diameter) Cooking Short, slightly closed Easy access to 12cm-46cm (from small mouth, rounded base, contents, but closed closed bowls to open smooth/continuous mouths protect against basins) profile easy spillage; rounded base facilitates even heat distribution. Serving Open mouth, flattened, Easy access to 8cm-24cm (from cups smoothed base/no contents with open to small open/large sharp edge mouth; flat bases closed bowls. provide stability. Storage Variable; thin, tall, Sealed mouth protects 14cm-45cm (from small mouth that can be contents; everted rims closed jars/bottles to sealed (narrow), or for pouring; large mouth large open jars) relatively large open for dipping and filling. mouth, everted rim, etc. Transport Closed mouth, Convenient to carry and 10cm-18cm lightweight, usually with protect contents. (small/medium and handles. even large closed mouth jars and bottles.

A noticeable change in the vessel forms of a given ceramic collection could also indicate changes in the socio-economic activities at the site. For instance, possible explanations for a change in vessel form could be due to: replacement, modification, a change in raw material and function, and/or the introduction of a new mode of vessel production. A change in consumers or market demand and the effects of short and long-

82 distance trade interactions could also bring about an alteration in vessel morphologies. Therefore, the frequency distribution of vessel forms over time and space could be a good indictor of changes in behaviour and activities (Arnold 1985).

Identification and classification of vessel morphology are usually “…based on the consistent clustering of overall vessel shapes or on clustering of component shape attributes, such as forms of vessel lip, neck, shoulder, or base” (Sharer and Ashmore 1987:275). Results of ethnoarchaeological studies are also often used to identify, classify and understand the form and function of archaeological potsherds (Arthur 2003). Arguing for shape-function analogy has been a common practice in archaeology to date. For example, necked vessels have been associated with storage, smaller jars with carrying liquids, open bowls and plates with serving, etc. (see Table 4.2). As mentioned above, although function is an important determinant of vessel form, “technological limitations, properties of the clay being modeled, and cultural value orientations all influence vessel shape” (Sharer and Ashmore 1987:276).

One of the most important aspects of the association between form and function is its influence on the interpretation at various spatial levels of a given site, including intra-room, intra-structure, intra-site and even inter-site spatial levels. In other words, the relation of form to functions helps to identify the range of activity areas in intra-site ceramic studies (Levy and Holl 1987).

4.4. Metric Analysis

Metric data were also recorded to determine general patterns and variation within and between individual vessels. Wall thickness and rim diameter of systematically selected diagnostic sherds were taken. Measurements of wall thickness were recorded in centimeters to two decimal places. Wall thickness was determined by measuring from the interior to the exterior surface below the rim margin of the sherd. These measurements were taken to aid in the identification of vessel size (Table 4.2) and to get indirect clues about the pottery manufacturing techniques employed. Wall thickness could help to identify fine and coarse ware vessels (see Chapter 6. Optimal wall thickness for both vessel function and size, with walls that can be supported during pottery crafting without breakage requires the potter’s special attention and skills (Rye 1981). Generally, thick-walled (often coarse ware) vessels can better resist processing

83 activities (such as stirring) and keep food warm longer (though they take longer to heat up). On the other hand, thin-walled (often fine ware) vessels can conduct heat better (food is cooked faster) and have increased thermal shock resistance (Rice 1987).

4.5. Manufacturing techniques

There are three major pottery manufacturing techniques: hand forming, mold forming and wheel forming. These pottery manufacturing techniques can be used independently or combined in certain instances. Hand-formed pottery manufacturing techniques are the oldest of the three types and were often employed by part-time specialists in the small-scale production of vessels for household use or sometimes for a limited market outside the family (Sharer and Ashmore 1987; Van Der Leeuw and Pritchard 1984; Rice 1987). Mold and wheel forming methods are generally associated with large-scale production of pottery by a full-time specialist. One of the tasks of a ceramist during the pottery analysis process is the identification of pottery forming techniques. Wheel forming manufacturing techniques often leave surface markings comparatively unremoved, especially on the internal surfaces of closed vessels (Rye 1977). This makes the study of manufacturing techniques relatively straightforward. On the other hand, sherds from hand-formed vessels are usually much more difficult to interpret because “such techniques commonly produce an initial vessel form which is irregular in wall thickness and shape, requiring extensive smoothing and surface finishing” (Rye 1977: 205). This can remove evidence of earlier forming operations (see also section 4.7 below). The macroscopic study of Ona Adi pottery revealed the identification of some details of the forming techniques used. For example, some sherds show depression on the internal surface and associated paddle impressions on the external surface, indicating that a paddle and anvil technique was employed. This is supported by the presence of some scars on the walls of the vessels because of the use of the coiling forming method (Figure 4.7). All examined sherds from Ona Adi are handmade including the use of coiling, slab building, drawing and pinching, or press moulding vessel construction techniques.

84 4.6. Fabric

“Fabric analysis is the study and classification of pottery using the characteristics of the clay body from which the pottery is made” (Orton and Hughes 2013: 71). Fabric was one of the attributes systematically analyzed in the excavated Ona Adi ceramic collections. Fabric was described by identifying raw material types (clay and temper), firing and shaping techniques, which were viewed macroscopically. Macroscopic descriptions of Ona Adi fabrics included detailed notes on features such as compactness, texture (paste and surface), inclusions, and color. Macroscopic analysis was the only method of fabric characterization used by previous ceramic workers in neighboring regions (Wilding 1989) and adopting this method at Ona Adi facilitated the comparison of Ona Adi materials with other sites in the region.

Figure 4.7. OA13.C1.2.534.187: a globular jar fragment with evidence of a handle scar attached across the shoulder/neck junction point of the vessel using the coiling method. Coiling was one of the major ceramic manufacturing techniques used to produce Ona Adi ceramic assemblages.

In addition to diagnostic sherds, a sample of body sherds was investigated for paste identification using a Dino-Lite magnifier. A fresh break of a body sherd (see Chapter 6) created using plyers was used to understand firing conditions (oxidized, unoxidized, under-fired etc.), type of inclusions (size of particles and extent of inclusions), and color attribute ranges (using a Munsell Soil Color Chart) from the

85 resulting cross section of the body sherd. Four major fabric types—Orange-Red Ware (ORW), Brown Ware (BW), Gray Ware (GW) and Black Ware (BW)—were established for Ona Adi. Each fabric groups in turn is composed of several fabric varieties (see further description in Chapter 6).

4.7. Surface Treatment

Ceramic analysts have interpreted surface treatment as representative of both stylistic choices and functional use. For example, Rice (1987) suggested that a rough surface finish on a sherd can be advantageous for cooking because it provides more surface area to absorb heat. The surface treatment (finish) of a potsherd can be smooth, rough, slipped, polished and so on. All analyzed ceramics at Ona Adi were handmade resulting in vessels with rough and irregular surface finishes caused by coiling marks and finger prints. Diagnostics were examined on both their interior and exterior surfaces, and all observable surface treatments were recorded. In some cases, coil layers did not form a strong cohesion, resulting in liquid leaking or easy breakage. Such problems were often solved by applying various surface treatments, on both internal and external surfaces. The surfaces of Ona Adi ceramics were treated with a variety of techniques at different stages of the vessel production process. The most common surface treatment techniques include slipping, burnishing, scraping, and smoothing. Many analyzed sherds also have rough surfaces, lacking any identifiable additional surface treatment. There are sherds which have surfaces with two or more surface treatment techniques, e.g., the potsherd in Figure 4.8A has a generally smooth external surface, a remnant of red slip in the neck area and a rough internal surface. The same sherd can be classified as having three different surface treatment techniques. As such analyzed sherd counts do not necessarily equal counts of surface treatment technique types.

Figure 4.8. Application of combined surface treatment techniques on individual sherds body surface

4.8. Decoration

In traditional ceramic studies, stylistic analysis of pottery (decoration) has been given special attention, most probably because pottery provides a great variety of stylistic and decorative treatments (Sharer and Ashmore 1987). Variations in vessel decoration attributes can be a result of either a conscious act of expression of social/group identity or an unintentional act of learned behavior (Sackett 1977,1985, 1990; Wiessner 1983). Decoration, which can be considered as a component of surface treatment, is an important aspect of the analysis of Ona Adi ceramics. A large amount of archaeological research has been conducted to understand the pattern and scale of decorations observed in ceramic assemblages around the world. The results of such studies have been used to answer vital archaeological questions of chronology building, settlement patterns, societal exchanges and interactions, and the extent of distributions and boundaries of specific cultures (e.g. Flannery 1976; Braun 1984; Hodder 1977; Plog 1980). In addition to providing insights on these crucial archaeological issues, analysis of Ona Adi ceramic collections surface finish styles was also targeted to answer other questions such as: why do the decorations of the ceramics vary? And what is the relationship between decoration and social organization?

4.9. Quantitative Methods of Ceramic Analysis

The use of quantitative methods in archaeological ceramics analysis started in the late 19th and the beginning of the 20th century (Petrie 1899; Lyman et al. 1997). However, the emergence of processual archaeology in the 1960s inaugurated the

87 widespread use of statistics in the discipline (Baxter 2003). Many processual archaeologists believed that employing statistical analysis in the study of past material culture made archaeology more scientific and empirical (e.g., Binford 1964; Cowgill 1968). This is one of the main reasons why some post-processual archaeologists tend to reject the use of quantitative methods in archaeology together with their reaction against the theory of processual archeology (Shanks and Tilley 1992; Orton 1999). However, the use of quantification and statistical methods in archaeology today is not exactly the same as the processual archaeology’s view of the discipline as a science. Statistics are tools and their use is subject to our respective theoretical perspectives (Shennan 1997; Vanpool and Leonard 2011).

Several quantitative techniques have been developed and applied to the ordering (seriation) of archaeological data (Robinson 1951; Brainerd 1951; Meighan 1959; Ford 1962; Dempsey and Baumhoff 1963; Doran and Hodson 1966; Kendall 1971). Most authors writing on quantitative methods have organized their data in the form of a table (matrix) as their first step and then follow the principle of “like goes with like” to seriate archaeological deposits. Robinson (1951) and Brainerd (1951) developed a statistical method to order archaeological contexts based on similarity of artefacts within each deposit or context. They defined measures of similarity or “agreement coefficients” on the basis of the percentage of various types found in pairs of contexts/deposits to be seriated. They believe that the techniques could be employed to reconstruct the relative chronology of a site in the absence of or together with other methods of relative dating, such as stratigraphy. Dempsey and Baumhoff (1963) prefer to use the presence and absence of common features found in pairs of deposits compared to calculate an “agreement coefficient” rather than on the basis of counts of features. Meighan (1959) and Ford (1962) employed a slightly different seriation technique directly based on percentages, without calculating a similarity coefficient. In doing so, they state that the percentage changes in assemblages to be seriated should be gradual with respect to time.

The selection of an appropriate seriation technique is mostly determined by the kind of archaeological data to be investigated. For example, if data are composed of smaller assemblages and a limited number of artefact categories, occurrence (presence/absence) data and matrix reordering are more effective techniques of chronology building. On the other hand, if data are composed of numerous

88 archaeological materials such as sites, features and deposits, a handful of important alternative seriation methods can be selectively used. Cluster analysis approaches and one of the many multivariate scaling techniques such as multidimensional scaling (MDS) (Cowgill 1972; Washburn and Matson 1985), correspondence analysis (CA) (Smith and Neiman 2007; Alberti 2013) and a combination of scaling and cluster techniques can be used under such circumstances (Djindjian 1985; Johnson 1972). Below is presented a discussion of the statistical techniques used to answer research questions posed in this thesis starting with the chi-square test. IMB SPSS statistics 24 software (statistical package for social sciences) was used to conduct the statistical analysis.

4.9.1. The Chi-Square Test

The chi-square test is one of the earliest statistical methods employed in archaeology. It was first introduced to archaeology by Spaulding’s influential paper (1953). It is used to analyze classified/ categorized data, i.e., data measured at the nominal scale (Shennan 1997; Vanpool and Leonard 2011). It is an important tool for hypothesis testing. The chi-square test is used to indicate the degree to which rows and columns of the table are independent. It is used to handle complex archaeological data, counts of artefacts, features and other materials, in various circumstances. For example, a chi-square test was used to create scientific types, a subject central to archaeological practice (Spaulding 1953), which alleviates the shortcomings of intuitive typology creations (Whittaker et al. 1998). Spaulding applied the technique to create analytical units in his important paper entitled “Statistical Techniques for the Discovery of Artefact Types” (Spaulding 1953). His main objective was to test cells of the contingency table that deviated significantly from their expected distribution under the null hypothesis of no association. This method helps the researcher to demonstrate non-random associations between attributes of artefacts (such as fabrics, types of surface treatment, kinds of decoration, and so on) for the discovery of patterning in a given archaeological context. As indicated above, the use of the chi-square test technique to create rigorous and replicable archaeological types avoids the “trial and error elements” in the construction of typologies (Dunnell 1986: 178).

Although Spaulding’s paper was influential, Ford (1954) was highly critical of his quantification method. The main objective of Spaulding’s method is to construct pottery types through the application of statistical analysis of patterns in an assemblage, i.e.,

89 “discovering the amount and nature of attribute clustering in any archaeological assemblage” (Spaulding 1953:392). An assemblage is defined here as a collection of artefacts or any other material remains produced by “people who shared similar techniques and standards” (Cowgill 1990:67). According to this definition, collections of excavated objects from a single secure stratigraphic layer can be an example of an assemblage. Spaulding (1953) tries to analyze patterns from within-assemblage collections to create types (i.e., not from different assemblages). Ford’s (1954) criticism of Spaulding’s paper has its roots in this point. He undermines the utility of Spaulding’s (1953) statistical method for showing cultural change in time and space—in short, its validity for seriating artefacts across a temporal dimension. According to Ford (1954), Spaulding’s (1953) statistical method may tell us the degree to which members of a specific culture diverted from set of standards and norms of that particular cultural value. Ford (1954) claims this has nothing to do with seriation. The other major problem with the chi-square test is its inefficiency in dealing with computing it for artefact collections characterized by multiple variables (attributes) (Baxter 2003). Spaulding’s method also lacks a general theory to decide what specific variables an archaeologist should look for in the creation of attribute cluster (Dunnell 1986). However, the chi-square test method has continued to be important in archaeology mainly because of its ability “to assess the correspondence between distributions in a wide variety of different situations” (Shennan 1997:104). It is also an important method to infer human behavioural patterns from material remains (Dunnell 1986).

To summarize, the analysis of complex archaeological data using the chi-square test entails comparing the correspondence between the frequencies of various associations (Vanpool and Leonard 2011). The chi-square test does not provide information about ranking or ordering of classified data. Rather, as stated above, it simply compares the counts of actually observed data with those of expected values displayed within each cell of a contingency table. The data in each cell of the table are counts divided into mutually exclusive categories. The main objective of the chi-square test is to determine “whether two classifications of our data are independent of one another, in sense that membership of a particular category of one classification is unrelated to membership of a particular category of the other” (Shennan 1997: 110).

90 4.9.2. Correspondence Analysis

Another frequently used statistical technique in archaeology is correspondence analysis (CA). Bolviken et al.’s (1982) paper is frequently cited as introducing the technique to archaeology (Baxter 2003; de Leeuw 2011). However, there is no straightforward history of CA. After its first usage, CA underwent significant modification and the technique was invented and reinvented several times (Baxter 1994; Beh 2004). Pearson first introduced CA around 1900, and it has been reinvented by many individuals since then, such as Fisher and Guttman around the 1940s and by de Leeuw in the 1980s (Beh 2004; De Leeuw 1983; Guttman 1944). Baxter (1994: 133-139) presented a good review of the application and history of CA in archaeology. The main conclusion of this review reveals that CA is the most popular quantitative method of seriation at present and it could “replace all the heterogeneous techniques previously used for different data types such as percentage data or presence/absence data” (Baxter 2003:203).

Like the chi-square test and other quantitative methods, in CA the numerical value of archaeological units (such as stratigraphic units) and variables/ attributes (such as ceramic types) are assigned to rows and columns of a contingency table. The analysis helps us to visualize interrelationships between rows and columns of the dataset. CA can help us to answer the following questions raised about the relationships between spatial and temporal units and variables such as fabrics and shapes of ceramic artefacts in our example.

CA can be used to discover unnoticed structures and patterns inherent in a given dataset through its multivariate and simultaneous analysis of several categorical variables. Its multivariate technique helps researchers to understand not only the existence of relationships between categorical units/variables but also how they are related.

To conclude, CA is an important tool for interpretation and exploration of complex archaeological datasets. The main objective of CA is to show the relationship between rows and columns of contingency tables via graphic representation (Alberti 2013). It is a multivariate exploratory technique. CA is related to other statistical techniques, such as Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Multidimensional Scaling (MDS). CA presents

91 a modern way of calculating a measure of similarity between rows and columns of a contingency table during seriation of archaeological assemblages (Shennan 1997). Today, CA is frequently used in archaeology and is critical in applications from all over the world for different purposes. For example, researchers have employed CA for burial assemblages analysis (Wallin 2010), on-site distribution of faunal remains (Potter 2000), distribution of pottery types in different kinds of archaeological contexts (Cool and Baxter 2002; Pitts 2005), stratigraphy and formation processes (Mameli et al., 2002; Pavuk 2010), seriation and chronology (Kjeld Jensen and Hoilund Nielsen 1997; Smith and Neiman 2007; Bellanger et al., 2008; Peeples and Schachner 2012).

4.10. Chapter Summary

This chapter presented the main methods and associated procedures used to process and analyze the ceramic corpuses systematically collected from seven test excavated trenches (A1, B1, C1, D1, D2, E1 and E2) at the site of Ona Adi. The methods were selected to attain the highest quantity and quality of data possible from the investigated ceramic collections in terms of fabric, decoration, surface treatment, and function/shape. Systematic description and analysis of the ceramic corpuses following the methods discussed above facilitated gaining general knowledge of the ceramic systems represented at Ona Adi since antiquity. Moreover, analysis of excavated ceramics employing these methods assisted in achieving the main goals of this thesis by tracking major cultural and chronological changes and developments as witnessed in the ceramic assemblages, possible use/function of spaces and the distribution of societal groups across the site and through time, and Ona Adi’s engagement in local, regional, and global networks of short and long-distance trade and exchange systems.

92 Chapter 5.

The Ancient Town Site of Ona Adi: Excavation and Stratigraphy

Chapter one introduced the goal and objectives of this dissertation. This work is one component of a larger Eastern Tigrai Archaeological Project (ETAP). The main goal of ETAP was to examine the dynamics of early state formation in northern Ethiopia, including the Pre-Aksumite period (1600 BC-400 BC) and the Pre-Aksumite to Aksumite (PA-A) transition (400 BC-1AD). Investigations conducted in this dissertation contribute to the achievements of ETAP goal and objectives through the systematic analysis of ceramic assemblages collected from excavations conducted at Ona Adi. ETAP excavations at Ona Adi over the 2013-2015 field seasons have revealed deep deposits with several Aksumite building phases along with an undisturbed underlying Pre- Aksumite phase (see below). Two major architectural phases, the upper and lower building phases, were identified. The buildings employed various technological styles including Early Aksumite elite stepped walls (Field A1) and possible domestic structures of both the Aksumite and PA-A transition periods (D1, D2, and C1).

Research at Ona Adi is ongoing, but the past three years of excavations suggest it to be a substantive Aksumite urban setting which underwent many structural modifications throughout its existence. It seems to have been continually occupied from the Pre-Aksumite through to the Aksumite period, encompassing the PA-A transition (D’Andrea et al 2008; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014; see below). Two concentrations of Aksumite ruins were identified: demolished architecture including pillars with the later construction of churches (Figure 5.1) and a stone lined crypt at the nearby church of Enda Petros (see below, D’Andrea et al 2008; Anfray 1973).

Figure 5.1. Some of Ona Adi’s Aksumite period pillars remain inside Enda Tekle Haymanot church yard

Ona Adi (ca. 9.74 ha) is located in Gulo Makeda Woreda in tabia Shewit Lemelem of the Eastern Tigrai Administration zone, (N1595132, E540689 at 2452m asl) (D’Andrea et al. 2013; 2014; Figures 5.2 and 5.3). ETAP surveys revealed the availability of a rich arrays of archaeological evidence in the vicinity of Ona Adi witnessing unbroken and continued settlement since antiquity (D’Andrea et al 2008; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014). For example, the Amba Fekada (Enda Guieh) rock paintings, with panels displaying an ox-drawn plough and several human figures, is located very close to the site (Mordini 1941; Graziosi 1941; Meressa 2008; D’Andrea et al. 2008). The rock art reveals both abstract and realistic styles of drawing and was probably produced by pastoralists before the appearance of humped cattle in the 1st millennium BC (Fattovich 1988).

Figure 5.2. Location of Gulo Makeda and Eastern Tigrai in the Tigrai Regional State of Ethiopia (Image: modified from Lyons 2014)

The history of Ona Adi has been a subject of both oral traditions and past preliminary study reports (Chapter 1). These stories are very interesting but at the same time confusing. According to D’Andrea and Welton (in prep), Ona Adi and its immediate surroundings have been sporadically visited and described by several early scholars (e.g., Coulbeaux 1929; Conti Rossini 1928; Mordini 1941; Franchini 1953; Leclant and Miquel 1959; Anfray 1973). However, in many cases their reports are contradictory in terms of place names and locations. The following sections summarize general information about the present condition of Gulo Makeda and Ona Adi, and the excavation, stratigraphy, and recovered material remains from test trenches.

Figure 5.3. Location of Tabia Shewit Lemelem and Ona Adi in Gulo Makeda Woreda

5.1. Gulo Makeda and Ona Adi today

Gulo Makeda is one of the 34 administrative woreda (sub-districts) found in the regional state of Tigrai. It is bordered by Eritrea to the north, Erob to the east, Ganta Afeshum to the south, Aheforom to the west and Saesi Tsadaemba to the southeast (Figures 5.2 and 5.3). Because of its high-altitude location, which ranges from 1500- 3200m above sea level, Gulo Makeda is comprised of 99% woyna dega and 1% dega ecozones, in which temperature and rain fall seasonally vary from 16-25 °C and 400-600 mm respectively (see Chapter 2 section 2.1 for the definition of woyna dega and dega ecozones).

At least 74% of the farmers living in Gulo Makeda raise crops and livestock, while 24% only grow crops and 2% only raised livestock (The Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA 2001). Cattle, sheep/goat, donkey, mule, and chickens are the dominant livestock in the area. The main harvested crops include barley, wheat, t’ef,

96 maize, and sorghum. On average, cereals, pulses, and oilseeds usually cover 65%, 3%, and 1% of the total cultivable land in Gulo Makeda, respectively (The Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia CSA 2001). Archaeological investigation of the area reveals that this current food production pattern in the area has existed since late antiquity (D’Andrea and Welton in prep).

Gulo Makeda Woreda is one of the most highly degraded and agriculturally low- producing areas of Tigrai. On average only 19.65% (11623.75 ha) of the total area (591.43 square km) is arable (Table 5.1). Even this small portion of cultivable land is highly degraded and infertile. The rest of the total area of the woreda, 47520.09 ha of uncultivable land, is composed of rugged mountains, bedrock slopes, and scree and sediment slopes used for communal grazing and village settlement (D’Andrea et al 2008). From the total non-arable land, 5.32% is used as pasture, 6.31% is fallow, 0.24% is woodland, and 14.23% is devoted to other uses (CSA 2001). High population pressure, severe cyclic drought, soil erosion, and continuous occupation and utilization of the land over the last three thousand years are the main sources of soil infertility (D’Andrea et al 2008; Fattovich 2000).

Table 5.1. Arable and Non-Arable Land Distribution of Gulo Makeda Woreda Tabia Total Area Total Arable Land Total Non-Arable Coverage (km2) (Hectares) Land (Hectares) Ambeset Fekada 31.6 629.6 2530.54 Shewit Lemelem 39.65 701.5 3263.3 Adis Tesfa 36.09 784 2825.8 Adis Alem 27.86 763 2023.43 Marta 65.39 977.75 5560.73 Sobea 30.82 577 2504.77 Kileat 28.9 695.3 2193.08 Haben 21.95 520.75 1674.3 Hayelom 18.12 355 1456.78 Firedashum 38.2 322 3498 Hagere Selam 33.9 590 2798.75 Mai Tseada 15.9 459 1129.63 Kokebe Tsibah 29.9 1124.65 1863.84 Kisad Meateb 34.23 663.4 2759.59 Mereta 42.2 690.3 3529.96 Mezabir 40.57 520.5 3536.44 Rigbay Medebay 56.21 1250 4370.74 Total 591.43 11623.75 47520.09

97 According to the 2016 Gulo Makeda Woreda census (Table 5.2), the total population living in the subdistrict is 102,326 of whom 49,171 are men and 53,155 are women. The population is organized into 17,079 registered households (on average 5.9 person/household) of which 15,043 (88.1 %) own farm lands (on average 0.7 hectares/household) (Table 5.1). Based on the 2007 national census data, 11.99% of the population of Gulo Makeda are urban dwellers. Tigrean (95.32%) and Erob/Saho (3.78%) are the two largest ethnic groups in the woreda. The great majority (95.73 %) of the inhabitants of Gulo Makeda are followers of the Orthodox Christian religion, followed by Muslims (2.4%) and Catholics (1.79%) (CSA 2001).

Table 5.2. Tabias in Gulo Makeda and their respective total population (2007 national census) Tabia Total Population No. of No. of Households Male Female Total Households Who Owned Farmland Ambeset Fekada 1904 2022 3926 792 707 Shewit Lemelem 2221 2410 4631 920 893 Adis Tesfa 2097 2333 4430 854 854 Adis Alem 2413 2361 4774 892 892 Marta 2670 2827 5497 1050 1022 Sobea 3776 4100 7876 1813 1277 Kileat 2685 2816 5501 956 848 Haben 2284 2395 4679 843 735 Hayelom 1893 1958 3851 735 650 Firedashum 2406 2576 4982 1009 880 Hagere Selam 3528 3697 7225 1186 922 Mai Tseada 1683 1846 3529 775 701 Kokebe Tsibah 3331 3664 6995 1464 1234 Kisad Meateb 2825 2828 5653 1067 945 Mereta 2834 3070 5904 1137 1068 Mezabir 1652 1616 3268 616 563 Rigbay Medebay 2447 2599 5046 988 852 Total 49171 53155 102326 17079 15043

As already mentioned, Ona Adi is situated in Tabia Shewit Lemelem. In terms of areal coverage Shewit Lemelem (39.65 km2) is the 5th largest of 17 tabiai found in Gulo Makeda after Marta, Rigbay Medebay, Mereta and Mezabir tabia respectively (Table 5.1; Figure 5.3). It is composed of Debre-Brihan, Menebity, Dehane, Ona Adi and Etchemare kushet (hamlets/villages-the lowest administrative units in the region). A total population of 4,631 lived in this tabia in 2007 (Table 5.2). Compared to other tabia, Shewit Lemelem has extensive plain plateau lands and easy access to the roads which connect the major towns of the region, including the Adigrat-Zalambesa-Asmara highway. This facilitates

98 easy movement of people to nearby towns and other parts of the region in search of employment opportunities. According to the head of the information and communication office of Gulo Makeda, Ato Mulugeta G/Meskel, Shewit Lelelem represents the highest number of short and long-term movement of people out of the area. Long-term movement is frequently practiced by young people of the tabia who have travelled as far as Saudi Arabia and Oman for employment. Many household leaders (usually men) also practice seasonal (non-harvesting period) short-term movement into cities and neighbouring regions for extra income generation to supplement their insufficient annual harvest. People who remain permanently in the tabia either have other family members somewhere else who could support them or are actively involved in the government safety-net programme (work for food).

The kushets of Shewit Lelelem (Debre-Brihan, Menebity, Dehane, Ona Adi and Etchmare) are endowed with very ancient and important cultural material remains. This was observed even before ETAP’s systematic investigation of the area when scholars infrequently visited the region (e.g., Anfray 1973; Franchini 1953; Mordini 1941; Graziosi 1941; Leclant and Miguel 1959). The observed archaeological data were reported as the ruins of ancient towns from the Aksumite kingdom’s eastern realm and settlements established along major trade and caravan routes leading to the Red Sea port of Adulis (Figure 5.4; D’Andrea et al. 2008). This may indicate that the current location of Shewit Lemelem closer to major roads and highways could have had an impact even in ancient times. However, the information produced by early investigators is contradictory mainly because of their interchangeable use of different place names such as Menabeyti, Etchmare, Gulo Makeda, Enda Tekle Haymanot, and Enda Maryam de Makeda for Ona Adi (D’Andrea, 2006). ETAP has conducted the only systematic and multidisciplinary research at the site to date and has solved the nomenclature confusion through proper definition of the archaeological entities observed in the area, as prescribed by the ARCCH (Authority for Research and Conservation of Cultural Heritage).

Figure 5.4. Archaeological sites of Gulo Makeda known before ETAP’s investigation (Map by Michael Harrower)

ETAP (2006) defined the archaeological site of Ona Adi as the architectural remains, artefacts, and debris scatter around the present-day church of Enda Tekle Haymanot as well as the modern church of Enda Petros which includes a crypt, some pillars, and other architectural remains and Amba Fekada rock paintings (Figures 5.1; 5.5 and 5.6). Enda Maryam de Makeda refers to a church in the village of Menabeyti where an Aksumite pillar is found. Church officials stated that the pillar was retrieved from the main site of Ona Adi. ETAP also discovered a previously unrecorded site called Etchmare East closely associated with Ona Adi which has produced artefacts dating to the PA-A transition and Aksumite periods including an exposed human burial. The rock paintings of Amba Fekada, variously referred to as Dahane, Ba’ati Fekada, and Enda Guieh encompasses two localities; the well-known main panel including a plough scene at Amba Fekada 1 and a nearby series of isolated images known as Amba Fekada 2 (Meressa 2008; D’Andrea et al. 2008).

100

Figure 5.5. Site of Ona Adi. The red line indicates the boundary of the site and the red circles illustrate mounds, structures and the disturbed burial at Etchmare East (Map by Michael Harrower)

As mentioned above, Ona Adi is one of two sites identified in the ETAP survey that were given priority for excavation: the Pre-Aksumite site of Mezber being the other. Ona Adi was located by ETAP in 2005 and surface collections revealed a mixture of both Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite ceramics. Ground penetrating radar surveys and local informants revealed the presence of subsurface structures buried under deep deposits at the site. These factors made Ona Adi an ideal candidate to investigate the transition between the Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite periods in Eastern Tigrai. Also, the present church of Enda Tekle-Haymanot, constructed directly on the ancient site, was due to be replaced by a new and larger church without regard to the site. Excavations for the implementation of this plan would have seriously disturbed and even endangered Ona Adi. ETAP’s decision to excavate Ona Adi was very timely because it helped to rescue

101 the site and convinced local communities to abandon the idea of constructing a new church.

ETAP’s long-term plan is to undertake a comparison of Pre-Aksumite rural economy at Mezber to that of the large town site of Ona Adi. Excavations at Mezber and Ona Adi were intended to test the idea that South Arabian cultural influences affected mainly elite groups, while rural populations retained indigenous cultural features. Excavations also aimed to provide a chronological framework for ceramic and lithic studies conducted in ETAP’s previous surveys. Such studies at Mezber and Ona Adi were designed to determine differences in Pre-Aksumite rural vs. urban, and domestic vs. elite life ways.

5.2. Ona Adi Excavations and Stratigraphy

Three seasons of ETAP excavations (2013, 2014 and 2015) have been completed at Ona Adi. Both vertical and horizontal sampling have been employed to understand the nature and extent of past activities in time and space. Seven excavation squares were placed on selected areas of the site, primarily dictated by the depth of deposits and important archaeological signatures including surface artefact concentrations, monumental and domestic architecture, and other surface features (Figures 5.6 and 5.7). This allowed us to determine the approximate area of the ancient settlement at different periods (Figure 5.7). All excavated squares are located within actively ploughed agricultural land. The lands are flat but gently sloping to the south, which is significantly altered by ancient rubble, mounds and intensive modern terraces (Figure 5.6). Some of our excavated squares were relatively large (5x5m or larger) and we did this intentionally to maximize the collected artefact assemblages from periods throughout the occupational sequence. Given the complexity of buried architecture, which forced excavators to reduce the area under excavation with increasing depth, the size of most squares was greatly reduced at bedrock.

102

Figure 5.6. The site of Ona Adi. Trees indicate the location of the modern church of Enda Tekle-Haymanot

Figure 5.7. Sketch plan of Ona Adi showing the location of the excavations and approximate area of ancient settlements.

103 Two main building periods have been identified at Ona Adi. The upper architecture represents the remains of several Aksumite buildings. These structures are constructed of roughly hewn, randomly coursed stone faces and a rubble core tightly integrated with mud mortar. The continued use of rounded natural stones to erect the walls of this phase reveals a transfer of technological style from the lower architectural periods. However, by comparison, during the upper building phases the use of fieldstones for construction was rare. Some upper architecture period structures are represented by finely dressed stepped walls with large corner blocks and slate stone steps. This is an Aksumite building technique recorded both at Matara and Aksum area archaeological sites since the Classical Aksumite period (Anfray 1966; Munro-Hay 1989; Phillipson 1998).

The large corner stones and alternating recessed walls, separated by consecutive steps, keep the structure intact for longer periods via the proportionate vertical diffusion of weight. The steps’ slate tops further increased the consolidation of the structure by preventing rain water percolation into the walls which would have eventually washed away the mud mortar. Traded and finely painted potsherds were uncovered in association with the upper architectural phase, which indicate the presence of individuals with sufficient wealth/status to be involved in a web of short- and long- distance exchange networks. Thus, the excavations uncovered the remains of both elite and non-elite buildings. However, one of the most significant results of ETAP research at Ona Adi is the discovery of undisturbed, sealed Pre-Aksumite levels underlying Aksumite deposits (Figure 5.8).

104

Figure 5.8. Upper and lower architectural phases at Ona Adi

The lower architecture at Ona Adi is associated with the PA-A transition, based on ceramic data. It is recorded in the deeper stratigraphic sequences of Fields C and D. The basic building techniques employed in the construction of the lower structures are not radically different from those of the upper ones. The significant difference is that the interstitial spaces between wall faces are wider and mainly composed of small and medium-sized fieldstone infill causing frequently irregular patterning of the wall faces. Larger natural stones, only rarely semi-dressed, are arranged without any clear courses to build the walls of the lower architectural phase. The walls of the lower architecture are generally thicker than the walls of the upper buildings. There is some evidence of a possible excavated foundation trench for one of the lower architecture walls, Wall 11 in Square D1, whose base was discovered 16cm deeper than the contemporary Wall 12’s base. Artefacts found associated with these walls include typical Mezber-like Late Pre- Aksumite ceramics, some faunal remains, and lithics mostly of the scraper tool type (see Chapter 7; D’Andrea and Welton in press; Peterson 2017).

5.3. Field A Excavations: Square A1

Square A1 is located at the southern edge of a recently ploughed agricultural terrace near the steep slope of the Lemelem Valley located to the southeast (Figures 5.7 and 5.9). The location of the square was selected based on the high density of ceramics visible at the surface and on information from local informants, which indicated the

105 presence of buried stone architecture possibly linked to exposed ancient building ruins found within the Enda Tekle-Haymanot church yard. Lemelem Valley separates Ona Adi from the Dahane ridge where the famous Amba Fekada rock art is situated. Our systematic survey indicated that the Lemelem Valley formed a gradually eastward descending slope representing a narrow corridor extension to the general Mezber- Segelat-Kilat valley systems that connect the eastern Tigrai highlands to the lowlands of Erob Woreda and beyond (Figure 5.9). The survey also revealed that the ridges on both sides of this east-west running valley corridor system host an extremely rich and diverse array of archaeological sites (D’Andrea et al. 2008; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014).

Ona Adi

Lemelem Valley

Dahane Ridge

Extension of the Lemelem Valley

Figure 5.9. Ona Adi, Dahane ridge (Amba Fekada Rock Art) and parts of the longer Mezber-Segelat-Kilat valley system (photo taken from the top of Amba Fekada (south))

106 Square A1 was opened as a 2x3 m small test pit but was expanded to 5x8 m due to the complex nature of the exposed wall remains (Figure 5.10). Excavations in Field A1 removed 1.78 m deep deposits and uncovered a relatively large building complex of elite character (Figure 5.11), the walls of which formed the basis for later phase buildings. Portions of six walls were excavated which indicate at least four major building phases identified through style of construction, stratigraphy and associated artefact studies. Based on the ceramic sequence and architectural style, four main occupational phases could be reconstructed from the Square A1 excavations.

Figure 5.10. Square A1 earlier stage excavations.

5.3.1. Phase 1 (Early Aksumite) Occupations, Loci 5 and 6

The foundation of the oldest wall in Square A1 (L6) cuts through the deepest deposits and sits directly on weathered bedrock (Figure 5.11). The deposit is characterized by hard packed soil fill (Locus 5) associated with ceramics decorated in Early Aksumite style, including corrugation, punctate decorations, and imported amphora sherds with a creamy paste (Chapter 6 and 7). The wall (L6) is approximately N/S oriented, and along with wall L9 (which dates to Phase 3), dominates the central part of the excavation unit. The building technique employed in the construction of this wall is consistent with the styles of other upper architecture described above. Traces of a wall

107 foundation trench excavated into the bedrock were recorded along with the incorporation of some in situ natural stones as part of the base of the wall. The external face of the wall forming the oldest building incorporated two slate steps, a feature that is traditionally interpreted as being used in elite Aksumite buildings. Larger slate slabs are also apparent in the northwestern and southern corners of this wall. The wall has a width of 0.73 m, an exposed length of 5.57 m, and is preserved to a height of 1.54 m.

Figure 5.11. Architectural loci forming a corner of an elite building in Square A1

108 Similar types of architecture have been recorded in many sites of the highlands including Aksum (Munro-Hay 1989; Fattovich et al. 2006), Yeha (Harrower et al., in press), Wakarida (Gajda & Fabienne 2011, 2012) and Matara (Anfray 1963). At these sites, stepped wall structures are directly associated with imported ceramics and other high-status artefacts including gold, ivory, coins, beads, and other personal adornment items such as bracelets. Both absolute and relative dating systems suggest that the construction of this type of architecture could have begun as early as the Classical Aksumite period and remained popular during Middle Aksumite times (Schmidt et al. 2008; Munro-Hay 1989). At Matara, to which Ona Adi materials are closely affiliated, the stepped wall elite structures incorporate closed rectangular basement rooms (without any apparent doors), which could have had wooden ceilings, similar to modern day rural Tigrai houses, used mainly for storage (Anfray 1963).

We only discovered one side (the western side) of the stepped wall building. However, excavations confirmed a 90-degree turn and the continuation of the wall in an easterly direction from the opposite end of the stepped wall. This provides a general impression of a rectangular/square-shaped building, similar to what is found in contemporary sites. The discovery of a few sherds similar to some Aksum area Classical Aksumite types linked to the base of the elite building reveals some degree of contact between the two regions during this phase. As already mentioned, our previous survey at Ona Adi also reported the ubiquitous presence of sherds of all time periods, from Pre- Aksumite to present, over the surface of the site. On the basis of available evidence and comparison to contemporary sites, the most plausible chronological interpretation of Square A1 architecture suggests the beginning of construction towards the end of the Early Aksumite period and continuation and intensification of building activities in subsequent periods.

5.3.2. Phase 2 (Middle Aksumite) Occupation, Loci 4, 10 and 13

This phase in Square A1 is composed of room fill deposits of L4 and L13 and wall L10. Locus 4 represents a white gray fill associated with a possible cooking feature and its platform and lies below the base of wall L9 (dating to Phase 3). The cooking feature consists of a brick and slate installation found sealed against wall L10 just outside the stepped wall (L6), and this could suggest a domestic function for the building (Figure 5.12). This suggestion is strengthened by the identification of various tableware

109 and storage ceramic vessels associated with these stratigraphic levels. Locus 13 is a room fill uncovered from a deep sounding excavated to delineate the base of wall L10 (Figure 5.13 top). Locus 10 is a wall built after the stepped building identified in Phase 1 (Figure 5.11). It runs in an east-west direction and has a similar building style to that of L6 in Phase 1, except for the absence of steps. The wall adjoins L6 (the stepped wall) at a 90-degree angle at its eastern end, but we are unclear on the relationship between L10 and L6 (Figure 5.13, top). We suspect that it represents a component of Middle Aksumite period building intensification at the site, also recorded in other excavation units. This wall could be part of a room which contains the possible brick and slate slab cooking feature mentioned above, situated just outside the western side of the stepped building (Figure 5.12 left). Locus 10 is 0.56 m wide, has an exposed length 1.10 m and is preserved to a height of 1.23 m.

Figure 5.12. Possible cooking feature (left) and stepped wall (right)

5.3.3. Phase 3 (Late Aksumite) Occupation, Loci 3, 11 and 12 and wall L9

Phase 3 occupation in Square A1 is associated with a loose ashy deposit (L3) below a rock tumble layer (L2). This layer produced a significant number of grinding stones, charcoal, burned bones and ceramics. The discovery of a clay packed floor surface (L11) and hearth with platform (L12) within this layer could explain the types of collected artefacts mentioned above (Figure 5.13). In terms of ceramic styles and fabric types, characterized by gray and black wares and thick incised decorations, Phase 3 is attributed to the Late Aksumite period occupation at Ona Adi.

110

Figure 5.13. A possible room floor, hearth with platform and deep sounding in Square A1

Phase 3 in Square A1 is also represented by Wall 9 (L9), a slightly curved N/S oriented wall. This wall was built onto the western side of L6 (Figure 5.14, bottom), with the eastern face of Wall 9 built on top of the demolished eastern face of Wall 6 (the earliest and stepped wall) (Figure 5.14, top). As stated above, the hard-packed clay floor surface and cooking feature in the north-western side of Square A1 is associated with this wall (Figures 5.12 right and 5.13). Locus 9 is 0.61m wide, has an exposed length of 3.43 m and is preserved to a height of 0.57 m.

111

Figure 5.14. Eastern (top) and western(bottom) sides of wall L9 and its relationship with wall L6, Field A, Ona Adi

5.3.4. Phase 4 (Post Aksumite) Occupation, Locus 2 and walls L7 and L8

The fourth and final phase of architecture in Square A1 is represented by L7 (an east-west running wall), L8 (a SE/NW oriented wall) and L2 (a stone tumble layer) (Figure 5.16). Both walls have only two courses and were found directly below the top soil. The rock tumble below the plough zone (L2) may be the result of the destruction of these walls. There are several grinding stones and at least six mendable crushed ceramic vessels found associated with this phase of architecture (Figure 5.15).

112

Figure 5.15. Post Aksumite mendable vessels in Square A1

We identified traces of fire (charcoal concentrations, black ashy lenses, and burnt bones), many pebbles, and a smooth-surfaced quartz hammerstone in this layer (Figure 5.16). The pebbles and the quartz hammerstone could be artisan implements for manufacturing pottery, along with stone scrapers (Peterson 2017) collected from Ona Adi. A bead was also recovered from the Phase 4 occupation in Square A1, which could indicate the continuous presence of elite people even during the Post Aksumite period in this part of the site.

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Figure 5.16. Square A1 northern wall profile, Ona Adi

5.4. Field B Excavations: Square B1

Square B1, a 4x3 m unit, was placed on freshly ploughed land in between Squares A1 and C1, where we expected the deepest deposits in the site would be found (Figure 5.17). The main goal for opening this square was to determine the depth of bedrock and the presence/absence of Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition deposits. Excavations reached close to 2.40 m before hitting bedrock and a total of 15 stratigraphic units, including architectural loci, were recorded. Based on the ceramic sequence and architectural style, three main occupational phases could be reconstructed from Square B1 excavations.

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Figure 5.17. Bottom of the top soil (L1) and the opening of locus 2 excavations in Square B1 (Image by Sarah Oas), Ona Adi

5.4.1. Phase 1 (Middle Aksumite) occupation, Locus 9 and Loci 11 to 15

Phase 1 is represented by a potentially rectangular/square room formed by a right-angle junction point of two of the earliest walls (L14 &15) and associated room fill (L11 to 15). The base of the entire exposed room is marked by a beaten earth surface layer, found sealed against walls L14 and 15 (Figures 5.18 and 5.19). Brown and orange-red ware crushed vessels and an in situ basal grinding stone were recorded on the beaten earth floor. Excavations below the floor surface revealed a hard, yellow- brown soil fill layer before reaching bedrock. The ceramics associated with this fill layer contained mixed period potsherds (including Pre- and Late Aksumite sherds), which may indicate the addition of fill from elsewhere during the construction of the building to level the surface. In comparison, wall L15 had a deeper base than wall L14, which may be related to a foundation trench, and has a slightly stepped character. The discovery of two beads, purple painted Aksumite fine wares (PPA) and other traded sherds from this

115 phase reveal the importance of the structure. Taking all these data into consideration, the lower occupation phase of Square B1 can be chronologically assigned to between the late Early Aksumite and the Middle Aksumite periods. It is clear that the construction phase began during the end of the fourth century AD at the earliest, as indicated by the ceramic collections associated with it.

Figure 5.18. Southwest corner Square B1, Ona Adi : a possible room floor sealed against walls L14 and L15 from bedrock.(Image by Sarah Oas)

116 Phas1 Loci

Figure 5.19. Square B1 Phase 1 loci, Ona Adi: eastern and southern wall profiles

117 5.4.2. Phase 2 (Late Aksumite) Occupation, Loci 5 (lower part) to 8 and Locus 10

The second phase of Square B1 is represented by activity areas including a possible outdoor kitchen (L6), a likely midden (L7 and L10), and exposed walls (Figure 5.20). Most of the outdoor kitchen area close to the northern balk, sealing against the lower phase of wall L5 (Figures 5.18 and 5.20), and is associated with highly burned soil and brick pieces, huge charcoal fragments, and crushed and semi-intact ceramic concentrations. In addition, the discovery of the lower part of a large grinding stone in the southeastern corner indicates the extension of the kitchen towards this direction. A black, loose, and ashy deposit characterizes the midden area, which is extremely rich in bone, ceramics, numerous grinding stone objects, and charcoal fragments (Figure 5.20). Walls L5 (lower part) and L8 represent the Phase 2 architecture. In the northern profile, it became apparent that there were two construction phases of wall L5: an upper and a lower phase. The upper phase of wall L5 incorporates the two uppermost courses, which extended approximately 50 cm further from the eastern balk than the stones of the lower phase. The lower phase of wall L5 also had a slightly different style of construction (larger boulders on both sides of the wall with thin cobble courses in the centre). While generally only the larger boulder base stones of wall L8 remained, 8-10 courses of upper wall L5 were preserved in the northern profile (Figure 5.20). The L8 wall (NS-running wall) was a slightly curved wall that conjoined and formed a corner with the lower phase of wall L5 and which had the same style of construction. Based on the associated ceramic artefact sequence (consisting of brown and gray ware ceramics) and the building style employed, the Square B1 Phase 2 occupation can be securely dated to the Late Aksumite period.

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Figure 5.20. Square B1 base of possible kitchen (right: Image by Sarah Oas) and northern wall profile, Ona Adi (left: Image by Habtamu)

5.4.3. Phase 3 (Post Aksumite) Occupation, Loci 1 to 5 (upper part)

The latest occupation in Square B1 was first exposed with the removal of the topsoil, which is a highly disturbed 15-20 cm thick plough zone layer. This phase is characterized by dense layers of stone tumble, a possible room floor surface, a series of room fill strata and evidence of architecture (Figure 5.21). The stone tumble layer (L2), thick and continuous, was encountered some 20 cm below the surface and consisted of boulder and cobble sized stones. The stone rubble could be the product of demolished ancient walls due to intensive and ongoing human activities noticed from the disturbance of the topsoil layer immediately above. Excavations of the stone tumble layer revealed remains of a 60 cm thick east-west running wall (upper part of wall L5) about 1.2 m south of the northern balk. South of wall L5, the rock tumble was much deeper and was excavated in a total of three superimposed pails (P3, 6, 7) to a total depth of approximately 40cm. Within this tumble, 10 broken grinding stone objects were recovered, but despite this high concentration of grinding stones, no walls or other features were apparent. A complete clearance of the stone tumble layer in this part of

119 the square was followed by a softer and lighter colored room fill with higher concentrations of pottery, bone, and charcoal.

Figure 5.21. Square B1 Post Aksumite period strata, Ona Adi (Image by Sarah Oas)

North of wall L5, the soil beneath the tumble layer was excavated as L3 in three pails (P8-10) (Figure 5.22). In P8 the compact nature of the soil and the presence of some flattened, crushed ceramic sherds suggested a surface. Pails 9 and 10 were two pails below this level excavated to the west and east of a possible architectural feature, respectively. Six grinding stones were recovered from P10, to the west of the possible wall (Figure 5.22). Locus 3 stopped at the base of this possible wall. To the south of wall L5, L4 was excavated as the softer, brown soil beneath the L2 tumble (Figure 5.21). Locus 4 was excavated in two superimposed pails (P11-12). The stone tumble persisted throughout the locus in the southeastern corner, while brown to black more ashy soil was encountered in the southwestern and northwestern corners. Pail 11, especially in the western half of the locus, contained an abundance of ceramics, bone, and charcoal. 47.7% of the grinding stones (21 in number) collected from Square B1 are found

120 associated with Phase 3 occupations. Black and gray ware cooking and storage vessels constituted the great majority of potsherds collected from this phase. This might suggest that the recorded post-Aksumite rooms and incorporated room floor deposits in Field B1 were related to food processing, cooking and storage activity areas.

Figure 5.22. Identified Square B1 loci just under the top soil (plough zone layer), Ona Adi (Image by Sarah Oas)

5.5. Field C Excavations: Square C1

Square C1 was a 5x3m in dimension and was placed to the north of the modern church of Enda Tekle-Haymanot, partially bisecting a portion of the apex of an east-west running agricultural terrace (Figure 5.23). Square C1 was excavated over a two-year period and revealed the deepest deposits at Ona Adi, which extend over 5m from the topsoil to bedrock. This is one of the test pits which provided an ideal situation to test our working hypothesis that larger settlement sites in Gulo Makeda were continuously occupied, spanning from the Pre-Aksumite to the ethnographic periods. Systematic analyses of a combination of stratigraphic, architectural, ceramic and other artefacts

121 assisted in identifying five phases of occupation over the course of the thick deposit formation in Square C1.

Figure 5.23. Initiation of Square C1 excavations at the top of a small ridge, Ona Adi (Photo by Elizabeth Peterson)

5.5.1. Phase 1 (PA-A Transition) Occupation, Loci 22, 23 and 25

The main distinctive element of the Phase 1 occupation in Square C1 is a remnant of a wall (L23) which was built directly on bedrock, 5m below the plough zone. As shown in Figure 5.24, Wall 23 is incorporated into a more recent structure, the wall of which (L9) was built on top of it. Figure 5.24 also shows the contrast in architectural style used for the construction of the two walls. Wall 23 revealed the lower architecture building technique at Ona Adi, mainly using large (on average 45cm in size) unshaped field stones. The materials recorded from L22 and 25 (fill loci) associated with this architectural feature consisted of stone scrapers and typical PA-A transition ceramics (Chapter 6 and 7). Both these materials, the scrapers and potsherds, are closely comparable to Mezber materials of similar types recorded from Late Pre-Aksumite contexts (D’Andrea and Welton in prep; Peterson 2017).

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Figure 5.24 Square C2, Locus 22 and Wall 23, Ona Adi. (Image by Elizabeth Peterson)

5.5.2. Phase 2 (Early Aksumite) Occupation, Loci 19-21, and Locus 9

The Early Aksumite occupation in Square C1 is identified through the presence of a rectangular/square structure formed by two abutting walls (L9 and L21), a possible floor surface (L20), and associated room fill (L19). Locus 9 is an east-west running wall, exposed just below the bases of Walls L5 and 7, and has a length of 60 cm and a width of 30cm (Figure 5.25). Again, excavation showed Wall L9 to have been incorporated into a later structure represented by Wall L5, which further suggests continuity in occupation. However, Wall 9 is dry masonry construction and unlike Wall L5 (a 45 cm thick wall with rubble fill) has a thin section (30 cm) with no recognizable rubble core (Figures 5.24 and 5.25). The top of this wall was determined to be sealed against by a room fill (L19) composed of hard and compacted brown soil and a thick rubble layer, which created considerable problems during excavation. This thick rubble layer may have been the result of the collapse of Walls L9 and 21. Wall L21, another dry masonry building remnant, is mostly destroyed, with only two courses remaining.

123 The intersection of Walls L9 and 21 delineated the eastern and northern sides of a possible floor surface (L20) recorded in the Phase 2 occupation. The floor surface is marked by the in situ presence of a food-processing feature consisting of a large grinding stone. The large grinding stone measures 50cm x 30cm x 45 cm (length x width x thickness) and has a hewn conical-shaped depression on top, uncovered near the northwest corner (Figure 5.25). Four other small and medium sized grinding stones were also recorded from this level. The collection of large quantities of animal bone mixed with fragments of charcoal and ceramic cooking vessel fragments suggest the presence of a hearth or fireplace. Most of the charcoal seems to be concentrated along the east balk, although patches were also recovered from the west side of the room floor. Conservatism in pottery manufacturing technology is witnessed in the slow change and continued presence of several Phase 1 ceramic formal and decoration attributes into the Early Aksumite period (Phase 2) in Square C1 (Chapter 6 and 7).

Figure 5.25. Early Aksumite possible room surface (L20) with grinding stone, Square C1, Ona Adi (Image by Elizabeth Peterson)

The Square C1 Phase 2 occupation also produced evidence of the first metal objects (three in number, of which one is a bracelet), glass fragments, red ocher, and shell. Most of these objects are considered to be luxury items linked to the elite sector of the Aksumite community at Ona Adi. For instance, various metals have been reported

124 from elite burial sites in Tigrai, associated with Early Aksumite contexts, including gold, silver, iron, copper, and bronze (Fattovich et al. 2006; Anfray 1963; Phillipson 2000). However, no evidence of activity areas directly related to metal manufacturing have been discovered in the region, leading to a debate about the origin of these metal objects (Munro-Hay 1989; Phillipson 200). Regardless of their origin, whether locally manufactured or imported, the discovery of metal and other similar objects may point to the presence of elite individuals at Ona Adi. Metal was a highly appreciated and precious item for Aksumite societies due to its multi-purpose functions, including as a chief raw material for the manufacture of coins, objects of personal adornment, tools, and weapons.

5.5.3. Phase 3 (Middle Aksumite) Occupation, parts of Loci 2&3, Loci 5-8 and Loci 18, & 24

Phase 3 occupation in Square C1 produced the most complete room at the site, formed by three connecting walls (Walls L5, 7 and 24) preserved to a height of 2-3 m (Figures 5.26 and 5.29). Accumulations of very thick layers of Middle Aksumite deposits (mainly L3, 8 and 10) filled the structure above the possible floor (L18) of the large room built over the top of the earlier structure (Wall 9; Phase 2). The walls forming the room are constructed with regularly shaped patterned courses of stones (ranging in size from 10-25cm long and 5cm in thickness) mortared with mud plaster. These are the main attributes of the upper architecture building techniques at Ona Adi. The wall running in a north-south direction (L5) was damaged at its southern end and collapsed during excavation, although the northern half remained intact. The wall running in an east-west direction (L7) was in excellent condition. One of the most distinctive aspects recognized in the study of Phase 3 walls was the identification of several pieces of slate in the rubble fill. In normal circumstances, as observed in Square A1 above, slate pieces were embedded into the external face of Aksumite elite buildings to make steps.

125

Figure 5.26. Three different structures in Square C1, Ona Adi (Image by Catherine D’Andrea)

The thick room fill layer is characterized by a combination of a sandy-ashy and a crumbly orangey soil, which produced artefacts including faunal remains, ceramics, glass fragments, and two coins dating to between the third and sixth centuries AD (Figure 5.27; Munro-Hay 1989). In particular, the possible floor (L18) contained high frequencies of traded artefacts including several fragments of purple painted Aksumite pottery (PPA) and imported blue-glazed Sasanian potsherds. A detailed inventory of collected objects from L18 includes 7 metal objects, 6 grinding stones, 4 glass fragments, 2 shells and 1 bone hair pin. In the same context, pieces of locally made sherds bearing cross motifs were recorded. Two Aksumite coins were also found at the top of L18 that date between the third and sixth centuries AD. The fill also contains a

126 20cm deep burning feature, as represented by a thick lens of charcoal and burnt brick (Pails 65 and 12) which may warrant further investigation. As already discussed above and in the following chapters, this evidence suggests the presence of elite individuals at Ona Adi who enjoyed access to and control of short- and long-distance trade networks.

Figure 5.27. Coin from Middle Aksumite period context, Ona Adi (OA13.C1.18.65.927). King on obverse is unknown but Christian crosses are visible on the reverse. (Image by Elizabeth Peterson)

Another intriguing discovery related to the Middle Aksumite evidence in Square C1 was a co-mingled burial (Figure 5.28). The burial is composed of the remains of one young child and four infants, the remains of which were possibly placed within a slate- lined pit in the NE corner of the room. The child was found to be lying on their right side facing north with the head placed at the corner of the building and post-cranial remains aligned with Wall L7. The position of the body was slightly flexed with partly extended legs and flexed arms. Part of the cranium was missing, along with the distal lower extremities. The burial seems to have been in a primary context although most of it was heavily disturbed by termite activity. One infant was placed to the right of the child in an undetermined position. Most of the infant bones were disarticulated with the crania almost destroyed. This may have occurred because of the placement of a heavy slate slab on top of the remains. Termite activity also added to the disturbance. It was difficult to determine whether the child and the infants were placed in the burial at the same time or whether an infant was placed first, shortly followed by the child. The spine and ribs of the infant were found to be semi-articulated and this indicates that it could have been

127 placed into the grave facing in the same direction as the child. Beneath the infant burial was found another slate slab like the one found on top of the burial.

Figure 5.28. A co-mingled child burial in Square C1, Ona Adi (Image by Elizabeth Peterson)

5.5.4. Phase 4 (Late Aksumite) Occupation, parts of Loci 2, 3 and 13, Locus 14, 15, 16 and 17

Late Aksumite evidence in Square C1 was recorded beneath the plough zone associated with a very loose ashy-sandy soil with layers of charcoal-ashy lenses and several lenses of fragmented brick. Wall L17 best represents the architectural features of this phase. However, our interpretation of this wall is limited because only two courses of its southwest corner were found protruding from the east balk. The artefacts recovered from this phase consisted of an abundance of gray and black ceramic sherds along with fragmented animal bone. Gray and black wares are the dominant fabric types found in upper excavated stratigraphic layers, particularly in the Late Aksumite occupation. The

128 Late Aksumite occupation in Square C1 produced many sherds decorated with cross motifs (Chapter 6). The popularity of the cruciform motif decoration to embellish Late Aksumite Ona Adi ceramic vessels may suggest the construction of the first church during this time, most probably towards the end of the 5th century AD (Chapter 8).

Figure 5.29. Square C1 northern balk schematic loci map, Ona Adi (strata)

Loci 1, 4 and 12 are dark brown topsoil deposits found sealing against and incorporating layers of stone rubble from the partial destruction and construction of agricultural terraces. Active and continuous ploughing and other agriculture-related activities such as terracing have disturbed associated artefacts. Ceramics collected from topsoil contexts clearly reflect the pattern of our previous survey surface collections

129 which are characterized by the presence of Pre-Aksumite, PA-A transition, Early, Middle, Late and Post-Aksumite pottery. We also recorded modern material remains such as plastic bags and broken pieces of mirrors, along with faunal refuse.

Square C1 excavations clearly indicate continuity in site occupation from at least the PA-A transition to modern periods through the identification of the Early to Post Aksumite periods in the material present. Excavations also demonstrated that from the PA-A transition through Aksumite periods, a room structure was present that was continually built upon, incorporating earlier parts into newer structures.

5.6. Field D Excavations: Squares D1 and D2

Field D is situated to the south of Field C and west of Field A, on actively ploughed agricultural land. It is composed of Squares D1 and D2, excavated in 2014 and 2015, respectively (Figures 5.31 and 5.32). The 2014 excavations in D1 uncovered a lower architectural level with Pre-Aksumite materials and bedrock below extended Aksumite settlement deposits. The goal for the 2015 excavations in Field D was to enlarge the exposure of uninterrupted occupation, spanning the Pre-Aksumite to Aksumite transition, identified within the first year of excavations. The main purpose was to increase the sample size of artefacts and architecture dating to the Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition periods.

130

Figure 5.30. Square D1 Excavations, Ona Adi. In the background is artefact recovery method from the sieve(Image by Catherine D’Andrea)

Excavations in Field D supplied the most complete and secure stratigraphy and occupational history of Ona Adi. Three successive building periods were identified in Squares D1 and D2, categorized into lower and upper architecture based on their techniques of construction. The upper architecture represents a series of Aksumite walls forming several buildings. Below this, and incorporated into the upper architecture, are several PA-A transition walls indicating a long history of building and re-building at the site. Analysis of the associated ceramics dated the upper architecture from the Early to Late Aksumite periods. The lower architecture of Field D (including Squares D1 and D2) is associated with the PA-A transition, based on the ceramic data. In general, continuity in site occupation at Ona Adi is best represented by Field D deposits. In the following sections, Squares D1 and D2 are combined because they shared the same phases.

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Figure 5.31. Square D2 after the removal of the top soil (end of L2P2and 3 and top of L3P4 and 5), Ona Adi. In the background is Square D1 (Image by Elizabeth Peterson).

5.6.1. Squares D1 and D2, Phase 1: Late Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition occupation

Evidence for Phase 1 occupation in Square D1 includes a partial structure (Wall L11 and 12), possible room floor surface (L13), successive layers of room fill (parts of L10, and L14-17) and associated artefacts (Figures 5.32 and 5.33). Both L11 and 12 are very thick walls (78cm and 64cm respectively), constructed using large, mostly undressed boulders laid on a hard, dark yellowish-brown soil a few centimeters above the bedrock. These walls are generally akin to the upper architecture seen at Mezber (D’Andrea and Welton in prep). The deposits within this lower structure are very rich in charcoal and ceramics, with burned bone. Five grinding stones, two metal objects and two complete ceramic vessels were recovered from this context. The fill also includes extensive large boulder tumble, most likely the remains of the upper courses of the walls. The base of Wall L11 is marked by a hard-packed possible room floor surface with in situ evidence of a large unidentified shaped stone object and two crushed, likely mendable ceramic clusters. Artefacts found in association with these walls include typical Mezber Late Pre-Aksumite ceramics, some faunal remains, and lithics, mostly of the scraper tool type (D’Andrea and Welton in prep; Peterson 2017)

132

Figure 5.32. Square D1, end of excavation: bedrock and exposed lower architecture facing NE, Ona Adi (Image by Catherine D’Andrea)

133

Figure 5.33. Square D1 actual section profiles (top) and schematic plan (bottom, red box shows Late Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition occupation), Ona Adi

The earlier phase of architecture in Square D2 (which contains the lower parts of Walls L10, 16, and 18) is found beneath a stone pavement (L15) (Figure 5.35) where a deposit of a loose/ashy soil (L17) was found to contain ceramics dating to the PA-A transition. Wall L18 emerged within this locus, upon which Wall L4 seems to have been built (although this is unclear) (Figure 5.35).

134

Figure 5.34. Square D2, Locus 15, the pavement, Ona Adi

Figure 5.35. Upper (L4, L6 L9 and upper L10) and lower (lower part of L10, L16 and L18) architecture recorded at in Square D2 excavations, Ona Adi

Due to safety concerns arising from the depth of the unit, we were unable to excavate to bedrock. Walls 10 and 16 continued down into the lower levels, the fill of which changed from a loose/ashy soil type to a more crumbly orange/brown type (Locus

135 14). The stones within the lower part of Wall 10 showed a difference in masonry construction from the upper parts, containing larger fieldstones in a more irregular pattern.

Figure 5.36. Lower and Upper construction phases of wall L10 at Square D2, Ona Adi.

Excavating farther down in this area in Square D2, a possible surface was uncovered (L25), based on the presence of a large grinding stone and massive pot sitting on top of a surface of compacted earth (Figure 5.37). This was the last locus before the bottom of Walls L16 and 10 were reached, which continued for another 35 cm before reaching bedrock. Artefacts found at the bottom of Walls L16 and 10 were typical PA-A transition ceramics and lithics. It appears that the lower part of Wall L10 was built during the PA-A transition period and it was later added onto during the following Aksumite periods, incorporating Wall L9 and possibly Wall L4 onto its northern face. Wall L6 also seemed to continue down into the lower loci, but the bottom was difficult to identify due to disturbance in this part of the unit.

136

Figure 5.37 Square D2, Ona Adi, showing base of Wall L16, a large pot and grinding stone

5.6.2. Squares D1 and D2, Phase 2, (Early Aksumite) occupations

These phases of occupation in Square D1 witnessed the construction of a series of interconnected walls (Walls L4, 5 and 8) that underwent alteration and modifications to form possible rooms with their own respective surfaces over time (Figures 5.32 and 5.39). These walls are part of the upper architecture identified in the unit, which represents domestic areas related to cooking activities. The earliest of these structures, dated to the Early Aksumite period based on associated ceramics, is linked to a room formed by the lower part of Walls L5 and 4. The possible surface of this room (L9, P16) is littered with a large quantity of crushed, flattened, and mendable ceramics. This included an interesting mendable portion (most of the base intact) of a large bowl found alongside concentrations of charcoal and ash. Two ground stone objects in primary context were also recovered from the surface. Initially, we believed that Wall L5 in Square D1 was a stepped building comparable to the elite structure discovered in Square A1. However, it was later determined that the step-like feature of Wall L5 was in fact the top of an Early Aksumite wall: upper Wall L5 was constructed directly on top of an earlier wall (lower Wall L5), and the intersection of these two portions of Wall L5 gave the impression of a step (Figures 5.32 and 5.39). Five grinding stones, one bead, two

137 fragments of metal objects and many Early Aksumite cooking and serving vessels were collected in the room fill (L9 and parts of L10) associated with the structure.

The Early Aksumite occupation in Square D2 consisted of room fill layers (L13, 14 and 21) and a possible room floor/pavement (L15) associated with the upper architecture (Figure 5.34) The pavement abuts the north face of Wall L10, although it was not possible to determine if it undercuts the wall. The upper architecture of Square D2 included Walls L16 (upper), 9, 4, 6 (lower), and 10 (upper) (Figure 5.35). These architectural features seem to enclose three spaces: one bounded by Walls L9, 10, 4 and the northern balk; a second bordered by Walls L9, 10 and the northwestern corner of the square; and a third bounded by Walls L10, 6 and the southern balk of D2 (Figures 5.38 and 5.35). These spaces appear to be part of a larger complex of rooms, more of which were visible in prior Square D1 excavations. One in particular, Wall L4, corners with Wall L5 of Square D1, revealing the outside corner of a large structure that is further encompassed by other walls including Wall L10. It is clear that some walls underwent modification after initial building, as seen in a few examples of collapse and apparent re- building of Walls L10 and 6.

Figure 5.38. Square D2 upper wall loci and associated spaces, Ona Adi

138 5.6.3. Squares D1 and D2 Phase 3 (Middle Aksumite) Occupations

The Middle Aksumite occupation in Square D1 is characterized by a very thick wall tumble and ash layer (L7), approximately 1.6m deep, found deposited within a room formed by upper Walls L4 & 5 and Wall L8. The beginning of this phase directly corresponds to the base of a newly recovered N-S running wall L8 (Figures 5.32 and 5.39). This layer is characterized by a rich concentration of ash and charcoal, nine ground stone objects, and dense tumble mixed with lots of bone and a few lithics. The upper part of Wall L8 less consolidated, and the high concentration of rock rubble recorded in L7 could be the result of its collapse.

Figure 5.39. Square D1 northern, eastern and parts of southern profiles, Ona Adi

Phase 3 occupation in Square D2 consists of room fills (L7,11 and 12) found sealed against walls L10 (upper part) and L9 and accumulated on top of an identified possible surface (L8) (Figure 5.40). Grinding stones, slate fragments, beads, metal and shaped stone objects are recorded from these contexts. 58.14% of the total grinding stones (25 out of the total 43 grinding stones) collected from Square D2 were generated from this phase. A possible surface is evident in the deeper pails of L8 which was enclosed by Walls L9, 16, and 10. In general, apart from the disturbed portion of the unit (L5), the ceramics and other materials coming from the fill related to the upper architecture date to the Middle Aksumite period.

139

Figure 5.40. Sketch plan of Square D2 phase 3 loci locations, Ona Adi

5.6.4. Squares D1 and D2, Phase 4, (Late Aksumite) Occupations

Accumulating deposition continued to overlie the Middle Aksumite layer, this time associated with a Late Aksumite room formed by the upper part of Walls L5 and 4 and possible floors/activity areas (L3 and 6). One of the most distinctive attributes of Late Aksumite occupation in Square D1 compared to those of Early and Middle Aksumite periods was the discovery of a large number of slate/schist stone and brick fragments. As indicated above, these specimens, especially bricks, were also discovered in other excavated units at Ona Adi associated with the same stratigraphic level. The discovery of some in situ ceramics, burnt bone, and charcoal fragments, along with several grinding stones, attest to the room’s continued food-processing function. Late Aksumite room fill (L3 and 4) in Square D1 also contained very interesting objects such as an axe- like pendant, glass vessel fragments, a carnelian bead and a metal bracelet. The

140 discovery of these objects strengthened the observation that elite people were present at Ona Adi, as seen in other excavated units.

Late Aksumite deposits in Square D2 are represented by a likely midden of disturbed character in L5. Locus 5 produced ceramic artefacts of mixed character, including PA-A transition and all Aksumite and even modern period sherds. Similar to other excavated Fields at Ona Adi, Phase 4 occupations in Square D2 are endowed with a variety of artefact-bearing deposits (L2 and 3), which produced grinding stones, slate fragments, metal, and glass objects. This phase is mainly characterized by gray and black pottery wares with surfaces embellished in typical Late Aksumite styles (Chapter 6 and 7).

In conclusion, excavations in Square D2 revealed a long occupation starting in the Late Pre-Aksumite and continuing through the PA-A transition and into the Aksumite period. Taking the evidence from Squares D1 and D2 as a whole, it seems that in this part of Ona Adi, there was an Aksumite structure consisting of several room blocks that possibly underwent different building phases. The lower PA-A transition architecture revealed a possible household structure as indicated by a large grinding stone and utilitarian ceramics found within the related loci, although further exploration will clarify this. It is interesting that the Aksumite structures were incorporated into pre-existing PA- A transition architecture, demonstrating the recycling of buildings from the PA-A transition into the Aksumite periods, which has not been previously documented in this area. Excavations in Square D2 suggest that in future work, trenches should be placed to the north and east of D1 and D2, to further explore the PA-A transition and Aksumite walls that appear to be running toward the modern church located north of Field D.

5.7. Field E: Squares E1 and E2

Field E, including Squares E1 and E2, is located in the western-most sector of Ona Adi. This field was selected for excavation in the 2014 field season for three reasons: 1) the presence of dense concentrations of ceramics over the surface dating from Pre-Aksumite to modern times; 2) the expectation that this part of the site would provide deep deposits; and 3) the presence of possible pastoralist mounds which were identified in 2013 (Kebede Geleta pers. comm).

141 Excavations in Square E1 were initiated by opening a 5x5 m trench on recently ploughed agricultural land (Figure 5.41). As indicated above, the surface of the square was littered with dense concentrations of pottery dating to various periods. Contrary to our expectations, excavations in Square E1 revealed a very shallow deposit (82 cm maximum) with no evidence of architecture. Four main stratigraphic layers were identified. The very high concentration of animal bone and ceramics and the presence of ashy deposits in almost all excavated E1 loci suggest that it may have represented a relatively recent midden area. Our fieldworkers called E1 a “qara”, referring to a place where animal refuse and related garbage are dumped. This would explain both the high concentration of ceramics and animal bone.

Figure 5.41. Top of Square E1, Ona Adi

One of the most interesting finds in Square E1 was the identification of a human burial. The body was buried in a clearly defined pit which was not lined with stones (Figure 5.42). Initially, the pit outline was only visible around the lower part of the body, and not near the head. One large stone was found exactly on top of the burial in an overlying locus. The pit was filled with a dark soil which is different from the surrounding reddish brown hard packed soil. We found charcoal, red ocher, ceramics and lithics associated with the burial.

142

Figure 5.42 Human burial in Square E1, Ona Adi

Square E2 is a 2 x 3 m test pit placed on top of one of several mounds recorded in previous ETAP surveys (Figure 5.43). These mounds could be of pastoral origin

143 because of their shape and the concentration of white quartz nodules, which are not found naturally in the area around Ona Adi (Figure 5.43). The main reason to excavate Square E2 was to discern the stratigraphy of the mound and to determine if pastoral burials were present. A day before the opening of the trench, we discovered an exposed wall in the southern part of the mound and an additional objective was to determine the nature of this wall and to delineate any associated rooms.

Figure 5.43. Square E2, set on a possible pastoralist mound at the western margin of Ona Adi

Excavations in Square E2 uncovered two connecting wall fragments (L4 and 5) forming a possible room. The thick room fill deposit and associated artefacts indicate a succession of secondary activities. For instance, at least four individuals buried at different times were found inside this structure. Co-mingled Burials #1 and #2 were the first to be discovered (Figure 5.44). Two crania were observed: the skull of Individual #1 was facing downward and the top of the head was pointing to the east, while the skull of Individual #2 was found resting on its right side facing east. There are no mandibles attached to the skulls. Most postcranial remains of the two individuals are mixed. Distal limbs of Individual #1 or #2 were found in primary context in the western half of the unit (Figure 5.44). The bones are greatly deteriorated and are very fragile because of termite activity. There likely was a burial pit, but it is no longer visible. It is not clear why the two individuals are co-mingled, but it is possible they were disturbed when the pit for Burial #3 was excavated.

144

Figure 5.44. Co-mingled burials in Square E2, Ona Adi

The individual in Burial #3 was found lying on the right side facing south. The position of the body is loosely flexed and is semi-articulated. The left arm crosses the abdomen with the wrist flexed medially and the left leg is slightly bent. The spinal column was not clearly visible and pelvic bones were highly fragmented.

145

Figure 5.45. The position of Individual #3 burial in Square E2, Ona Adi

Burial #4 probably represents a small child found in the southwest side of Square E2, to the south of Burial #3. The body is probably in primary context but is highly disturbed. Only the upper torso and skull are present in an articulated state. The bottom torso, arms and legs are missing. The body position may have been extended. It appears that a potsherd and some small stones were inserted in the mouth of the infant. The face is twisted, with the lower jaw and incisors pointing to the north, and potsherds are visible protruding between the mandible and maxilla (Figure 5.46). This gives the impression that the cranium was crushed, possibly during the excavation of Burial #3. This succession of secondary activities highly disturbed the unit and made it difficult to identify the primary use of the mound. However, based on Square E2 ceramic analyses, the mound and its associated finds could be dated to the later part of the Aksumite period.

146

Figure 5.46. The position of Individual 4 burial in Square E2, Ona Adi

In conclusion, the excavations at Ona Adi exposed undisturbed, sealed Pre- Aksumite levels underlying the Aksumite deposits. Two main building periods, consisting of lower and upper architectural levels, have been identified at the site. The lower architecture and associated ceramic artefacts represent the remains of PA-A transition households and the upper buildings and associated artefacts are linked to several Aksumite period settlement phases (see Table 5.3 for summary of the main excavation results and stratigraphic phasing).

147 Table 5.3. Summary chart of identified occupational phases at Ona Adi Period/Field Field Field B1 Field C1 Field D1 Field Field E1 Field E2 A1 D2 Post-Aksumite Phase 4 Phase 3 Mixed Mixed (Walls (Wall L5 ceramic ceramic L7 and (upper collections collections L8, part), Loci and no locus 2) 2-4) architecture

Late Aksumite Phase 3 Phase 2 Phase 4 Phase 5 Phase 5 Phase 1?? (Wall (Walls L5 (Walls L16 (Walls, (Walls, (Walls L4 L9, loci (lower and 17; upper upper and L5; 3,11 and part) and Loci parts parts of L4 parts of based on 12) L8; Loci of L2&3, and 5 L4 and architectural 6,7 and 8) Loci 13- 6; style). 15) Loci 3 and 6) Loci 2 and 3)

Middle Aksumite Phase 2 Phase 1 Phase 3 Phase 4 Phase 4 (Wall (Walls L14 (Walls (Walls, (Walls, L10, loci and 15; L5,7 and upper upper 4 and Loci 11- 24; parts parts of L4 part of 13) 13) of L2&3, 8, and 5; L10 and parts of Locus 7) L9; Loci L18, and 7,8, 11 L19) and 12)

Early Aksumite Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 3 (Wall (Walls L9 (Walls L4, (Walls, L6, and 21; L5 (lower lower locus 5) Loci 10, 19 part) and parts of and 20) L8; Loci 9- L4’ and 10) L6., and L9, upper parts of L16 and L10; Loci 13-15)

Pre-Aksumite to Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 2 Aksumite (Wall L23; (Walls L11 (Walls Transition Loci 22 and L12, lower and 25) part of L10, L16 L10, and and L18; L13 and Loci 17. 14) 19, 20, 22-23 and 25)

148 Period/Field Field Field B1 Field C1 Field D1 Field Field E1 Field E2 A1 D2 Late Pre-Aksumite Phase 1 Phase 1 (loci 15- (Loci 24, 17) 26 and 27)

5.8. Chapter Summary

One of the most significant results of ETAP research at Ona Adi is the discovery of undisturbed, sealed Pre-Aksumite levels underlying Aksumite deposits. Two main building periods have been identified at Ona Adi. The buildings display various construction techniques, including Early Aksumite elite stepped walls (Square A1) and possible domestic structures of both the Aksumite and PA-A transition periods (Squares D1, D2, and C1). The upper architecture of the site represents the remains of several Aksumite period buildings. These structures are constructed by roughly hewn, randomly coursed stones with a rubble core tightly integrated with mud mortar. The continued use of rounded natural stones to erect Aksumite walls reveals a transfer of technological style from the lower architecture periods. However, during the upper building phases, the use of pure natural fieldstones for construction was rare. Some upper architectural structures are represented by finely dressed stepped walls with large corner blocks and slate stone steps. This is a common Aksumite building technique recorded both at Matara and Aksum area archaeological sites since the Classical Aksumite period. Our survey and excavations at Ona Adi suggest it to be an important Aksumite urban center that was continually occupied from the Pre-Aksumite through to the Aksumite period, encompassing the PA-A transition. This was interpreted based on the presence of both local and imported ceramics at Ona Adi, similar to those found in other important trade and urban centers in the Horn of Africa.

149 Chapter 6.

Results: Ona Adi Ceramic Types

This chapter discusses the development of a ceramic typology and seriation for ceramics recovered from Ona Adi during field seasons from 2013-15. Given that this study represents the first systematic analysis of Aksumite period ceramics in Eastern Tigrai, it was necessary to complete base-line analyses. The main questions asked of the Ona Adi ceramics included how they were made, used and decorated. Properly answering these questions required systematic and detailed investigation of the collected sherds for the sake of gathering data that could be used to achieve the research objectives formulated by this thesis project.

Systematically excavated pottery assemblages provide archaeologists with an ideal medium to study the past (Shepard 1956; Rice 1987; Sinopoli 1991; Skibo and Feinman 1999). A series of vessel attributes were systematically selected, measured, exhaustively described, characterized, and finally vessels were sorted into groups/types based on shared attributes to provide answers to the three major questions mentioned above. The selected and analyzed vessel attributes are directly related to the technology, function, and style of the ceramic collection under discussion. The following section provides a detailed discussion of the vessel attributes (rim, lip, fabric, surface treatment, decoration and form) used to characterize Ona Adi ceramic collections.

6.1. Rim and Rim Profile

In archaeological terminology, the rim of a ceramic vessel is the body part which forms the opening or mouth of that vessel (Rice 1987, Hoard et al. 2003). If the vessel has a neck, then the body between the lip and the neck is the rim (Figure 6.1). The orientation or angle of the mouth or opening of the vessel is known as the rim profile.

150

Figure 6.1. Parts of a pottery vessel. The pot is from Ona Adi Square C1 Locus 2 Pail 35 (OA13.C1.2.35)

Systematic analysis of Ona Adi ceramic collections in terms of rim attributes enables the identification of 5 major types and 4 affiliated varieties of qualitative rim profile categories. These are: 1) direct rim profiles, where rims are generally parallel to the main body and rim angles are zero; 2) everted rim profiles, where rims are curved outward to a varying degree; 3) inverted rim profiles, rims which are inwardly oriented from the wall of vessels which have no recognizable neck; 4) ledged rim profiles, where rims are bent out ward at right angle to the wall of the vessel to form a hanging thin flattened surface; and 5) flaring rim profiles, which are characterized by a combination of everted and inverted rim profile attributes (Table 6.1)

Table 6.1. Ona Adi rim profile types and varieties (definitions of attributes after Hoard et al, 2003) Types and Sub- Description Ona Adi examples Varieties Everted When the rim is bent outward to a varying degree.

Everted -- Rounded When the rim is bent outward to a varying degree variety and has a rounded cross-section/profile.

151 Types and Sub- Description Ona Adi examples Varieties Everted -- Thick Everted rim profile where the thickened rim is Rounded Variety curved out from the vessel wall and may be rolled/folded back toward the neck of the vessel.

Collared This type occurs when additional clay is applied to the exterior of the rim or when the clay is folded over toward the exterior to create a distinct rim and lip ridge.

Direct Wall thickness is relatively constant from the neck of the orifice to the lip.

Direct -- Slightly A slight tilt of the rim toward the exterior surface Everted Variety resulting in a gentle beveled shape below the lip.

Ledged Characterized by a flat surface formed by an outward curve of the rim from the wall of the vessel by close to 90 degrees. In most circumstances, it also serves as a hand grip for the vessel. Flaring This kind of rim shape is denoted by a rim profile direction which is tilted inward toward the vessel mouth first and then is suddenly inclined outward at the vessel opening. This is one of the main

traits of short or neckless vessel forms. Inverted The orientation of the rim contour is curved in toward the interior surface of a vessel. This is usually a characteristic of restricted vessel forms.

6.2. Lip shapes

The lip of a potsherd refers to the tip of the rim and forms edge of the mouth of the vessel (Figure 6.1; Collett 2012). Depending on the shape, size and type of vessel, lip forms can be varied accordingly. Three major lips types were recorded in Ona Adi sherds. These are pointed, flat and rounded lips (Figure 6.2).

152

Figure 6.2. Major types of Ona Adi ceramic lip forms

In some circumstances, however, unusual lip forms were also recorded (Figure 6.3). These lip forms create an irregular orifice curvature which makes the whole vessel distinctive. Some of the vessels identified from Ona Adi having this kind of lip were braziers.

Figure 6.3. Notches on the lip of sherd #OA13.A1.1.11.10 (left) and irregular lip form sherd #OA13.A1.1.11.4 (right)

6.3. Fabric

All collected ceramic sherds from Ona Adi are handmade, mainly using coiling and pinching vessel construction techniques. Using the methods described in Chapter Four above, four major fabric types were established: Orange-Red Ware (ORW), Brown

153 Ware (BW), Gray Ware (GW) and Black Ware (BW). Each fabric group in turn is composed of several fabric varieties.

6.3.1. Orange-Red Ware (ORW)

A large number of Ona Adi potsherds are represented by the Orange-Red Ware fabric group (Chapter 7). They are reported from all Ona Adi excavated contexts, but with significant variation in frequency distribution. Compared to the upper levels in Ona Adi, the lower level deposits generally bear large quantities of ORW pottery sherds. In the Aksum-Yeha area, a ceramic fabric type related to ORW is designated as a main chronological marker of the early Aksumite period (Wilding 1989). However, data from Ona Adi reveal the difficulty of exclusively ascribing the ORW fabric to a specific period or phase.

The ORW fabric type at Ona Adi was manufactured in a variety of forms (cooking, serving, and storing) and with various surface treatments. Like other identified ceramic fabric groups, ORW ceramic sherds are divided into fine, medium, and coarse ware categories mainly based on macroscopic analysis of the texture and temper types used in the productions of the vessels. Quartz, sand, mica, organic matter (e.g. straw) and crushed pottery are the major temper types identified in ORW ceramics.

Figure 6.4. ORW sherds from the different stratigraphic levels of Square D2, Ona Adi

Figure 6.4A-C shows ORW pottery recorded from the lower, middle, and upper deposits of Square D2. Figure 6A represents a medium coarse ORW medium-sized jar rim collected from the deepest stratigraphic layer of D2, just above the bedrock (Locus 27). Sand and mica are the two major temper types identified in the sherd. Figure 6B represents coarse fabric large open bowls found in the upper stratigraphic layer of the

154 same square (Locus 19) characterized mainly by white quartz temper. Similarly, Figure 6C reveals a fine ORW cup rim fragment with remnants of red slip on its external surface and very limited or almost no visible inclusions. The general trend seen across the Ona Adi ceramic fabrics, including ORW, reveals that fine and sometimes medium fabrics are used to create small cooking and serving vessels and medium and coarse fabrics are characteristic of larger storage and food processing pots. Medium and large cooking pots and large non-portable jars and bottles at Ona Adi are characterized by thick walls and abundant coarse mineral inclusions which makes them heavy to lift and more resistant to thermal shock.

The Orange-Red Ware (ORW) fabric type includes nine fabric varieties. The cause of the variation is mainly due to the type and size of inclusions and firing atmosphere, which may indicate different workshops, different clay sources or different production time periods (Figure 6.4 and Table 6.2).

Table 6.2. Orange-Red Ware (ORW) Fabric Type Varieties

Variety Variety Description Illustrations No. Name 1 ORW-CQ This class is mainly (Coarse characterized by a coarse Quartz) paste and the presence of abundant inclusions, mostly angular and sub-angular large quartz grains. Other inclusion types such as sand and grog are also common in ORW- CQ. It generally has smoothed to rough surfaces with yellowish red (5YR 5/6) surface and light red (2.5YR 6/6) core colors. 2 ORW-MF ORW-MF has a medium (Medium fabric which is mainly Fine) characterized by the presence of a semi-dense paste and few pores and voids. It is well and evenly fired, with burnished or smoothed red (2.5YR 4/6) surfaces and core colors. The wall thickness of this class ranges from 7 mm- 13 mm.

155 Variety Variety Description Illustrations No. Name 3 ORW-MFTW This class has almost the (Medium same fabric characteristics as Fine Thin- those of ORW-MF but with Walled) thinner walls (5mm-8mm). The core of this fabric is light red (2.5YR 6/6) and it has dark brown to red surfaces. Its inclusions include quartz and sand. 4 ORW-DBC Overall, similar in fabric, (Dense temper, body texture and Black Core) color to ORW-MFTW, but it has relatively thicker wall thicknesses (6-14 mm) and a dense and compact black core due to irregular firing.

5 ORW-CV This fabric is characterized by (Coarse very coarse paste, dominated Vegetal) by abundant vegetal temper. It has rough reddish-brown (2.5YR 5/4) colored surfaces and thick irregular walls. One of the structures found in Square A was plastered with materials exactly similar to this paste and it was most likely a brick or plaster material. 6 ORW-MC An evenly fired fabric mainly (Medium characterized by a paste Coarse) containing inclusions varying between coarse and fine grains. It has polished or smoothed surfaces with a reddish-yellow (5YR 6/6) color. The core also has a similar color to that of the body and it has a wall thickness of 7-11 mm. Quartz and sand are the main inclusions in this class.

156 Variety Variety Description Illustrations No. Name 7 ORW-BI A semi-dense and compact (Black paste with relatively fine- Interior) grained quartz and sand temper. One of the main attributes of this class is the different coloring of its interior surface which is black towards the interior and dark red at the exterior. This may be due to insufficient firing. It has well-smoothed external and smoothed to rough internal surfaces, with an average wall thickness of 9.5mm. 8 ORW- Almost the same in its overall MCGC fabric characteristics with that (Medium of ORW-MC, having a Coarse Gray medium-coarse or fine paste Core) with reddish-yellow smoothed surfaces. However, unlike ORW-MC, it has a section that reveals a gray core and gray margins. Some of the sherds of this fabric have wall thicknesses as high as 13mm.

9 ORW-DF Sherds categorized under this (Dense Fine) class possess a very dense and fine paste with almost no recognizable temper or voids. It has well-fired smoothed surfaces, with a light reddish- orange/ yellow (5 YR 7/6) surface color and a yellowish- red (5 YR 5/8) core. On average this class has a 6 mm to 9 mm wall thickness.

6.3.2. Brown Ware (BW)

In terms of quantity, Brown Ware is the second most common fabric encountered in Ona Adi ceramic collections. Although found in almost all stratigraphic layers, the middle part of the Ona Adi stratigraphic sequences produced the majority of BW potsherds (Chapter 7). Figure 6.5 represents some of the BW varieties recorded. This

157 fabric appears in various forms, from small cups to large jars, with relatively compact and hard surfaces embellished with different decorations. BW sherds collected from lower contexts have rich mica temper inclusions, and light brown rough to smooth external and internal surfaces and are usually decorated by notches on the lip and bands of wavy lines below the rim (example, Figure 6.5). These types of sherds are also recorded at the Pre-Aksumite site of Mezber, associated with the upper architectural level at the site (Manzo and Gaudiello in prep). At Ona Adi they are closely associated with the lower architecture in Fields C and D, which is stratigraphically dated to Phase 2 of the cultural occupation at the site, during the Pre-Aksumite to Aksumite transition (PA- A transition). The pottery sherd fragment shown in Figure 6.5B in particular represents an open bowl vessel previously recorded from sites in the Aksum-Yeha area dated to the 4th/3rd century BC (Bard et al 2014; Perlingieri personal comm). Examples of BW potsherds collected from Late Aksumite contexts representing a small globular jar and large open bowl are also displayed in Figure 6.5 (C and D respectively). The large open bowl sherd fragments are characterized by rough surfaces (both internal and external), which is one of the attributes of BW fabric groups recorded from Ona Adi.

Figure 6.5. Brown Wares (A(OA14.D1.9.836.56), B(OA14.C1.25.1077.23), C (OA13.A1.3.497.23) and D (OA13.C1.2.53427/63/95))

158 During the PA-A transition period, most BW potsherds have mica and quartz inclusions as the main tempering elements. Over time, especially during the later Early Aksumite and Middle Aksumite periods, the use of mica temper was abandoned until its slow and gradual reappearance during Late Aksumite times (Chapter 6). On average, BW sherds have 8-9 mm wall thicknesses, with rough, smoothed, or polished surfaces, and were well-fired in a controlled environment. As noted below, many of the recognized BW forms represent cooking and tableware open and regular body profile vessels.

Table 6.3. Brown Ware (BW) Fabric Type Varieties

Variety Variety Name Description Illustrations No. 1 BW-MCD This is one of the few (Medium brown ware fabric groups Coarse having relatively coarser Dense) paste and inclusions. The main attribute of this class is that it is harder, smoother and denser than the previous group (ORW). Quartz and sand are the dominant temper types, but by no means the only ones. Wall thickness in this class varies from 7 mm to 12 mm. 2 BW-MCDBC Almost the same as BW- (Medium MCD (see below), but the Coarse Dense cross section of this fabric Black Core) reveals a charcoal black core. This may be due a shorter firing time or a lower firing temperature. This class has burnished to smoothed or sometimes rough surfaces, with a 6 to 13 mm wall thickness. Usually the thickness of the wall and the height and weight of the vessel are directly proportional (Skibo 2012).

159 Variety Variety Name Description Illustrations No. 3 BW-DGCT Dense fine fabric with a low (Dense Gray quantity of very fine Core Thin inclusions of white quartz Walled) and sand temper. The core is generally fired to a dark gray/gray color with thin brown margins. It has well- smoothed surfaces with a 5-8mm wall thickness. 4 BW-MFD A fabric class (Medium Fine characterized by a high Dense) density of fine to medium- fine mica inclusions, along with quartz and sand. It has an uneven color and ranges from light brown to brown or gray due to inconsistent firing. It has a medium wall thickness. 5 BW-FM (Fine This fabric is mainly Mica defined by the association Inclusions) of mineral micaceous temper with other organic inclusions. Otherwise its characteristics are similar to BW-MFD fabric group.

6 BW-PDT A hard and compacted (Pinkish paste with white clay Dense Thin- inclusions. It usually has Walled with very thin walls, 5-8mm white clay thick, and a pinkish to inclusions) pinkish-gray colored (7.5YR 7/2) well- smoothed surface. Some of the sherds in this class contain thin mica temper.

160 Variety Variety Name Description Illustrations No. 7 BW-DF This fabric has a hard and (Dense Fine) compact paste with no apparent temper. It has well-fired smoothed/polished surfaces with a light brown (7.5 YR 6/6) surface color and yellowish red (5 YR 5/8) core. On average, this class has an 8 mm to 12 mm wall thickness. 8 BW-DFB A variant of the BW-DF (Dense Fine class, but with a dark gray Black core) or black core in cross section. This class has smooth to rough surfaces with thin (5-7mm) to thick (9-13mm) walls. Sand, grog and some organic inclusions are the predominant temper types used in this fabric class.

6.3.3. Gray and Black Wares (GW and BLW)

Gray and Black Wares are the dominant fabric types in the upper stratigraphic layers at Ona Adi, especially in the Late Aksumite period occupation. Figure 6.6 presents an example showing the approximate proportions of pottery fabric types found in the upper contexts. From every ten randomly selected sherds, at least six of them usually belong to the gray/black ware category in the upper contexts (Chapter 7). Only a small number of GW and BLW sherds were collected from deeper contexts. Most collected sherds with depicted cross decorations are comprised of GW or BLW. Their stratigraphic associations and decorations indicate that GW and BLW potsherds were popular during the Late Aksumite period at Ona Adi. Except for some elite people’s fine, thin-walled vessels (Figure 6.6), these ware groups at Ona Adi are distinguished by crude, thick forms and rough surfaces.

There could be several reasons for this kind of surface finish, including firing in a reducing atmosphere, such as pit firing in an anoxic environment using dung as a fuel source, for making pottery at the site. Another possible factor could be related to the general environmental and climatic conditions of the region during the Late Aksumite

161 period. Some palaeoclimate studies of this time reveal the occurrence of very dry climatic conditions and extensive deforestation in the region (Brancaccio et al 1997; Machado et al 1998; Nyssen et al 2015). Drought and erosion could have highly affected harvesting and therefore the income of the population to support independent potter specialists. In these circumstances, part-time potters could have been forced to produce their own vessels at home with limited skill and not enough wood (due to deforestation) for firing.

Figure 6.6. Sherds from OA13.C2.534

162 Table 6.4. Gray Ware (GW) Fabric Type and Varieties Variety Variety Name Description Illustrations No. 1 GW-MF The fabric of GW-MF is a gray (Medium Fine) paste with a mineral temper made up of white inclusions of quartz and sometimes micaceous specks. The surface varies between rough and polished. This fabric is frequent in the upper levels at the site or on the surface.

2 GW-MD This is a very compact dark- (Medium grey paste, with few very fine Dense) inclusions, mostly of fine white quartz grains. The core of this fabric class sometimes shows a black strip along the margins. It has smoothed to rough surfaces.

Table 6.5. Black Ware (BLW) Fabric Type BLW-DF Very fine and compact paste with (Dense Fine) charcoal black surfaces and core, most probably because of the firing atmosphere. These sherds have different surfaces ranging from well-polished to very rough in most circumstances. The wall thickness also varies according to the surface treatment of a specific sherd. Sherds with a polished and burnished surface have usually a thin wall thickness (5-7 mm) and other sherds with a rough surface have a wall as thick as 14mm.

6.4. Surface Treatment

As already mentioned in Chapter 4, the surfaces of Ona Adi ceramics were treated with a variety of techniques at different stages of the vessel production process. The most common surface treatment techniques include slipping, burnishing, scraping,

163 and smoothing. Many analyzed sherds also have rough surfaces, lacking any identifiable additional surface treatment.

6.4.1. Scraping

One of the most interesting and distinctive types of potsherd surface treatment techniques frequently recorded at Ona Adi is scraping. A scraped surface finish is not by any means unique to Ona Adi or the eastern Tigrai ceramic tradition. Scraped potsherds were first recorded in the upper Nile Valley area as far back as the 6th millennium BC and are the main attributes of the Atbai ceramic tradition that flourished in the Eritrea- Sudanese lowlands (D’Andrea et al. 2008; Fattovich 1991). The presence of this surface treatment technique is also previously reported from Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite context ceramic studies in the Aksum-Yeha area (Fattovich 1990). In the Aksum-Yeha area, the implementation of a scraping or wiping system to finish the surface of potsherds is very rare and limited only to the internal surfaces of the sherds. At Ona Adi specifically (Figure 6.7) and in eastern Tigrai in general (D’Andrea et al. 2008), this surface treatment technique is quite ubiquitous and is employed on both the internal and external surfaces of potsherds. Ona Adi excavated sherd fragments exhibiting a scraped or wiped surface are easily identifiable because of the presence of broad sweeping strokes across their body and their very thick and gritty body wall characteristics.

Figure 6.7. Exterior and interior surfaces of sherd #OA15.D2.21.1451.12 using a scraping-wiping technique.

164 The deepest excavated layers at Ona Adi (especially the PA-A transition and Early Aksumite occupational layers) bear the highest relative numbers of scraped surface sherds (Chapter 7). In these stratigraphic levels, potsherds were recorded in association with other material cultural remains, including scrapers (Peterson 2017). This association and the presence of irregular shallow striation marks may indicate the use of scrapers in the production of the scraped/wiped surface treatment technique at Ona Adi.

Figure 6.8 suggests another possible method employed to produce scraped surfaces. Short and irregular striation marks, especially on the interior surface, are clearly visible on the sherd in Figure 6.8. A close examination of the striations suggests the use of straw to produce this surface. Straw husks or chaff and grass/stems could have left hollow voids and non-patterned scars on the sherd surface if they were used by a potter to wipe a leather-hard or even wet vessel body using straw or other stems.

Figure 6.8. The inside and outside surface finish of Ona Adi excavated potsherd #OA15.D2.12.1306.28

6.4.2. Basket/mat-impressed

The presence of basket/mat impressed sherds from a securely excavated context at Ona Adi is intriguing (Figure 6.9). The highest number of basket-impressed sherds at Ona Adi are collected from contexts dating to the Late Early Aksumite to the beginning of the Middle Aksumite period. The decoration of these sherds could have been performed either by using the interior of a basket vessel as an open mold or by wrapping leather-hard or wet clay around a piece of mat to create the observable

165 pattern. Basket/mat-impressed sherds from Ona Adi seem closely related to scraped sherds because most have interior surfaces treated by scraping-wiping. It would be interesting to know if the use of scraping surface treatment techniques triggered a potter’s idea of designing mat/basket impressed sherds or vice-versa. Sherd A in Figure 6.9 is characterized by a combination of rough to smooth and mat-impressed external and scraped internal surfaces, while Sherd B has the imprint of the basket’s base on the external surface and shallow sweeping strokes across the internal surface.

In the Aksum-Yeha area, the presence of very few basket/mat-impressed sherds were reported both from Pre-Aksumite contexts (Wilding 1989) and Late Aksumite deposits at the “D site” at Kidane Miheret (Phillips 2000). Wilding explained the presence of these very few Pre-Aksumite basket-impressed sherds at Aksum as direct imports from the Meroe and Nile Valley region. However, according to Phillips (2000), the shapes and fabrics of these sherds indicate a local origin—not imported from Nubia. The comparatively high frequency of these sherds from secure contexts at Ona Adi and Matara (Anfray 1966) suggests basket/mat-impressed potsherds as one component of the typical local Eastern Tigrai and Southern Eritrea regional ceramic tradition.

Figure 6.9. Basket-impressed external surface finish of potsherds # OA14.C1.14.665.16 (A) and OA14.C1.14.665.23 (B) from Square C1

6.4.3. Cord-marked/impressed

Similarly, analysis of Ona Adi excavated ceramics reveals the combination of scraping-wiping surface treatment techniques with another important surface treatment:

166 cord marked/impressed patterns. These sherds have smoothed external surfaces with bands of relatively broad parallel shallow cord marks and scraped internal surfaces (Figure 6.10). In the Aksum and Yeha areas, a surface finish comparable to Ona Adi’s cord-marked sherds and a corrugated surface was ubiquitous starting from the end of the Early Aksumite period through the entire Classical Aksumite period (Phillips 2000). However, there is a significant difference between the cord-marked and corrugated surface finishes. Unlike cord-marked surfaces, corrugated sherds reveal burnished, semi-burnished, or very smoothed internal and external surfaces. The corrugation motifs, usually found on the exterior, were also executed with greater precision and superior quality and in combination with other decorative motifs such as chevron, dashed, and punctate forms. This was one of the reasons that Wilding (1989) believed that the ceramics of this period were the workmanship of craft specialists. Is there any possible relationship between cord-marked Eastern Tigrai ceramics and corrugated Western Tigrai vessels? Is there any possibility that corrugated sherds evolved from cord-marked ones or vice versa? Or were they contemporaneous but different ceramic traditions representing the Western and Eastern Tigrai regions? Answering these questions will require further multi-dimensional ceramic study encompassing both regions.

Figure 6.10. Cord-marked external and scraped internal surfaces on sherds # OA14.E2.2.862.45/58 from Square E2

6.4.4. Smoothing

Smoothing is the most frequently employed ceramic surface finishing method at Ona Adi. It is used to embellish the surfaces of potsherds collected from all stratigraphic levels and across all identified vessel form categories including cooking, serving and

167 storage vessels. Smoothed surfaces could have been formed by a gentle touch and light movement of the palm of a hand across the entire wet body of a vessel or by using a material such as a hide for the purpose (Rice 1987; Sinopoli 1999). Smoothing is also one of the major surface treatment techniques identified from the analysis of both Mezber (Manzo and Gaudiello in prep) and Matara (Anfray 1966) excavated potsherds.

Figure 6.11. Smoothed external surfaces of sherds # OA15.D2.27.1188.33 and OA14.E1.2.762.194

Some distinctive potsherds were identified which could be part of the local ceramic tradition of the Eastern Tigrai region and have smoothed surfaces. Figure 6.11 represent examples of such types. These sherds (Figure 6.11A and B) are characterized by thickened rims with several parallel thick ribs under the rim. Sherd A was collected from the deepest levels of Square D2, just above the bedrock, and its stratigraphic context suggests a PA-A transition period vessel. Sherd B was collected from Square E1, in which a very shallow ceramic- and burial-bearing deposit is found between two large mounds at the western edge of Ona Adi. The sherd was found just above the bedrock, next to the burial pit where a well-preserved body of an individual was buried. This type of vessel fragment was also recorded at other sites surrounding Ona Adi in the ETAP regional survey of Gulo Makeda woreda (D’Andrea et al. 2008). Sometimes external surfaces of this type also demonstrate patches of red slip finish lightly coating their fabric, which has mineral and vegetal inclusions.

168 6.4.5. Slipping

The majority of the recorded slipped vessels at Ona Adi tend to be thin-walled cups, small- and medium-sized bowls and jars, and other similar tableware-serving vessels. Analysis of Ona Adi sherds identified at least two methods of creating slipped surface treatments. The first, and most frequently used, method was preparing a slip solution in a container and dipping a leather-hard dry or even already fired vessel into the slip solution to form the desired surface finish (Figure 6.12). The slip solution is usually red in color, which produces a red-slipped surface. Some originally gray/black and brown fired vessels have red external surfaces due to the application of red slip, with the original fired color on the inside (Figure 6.12B). A variant of this technique is the application of separately prepared slip solution onto the desired parts of the vessel using a brush or cloth. As indicated in Figure 6.12 (B and C), this technique creates zonal slipping on the selected body parts of a vessel, like other common decorative motifs. The second slipping method used to finish the surface of some Ona Adi potsherds can be referred to as wet-slipping or self-slipping. This could have been the result of extreme smoothing of recently finished vessel surfaces using a wet palm by the potter. The slip created by this method is usually found on both internal and external surfaces of open bowls and dishes.

169

Figure 6.12. Slipped surfaces (internal and external) of sherds A) OA14.E2.8.891.136 from Square E2, and B) OA14.C1.25.1070.6 from Square C1.

6.4.6. Polishing/burnishing

Evidence of paddle marks were recorded from some analyzed sherds at Ona Adi, especially in thin-walled pots (Figure 6.13). Vessels of this type have polished/burnished surface finishes. Several hard and very smoothed oval pebbles were excavated from various contexts at Ona Adi. The burnishing marks noticed on burnished/polished sherds could have been made using such a pebble. However, other materials such as bone and wood could have also been used. This kind of surface treatment is usually applied to the upper parts of vessels, including the rim, neck, and shoulder area on the exterior surface. We have relatively few sherds which have burnished/polished internal surfaces.

170

Figure 6.13. Polished external and rough internal surface of sherd # OA14.E2.8.891.110 from Square E2.

6.4.7. Rough surface finish

Many analyzed sherds have rough surfaces, lacking any identifiable additional surface treatment. Analogy is a common practice in archaeology. For example, based on shape-function analogy, necked vessels have been associated with storing, smaller jars with carrying liquids, open bowls and plates with serving etc. (see Chapter 4). Similarly, archaeologists associated a rough surface finish with cooking vessels because it provides pots with more surface area to absorb heat (Rice 1987). Sherds identified as basins, cooking and storage vessels, and braziers usually have this kind of surfaces at Ona Adi. However, some excavated sherds have extremely rough surfaces and thick cross-sections with coarse mineral and vegetal inclusions (Figure 6.14). These sherds could have been used for different purposes. Fired clay was used as a construction raw material for some ancient features at Ona Adi (Chapter 5). Local people also informed us about the discovery of brick walls when they excavated the church yard for modern burials and in an unsuccessful attempt to enlarge the church. In addition to these uses, ancient Ona Adi communities could have used clay to plaster their houses.

171

Figure 6.14. Ceramic piece with rough surface treatment (OA13.A1.4.40.22), brick/plastering agent?

6.5. Decorations

6.5.1. Incisions

Incisions were the most abundantly used decoration type at Ona Adi. They were recorded on sherds collected from all excavated sequences at the site. Frequently, incised decorations were used to embellish the exterior of vessels. However, there are also a few instances, especially in open bowls and dishes, where internal surfaces bear incisions. Analysis of the incisions on the potsherds reveals the use of a sharply pointed tool to create incisions. The incisions could have been created using a strong stalk-like stylus directly applied on a leather-hard dry vessel body. Based on the thickness of grass stems used and the applied weight (by the potter), we can roughly divide identified incision decorations into thin and thick incisions. Thin incisions are relatively shallow and faint continuous strokes, usually on the bodies of hard, compact, and thin walled vessels. Most of the incised decorations recorded from Ona Adi’s deepest contexts (PA- A transition and Early Aksumite period levels) belong in the thin incision category (Chapter 7). In contrast, thick incision decorations are deeper and wider in dimension and are most prevalent in later occupational phases, especially during the end of the Middle Aksumite period and the entire Late Aksumite period. They are the dominant decoration type recorded on GW and BLW fabric groups. In general, the results of study

172 of the surface finishes of Ona Adi ceramics show a great tendency toward using incisions to decorate the exterior surface of the upper body, just below the rim and on the shoulder portion of the vessel.

Based on the pattern, design and quantity of incision lines employed to decorate a vessel, thin and thick incision decoration types can be subdivided into the following categories: single-horizontal; horizontal-parallel; oblique-parallel; vertical-parallel; dashed (herringbone pattern); wavy (zig-zag) lines; cross-hatched (fishnet); chevron; and non-patterned (Table 6.6). The non-patterned incision subtype is usually the end result of a scraped surface finish (Figure 6.7). Single-horizontal incisions are frequently recorded as a continuous line running along the lip-rim and/or neck-shoulder parts of a vessel, demarcating major junction points. If the identified vessel type is a carinated one, single-horizontal incisions are drawn following the carination, to emphasize the division of the vessel body below and above the carination (Figure 6.15C). Single-horizontal incisions are mostly executed on the external surface of a vessel. Many excavated sherds from Ona Adi have surfaces treated with more than one decoration type. When single-horizontal incision appears in combination with other decoration types to embellish the surface of a sherd, it usually serves as a border line, separating other decorative motifs into panels (Figure 6.15A, B, D & E).

Figure 6.15. Thin incisions (A (OA14.E1.2.762.283/14), B (OA15.D2.26.1182.39), C (OA13.A1.2.189.38), D (OA14.C1.25.1057.7), E (OA14.D1.7.748.2/7/32))

173 Thick incisions and cross motifs are the main decorations found on Late Aksumite period potsherds collected at Ona Adi (see below and Chapter 7). Thick incisions are expressed in various forms across the surfaces of sherds, frequently encircling the upper body part of vessels. They often appear in the form of bands of chevrons along the rim and shoulder parts on the exterior surface of gray/black vessels (Figure 6.16: 2 and 9). It is also common to observe carinated bowls and jars whose main body is decorated with thick incisions originating from the carination (Figure 6.16: 3 and 7). Despite the fact that bands of horizontal or nearly horizontal parallel thick incisions below the rim are more prevalent (Figure 6.16: 4), similar decoration types are also recorded from vessel exteriors around the handle-body joint areas (Figure 6.16: 1). As evident in Figure 6.16:10, vertical thick incisions also decorate sherd surfaces, and are usually recorded framing other motif patterns, in this specific case a chain of diamonds.

Figure 6.16. Thick incisions

174 Table 6.6. Ona Adi decoration types and varieties Types Varieties Examples Description Thin 1 Thin single-horizontal: a relatively fine and shallow Incisions continuous line incised on wiped or smoothed sherd surfaces using a thin stiff blade of grass or other stylus. 2 Thin horizontal-parallel: bands of two or more fine parallel lines, frequently depicted on the upper body, applied to a leather-hard dry vessel using a stylus. 3 Thin oblique-parallel: similar in characteristics to the previous variety but the bands of parallel incisions are made by diagonal/oblique lines.

4 Thin vertical-parallel: bands of two or more fine vertical lines, frequently incised on the upper body of a leather-hard dry vessel using a stylus.

5 Non-patterned 6 Wavy Line: zig-zag incisions, usually single but occasionally in bands, decorating a sherd’s body below the rim, most commonly on the interior surface. It usually appears in combination with notches on the lip of the vessel. 7 Cross-hatched decoration: also called fishnet, is a motif made by criss-cross pattern incisions. It is mostly recorded from PA-A transition and Early Aksumite contexts at Ona Adi. 8 Dashed: similar motifs, also called herringbone, are observed at Mezber beginning in the early Pre-Aksumite period. At Mezber, the incision lines expanding outward from the angle are shorter in length, and successive incisions are more tightly spaced. Ona Adi’s ceramic dashed motifs could be a reappearance of this tradition or a later modified imitation of its earlier Mezber counterpart. Thick 9 Thick single-horizontal: relatively thick and deep Incisions incised line, usually encircling below the rim and neck-shoulder area of the sherd. 10 Thick horizontal-parallel: bands of two or more thick parallel lines, frequently depicted on the upper body of a thick-walled wiped sherd surface, using a thick stiff blade of grass or other tool. 11 Thick perpendicular-parallel: bands of two or more thick perpendicular lines frequently incised on the upper body of a thick-walled wiped sherd surface using a thick stiff blade of grass or other tool.

175 Types Varieties Examples Description 12 Thick oblique-parallel: similar in characteristics to the previous variety but the bands of parallel incisions are made by diagonal/oblique lines and are mostly used to decorate the surface of carinated bowls and jars. 13 Chevrons: similar in design and drawing technique to the wavy line motif (see above). However, the transition between one angle and

the next in individual chevron incisions is gentler and more widely spaced than in wavy line incisions. Moreover, chevrons are commonly found on the external body surface of sherds. In contrast, with very few exceptions, wavy line incisions are limited to the interior surface of sherds just below the rim. Also, chevron incisions are usually thicker than wavy line ones. 14 Non-patterned: non-patterned incisions are thick, deep, and irregular scratches covering the entire surface of a sherd as a result of a scraped surface finish. Grooves 1 Single-horizontal: see previous descriptions

2 Horizontal-Parallel: see previous descriptions.

3 Oblique-Parallel: see previous descriptions.

4 Vertical-Parallel: see previous descriptions.

5 Refer to Figure 6.16: Non-Patterned: see previous descriptions. 8 and Figure 6.20D Combing 1 Refer to Figure Horizontal-Parallel: see above 6.21B 2 Refer to Figure Vertical-parallel: see above. 6.21D 3 Refer to Figure Cross-Hatched: see above. 6.21B and C Punctate 1 Single-horizontal: usually circular/oval dots impressed, maybe by a stylus, encircling the rim- shoulder junction or surrounding a handle base. Mostly found on bottle and jar sherds. This kind of decoration could be functional. It could help to merge and well blend vessel body parts assembled by the coiling manufacturing technique.

176 Types Varieties Examples Description 2 Horizontal-Parallel: similar to the previous variety in attributes and production technique but occurring in bands of two or more discontinuous lines. In most circumstances, other decorative motifs accompany its occurrence on sherds, such as incisions. 3 Refer to Figure Nail-impressed: this technique takes the form of 6.19A and D triangular punctate impression, most probably formed by fingernail impressions. It is frequent on inside surface sherd fragments, especially around the inner rim area. Nail-impressed depressions often fill in the interior of triangles made by incisions. 4 Ovoid walk: this technique is a typical Classical Aksumite period decoration type in Western Tigrai (Phillipson 2000). It is an irregular /non-patterned scatter of punctate marks along a line. 5 Refer to Figure Irregular 6.19B, 5 Corrugation 1 Refer to Figure 8.7B Horizontal 2 Refer to Figure 8.7A Vertical Black 1 Refer to Figure This type is one of the main attributes of the PA-A Topped 6.17A transition period ceramic assemblages at Ona Adi. It could have been produced by the immediate upside down placement of a vessel taken from a kiln. A vessel thus treated usually develops a blackened rim (blackened top) due to restricted oxygen access. Notches on 1 Refer to Figure This decorative technique is one of the main the Lip 6.17C attributes of the ceramic traditions of the Late Pre- Aksumite occupational phase of Mezber and the PA-A transition period at Ona Adi. It is frequently observed accompanied with bands of wavy line incisions. Bosses 1 Refer to Figure Bosses are small horizontal, vertical, or 6.17D circular/oval appliqués featured on the rim, neck, shoulder, and sometimes even on the belly of cups, bowls, and jars. In cooking and serving pots, they may resemble a small hand grip, and could sometimes be functional (see below). Bossing is frequent during the Early Aksumite occupational phases at the site.

6.5.2. Black-topped and notches on the lip

Black-topped decoration and notches on the lip dominate decoration types used during the PA-A transition period at Ona Adi (Chapter 7). Sherds with these kinds of

177 decoration have been recorded over a wide region of northeastern Africa, from the Nile Valley to Aksum-Yeha, central and Southern Eritrea, and in eastern Tigrai (Arkell 1960; Wilding 1989; Phillipson 2000; Manzo and Gaudiello in prep). A.J. Arkell (1960) has suggested that this decoration originated during the Khartoum Neolithic. At the Pre- Aksumite site of Mezber, Ona Adi’s closest neighbor, black-topped pottery is one of the main decorations noted toward the end of the Middle Pre-Aksumite Phase, from the mid- 8th to the beginning of the 4th century BC (Manzo and Gaudiello in prep). The black- topped potsherds displayed in Figure 6.17A are collected from the deepest ceramic bearing deposit in Square D2, just above the bedrock. This may indicate an expansion in the locality of the black-topped motif after its earlier use at Mezber in the Eastern Tigrai region.

Figure 6.17. A. Black-topped (OA15.D2.27.1188.7/28); B. wavy line (OA15.D2.1188.20/17); C. notches on the lip (OA15.D2.26.1182.12) and D. bossed motifs recorded from the deepest strata of Squares D2 and E1 ( OA14.E1.3.777.22/120) at Ona Adi.

The overlap in ceramic traditions between the Late Pre-Aksumite occupational phases of Mezber and the PA-A transition period at Ona Adi are again supported by the presence at both sites of sherds decorated with notches on the lip. Open brown ware bowls of the type shown in Figure 6.17B & C, collected from Ona Adi Square D2’s deepest stratigraphic layer, were also ubiquitous during the Late Pre-Aksumite periods of Mezber (Manzo and Gaudiello in prep). It has also been stated that notches on the lip

178 are frequently accompanied by bands of wavy line incisions which are decorative features unique to the Gulo Makeda area (D’Andrea et al 2008). As already indicated above, this type of vessel was also reported in Proto-Aksumite contexts at Bieta Giyorgis (Bard et al 2014). This could indicate presence of some degree of contact between Eastern and Western Tigrai communities (polities) during the PA-A transition period.

6.5.3. Bossing

Bossing is another surface treatment recorded at Ona Adi. Applied boss decorations in the form of small oval/circular, horizontal and vertical shapes is more common in Pre-Aksumite sites of the Aksum-Yeha area (Bard et al 2014; Phillipson 2000; Wilding 1989). We have only very few samples of sherd fragments decorated with bossing at Mezber (Manzo and Gaudiello in prep). In contrast, boss-decorated potsherds were collected from all occupational phases at Ona Adi. Some applied boss decorations are overlain with notches or punctate impressions (Figure 6.17D), while others have perforated bossing motifs most probably used for hanging cords. It may be possible that Ona Adi potters acquired the idea of bossing, most probably from the Aksum-Yeha or the greater Asmara areas. The ceramic collection from the Early Aksumite burial sites of Emba Derho in the greater Asmara area is dominated by bossed decorations (Schmidt et al 2008, pp.254). Potsherd fragments in Figure 6.17D are collected from the lowest deposits in Square E1 alongside the burial.

One potsherd (Figure 6.18) carries a strange kind of appliqué/bossing which has not been reported from Western Tigrai archaeological sites. We found a similarly decorated sherd during our May-June 2017 Gulo Makeda and Gantafeshum Woreda ETAP archeological survey (Wiederick in prep). Most of the sites we discovered, including the site where we found the above sherd during this survey, were occupied during the Middle Aksumite period. However, the potsherd illustrated in Figure 6.18 was recovered from Square D1 at Ona Adi, which represents a secure Late Aksumite period occupational phase.

179

Figure 6.18. A unique type of appliqué/boss decorated sherd OA14.D1.3.702.49

6.5.4. Punctate

Punctate marking is another common decorative treatment type identified at Ona Adi. It is used in almost all recorded cultural occupation phases. Ona Adi potters used a variety of implements to create punctate impressions on the surface of pots. Some punctate markings were made by a stylus (e.g. Figure 6.19C, D and F), fingernail (Figure 6.19A) or fingers (Figure 6.19B and E). Potsherds collected from older parts of the Ona Adi sequence tend to have dotted punctate surfaces made using a stylus. It is observed that dotted punctates have both technical, functional and aesthetic value. In addition to decorating a pot, they could also have been used to glue different parts of a vessel. For example, dotted punctate markings around the horizontal round handle (Figure 6.19C) could have been mainly intended to affix it to the vessel body. Dotted punctate marks were also used to make small circular/oval holes across a vessel body and frequently through the base of some vessels. Making dotted holes through the body of a pot could have had various purposes. Some identified holes were used for hanging vessels and others were likely used as ash outlets for a ceramic brazier (Manzo and Gaudiello in prep). The alignments of some observed shallow circular depressions on flat surfaces of sherds (e.g. Figure 6.19E) could reveal the use of punctate markings for making one of Ethiopia’s ancient traditional board games called gebeta. Gebeta is played by two individuals and involves a systematic and skillful circulating/sowing of seeds, small

180 stones, or other similar objects into the shallow pits of the playing board aiming to capture all seeds of the opponent to win the game. It is one of the favored games played even in modern day Ethiopia, especially in rural areas. Gebeta playing boards can be made from pottery and wood or even simply holes dug into the earth or carved in stone. Parallels for ancient pottery gebeta boards are reported from Matara (Anfray 1965, PP. 83, pl.Ixvi.4) and Aksum (Phillips 2000, pp.335, fig 291) from Late Aksumite contexts..

Figure 6.19 Punctate decoration on Ona Adi sherds

6.5.5. Grooving

Grooved surface finishes at Ona Adi include both shallow (Figure 6.20B and C) and deep grooves (Figure 6.20A and D) forming channels usually located on the interior surface of thick-walled open basins. Sherds with this type of decorated surface are very fragmentary. Collected sherd remains point to most of them having flat or even rectangular bases. We do not know the functions of these vessels. However, some parallels could be made to similar specimens reported from Matara (Anfray 1966, p. 49, Figs. 70-72) and Aksum (Wilding 1989, p.261 Fig. 16.185-186; Phillips 2000, p. 316 Figs. 274a and b; Bard et al. 2002 P.34 Fig.3). At Matara and Aksum, some of these

181 basins were used in ceremonial practices in the form of a footwasher. Bard et al. (2002) indicated parallels in the rectangular-based basins they recorded from a Proto-Aksumite context and those reported from royal Napatan funerary assemblages dating from the late 7th to late 4th centuries BC. The discovery of pottery slab fragments which bear deeply incised decorations identified as the top of a footwasher suggest a similar function for Ona Adi thick-walled and grooved basins. Most grooved surfaced potsherds were collected from early occupational contexts at Ona Adi.

Figure 6.20. Ona Adi grooved motifs

182 6.5.6. Combing

Combing, sometimes also called a railroad motif, could be considered one of the local surface treatments of Eastern Tigrai and Ona Adi (D’Andrea et al 2008). Combing decorations could have been mostly made by dragging a fine-toothed comb over a selected portion of the body of a vessel. It is consistently recorded in ceramic repertoire of several sites surveyed by ETAP and at Mezber (D’Andrea et al 2008; Manzo and Gaudiello in prep). There is some similarity between combing and incision decoration techniques. The combing motif method seems to combine the characteristics of both thin and thick incisions. Unlike the thin incision method (shallow and narrow lines), combing creates relatively deeper lines. And unlike the thick incision method (deeper and wider lines), combing creates a relatively narrower lines. Also, combing motifs always appear in bands based on the number of sticks in the comb used to decorate the potsherd. At Ona Adi it first emerged in the earliest archaeological deposits (Figure 6.21C and D), was almost totally absent during the middle occupational phases, and then reappeared in Late Aksumite contexts (e.g. Figure 6.21A and B). Chains of triangles filled with the tooth marks of a comb (similar to hatched or cross-hatched triangles) immediately below the rim of a vessel (Figure 6.21C) are one characteristics of PA-A transition period decorations. As indicated above, this kind of motif is common in the ceramic collections of the Pre-Aksumite site of Mezber (Manzo and Gaudiello in prep).

183

Figure 6.21. Ona Adi comb decorated sherds

6.6. Painted Vessels

Most of Ona Adi’s painted ceramics are represented by purple-painted Aksumite (PPA) ware. A few exceptions (for example Figure 6.22D) aside, painting is not common in other pottery fabrics. PPA vessels are very different from the rest of the Ona Adi ceramics in many ways. These sherds have wet-burnished surfaces and are fired at a high temperature in a well-controlled oxidizing atmosphere. They are characterized by very fine creamy fabrics with no recognizable mineral inclusions. All collected PPA ware fragments at the site belong to open and closed bowl vessels. The abundant presence of PPA wares in Eastern Tigrai and southern Eritrea was reported by previous scholars (Anfray 1966; Wilding 1989; Phillips 2000). Wilding in particular explained his discovery of a few PPA sherds in his study of Aksum ceramic grave goods as direct imports from Eastern Tigrai and Eritrea (Wilding 1989, 311).

184 At Ona Adi, PPA sherds were collected from all excavated units but with contrasting frequency distributions. More than 95% of PPA materials were from Square C, and mostly from Locus 18 (Chapter 7). This is the same stratigraphic locus which produced the unknown Aksumite king’s coin (Chapter 8), blue glazed Sasanian sherds and amphora fragments, as well as the first polished gray ware sherds (two in number) that carry cross motifs (see below). This could have been the period in which the elite people of Ona Adi embraced Christianity, through their opportunity to access different webs of interaction with diverse communities of the ancient world as a result of their unlimited access to established trade routes. This could also have been the first concrete step toward the origin of the Enda Tekle-Haymanot church at the site.

The other unique character of the PPA material is its elaborately painted surfaces. Painted patterns include chains of purple triangles below the rim and across the main body of bowls, separated by bands of painted polished lines (Figure 6.22A). Some PPA vessels are decorated with bands of closely placed purple-painted wavy lines encircling the external surface of a sherd (Figure 6.22B and C). There are also occasions when the surfaces of PPA sherds are embellished with contrasting thick bands of widely spaced purple parallel lines (Figure 6.22B). Other than PPA ware, a very small number of fragments have produced rare evidence of red or black painted surface finishes at Ona Adi (for example, Figure 6.22D). Generally, painted surface finish at Ona Adi is limited to PPA wares, and it usually incorporates a variety of geometric motifs, such as horizontal zonal bands, triangles, and other simple shapes.

185

Figure 6.22. Painted Ona Adi wares

6.7. Sasanian Blue Glazed Wares

Glazed wares represented a very small portion of the Ona Adi ceramic collections. The locally-made glazed ware sherds recovered at the site are mostly parts of open and closed bowls. A few of the recorded glazed ware sherds at Ona Adi belong to blue-glazed ware types imported from the Middle East. This ware is characterized by lustrous medium- to thick-walled body sherds. Because blue-glazed rim fragments are absent at Ona Adi, it is impossible to identify the vessel forms. However, they can easily be compared with other Sasanian blue-glazed vessel forms identified at Matara and Aksum. At Matara, blue-glazed vessels were identified in the form of complete footed jar (Anfray 1974: 759, fig. 6; Anfray 1966, P.17) and at Aksum they are represented by bowls (Wilding 1989: 311, fig. 16-472; Phillipson 2000: 328, fig. 283j). The large and thick-walled blue-glazed round base fragment collected from Square C1 at Ona Adi suggests a storage jar vessel form at the site, more comparable to the Matara material. As already indicated, all recovered blue glazed imported Sasanian sherds were collected

186 from Square C1. Figure 6.23 below displays examples of blue glazed fragments collected from Ona Adi.

Figure 6.23. Blue glazed imported sherds

6.8. Amphorae

Amphorae represent some of the rare wheel-made ceramics collected from Ona Adi. Amphora sherds are easily identifiable because of their gritty texture, generally cream colour, and rippled surface treatment. Amphora fragments were collected from several squares at Ona Adi, in particular those associated with the elite residence quarter in Areas A and C. They constitute one of the best pieces of evidence for Ona Adi’s trading relationships with other communities at local, regional, and global scales. The accidental discovery of a complete typical conical-shaped amphora vessel (Figure 6.24B) took place in the elite sector of the site when local people attempted to excavate an exterior resting room for church prayers.

Amphora sherds have been reported from many sites of the northern Horn of Africa, the Nile Valley and the greater Mediterranean world (Bard et al 2014; Wilding 1989; Phillipson 2000). Amphorae were assumed to be used as transport vessels to carry wine, beverages, oil or other liquid commodities. However, there have been some reports of a secondary function for amphorae. For instance, at Matara, amphorae served drainage functions (Anfray 1974; pls.ii.1,iv.2). At Ona Adi, based on slight fabric and body treatment variations, there might be a locally-made type that imitates the imported examples. The copied amphorae could have been used for various activities other than

187 storage. They differ from the imported type mainly due to the absence of the typical ribbed decoration on interior surfaces and a general tendency toward having a red colored fabric (Figure 6.24A). The imported amphora type (Figure 6.24B) dates from the 5th to 7th centuries AD in its area of origin and we can apply the same date to the Ona Adi samples (Phillipson 2000; Wilding 1989).

Figure 6.24. Amphora sherds collected from Ona Adi, A (external and internal surfaces of sherd #OA15.D2.5.1258.34), B (complete typical conical shaped amphora) and C (external and internal surfaces of sherds #OA13.C1.2.387.108/100/111).

6.9. Cruciform Motifs

One of the most interesting aspects of the results of the Ona Adi ceramic analysis relating to incised decorations is the frequency of cross motifs. Cross motifs on the surface of ancient Aksumite sherd fragments have been reported both from Aksum (Wilding 1989, fig.16.394) and Matara (Anfray 1966, pp. 50-56). At Aksum, the great majority of depicted cross motifs are found on brown ware burnished vessels. Even though the observed cruciform motifs at Aksum are mainly characterized by their variety, bifurcate and what is known as the “Aksumite cross, flared tip upright cross” (Wilding 1989, p.297) are common types. Unlike the data from the Aksum area, more than 86% of cross decorations observed at Ona Adi are executed on the body of gray/black polished, burnished, and smoothed potsherd surfaces. Both bifurcate and Aksumite

188 crosses, the two most common types at Aksum, are absent at Ona Adi. Out of the 27 cruciform motifs displayed in Fig.16.394 (Wilding 1989, p.297), only two are similar to cross motifs 2 and 10 (Figure 6.25) recorded at Ona Adi. In contrast, the Ona Adi cruciform motifs are directly parallel and overlap with those observed in Matara ceramic collections. Apart from cross motifs 1, 4, 5, 16, 18, and 20 (Figure 6.25), the remaining Ona Adi cruciform decorations are also recorded at Matara.

Figure 6.25. Cross motifs recorded in Ona Adi ceramic collections

The other intriguing aspect of Ona Adi cross motifs relates to their focused distribution across the site. All potsherds bearing the cruciform motifs displayed in Figure 6.25 are collected from Square C1. Locus 2 and 3 of Square C1 produced 20 of the motifs (Locus 2: #1-7 and #23-24; Locus 3: #8-17 and #22) displayed in Figure 6.25. There are some sherds collected from Square A1 and one sherd from Square D2 which have surfaces decorated with cross motifs. However, because the sherd from Square D2 is very tiny and broken at a critical point, it is impossible to be certain about the decoration. Cross motifs first appeared in Locus 18 of Square C1 which produced two sherds (Figure 6.25: 18 &19) associated with a bronze coin bearing the image of an unknown Aksumite king (Figure 5.28). Many of the purple painted Aksumite (PPA) pottery and the blue glazed Sasanian sherds were also collected from this stratigraphic layer (Chapter 7 and see above). The other Square C1 stratigraphic layers that bear

189 sherds with cruciform motifs are Locus 15 (Figure 6.25: 20) and Locus 5 (Figure 6.25: 21). All these contexts are rich ceramic-bearing deposits characterized by many non- local ceramic types including amphorae (see above).

Christianity was introduced to the northern Ethiopian highlands during the beginning of the second quarter of the 4th century AD (Munro-Hay 1989). It has been claimed that Aksum was the first place to embrace Christianity and was a center of pilgrimage and conversion (Phillipson 1998; Fattovich et al 2000). Unlike Islam, the introduction of Christianity in Ethiopia and the Horn followed a top-down pattern of dissemination. Kings and royal families first converted to Christianity and then it slowly trickled down to the ordinary people before it was officially proclaimed as a state religion in northern Ethiopia (Sergaw 1972; Tamrat 1982). It has also been stated that the mass conversion of ordinary people to Christianity occurred only after the 6th century AD, associated with the arrival in Ethiopia of nine saints from the Middle East, especially from Syria, and their subsequent spread to different parts of northern Ethiopia (Phillipson 1998, 2000, 2012). After the 6th century, material cultural manifestations of Christianity were ubiquitous in all aspects of people’s daily lives , both among elite and ordinary people, including crosses. However, before the 6th century AD, both Christianity and its material manifestations were mostly restricted to kings, royal families, and the elite sections of the population.

Based on architectural and ceramic evidence, we could suggest that the sections of Ona Adi located immediately north and northeast of the present church, where Areas A, B and C were excavated, were the living quarters of the elite people of the site. Square A produced remains of a stepped wall elite building. The style of the architectural building technique and the associated ceramic artefacts suggest a Classical Aksumite date for this elite building. As indicated above, Area C ceramics contain elite material culture elements, including bowls and cups decorated with cruciform motifs, found in association with a coin and imported vessel fragments. Based on the associated coin evidence, we can securely date the first appearance of cross motifs in the ceramics collections from the site somewhere between the end of the 4th and the beginning of the 5th century AD. This suggests an earlier phase of Christianity, when only elite people would have been converted Christians at the site.

190

Figure 6.26. Cross motifs: A (OA13.C1.3.621.52), B (OA13.C1.2.251.55), C (OA14.C1.15.668.7), and D (OA14.C1.18.929.13).

One very important question must be asked at this point in the discussion. During the early stages of Christianity, when only royal families and elites embraced the religion, it is supposed to have been characterized by a uniform religious ideology and should have similar material culture manifestations. Why then do the ceramic cross motifs of Aksum (the assumed center of Christianity in the region) and Ona Adi differ so much? Why would an important elite person/family who possessed an unknown king’s coin and several beautiful gray/black burnished vessels completely lack “the Aksumite cross” motif? This may point to the conclusion that Ona Adi inhabitants had political and cultural independence from Aksum. This will be discussed further in Chapter 8.

Based on the ceramic evidence collected from sealed contexts (Square C1, Loci 2,3 and 18; Chapter 5), we can suggest that the construction of the first church at Ona Adi dated to the Late Aksumite period, most probably towards the end of the 5th century AD. As indicated above, cross motifs (represented by only three sherds) were introduced into the Ona Adi ceramic corpus during the late 4th/early 5th century AD, as dated based on the associated coin, some parallels between the ceramic data of Ona Adi and Matara, and the stratigraphic provenience from the excavations. The significant increase

191 in popularity of cruciform decorations towards the end of the 5th century AD could be explained by the foundation of the church at the site. Some architectural features were recorded during excavations in Square C1 which could extend and connect to other visible ancient wall foundations now found within the modern church enclosure. We were unable to gain permission to extend the unit to the church compound wall to clearly outline the wall construction pattern. We were informed that a brick wall connecting Square A1 and the church compound was discovered by two villagers who were illegally digging the site to build a new church. The ancient dressed stone debris and pillars within the church yard (Figure 5.1) are located in the eastern and northeastern sections, near Squares A1 and C1. If the existence of walls connecting the church compound features and the architecture in the excavated squares is in fact correct, the territory of the ancient church compound could encompass some areas outside the modern church’s fence. The later architectural building phases of Squares C1 and A1 are dated to the Late Aksumite period. The contemporary presence of old church architecture that extended and linked the upper architecture of Squares A1 and C1 would then be dated to the same period.

6.10. Vessel Shapes

As discussed in Chapter 4, the identification and classification of vessel morphology was conducted, along with classification of attributes of fabric, size, profile and rim variability, and associated decorations. Several vessel forms related to cooking, serving, storing and transporting activities were identified from the Ona Adi ceramic collections. These include: basins, bowls, cauldrons, jars, bottles, cups and miniature bowls or jars. However, because of their insignificant numbers, miniature bowls/jars and other shapes such as lids were not included in the description and statistical analysis of this thesis (Figure 6.27).

192

Figure 6.27. Miniature bowl (1 (OA14.C1.13.46), jar (2 (OA14.C1.2.61) and lid (OA15.D2.27.27)

6.10.1. Basins

Compared to bowls (which generally have a wide and shallow profile), basins are very deep and large vessels. They are characterized by direct or curved profiles, thick rounded or ledged rims and have an orifice diameter of more than 35cm. In certain circumstances, there were difficulties in differentiating between larger bowl and basin shapes. However, basins usually have coarse inclusions in the fabric, with walls thicker than large bowl vessels. On top of this, in contrast to large bowls, basins’ internal and external surfaces lack decorations. Ethnoarchaeological studies have identified basins as food cooking and processing tools used especially during large feasting/annual celebrations and/or in large family households (Arthur 2000, 2013). Ona Adi basins could have been used for similar purposes.

Some Ona Adi basins incorporated special appliqué features on their internal surface or on the top of the rim which could suggest a special function. For instance, Figure 6.28 presents rim fragments of basins from Middle and Late Aksumite contexts with rectangular, triangular and round knob features added on top of the rims. These kinds of basins have been described as braziers in the Aksum area (Wilding 1989; Phillips 2000), and the same interpretation is applied in here given their discovery in a domestic context. Parts of footwasher basin fragments, “footrests”, were also recovered from PA-A transition (Figure 6.29.6) and Early Aksumite occupation phases. The “footrest” is decorated with an incised cross-hatched pattern on top.

193

Figure 6.28. Internal and external surfaces of rim fragments of basins, 1 (OA14.C1.2.8), 2 (OA13.C1.2.36) and 3 (OA15.D2.7.17).

Unlike bowls and jars, few types were recognized under the class basin (Table 6.7). This could be related to their infrequent occurrence/special functions (only during feasting and in large family households) or due to an unintentional tendency to record basin rim fragments as large bowls.

194 Table 6.7. Identified basin vessel types at Ona Adi Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type Basin 1 1.1 Orange Red Ware (ORW) ledge- Late Pre- rim, rounded lip open basins, Aksumite smoothed to rough external and scraped internal surfaces with slightly everted thick-wall profiles. Diameter at the orifice varies from 40 to 54cm. A fabric type ( ORW- CQ )composed of coarse quartz and mica inclusion was used to manufacture this form. This type was only registered in Field D at Ona Adi (Figure 6.29:4)

1.2 Medium-coarse large open ORW PA-A and Brown Ware (BW) basins with transition and smoothed external and rough Early internal surfaces, narrow ledged Aksumite rims the top of which are decorated periods with parallel incisions, and flat or rounded lips. The rough inner surface is decorated with a crisscross of diagonal and horizontal parallel grooves. Rim diameter measures between 38 and 47 cm and examples have an average wall thickness of 9mm (Figure 6.29:3)

1.3 A variant of Type 1.2 with a deeper PA-A and more arched body wall profile. transition This type also has a slightly wider ledge rim (ca.3-4cm) and smoothed external and smoothed to burnished internal surfaces, i.e., it lacks the internal grooved decoration. In one case, finger impressed notches on the lip can be recognized.

1.4 ORW flaring-rim mineral-tempered PA-A basins with incised and impressed transition and decorations or with painted Early decorations on top of the rim and Aksumite on the body. The diameter periods measurement at the orifice ranges from 35 to 42 cm. (Figure 6.22D)

1.5 Fragments of footwasher basins PA-A (Figure 6.29:6). Footwasher basins transition, were recorded from ca. mid-1st Early and

195 Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type century BC to 5th century AD in the Middle Aksum area (Wilding 1989, Fig Aksumite 16.197-207) and were also contexts collected at Matara (Anfray 1966, PI. XXV-XXVI).

1.6 Open large and shallow BW basins Middle and with relatively thin walls (ca. 6-8 Late mm), but very thick rounded rims Aksumite (ca. 36-41 cm rim diameter). This periods type is identified by its pronounced thick rim that rolls to become an overhanging outer lip (Figure 6.29:2). It has a very rough external and rough to smooth internal surface.

1.7 Basins with deep nail Late punctate/impressed markings on Aksumite the interior (Figure 6.29:1 and Figure 6.19B). Basins of this type have very thick walls (ca.12- 17mm) and ca. 35-40 cm rim diameters. It has rough external and smooth internal surfaces.

1.8 Strainer? Basins. Middle and Late Aksumite periods

196

Figure 6.29. Identified basin types at Ona Adi

6.10.2. Bowls

To facilitate comparison to the few published ceramic studies completed in other northern Horn archaeological sites such as Aksum, a similar definition is adopted for bowl vessel forms at Ona Adi. Accordingly, the term “bowl” is applied to vessels which “measure less in height than width and have rim diameters more than half their girth” (Wilding 1989:244). The minimum and maximum rim diameters of bowl vessels are around 10cm and 30cm respectively. At Ona Adi, bowls are the most frequently

197 recovered vessels, appearing with a variety of shapes, sizes and decorations. In terms of shape, both rounded and ring-based bowls were recorded (Figure 6.30). However, classification of bowls into round and ring-based categories was incomplete and only possible when the base itself was available. As at Aksum (Phillips 2000), in the absence of clear evidence for a foot ring, all recorded bowls were considered as round-bottomed vessels.

Figure 6.30. Ring-based and round-bottomed bowls at Ona Adi

Based on the dimensions of rim diameters, bowls were divided into small and large vessels. Large bowls have an orifice which measures ca. 20-30 cm, whereas the diameters of small bowls range from ca. 10-20cm (Table 6.8). However, the dimensions of most large and small bowl rim diameters lie within the range of 22-26 and 12-16 cm respectively. Again, in terms of vessel wall and rim profile attributes, four types of bowls were identified at the site: 1) small closed bowls, 2) small open bowls, 3) large open bowls, and 4) large closed bowls (Table 6.8). The main difference between open and

198 closed bowl vessels (both in small and large bowls) is that open bowls have rim diameter greater than the maximum girth (Figures 6.31, 6.32 and 6.33).

Figure 6.31. Late Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition period vessel types

199

Figure 6.32. Aksumite period large open and closed bowls, a (OA13.C1.2.7), b (OA13.C1.2.4), c (OA13.C1.2.4), d (OA15.D2.21.14), e (OA14.C1. 2.43), f (OA13.C1.2.36), g (OA13.C1.2.36), h (OA13.C1.2.36), i (OA14.C1. 2.43).

200 Table 6.8. Identified bowl vessel types at Ona Adi Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type Bowl 2 2.1 Large open bowls, with direct Late Pre- everted rim profiles, flat lips, a Aksumite diameter at the orifice of 20- and PA-A 24cm, appearing in ORW or period BW micaceous wares, with rough to smooth external and smoothed to burnished internal surfaces (Figure 6.31:1). Evidence of scraped surface finish is noticed but only on the internal surface. This type is also recorded at Wuqro (Wolf et al 2010) and other ETAP study sites including Chekelte, Kesade Adi Feto, Etchmare East and Mezber (D’Andrea 2008; Manzo and Gaudiello in prep) 2.2 BW large open bowls with thick Late Pre- rounded rim, decorated with Aksumite bands of hatched lines or wavy and PA-A incised parallel lines on the period internal surface and notches on the top of the lip(Figure 6.31:3 and Figure 6.17B&C). These forms have rough external and smoothed to polished internal surfaces. Diameter at the orifice is between ca. 22 to 26 cm. A similar type is recorded at Bieta Giyorgis in Aksum from Proto- Aksumite period contexts (Perlingieri personal comm.). These bowls were possibly used as cooking vessels as shown by their external surfaces, which are often blackened.

201 Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type 2.3 ORW micaceous large open Late Pre- bowls, with thick rounded rims, Aksumite smoothed surfaces, sometimes and PA-A scraped/wiped on the external transition surface, sometimes periods characterized by traces of red slip. Rim diameter often measures between 24 to 28 cm (Figure 6.31:2). This type has been recorded at many sites of the Horn, including at Mezber (Type I.3, Manzo and Gaudiello in prep). 2.4 Black-topped or ORW small Late Pre- open bowls, with thin rounded Aksumite lips and direct or slightly and PA-A everted rims and wall profiles, transition smoothed to polished internal periods and external surfaces, and ca. 14-18 cm rim diameters (Figure 6.31:4). Similar vessel types are recorded at Matara (Anfray 1966, JE 3793), Wuqro (Wolf et al 2010, Abb 18.i) and Aksum (Phillips 2000, Fig.265C). 2.5 ORW/BW micaceous or black- Late Pre- topped small closed bowls, with Aksumite a slightly restricted profile at the and PA-A orifice, slightly inverted or direct transition flat rims, smoothed to burnished periods internal and external surfaces,and a 14-16 cm rim diameter (Figure 6.31:6; Figure 6.17A). The black-topped bowls of this type generally have a semi-globular body and a constricted opening and often have a rounded bottom.

202 Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type 2.6 ORW or BW micaceous closed Late Pre- small bowls, with rounded rims Aksumite and near-straight walls, deep and PA-A bodies and rounded bottoms. transition Diameters are usually between periods ca. 14-18 cm. Examples have smoothed to polished surfaces, and sometimes evidence of some scraped external surface finish and small grips below the rim (Figure 6.31:5). This type could be compared to similar vessel forms at Matara (Anfray 1966, JE 3030) and Aksum (Phillips 2000, Fig. 265 f). 2.7 BW micaceous small open Late Pre- bowls with direct vertical or Aksumite slightly everted rounded rims. and PA-A Examples have smoothed to transition rough surfaces, sometimes the and Early remains of red slip on the Aksumite internal surface, sometimes periods scraped/wiped surfaces, and are sometimes black-topped. Diameters are ca.16-18 cm (Figure 6.31:9; Manzo and Gaudiello in prep type I.7). An example at Wuqro (Wolf et al 2010: Abb.17 f) is very similar to bowls of this type at Ona Adi. 2.8 Micaceous compact gray small PA-A open carinated bowls, with transition burnished to polished surfaces. Sometimes a band of impressions was marked on the part of the internal surface corresponding to the carination. Diameters are ca.13 to 15 cm (Figure 6.31:7; Manzo and Gaudiello in prep, Type I.8)

203 Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type 2.9 Micaceous compact BW closed PA-A small bowls, with direct vertical transition and rounded rims. Examples and Early have smoothed to polished Aksumite surfaces, and sometimes periods scraping occurs on the internal surface and the remains of red slip appear on the external surfaces. Rim bands consisting of incised triangles filled by simple or crossing bands of oblique incisions are present on the external surface. Diameters are ca. 11 to 14 cm (Figure 6.21C, Figure 6.31:8; Manzo and Gaudiello in prep Type II.1) 2.10 ORW small closed bowls, with PA-A smoothed to polished surfaces, transition sometimes with red slip visible and Early on the upper body. Grooved Aksumite parallel lines are present on the periods rim of the external surface. Diameters are ca. 13 to 16 cm (Figure 6.31:10; Manzo and Gaudiello in prep Type III.2.)

204

Figure 6.33. Selected pottery profile drawings from Fekada (Illustration by Dr. Stephen Batiuk)

205

Figure 6.34. Aksumite period small open and closed bowls (a (OA13.C1.3.16), b (OA13.C1.2.36), c (OA13.C1.3.12), d (OA14.C1.3.65), e (OA14.C1.3.73), f (OA13.C1.3.12), g (OA14.C1.18.69), h (OA14.C1.18.68), i (OA14.C1.1868), j (OA13.C1.2.33), k (OA14.C1.3.65)

206 Table 6.8. (contd.) Identified bowl vessel types at Ona Adi Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type Bowls 2.11 ORW large open bowls with Early deep incisions or notches on Aksumite the internal surface. Examples have smoothed to rough internal and smoothed to polished external surfaces. Examples have a relatively narrow/small ledge rim (ca. 1 to 2.5 cm), and measure 21-24 cm in diameter at the orifice (Figure 6.32d). The overall shape of this type is hard to reconstruct, but comparison to similar shapes reported at Aksum (Wilding 1989, Fig.16:185-186, p.261) makes it clear that these represent large flat-based open bowls. This type could also have developed from an earlier but related basin profile (Type 1.2) 2.12 ORW, BW and GW fine to Early, medium-coarse large open Middle and ledge-rim bowls with ca. 22-26 Late cm mouths (Figure 6.32a; Aksumite Figure 6.33:23, Figure 6.34d, e periods & f). Examples have smoothed to polished surfaces and slightly restricted and continuously curved profiles and round bases. During the Middle and Late Aksumite periods, these vessels carry incised cross motifs. J. Phillips (Phillipson 2000) suggested that the introduction of ledge-rim bowls into Early Aksumite ceramic traditions could be associated with local potters’ imitation of Roman wheel-made bowls of African Red Slip ware occasionally found on Aksumite sites such as at Matara (Anfray 1966, PL.XIX.a; PI.XII.JE3518).

207 Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type 2.13 ORW mineral-tempered large Early open bowls with out-turned rims Aksumite and burnished or red slipped Period surfaces. Rim diameter varies but often measures ca. 22.5 to 28 cm. (Figure 6.32e, Figure 6.33:21). Similar vessels were discovered in Classic Aksumite tombs at Aksum but were usually characterized by grooved surfaces, which is not the case at Ona Adi (Wilding 1989, Fig. 16.183). 2.14 ORW mineral-tempered small Early and open bowls, with slightly Middle everted rims, rounded and Aksumite sometimes pointed lips. periods Examples have smoothed to red polished/slipped surfaces, and geometric thin incised decorations on the external surface. The diameter is ca. 12- 16 cm (Figure 6.34h). 2.15 ORW small open bowls Early to measuring ca. 12-18 cm in Middle diameter, with direct to flaring Aksumite rims, and mineral-tempered times fabrcis with red polished slip on the external surface, and grooved vertical decoration on the external surface (Figure 6.34i). These bowls occasionally have a horizontal strap handle on their shoulder. For similar forms, see Wilding, 1989 (Fig. 16.112-113).

208 Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type 2.16 Ring-based ORW/BW/GW Early, small closed bowls with Middle and smoothed to polished surfaces. Late These types appeared in Aksumite abundance during the Early periods. Aksumite period and were continuously produced during the Middle and Late Aksumite periods but with a different fabric. Many are undecorated except for a shallow incision on the main body and base-body junction point (Figure 6.33:10, 16-17, Figure 6.35:12-13). Some ledged rim bowls have a foot-ring.

209

Figure 6.35 Middle and Late Aksumite Ona Adi vessel forms (from Square C1, Locus 2, Pails 7,12 and 36, and Square C1, Locus 3, Pails 51 and 58)

210 Table 6.8. (contd.). Identified bowl vessel types at Ona Adi Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type Bowls 2.17 BW and/or GW large open Middle and bowls measuring ca. 21-24 Late Aksumite cm in diameter with flaring periods rims. Occasionally these bowls are characterized by molded and/or incised or impressed decoration on the flaring rim (Figure 6.32g&I, Figure 6.33:19, Figure 6.35:3). These bowls are typical of Middle and Late Aksumite times both in Aksum (Wilding, 1989: Fig. 16.123) and Matara, where gray ware with polished surfaces is very typical (Anfray, 1966: PI.XII. JE3757).

2.18 BW large open bowls Middle measuring ca. 23-26 cm in Aksumite diameter with a collared rim period and round lip. Examples have very rough external and rough to smoothed internal surfaces (Figure 6.32c and Figure 6.35:14). In terms of surface finish and wall profile, this type is very similar to the basket/mat- impressed sherds (see 6.4.2 above for more detailed discussion).

2.19 BW micaceous large closed Middle bowls measuring ca.22-24 Aksumite cm in diameter with a flaring/ Period everted rim and pointed lip. Examples have smoothed to polished surfaces and no decorations (Figure 6.32f and Figure 6.33:7). Occasionally these bowls have a round grip on the upper body area. See similar shapes at Bieta Giyorgis (Bard et al 2014. Figure 4) and Matara (Anfray 1966, Fig. PI.II (JE3779)).

211 Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type 2.20 BW/GW small closed bowls Middle and measuring ca. 12-14 cm in Late Aksumite diameter with inverted or slightly vertical rims. Examples have polished to burnished surfaces, and decorations consisting of one or two thick incisions parallel to the rim or along the belly, occasionally with an incised cross under or above the incisions (Figure 6.34j). These bowls are typical of Middle and Late Aksumite times in Matara (Anfray 1966:Pl. IX(JE3588)), and Aksum (Phillips 2000c: Fig. 273, g).

2.21 BW/GW small closed semi- Late Aksumite globular bowls measuring period ca. 11.5-15cm in diameter with rounded bottoms and direct pointed rims. Generally, these bowls have thin wall sections and surfaces treated with red slip and burnishing. A wide variety of decorations embellished the surfaces of this type. The decorations include: vertical grooving around the body (Figure 6.34c), crosses either stamped before firing or incised after firing (Figure 6.34c & k; Figure 6.35.10), and arc lines on the body (Figure 6.34k, Figure 6.35.9). A similar type is reported at Aksum (Phillips 2000, Fig. 273e &f, 282c, f &g).

2.22 BW/GW small closed (hole- Late Aksumite mouthed) bowls measuring period ca. 10.5-13 cm diameter with inverted pointed rims. Examples have slipped to polished surfaces with an

212 Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type incised or stamped cross motif. Some carry double zigzag cordons incised on the widest point of the vessel (Figure 6.35:4, 10), with each angle pointed with a dot impression. Others are decorated with two parallel thick incisions with impressed dots between them (Figure 6.35:5- 6) and the rest carry only a cross below the restricted rim (Figure 6.35:7-8). Wilding (1989, Fig. 16.392, 393 & 431) and Anfray (1966, Fig. PI.XI (JE3107) reported similar bowls at Aksum and Matara respectively. Similar bowl shapes are recorded at the ancient port town of Adulis (Zazzaro 2013, Fig 12:22-39). The hole- mouthed forms persist until the end of the Aksumite period.

2.23 Purple-painted Aksumite Late Aksumite Ware (PPA) bowls: the PPA period material at Ona Adi appears in a range of forms, including small closed bowls, ledge- rim bowls and occasionally open bowls. The diameters range from ca. 12-18 cm (Figure 6.22a, b & c; Figure 6.32h and Figure 6.36). Section 6.6 above presented a discussion of PPA ware fabric and decorations. For PPA bowl forms, see examples in Anfray (1966, Figs. 32, 35, 169, and 181- 183) from Matara, in Wilding (1989, Fig.16. 454-67) and Phillips (2000, Fig. 286 a, b, d and i) from Aksum, and in Zazzaro (2013, Fig.12.67) from Adulis.

213

Figure 6.36. Purple Painted Aksumite sherds (from Square C1, Locus 2 and 18)

214 6.10.3. Jars and Bottles

Jars and bottles are common vessel types recovered at Ona Adi, in addition to bowls. As suggested by their shape and ethnoarchaeological data (Arthur 2013; Skibo 2013), these vessels could have chiefly been used for storing and transporting liquid and dry contents. Sub-dividing vessels into jar and bottle categories is a difficult task. In this dissertation, bottles are defined as vessels with less than 1cm in wall thickness and up to 10cm in diameter, and jars are those with greater than 1cm in wall thickness and measuring greater than 10cm in diameter. The most common jar form has a globular body, rounded bottom and cylindrical neck. The only exception to this definition is a piriform jar (bag-shaped jar) (Figure 6.37.2 and Figure 6.31:15). Bottles also have similar forms (generally looking like jars in form) but they usually have a narrow aperture, sloping shoulder and out-flaring rim (Figure 6.38).

Figure 6.37. Ona Adi jars and bottles collected from upper and lower contexts, 1&2 (OA13.A1.2), 3, 5 & 6 (OA15.D2.26), 7 (OA15.D2.27), 8 (OA14.D1.9), 4 & 9 (OA13.C1.2).

215 Table 6.9. Identified jar and bottle types at Ona Adi Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type Jars and bottles 3 3.1 BW micaceous globular bottles, Late Pre- measuring ca. 8-10cm in Aksumite, diameter, with slightly everted PA-A thickened rounded rims directly transition attached to the shoulder (with and Early no recognizable neck). Aksumite Examples have rough to periods smoothed surfaces, occasionally with a rounded horizontal handle attached to the upper part of the body (often at the shoulder) of the bottle (Figure 6.31:12). This type is identical to Type IV.I recorded at Mezber (Manzo and Gaudiello in prep). 3.2 ORW/BW micaceous cylindrical Late Pre- neck globular bottles or jars Aksumite, with everted thickened rounded PA-A rims and measuring ca. 8-14cm transition orifice diameter. Examples have and Early smoothed surfaces, and Aksumite sometimes the remains of a red periods slip on the surfaces. Occasionally the remains of vertical handles joining the rim and shoulder of vessels were noted (Figure 6.31:14; Figure 6.37:3; Figure 6.38:10). At Mezber, this form is represented by Type IV.2 (Manzo and Gaudiello in prep).

216 Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type 3.3 BW micaceous medium-sized Late Pre- globular jars with conical necks Aksumite and flaring rim profiles, period measuring ca. 11.5 to 18 cm in diameter at the orifice. Examples have smoothed surfaces, and sometimes have a band of punctate incisions around the neck or upper shoulder with an oval shape impression (Figure 6.31:16 and Figure 6.37:5). Parallels to this type are recorded at Aksum (Phillips 2000, Fig. 265K) and Wuqro (Wolf et al. 2010, Abb.17a &b). 3.4 ORW/BW micaceous piriform PA-A jars with flaring rounded rims, transition measuring ca. 12-16 cm in period diameter. Examples have smoothed external and scraped internal surfaces. These vessels usually have a vertical handle between the rim and the shoulder (Figure 6.31:18-19; Figure 6.37:6). 3.5 ORW/BW micaceous S-shaped Late Pre- profile jars with everted, Aksumite rounded rims, occasionally with and PA-A notches, measuring ca 13.5-18 transition cm in diameter at the orifice periods (Figure 6.31:11, 13; Figure 6.37:8; Figure 6.38:11). Vessel shapes of this type recorded in other northern Horn sites carry a variety of decorations, including wavy comb incisions, zig-zag comb incisions, notches, and molded and impressed motifs. Examples include: Mehari 2008, Fig.7.2; Schmidt et al 2008, Fig 6.46 left and Phillips 2000, Fig. 266 c & f in the Asmara and Aksum areas respectively.

217 Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type 3.6 BW cylindrical-shouldered PA-A bottles with everted rims, transition measuring ca. 6 to 9 cm in and Early diameter, with one vertical Aksumite handle. Examples have periods smoothed internal and smoothed to burnished external surfaces. Sometimes evidence of red slip on the external surface is noted (Figure 6.31:17). These vessels are similar to Type IV.7 recorded at Mezber (Manzo and Gaudiello in prep). 3.7 BW/GW bottles with cylindrical PA- necks and slightly everted transition rounded rims, and globular and Early bodies, measuring ca. 6 to 8 cm Aksumite in diameter. Sometimes these periods vessels are black-topped with smoothed to polished surfaces (Figure 6.38:3). For similar shapes recorded in other sites, see Wolf et al. 2010, Abb. 17d at Wuqro; Bard et al 2014 Fig. 4c; Phillips 2000, Fig.266d at Aksum. At Mezber, these bottles are categorized under vessel Type IV.9 3.8 ORW large jars with globular PA-A bodies and everted rounded transition rims, measuring ca. 15-18 cm in and Early diameter. Examples have Aksumite smoothed surfaces occasionally periods decorated with bands of impressions on the neck- shoulder juncture point on the external surface (Figure 6.37:7). Phillips (2000) recorded similar vessel forms at Aksum (Fig. 265k).

218 Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type 3.9 BW/GW bottles with cylindrical Early and necks and direct pointed or Middle tapering rims, globular bodies, Aksumite and measuring ca. 6 to 8 cm in periods diameter. Examples have smoothed to polished surfaces (Figure 6.38:9). In terms of size and overall shape, this type is very similar to vessel forms classified under Type 3.7 above, except for their direct and pointed lips. Type 3.9 vessel forms could have appeared as a result of slight modifications to earlier Type 3.7 bottles. 3.10 ORW jars with direct necks and Early thickened rounded rims, Aksumite measuring ca. 11 to 14 cm in period diameter. Examples have smoothed to polished surfaces, with ring-bases and a pair of vertical handles, sometimes bearing a groove on the top. These jars were widely recorded at Aksum in Early to Classic Aksumite assemblages (see Phillips 2000: Fig. 54 and Fig. 341, d; Wilding 1989: Fig. 16.306-307). 3.11 ORW ledged rim globular Early and jars/bottles with Middle pointed/rounded lips, measuring Aksumite ca. 8 to 12 cm in diameter. periods Examples have smooth to polished surfaces, sometimes with evidence of red slip on the external surface. Occasionally these vessels carry applied triangular-shaped grips on their shoulder, the base of which is surrounded by dotted impressions/punctate marks (Figure 6.38:6). Phillips (2000, Fig. 170c) recorded a vessel similar in form to this type at Aksum.

219 Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type 3.12 ORW/BW jars with handles Early, decorated with impressed and Middle and sometimes molded decorations. Late Examples have smoothed to Aksumite polished surfaces with varying periods but usually wide-open apertures (ca. 11.5 to 24 cm) (Figure 6.38:5). This type of handled jar was discovered at Matara (Anfray 1966, PI. VIII,163) and at Aksum (Phillips 2000, Fig. 47 a & g; Wilding 1989, Fig. 16.222 & 226). 3.13 BW/GW mineral tempered Late bottles or jars with direct or Aksumite slightly everted rims, measuring period ca. 8-22 cm in diameter. Examples have smoothed surfaces with incised geometric decorations consisting of crossing lines and forming panels on the external surface, often covering the entire surface. Sometimes these vessels are characterized by flat triangular or even flaring rims measuring ca. 10-30 cm in diameter, with handles forming an angle (Figure 6.38:12). Similar forms are typical of Late Aksumite assemblages in Aksum (see Wilding, 1989: Fig. 16.436; Phillips, 2000c: Fig. 275, d, e; Fig. 276, a, c; Fig. 277, b).

220 Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type 3.14 ORW/BW/GW globular bottles, PA-A measuring ca. 6-10 cm in transition, diameter, with cylindrical Early, vertical necks and usually with Middle and a large flat-strap vertical handle Late between the shoulder and the Aksumite neck. Examples are mostly periods undecorated but occasionally red slipped and have smoothed to polished surfaces (Figure 6.33:9; Figure 6.38:1-2, 8). These forms were recorded in the Aksum area from Proto- Aksumite to Aksumite times (Phillips 2000, Fig. 49c). 3.15 A variety of GW/BLW bottles Late and and jars with carinated bodies Post and vertical rims, pointed lips, Aksumite measuring ca. 10-15 cm in periods diameter. These vessels witnessed a combination of profiles. They have concave upper sections, funneled lower sections and bulging bodies (carinated shape) which merges the top and bottom contours. Examples have smoothed to burnished external and smoothed to rough internal surfaces. The external surface is embellished with various geometric incisions including chevrons (Figure 6.16:3, 9; Figure 6.37:2), vertical chains of diamonds (Figure 6.16:10), or bands of horizontal incisions below the rim and along the carination (Figure 6.37:1; Figure 6.38:4) and applied bosses on the vessel’s widest point (Figure 6.38:4). Sometimes these vessels have ring bases (Figure 6.16:3) and other times they have flat or unstable (convex) bases. Similar shapes are recorded at Aksum (Wilding 1989, Fig. 16.444 & 445).

221

Figure 6.38. Ona Adi jars and bottles collected from lower, middle and upper occupational phases; 1 (OA13.C1.2.16), 2 (OA13.C1.2.15), 3 (OA14. D1. 10.17), 4 (OA13. A1.2.33), 5 (OA14.C1.3.54), 6 (OA13.C1.2.36), 7 (OA13.C1.2.11), 8 (OA13. C1.2.7), 9 (OA15.D1.8.19), 10&11 (OA15.D1.15.29), and 12 (OA13.C1.2.12).

6.10.4. Cauldrons

“Cauldrons are often plump-bellied round-base restricted bowls with twin opposed handles or four opposed handles usually set horizontally” (Wilding 1989:268). This group includes only specimens that have been clearly identified as cooking pots based on shape, simple smoothing of the exterior surface and burnishing of the interior,

222 and traces of secondary firing. Cauldrons generally have thickened or ledge rims and usually measure ca. 15 to 30 cm at their orifice (Figure 6.39 and Figure 6.49).

Figure 6.39. Cauldron vessel types collected in Ona Adi excavations, 1 & 2 (OA13.A1.2.33), 3 (OA13.C1.18.70), 4 (OA13.C1.2.35), 5 (OA13.B1.6.13), 6 (OA13.A1.2.33).

223 Table 6.10. Identified cauldron vessel types at Ona Adi Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type Cauldrons 4 4.1 ORW mineral tempered PA-A globular cauldron with vertical transitions handles, everted thickened Early and rims, measuring ca. 17-22 cm in Middle diameter and with smoothed Aksumite surfaces (Figure 6.40:6). Similar periods cauldrons but with two to four horizontal handles and straighter walls were discovered in Early to Classic Aksumite assemblages at Aksum (Wilding 1989, Fig. 16.222-230) and Adulis (Zazzaro 2013, Fig.12.10). 4.2 ORW/BW semi-globular Early and cauldron with a round bottom Middle and slightly restricted tapering Aksumite rim, measuring ca. 18 to 23 cm periods in diameter. Examples have smoothed to burnished surfaces, strongly burnt on the exterior. These vessels often have one or two grooves around the exterior of the rim (Figure 6.39:3). This type could be easily compared to a vessel recorded at Aksum (Phillips 2000, Fig.341a, p.391).

224 Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type 4.3 BW mineral tempered globular Middle and cauldron with narrow ledge-rim Late and two vertical handles joining Aksumite the rim and upper shoulder, periods measuring ca. 12 to 17 cm in diameter. Examples have smoothed to burnished surfaces, occasionally decorated with bands of incision on the exterior along the neck- shoulder junction point area (Figure 6.37:9 and Figure 6.39:4). A similar type is recorded at Adulis (Zazzaro et al 2014, Fig. 20) and at the site of Anza Maryam in the Hawzen area by J. Phillips. The Anza Maryam vessel is on display at Wuqro Archaeological Museum (Display shelf number 13, item 1). 4.4 BW/GW carinated cauldrons Middle and with slightly everted rounded Late rims, measuring ca. 16 to 25 cm Aksumite in diameter. Examples have periods smoothed to burnished surfaces and often have horizontal handles and grips on the carination (Figure 6.39:1-2). A similar vessel form is recorded at Wakarida, an intensive Aksumite settlement site situated about 25km east of Ona Adi (Eastern Tigrai and Afar border) (Dugast and Gaja 2013, Fig.25 above/top)

225 Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type 4.5 GW/BLW carinated profile Late and cauldrons with smoothed to Post burnished surfaces and Aksumite measuring ca. 16 to 23 cm in periods diameter at the orifice. These vessels’ bodies are generally low and broad, with an exaggerated wide carination and usually have an upright upper body and tapering rims decorated with a variety of thick geometric incisions, including bands of parallel incisions and chevrons along and between the rim and carination. The horizontal handles or applied grips on these vessels are found attached to the carination point (Figure 6.40:1, 3). A similar formal type is recorded at the Late Aksumite K-site in the Aksum area (Phillips 2000, Fig.341c) 4.6 GW/BLW semi-globular Late and cauldrons with wide mouths and Post collared necks, and often with Aksumite vertical strap handles, periods measuring ca. 22-28 cm in diameter. Examples have smoothed to burnished surfaces decorated with a combination of parallel incised bands and chevrons along the collar on the exterior surface (Figure 6.32b and Figure 6.39:6). A similar formal type is recorded at Wakarida (Dugast and Gaja 2013, Fig 27).

226

Figure 6.40. Cauldron vessel types collected at Ona Adi excavations, 1 (OA15.D2.12.22), 2 (OA13.C1.18.66), 3 (OA13.A1.2.26), 4 (OA13.A1.2.26), 5 (OA13.A1.2.26), 6 (OA15.D2.21.50).

6.10.5. Cups

Cups are the smallest vessels recorded at Ona Adi, except for miniature bowls and jars. Cups are mainly characterized by a narrow aperture, which often measures less than 10 cm in diameter. These vessels are “nearly as tall as their rim diameters and capable of being held in one hand” (Phillips 2000, p.391). They usually have smoothed to burnished external and burnished to polished internal surfaces embellished with different decoration motifs (Figure 6.41 and Figure 6.42). Their overall shape attributes

227 and ethnoarchaeological work suggest that they were chiefly used as serving, especially drinking, vessels (Arthur 2006, 2013).

Figure 6.41 Pottery cups from Ona Adi, 1 & 4 (OA13.A1.2.38 & 47), 2 (OA15.D2.8.19), 3 (OA14.D1.10.10.17), 5 (OA13.C1.2.299), 6 (OA13.A1.2.80), 7 (OA14.C1.3.65), 8 (OA13.C1.2.36).

228 Table 6.11. Identified cup vessel types at Ona Adi Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type Cup 5 5.1 ORW/GW rounded cup with Late Pre- inverted rims and pointed lips Aksumite measuring ca. 6 to 9 cm in and PA-A diameter at the orifice. transition Examples have smoothed to periods burnished surfaces decorated with bands on the external surface, formed by round impressions framed by two incised lines (Figure 6.35.1). The same type was recorded at Mezber during ETAP’s Gulo Makeda regional survey (D’Andrea 2008). These vessels are similar to items from Matara discovered in Pre- Aksumite assemblages (see Anfray 1966, PI. XXX. 147) 5.2 ORW/BW cups with slightly PA-A constricted necks and flaring transition rims and rounded lips, period measuring ca, 7 to 10 cm in diameter at the orifice. Examples have burnished to polished surfaces and also appear in black topped ware (Figure 6.41.3). This formal type was recorded in the Aksum area at the D-site within a Pre- Aksumite context (see Phillips 2000, Fig.266e). In Aksum, however, this form type is called a small piriform vessel.

229 Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type 5.3 ORW cups with plain smoothed Early surfaces, with only a horizontal Aksumite incision/groove below the period exterior rim. Examples have straight rims and rounded lips slightly thickened on the outside. The diameter at the orifice is ca. 4.5 to 9 cm, and examples show continuous profiles with a round base and direct walls, along with one or two strap handles (Figure 6.42.1-3). These cups were recorded in the Aksum area from Early and Classical Aksumite contexts (see Phillips 2000, Fig 43a ; Wilding, Fig. 16. 22-23) and at Matara (Anfray 1966, PI.IV,JE3743) 5.4 BW cups with collared rims, Early and sloping shoulders, semi- Middle rounded body profiles and Aksumite slightly angular rounded periods bottoms (Figure 6.41.2). Examples have smoothed to burnished surfaces decorated with grooves and wavy lines below the exterior rim and bands of horizontal and vertical parallel incisions and chains of diamonds along the shoulder or upper body of the vessel’s external surface. The diameter at the orifice is ca. 65 to 10 cm. These cups could have developed from Type 5.2 vessel forms.

230 Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type 5.5 ORW ring-based cups with Early and flaring or ledge-rims and Middle rounded lips, often decorated Aksumite with a single groove/incision periods below the rim on the exterior surface and measuring ca. 6-9 cm in diameter at the orifice. Examples have burnished to polished surfaces (Figure 6.41.8). The production of these vessel forms continued during the Late Aksumite period but with depicted/incised crosses on top of the rim on the internal surface (Type 5.7 below). 5.6 ORW cups with direct rims and Middle and wall profiles, pointed lips and Late measuring ca. 5.5 to 8 cm in Aksumite diameter at the orifice. periods Examples have burnished to polished surfaces, sometimes coated with a red slip across the upper body and parallel grooves/incisions under the rims on the external surfaces (Figure 6.41.6). Cups of this type were recorded in several Aksumite sites in Eastern Tigrai including Ona Adi, Adi Aysama’t, Enda Gabriel, Adi Ahoune and Gradenden during ETAP’s regional surveys in Gulo Makeda (D’Andrea 2008). Similar cups were also discovered at Matara (see Anfray 1966, PI. I) and at Aksum (Wilding, 1989: Fig. 16.336-342).

231 Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type 5.7 ORW/BW ring-based cups with Late a flaring or ledge-rim with a Aksumite cross incised on top of it on the periods internal surface, measuring ca. 6-9 cm in diameter at the orifice. Examples have burnished to polished surfaces (Figure 6.41.5). These cups are typical of Late Aksumite assemblages at Matara (see Anfray 1966, PI. XXXIV, 172- 175). During ETAP’s Gulo Makeda regional surveys similar vessel types were recorded at the site of Segelat (D’Andrea 2008). 5.8 BW semi-globular cups with Late restricted upper bodies and rim Aksumite profiles, and pointed lips, periods measuring ca. 5-7 cm in diameter at the orifice. Examples have smoothed to burnished surfaces decorated with combinations of geometric incisions including chevrons, and bands of parallel and oblique incisions (Figure 6.41.4). This formal type was recorded at Matara in Late Aksumite contexts (see Anfray 1966, PI.XI, JE3435). 5.9 BW cups with vertical profiles, Late straight rims and sharp lips. Aksumite This type is characterized by period complex geometric decorations forming zonal panels on the main body of the vessels (Figure 6.41.7) The diameter at the orifice is ca 5 to 8 cm. Surfaces are smoothed to burnished and less frequently polished. These vessels are reminiscent of wares and decoration types discovered at Matara associated with the Late Aksumite period assemblages (Anfray 1966, PI.I.8)

232 Class Code Specific Description Chronology Type 5.10 GW/BLW rounded-bottomed Late and open cups with heights no less Post than their ca. 6 to 10 cm Aksumite diameters (Figure 6.41.1). periods Examples have smoothed to burnished surfaces often with no decorations. Similar formal types and wares were discovered in many Aksumite sites of Gulo Makeda such as Dongolo North, Dir, Adi Kesho, Segelat, Embeyto, Fekada, Enda Gabriel, Adi Awli and many others (D’Andrea 2008).

Figure 6.42. Selected cup vessel profile drawings from Fekada (Illustration by Dr. Stephen Batiuk)

233 6.11. Chapter Summary

This chapter presented a discussion of the ceramic typology systematically developed for ceramic assemblages recovered from Ona Adi during field seasons from 2013-15. The established typology is based on analysis of a series of vessel attributes (rim, lip, fabric, surface treatment, decoration and form), which were systematically selected, measured, described, characterized, and finally sorted into groups/types based on shared attributes. The selected and analyzed vessel attributes were also directly related to the technology, function, and styles of the ceramic collection under discussion so as to easily align the analysis results to achieve the goals and objectives of this research. Given that this study represents the first systematic analysis of Aksumite period ceramics in Eastern Tigrai, intensive use of the Ona Adi excavated stratigraphic sequence and other available published ceramic typologies from archaeological sites of northern Ethiopia and Eritrea were required as references. The following chapter will present the relationships and frequency distributions of the established ceramic types across Ona Adi’s excavated squares and stratigraphic layers to understand possible patterns of diachronic and synchronic cultural changes within the ancient communities of the site.

234 Chapter 7.

Results of Ona Adi Ceramic analysis

This chapter presents the results of the analysis of ceramic assemblages systematically collected from excavated trenches at Ona Adi. A description of the ceramic collections from each excavated unit in terms of fabric, decoration, surface treatment, and function/shape are completed. Systematic description and analysis of this sort helps to gain a general knowledge of the ceramic systems present at Ona Adi since antiquity. The data analyzed and presented in this chapter is used to track the chronological cultural changes and developments witnessed in the ceramic assemblages, possible use/function of spaces, and societal group distributions across the site and over time, as well as Ona Adi’s ancient community’s engagement in local, regional, and global networks of short- and long-distance trade and exchange systems. Data collected from Field D and C present the most complete chronology of the site. Thus, the discussion and presentation of the ceramic analysis results begin with Field D for the sake of outlining a complete ceramic chronology of Ona Adi, knowledge of which is then expanded with data from other excavation fields. On the other hand, ceramics collected from Field E are disturbed by several secondary activities and so were not included in this section.

7.1. Field D Ceramic Analysis Results

Field D (Squares D1 and D2) produced 272.034 kg. (152.068 kg. from D1 and 119.966 kg. from D2) of excavated sherds. From this collection, almost all diagnostic sherds, totaling 3088 sherds (1720 from D1 and 1309 from D2) were systematically analysed (Table 7.1 and Table 7.2). However, the final results of the analysis showed that diagnostic sherds collected from loci 1 and 2 of Square D1 and loci 1 and 5 of Square D2 had come from disturbed contexts and were therefore excluded from statistical analysis.

235 Table 7.1 Square D1 diagnostic sherd counts, Gufa (basket like container) counts (representing estimate of soil voilume) and diagnostic sherd density by excavated loci Locus D1 Total diagnostic Gufa Count Diagnostic sherd counts Density (sherds/gufa) 1 43 150 0.287 2 75 358 0.209 3 293 298 0.983 4 Architecture 5 Architecture 6 518 507 1.022 7 282 631 0.447 8 Architecture 9 212 302 0.702 10 214 308 0.695 11 Architecture 12 Architecture 13 51 120 0.425 14 32 75 0.427 15 21 87 0.241 16 28 104 0.270 17 9 68 0.132 Total 1720 3008 0.572

Table 7.2. Square D2 diagnostic sherd counts, Gufa counts and diagnostic sherd density by excavated loci Locus Total diagnostic Gufa Count Diagnostic sherd count Density (sherds/gufa) 1 10 75 0.133 2 21 169 0.124 3 197 343 0.574 4 Architecture 5 359 412 0.871 6 Architecture 7 17 63 0.270 8 52 133 0.391 9 Architecture 10 Architecture 11 92 191 0.481 12 131 171 0.766 13 70 101 0.693 14 54 179 0.301 15 18 19 0.947 16 Architecture 17 21 50 0.420 18 Architecture

236 Locus Total diagnostic Gufa Count Diagnostic sherd count Density (sherds/gufa) 19 39 91 0.429 20 22 63 0.349 21 38 81 0.469 22 4 18 0.222 23 37 66 0.561 24 4 22 0.181 25 18 73 0.246 26 42 38 1.105 27 63 34 1.853 Total 1309 2392 0.547

In order to effectively determine ceramic production trends across time and to generate statistically valid sample sizes, i.e., to establish relationships through explanatory statistics, frequency distributions of the excavated ceramic assemblages are arranged using the Ona Adi stratigraphic phases. However, diagnostic sherd densities instead of raw counts were used to compare the intensity of ceramic production and use between each occupational phase. This was primarily because each stratigraphic phase varied in the amount of soil excavated (Table 7.3).

Stratigraphic analysis of Field D identified five major phases (Table 7.3), each of which was determined by analysis of soil color, style of architecture and archaeological matrix (see Chapter 5)2.

Table 7.3. Field D diagnostic sherd densities gained by dividing sherd counts by gufa counts for each stratigraphic phase Phases Diagnostic Gufa Count Diagnostic sherd sherd Density (sherds/gufa) Count Late Pre-Aksumite (Phase 1) 167 353 0.473 PA-A transition (Phase 2) 477 945 0.505 Early Aksumite (Phase 3) 636 1232 0.504 Middle Aksumite (Phase 4) 1103 1363 0.809 Late Aksumite (Phase 5) 197 343 0.574 Total 2580 4236 0.609

2 Selected radiocarbon dating samples representing each identified stratigraphic layer and established ceramic phases were conducted after this dissertation was submitted for defense. The result of Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating of these samples strongly confirmed the validity of established ceramic and stratigraphic phasing at the site of Ona Adi.

237 Comparing diagnostic sherd densities between stratigraphic phases (Late Pre- Aksumite, PA-A transition, Early Aksumite, Middle Aksumite and Late Aksumite Phases) revealed similar ceramic densities except for the Middle Aksumite occupational phase, where ceramic production increased significantly (Figure 7.1).

0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1

Diagnostic Sherds Density Sherds Diagnostic 0 Late Pre- PA-A transition Early Aksumite Middle Late Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Stratigraphic Phases

Figure 7.1. Field D total diagnostic sherd densities by stratigraphic phase

This trend suggests site occupation continuity where ceramic production remains steady from Late Pre-Aksumite through all Aksumite periods at the site. This finding is consistent with ETAP regional survey results where sites in Gulo Makeda were first occupied as early as the Early Pre-Aksumite (and/or even Late Prehistory) period and continued to exist through the Aksumite, Post-Aksumite, Medieval and ethnographic periods (D’Andrea et al. 2008; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014). Below is presented a phase by phase description of Field D ceramic data for the purpose of assessing the consistency and change over time in the ceramic data across stratigraphically defined cultural phases. A detailed description of the five cultural phases and their ceramic groups in terms of surface treatment, form, decoration, and aplastic inclusions is important to characterize the variations and similarity that existed among them.

7.1.1. Field D Fabrics

Most established ceramic fabric types, including small amounts of purple painted Aksumite (PPA) and to a lesser extent rippled Ayla Aksumite Amphora ceramic fabrics, are represented in the Field D ceramic assemblages. However, the frequency

238 distribution of fabric types over time indicates some variations suggesting changes in paste, surface treatment, firing atmosphere and aplastic inclusions. Table 7.4 presents the raw frequency distribution and proportions (percentages) of the main fabric groups (ORW, BW, GW and BLW, see Chapter 6) across Field D phases.

Table 7.4. Fabric group distributions across Field D stratigraphic phases Phases ORW BW GW BLW Total Late Pre-Aksumite 76 53 27 11 167 (45.5%) (31.7%) (16.2%) (6.6%) PA-A transition 201 164 83 29 477 (42.1%) (34.4%) (17.4%) (6.1%) Early Aksumite 318 129 107 82 636 (50.1%) (20.3%) (16.8%) (12.8%) Middle Aksumite 165 612 292 34 1103 (15%) (55.5%) (26.5%) (3.1%) Late Aksumite 14 31 98 54 197 (7.1%) (15.7%) (49.7%) (27.4%) Total 774 989 607 210 2580

As mentioned above, a brief inspection of Table 7.4 reveals variations in fabric type distributions. A chi square test analysis of the contingency table (Table 7.4) data was conducted to determine the presence or absence of relationships and the degree of significance of the relationship between stratigraphic phases versus identified fabric groups. The test revealed a highly significant relationship between fabric groups and Field D occupational phases in total diagnostic sherds scores (휒2 = 638.407, 푑푓 = 12, 푝 ≤ .000).The nature of relationship between these two independent variables (phases and fabrics) is displayed in Figure 7.2).

239 60

30 ORW BW 20 GW

Diagnostic Diagnostic sherdcounts 10 BLW

0 Late Pre- PA-A Early Middle Late Aksumite transition Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite

Fabric type percentages across Field D stratigraphic phase

Figure 7.2. Fabric type percentages across Field D stratigraphic phase

The data presented in the contingency table (Table 7.4) and Figure 7.2 indicate three important patterns: 1) it seems that Ona Adi potters predominantly crafted ORW and BW ceramic vessels during Late Pre-Aksumite, PA-A transition and Early Aksumite periods, with a slight preference for ORW; 2) a significant shift in ceramic fabric technology took place during the Middle Aksumite period when BW vessels become the most preferred items; and 3) a more or less dominant prevalence of GW and BLW fabric groups in Field D upper stratigraphic phases indicates another shift in ceramic fabric production during the Late Aksumite period.

A more detailed fabric study resulted in the classification of collected sherds into fine, medium, and coarse ware vessels mainly based on macroscopic analysis of texture and inclusion attributes used in the production of the ceramics (see Chapters 4 and 6). Table 7.5 presents the frequency distributions of fine, medium and coarse wares across Field D stratigraphic phases.

240 Table 7.5. Frequency distributions of fabric types in Field D stratigraphic phases Phases Fine Ware Medium Coarse Total Ware Ware Late Pre-Aksumite 79 31 14 124 (5.8%) (63.7%) (25%) (11.2%) PA-A transition 207 119 63 389 (18.3%) (53.2%) (30.5%) (16.1%) Early Aksumite 234 205 108 547 (25.7%) (42.7%) (37.4%) (19.7%) Middle Aksumite 516 287 118 921 (43.3%) (56%) (31.1%) (12.8%) Late Aksumite 28 71 43 142 (6.6%) (19.7%) (50%) (30.2%) Total 1064 713 346 2123 (100%) (50.1%) (33.5%) (16.29%)

During the Late Pre-Aksumite, PA-A transition and Middle Aksumite periods, more than 50% of the ceramic assemblages were constituted by fine ware vessels. Within Field D, the Early Aksumite Phase contained almost equal percentages of fine and medium-coarse ceramic wares. A distinctly different pattern was recorded during the Late Aksumite phase, when more than 80% of the ceramic corpus was composed of medium and coarse fabric groups (Figure 7.3)

70.00%

60.00%

50.00%

40.00%

30.00%

20.00%

10.00%

0.00%

Diagnostic Diagnostic SherdsFabric distributions (%) Late Pre- PA-A Early Middle Late Aksumite transition Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Fine 63.70% 53.20% 42.80% 56.10% 19.70% Medium 25% 30.60% 37.50% 31.20% 50.10% Coarse 11.30% 16.20% 19.70% 12.80% 30.30%

Figure 7.3. Percentages of fine, medium and coarse wares in Feld D Phases

241 Quartz, sand, mica, organic matter (e.g., straw) and sometimes crushed pottery are the major inclusion types identified through macroscopic analysis of the Ona Adi ceramic collections (see Chapter 6). Some of the inclusions used to make Ona Adi vessels are naturally found mixed with the clay itself. The typical sand and mica-rich deposits found just above the bedrock in both Ona Adi and Mezber excavation units (D’Andrea and Welton in prep) seems to validate this claim. However, there are some sherds, such as PPA with no recognizable inclusions in their fabric makeup.

In comparison, the identified aplastic inclusions used to make the ceramic assemblages show phase by phase variation. Sand and mica were the dominant inclusions present during the Late Pre-Aksumite period. Mica and quartz were used to produce 78.1% of the total analyzed diagnostic sherds in PA-A transition period. Similarly, sand, sand and organic matter and other materials (grog), and mica and organic matter and other materials (grog) were the most preferred raw materials used to produce ceramics during the Early Aksumite, Middle Aksumite and Late Aksumite periods respectively (Figure 7.4).

400 350 300 250 Sand 200

150 Mica 100 50 Quartz

Percentage ofdiagnostic sherds 0 Organic matter and other materials (grog)

Phases

Figure 7.4. Major inclusion types used to produce Field D ceramic assemblages

242 7.1.2. Field D Ceramic Forms

As presented in Chapter 6, various vessel form categories have been identified at Ona Adi. All the identified vessel shapes at the site were recorded in the Field D ceramic assemblage, including basins, bowls, jar/bottles, cauldrons, and cups (Table 7.6).

Table 7.6. Field D vessel shape type totals by occupational phases Phases Basins Bowls Jars/bottles Cauldrons Cups Total Late Pre- 6 37 13 11 18 85 Aksumite (7%) (43.5%) (15.3%) (13%) (21.1%) (4.8%) PA-A transition 18 164 22 32 83 319 (5.6%) (51.4%) (6.8%) (10%) (26%) (18.2%) Early Aksumite 43 198 61 45 87 434 (9.9%) (45.6%) (14%) (10.3%) (20%) (24.7%) Middle Aksumite 84 339 137 108 144 812 (10.3%) (41.7%) (16.8%) (13.3%) (17.7%) (46.3%) Late Aksumite 9 31 23 13 28 104 (8.6%) (29.8%) (22.1%) (12.5%) (27%) (5.9%) Total 160 769 256 209 360 1754 (9.2%) (43.8%) (14.6%) (11.9%) (20.5%) (100%)

In general, bowls (43.8%) and cups (20.5%) constituted the most frequent ceramic formal types in every occupational phase in Field D. On the other hand, basins (9.2%), cauldrons (11.9%), and jars/bottles (14.6%) have an almost equal presence in the analyzed ceramic assemblages (Table 7.6).

In order to determine additional ceramic production trends for each phase, frequency distributions of specific formal types were compared. Formal type 1.1 is the most popular basin registered from Late Pre-Aksumite contexts in Field D. Types 1.2 and 1.4 were found to be the dominant basins for the PA-A transition and Early Aksumite periods. During the Middle and Late Aksumite periods, basin Types 1.6 and 1.7 become most popular respectively (Figure 7. 5)

243 80 70 Type 1.1 60 Type 1.2 50 Type 1.3 40 Type 1.4 30 Type 1.5 20 10 Type 1.6

Percentage offorma types 0 Type 1.7 Type 1.8

Occupational phase

Figure 7.5. Basin types percentage distribution by Field D occupational phases

As indicated in Table 7.6, Field D produced 769 ceramic bowls. About 63% (484 in number) of these vessels are classified under small bowl categories and the remainder, about 37% (285 in number) are designated as large bowl types. In each occupational phase, small bowl types constituted more than 60% of the total recorded bowl forms. In general, no major variation is observed in the percentage distribution of large and small bowl vessels across occupational phases (Table 7.7).

Table 7.7. Percentage of large and small bowl types by Field D occupational phases Phases Large Small Total bowls Bowls Late Pre-Aksumite 13 (35.1%) 24 37 (64.9%) PA-A transition 61 103 164 (37.2%) ((62.8%) Early Aksumite 74 (37.4%) 124 198 (62.6%) Middle Aksumite 128 211 339 (37.8%) (62.2%) Late Aksumite 9 22 (71%) 31 (29%)

During the earlier occupational phases (Late Pre-Aksumite to PA-A transition periods), ORW/BW large open bowls, with direct everted rim profiles, flat lips, with rough to smooth external and smoothed to burnished internal surfaces (Type 2.1), BW large

244 open bowls with thick rounded rim, decorated with bands of hatched lines or wavy incised parallel lines on the internal surface and notches on the top of the rim (Type 2.2) and ORW micaceous large open bowls, with thick rounded rims, smoothed surfaces, sometimes scraped/wiped on the external surface, sometimes characterized by traces of red slip (Type 2.3) were the dominant large bowl vessel types in use. ORW large open bowls with deep incisions or notches on the internal surface (Type 2.11), ORW, BW and GW fine to medium coarse large open ledge-rim bowls (Type 2.12) and ORW mineral- tempered large open bowls with out-turned rims and burnished or red-slipped surfaces (Type 2.13) were popular during the Early Aksumite period. In contrast, in terms of number, large bowl types 2.12 and 2.17-19 were found in higher concentrations in the Middle Aksumite occupational phase than all other phases. During the Late Aksumite period, large bowl types are reduced significantly and only Types 2.12 and 2.17 are present in this phase (Figure 7.6)

50 Type 2.1 40 Type 2.2 30 Type2.3 20 Type 2.11 10 Type2.12 0 Type 2.13

Percentage ofbowl large types Type 2.17 Type 2.18 Type 2.19

Occupational phases

Figure 7.6. Field D large bowl types percentage distribution by phase

When comparing the distribution of small bowls across Field D occupational phases, Types 2.4-2.6 were found to be the most prominent small bowl shapes during the Late Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition periods, with the addition of Types 2.7-2.10 in the PA-A transition period. Types 2.7, 2.9 and 2.10 were the most widespread small bowl vessels during the Early Aksumite period. A significant increase in the popularity of Types 2.14-2.16 was recorded during the Middle Aksumite occupational phase. On the

245 other hand, Type 2.21, Type 2.22 and Type 2.23 can be considered as the chief markers of the Late Aksumite occupational phase in Field D (Figure 7.7).

45 Type 2.4

Type 2.5 40 Type 2.6 35 Type 2.7 30 Type 2.8 25 Type 2.9

20 Type 2.10

15 Type 2.14 Type 2.15

10 Percentage ofsmall bowltypes Type 2.16 5 Type 2.20 0 Type 2.21 Late Pre- PA-A transition Early Aksumite Middle Late Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Type 2.22 Occupational phases Type 2.23

Figure 7.7. Field D small bowl types percentage distribution by phase

As far as Field D jar and bottle distributions are concerned, four major trends could be identified: 1) Jar/bottle Types 3.1-3.3 and 3.5 dominated earlier (Late Pre- Aksumite and PA-A transition periods) occupational phases; 2) Types 3.6 to 3.8 were popular in the Early Aksumite period; 3) Types 3.9 to 3.12 characterized the Middle Aksumite period; and 4) Jar/bottle types 3.12 to 3.15 become more popular during the Late Aksumite occupational phase (Figure 7.8).

246 45 Type 3.1 40 Type 3.2

35 Type 3.3 Type 3.4 30 Type 3.5 25 Type 3.6 Type 3.7 20 Type 3.8 15 Type 3.9 Type 3.10 Percentage ofjar/bottle types 10 Type 3.11 5 Type 3.12

0 Type 3.13 Late Pre- PA-A transition Early Aksumite Middle Late Aksumite Type 3.14 Aksumite Aksumite Type 3.15 Occupational phases

Figure 7.8. Field D jar/bottle types percentage distribution by phase

Cauldron vessel forms are mainly designed for cooking purposes (see Chapter 6). Evaluating changes in cauldron formal type distributions across Field D occupational phases presents an interesting picture. There seems to be changes in the production of various types through time. Type 4.1 was the dominant cauldron recorded during the Late Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition periods. This type decreases in the Early Aksumite period, and Type 4.2 increases to become the dominant form in the Early and Middle Aksumite period. New formal types, such as Type 4.4, started to be produced beginning in the Early Aksumite period and continued to flourish throughout the Middle and Late Aksumite occupational phases. The introduction of new cauldron formal types continued in the Late Aksumite period with the addition of Type 4.6 to the ceramic corpus (Figure 7.9), although it remains a relatively minor component of the cooking assemblage.

247 80 70 60 50 40 Type 4.1 30 Type 4.2 20 Type 4.3 10 Type 4.4 0

Percentage ofcauldron types Type 4.5 Type 4.6

Occupational phases

Figure 7.9. Field D cauldron formal type percentage distribution by phase

ORW/GW rounded cup with inverted rims and pointed lips (Type 5.1) and ORW/BW cups with slightly constricted necks, flaring rims and rounded lips (Type 5.2) were dominant during the Late Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition periods. These two formal types combined constituted about 83% and 73% of the total recorded cups in Late Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition periods respectively. ORW cups with plain smoothed surfaces, with only a horizontal incision/groove below the exterior rim (Type 5.3), BW cups with collared rims, sloping shoulders, semi-round body profiles and slightly angular rounded bottoms (Type 5.4) and ORW ring-based cups with flaring or ledge-rims and rounded lips, often decorated with single groove/incision below the rim on the exterior surface (Type 5.5) become popular in Early Aksumite phase. Types 5.4 and 5.5 continued to be popular cups and together with Type 5.6 become the main markers of the Middle Aksumite period. On the other hand, Types 5.7 and 5.8 together constituted 60.7% of the total identified cups during the Late Aksumite period (Figure 7.10).

248 80 70 Type 5.1 60 Type 5.2 50 40 Type 5.3 30 Type 5.4 20 Type 5.5 10 Percentage ofcup types Type 5.6 0 Type 5.7 Type 5.8 Type 5.9 Type 5.10 Occupational phases

Figure 7.10. Field D cup formal type percentage distribution by phase

In conclusion, vessel shape distribution across Field D’s excavated stratigraphic phases suggests continuity in the ceramic sequence. In every category, distinctive markers of the local ceramic tradition types occur in multiple phases. Very limited types appeared exclusively in a single phase. The transition from one phase to another is instead characterized by a slow and gradual change of the recorded ceramic formal types.

7.1.3. Field D Surface Treatment

The surfaces of Ona Adi ceramics were treated with a variety of techniques at different stages of the vessel production process (see Chapter 6). The most important surface treatment techniques used to embellish Field D ceramics include scraping, basket/mat-impressions, cord marks/impressions, smoothing, slipping, and burnishing/polishing. Many analyzed sherds also have rough surfaces, lacking any surface treatment. There are also sherds which have surfaces with two or more surface treatment techniques (Table 7.8).

249 Table 7.8. Surface treatment type distributions across Field D stratigraphic phases Phases Scrapin Basket- Cord- Smoothin Slippin Burnishin Rough Total g impresse marke g g g/ d d Polishing Late Pre- 52 13 6 67 35 19 27 219 Aksumite (23.7%) (5.9%) (2.7%) (30.6%) (16%) (8.7%) (12.3% (7.5%) ) PA-A 96 18 34 145 83 61 109 546 transition (17.6%) (3.3%) (6.2%) (26.6%) (15.2%) (11.2%) (19.9% (18.9% ) ) Early 77 68 86 163 108 97 124 723 Aksumite (10.7%) (9.4%) (11.9% (22.5%) (14.9%) (13.4%) (17.2% (25%) ) ) Middle 21 102 137 306 247 225 118 1156 Aksumite (1.8%) (8.8%) (11.9% (26.5%) (21.4%) (19.5%) (10.2% (40%) ) ) Late 6 14 23 54 41 27 78 243 Aksumite (2.5%) (5.8%) (9.5%) (22.2%) (16.9%) (11.1%) (32.1% (8.4%) ) Total 252 215 286 735 514 429 456 2887 (8.7%) (7.4%) (9.9%) (25.5%) (17.8%) (14.9%) (15.8% (100%) )

To explore changes in surface treatment types through time, these variables were compared throughout all occupational phases in Field D. With few exceptions, all phases were generally dominated by smoothing, slipping, burnishing/polishing and rough surface treatment types. For the Late Pre-Aksumite, PA-A transition and Early Aksumite phases, scraping was preferred surface finish method in addition to the most common ones mentioned above. Similarly, basket-impressed and cord-marked vessels become more prevalent during the Early and Middle Aksumite phases and continued to exist in Late Aksumite phase contexts but at a much more reduced scale (Table 7.8, Figure 7.11).

250 35

25 Scraping 20 Basket-impressed

types 15 Cord-marked 10 Smoothing 5 Slipping

0 Burnishing/Polishing Percentagesof surface treatment Rough

Figure 7.11. Percentage of surface treatment types by Field D occupational phases

7.1.4. Field D Decorations

Chapters Four and Six present detailed discussions of the techniques and types of decorations used throughout the Ona Adi sequence. Incision, bossing, corrugation, grooving, punctate, combing and notching were the major decoration techniques used to embellish vessel surfaces.

Table 7.9. Decoration type distributions across Field D stratigraphic phases Phase Thin Thick Black- Notch Corrugati Puncta Groov Comb Boss Total incisio incisio toppe es on on te e n n d the lip and wavy line Late 31 8 19 23 0 0 13 15 14 123 Pre- (25.2 (6.5% (15.4 (18.7 (10.4 (12.2 (11.4 (7.1% Aksumi %) ) %) %) %) %) %) ) te PA-A 114 16 41 37 0 25 56 21 9 319 transiti (35.7 (5%) (12.9 (11.6 (7.8%) (17.6 (6.6% (2.8% (18.5 on %) %) %) %) ) ) %) Early 138 93 16 9 33 (7.1%) 84 69 17 3 462 Aksumi (30%) (20.1 (3.5% (1.9%) (18.2) (15%) (3.7% (0.6% (26.8 te %) ) ) ) %) Middle 261 128 3 15 87 106 74 9 14 697 Aksumi (37.4 (18.4 (0.4% (2.2%) (12.7%) (15.2% (10.6 (1.3% (2%) (40.4 te %) %) ) ) %) ) %)

251 Phase Thin Thick Black- Notch Corrugati Puncta Groov Comb Boss Total incisio incisio toppe es on on te e n n d the lip and wavy line Late 19 51 1 4 5 (4%) 13 6 17 8 124 Aksumi (15.3 (41.1 (0.8% (3.2%) (10.5% (4.8% 13.7% (6.5% (7.2% te %) %) ) ) ) ) ) ) Total 563 296 80 88 125 228 218 79 48 1725 (32.6 (17.2 (4.6% (5.1%) (7.2%) (13.2% (12.6 (4.6% (2.9% (100% %) %) ) ) %) ) ) )

Most sherds of Late Pre-Aksumite in Field D were decorated by a variety of thin incision (25.2%), notches on the lip and wavy lines (18.7%), and black-topped (15.4%) techniques. A single horizontal thin incision and sometimes bands of horizontal thin incisions, applied on the sherd’s body just below the rim, were common. Combing (12.2%), bossing (11.4%), and grooving (10.6%) were the other important decorative types found in Late Pre-Aksumite analyzed sherds (Table 7.9, Figure 7.12). The wavy line type is frequently found in the form of bands of zigzag lines on the interior surface of sherds immediately below a notched rim. Together with black-topped sherds, this type of decoration was the typical marker of Pre-Aksumite period sites in Eastern Tigrai including Mezber (Manzo and Gaudiello in prep).

35 Thin incision 30 Thick incision 25 Black-topped 20 Notches on the lip and wavy line 15 Corrugation

10 Punctate Groove 5 Comb

Percentage ofdecoration types 0 Boss

Figure 7.12. Decoration type distribution in Field D stratigraphic phase deposits

252 All decoration types introduced during the Late Pre-Aksumite period continued to be used and become even more popular in the PA-A occupational phase, indicating little variation through time. The observed variation was mostly related to the introduction of a new decoration type, punctate designs, which embellished the surfaces of 7.8% of PA-A transition decorated sherds. Furthermore, in comparison, there was a significant increase in the popularity of grooved decorations during the PA-A transition period (Table 7.9, Figure 7.12). The beginning of the Early Aksumite period was marked by a significant decline in the use of notches on the lip, wavy lines, black-topped and bossed decoration types and an increase in thin and thick incisions, punctate designs and grooved vessels (Figure 7.12). Moreover, the Early Aksumite period witnessed the introduction of corrugated vessels in the Field D ceramic assemblages. More than 70% of the Middle Aksumite decorated sherd surfaces carry either thin incisions (37.4%), thick incisions (18.4%), or punctate (15.2%) designs. During the Late Aksumite period, thick incision decoration techniques become by far the dominant surface finish (41.1%), followed by thin incisions (15.3%) and combing (13.7%) (Figure 7.13).

7.2. Field C Ceramic Analysis Results

A total of 301.8 kg of ceramic sherds were collected from Field C excavations. Almost all diagnostic sherds, totaling 2417, obtained from secure stratigraphic contexts were systematically analyzed (Table 7.10). Sherds from Loci 1, 4, 10, 11 and 12 were excluded from the ceramic analysis results presented below because of the mixed nature of these contexts (see Chapter 5). Loci 1, 4 and 12 represent topsoil/plough zone excavated levels. As Field C is situated in the middle of an active agricultural plot of land, these contexts were heavily disturbed by ploughing and other related human activities. Loci 10 and 11 also produced mixed ceramic data because they represented balk clearance.

Table 7.10. Field C diagnostic sherd counts, gufa counts and diagnostic sherd densities by excavated loci Locus Diagnostic Gufa Count Diagnostic sherd Sherds count Density (sherds/gufa) 2 873 1985 0.439 3 651 493 1.320 5 Architecture 6 Child Burial

253 Locus Diagnostic Gufa Count Diagnostic sherd Sherds count Density (sherds/gufa) 7 Architecture 8 13 71 0.183 9 Architecture 13 123 141 0.872 14 61 65 0.938 15 19 23 0.826 16 Architecture 17 Architecture 18 253 581 0.435 19 120 297 0.404 20 75 296 0.253 21 Architecture 22 27 42 0.642 23 Architecture 24 Architecture 25 202 114 1.771 26 Architecture Total 2417 4108 0.588

Field C contained one of the test pits which provided an ideal situation to test our working hypothesis that larger settlement sites in Gulo Makeda were continuously occupied, spanning from the Pre-Aksumite to the ethnographic periods. Systematic analyses of a combination of stratigraphic, architectural, ceramic and other artefacts assisted in identifying four major phases of occupation over the course of the formation of the thick deposit in Field C excavations (see Chapter 5, Table 7.11 and Figure 7.13).

Table 7.11. Field C diagnostic sherd densities gained by dividing sherd counts by gufa counts for each occupational phase Phases Diagnostic Gufa Count Diagnostic sherds sherds Density (sherds/gufa) Count PA-A transition (Phase 1) 229 156 1.467 Early Aksumite (Phase 2) 195 593 0.328 Middle Aksumite (Phase 3) 862 1255 0.686 Late Aksumite (Phase 4) 1131 2104 0.537 Total 2417 4108 0.588

Comparing diagnostic sherd densities between phases (PA-A transition, Early Aksumite, Middle Aksumite and Late Aksumite Phases) indicates a sharp rise during the PA-A transition, a significant decrease in the Early Aksumite, a modest increase in the Middle Aksumite and a slight decrease in the Late Aksumite period (Figure 7.1). The

254 high value for Field C PA-A transition period diagnostic sherd density could be associated with room floors formed by remnants of the lower (oldest) architectural buildings (walls) recorded during this occupational phase (see Chapter 5). The decrease in diagnostic sherd density in the Early Aksumite period is quite interesting particularly because all collected data from this context (floor surface, in situ presence of a food- processing feature consisting of a large grinding stone, large quantities of animal bone mixed with fragments of charcoal and ceramic cooking vessel fragments etc.) suggest the presence of a hearth or fireplace (Chapter 5). The discovery of the most complete room (it could be a storeroom, kitchen, or living room), a child burial and the construction of the first church at Ona Adi associated with the Middle and Late Aksumite periods in Field C may explain the increase in the diagnostic sherds’ density during these occupational phases.

1.6

1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

Diagnostic sherds density sherds Diagnostic 0.2

0 PA-A transition Early Aksumite Middle Aksumite Late Aksumite (Phase 1) (Phase 2) (Phase 3) (Phase 4) Occupational Phases

Figure 7.13. Field C diagnostic sherd densities by stratigraphic phases

7.2.1. Field C Fabrics

Table 7.12 presents the raw frequency distribution and proportions (percentages) of the main fabric groups (ORW, BW, GW and BLW) across Field C chronological phases. A chi square test analysis of the contingency table (Table 7.12) data was conducted to determine the presence or absence of relationships and the degree of significance of the relationship between stratigraphic phases versus identified fabric groups. The test revealed a highly significant relationship between fabric groups and

255 Field D occupational phases in total diagnostic sherds scores (휒2 = 525.149, 푑푓 = 9, 푝 ≤ .000).

Table 7.12. Fabric group distributions across Field C stratigraphic phases Phases ORW BW GW BLW Total PA-A transition 96 (42%) 72 49 12 229 (31.4%) (21.4%) (5.2%) (9.5%) Early Aksumite 84 61 33 17 195 (43.1%) (31.3%) (16.8%) (8.7%) (8.1%) Middle Aksumite 188 302 243 129 862 (21.8) (35.1%) (28.2%) (15%) (35.7%) Late Aksumite 57 (5%) 193 514 367 1131 (17.1%) (45.4%) (32.4%) (46.8%) Total 425 628 839 525 2417 (17.6%) (26%) (34.7%) (21.7%) (100%)

Field C ceramic data reveal conservatism in pottery manufacturing technology with the slow change and continued presence of several PA-A transition ceramic fabric, formal and decoration attributes into the Early to Late Aksumite periods (Table 7.11, Figure 7.15 and see below). More specifically, the ORW ceramic fabric was popular during the PA-A transition and Early Aksumite periods. The distribution of BW ceramic fabrics shows very little variation across occupational phases except during the Late Aksumite period. Gray and Black Wares are the dominant fabric types found in upper excavated stratigraphic layers, particularly in the Late Aksumite occupation (Figure 7.14).

256 50 45 40 35 30 ORW 25 BW 20 15 GW 10 BLW Percentage offabric types 5 0 PA-A Early Aksumite Middle Late Aksumite transition Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.14 Fabric types (%) distributions across Field C stratigraphic phases

Medium ware fabrics dominated Field C analyzed diagnostic sherd collections. It represented the highest number of sherds in each occupational phase except during the Middle Aksumite period, when fine ware fabrics are more popular (Table 7.13 and Figure 7.15). This pattern may suggest a rich presence of serving and cooking vessels such as cups and bowls, whose wall profiles are made of fine and medium pastes across Field C phases (see below). The presence of a greater percentages of fine ware pottery sherds associated with the Early, Middle and Late Aksumite occupation phases in Field C could indicate another important development in the site. Early Aksumite period occupation in Field C produced evidence of many metal objects, glass fragments, red ocher, and shell. Most of these objects are luxury items linked to the elite sector of the Aksumite community at Ona Adi (Chapter 5). One of the most distinctive features recognized in the study of Field C Middle Aksumite period architecture was several pieces of bricks and slate in the rubble fill. These materials are markers of Aksumite elite buildings. The Late Aksumite period in Field C contained high frequencies of traded artefacts including several fragments of purple painted Aksumite pottery (PPA) and imported blue-glazed Sasanian potsherds. In the same context, several fine ware pieces of locally made sherds bearing cross motifs were recorded. The popularity of the cruciform motif decoration to embellish Late Aksumite ceramic vessels may suggest the construction of the first church during this time (see Chapter 5). All these developments could justify the popularity and increasing frequency of fine ware vessels through the Aksumite period in Field C (Table 7.13 and Figure 7.15).

257 Table 7.13. Frequency distributions of fabric types in Field C stratigraphic phases Phases Fine Medium Coarse Total PA-A transition 42 135 28 205 (20.4%) (65.9%) (13.7%) Early Aksumite 54 77 31 162 (47.5%) (19.1%) (33.3%) Middle Aksumite 389 292 35 716 (54.3%) (40.9%) (4.9%) Late Aksumite 321 405 122 848 (37.9%) (47.8%) (14.4%) Total 806 909 216 1931 (41.7%) (47.1%) (11.2%)

40 Fine 30 Medium 20 Coarse

Percentagetypes ware of 10

0 PA-A Early Middle Late transition Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.15. Percentage of fine, medium and coarse wares in Field C Phases

Like Field D, sand, mica, quartz, organic matter and other types including grog were the major inclusion types recorded in the analysis of Field C diagnostic sherds fabric. Mica and quartz were the major inclusions during the PA-A transition period. Sand stands out as the dominant ceramic fabric component during the Early Aksumite and is also frequent, together with quartz, in the Middle Aksumite period. Late Aksumite period potters preferred to use mica, organic substances and other materials including grog to enhance the quality of the paste to produce ceramic vessels (Figure 7.17). However, several recorded Late Aksumite fine wares in Field C, such as PPA sherds, do not have any recognized inclusions in their fabric. As indicated elsewhere in this thesis, all these non-clay ceramic fabric inclusions are locally available at Ona Adi. Potter preference for a specific inclusion type could be associated with technical or functional

258 factors. Recent ethnoarchaeological research in the area indicates the importance of accessibility (ownership of clay sources and inclusion quarry sites) and quarry site distance from potters’ homes as important factors for using a specific type of inclusion to produce ceramic vessels (Lyons 2014).

50 Sand

40 Mica 30

20 Quartz

Oranic matter and others Percentage ofinclusion types 0 (grog) PA-A Early Middle Late transition Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.16. Major inclusion types used to produce Field C ceramic assemblages

7.2.2. Field C Ceramic Forms

The dominant vessel shape recovered in Field C is the bowl form, which significantly increases in number (but not in percentages) during the Middle and Late Aksumite periods. Basins have a minor presence during the PA-A transition and Early Aksumite periods but increase slightly in the Middle and Late Aksumite periods. Other shapes (jars/bottles, cauldrons and cups) steadily increase from the PA-A transition to the Late Aksumite period with only a minor decrease in the frequency of jars/bottles during the Late Aksumite period (Table 7.14).

Table 7.14. Field C vessel shape type counts and percentages by occupational phases Phases Basin Bowl Jars/bottle Cauldron Cup Total PA-A transition 9 57 14 10 16 107 (8.4%) (53.3%) (13.1%) (9.3%) (15%) Early Aksumite 8 26 17 13 24 88 (9.1%) (29.5%) (19.3) (14.3%) (27.3%) Middle Aksumite 69 238 106 91 130 634 (10.9%) (37.5%) (16.7%) (14.4%) (20.5%)

259 Phases Basin Bowl Jars/bottle Cauldron Cup Total Late Aksumite 82 371 99 107 163 822 (10%) (45.1%) (12.1%) (13%) (19.9%) Total 168 692 236 221 333 1651 (10.2%) (41.2%) (14.4%) (13.3%) (20.2%)

Compared to Field D, the ceramic assemblages in Field C demonstrate stronger continuity and similar trends in specific vessel shape type distributions across occupational phases. In terms of recorded basin types, the PA-A transition and Early Aksumite periods contain the smallest numbers. Types 1.2 to 1.5 were the major basin types manufactured and used during PA-A transition and Early Aksumite period occupations. On the other hand, the Middle and Late Aksumite periods show an increase in the popularity of basin Types 1.6 to 1.8 (Figure 7.17), although Type 1.6 is first introduced in the Early Aksumite period.

45 40 35 Type 1.2 30 Type 1.3 25 Type 1.4 20 Type 1.5 15 10 Type 1.6

Percentage ofbasin types 5 Type 1.7 0 Type 1.8 PA-A Early Middle Late Aksumite transition Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.17. Percentage distribution of basin types by Field C occupational phases

A total of 266 large and 426 small bowls were recorded in Field C deposits. Similar to Field D, each occupational phase in Field C is dominated by small bowl types, which constituted about (or more than) 60% of the total recorded bowl forms (Table 7.15).

260 Table 7.15. Large and small bowl types counts and percentages by Field C occupational phases Phases Large bowls Small Bowls Total PA-A transition 23 (40.4%) 34 (59.6%) 57 Early Aksumite 9 (34.6%) 17 (65.4%) 26 Middle Aksumite 76 (31.9%) 162 (69.1%) 238 Late Aksumite 158 (42.6%) 213 (57.4%) 371 Total 266 (38.4%) 426 (61.6%) 692

Four large bowl types (Types 2.2, 2.11, 2.12, and 2.13) are recorded in both the PA-A transition and Early Aksumite periods, although Type 2.17 also appears in the PA- A transition period. Type 2.2 and Type 2.11 are somewhat more frequent in the large bowl collections recorded during the PA-A and Early Aksumite periods respectively. Types 2.12 and 2.17 were the most popular large bowl forms during the Middle and Late Aksumite occupational phases (Figure 7.18).

50 Type 2.2 Type 2.11 40 Type2.12 30 Type 2.13 20 Type 2.17

10 Type 2.18 Percentage ofbowl large types 0 Type 2.19 PA-A Early Middle Late transition Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.18. Field C large bowl types percentage distribution by phase

Both the quantity and the variety of small bowl types increase across Field C occupational phases. During the PA-A transition period, Types 2.4 and 2.5 seem to dominate the recorded small bowls collections. Type 2.6 becomes more popular in the Early Aksumite period. Types 2.15, 2.16 and 2.20 are most frequent in the Middle Aksumite period, and Types 2.20, 2.21 and 2.22 are most common in the Late Aksumite period in Field C (Figure 2.19).

261 50

45 Type 2.4 40 Type 2.5 Type 2.6 35 Type 2.7 30 Type 2.9 25 Type 2.10

20 Type 2.14 Type 2.15 15 Type 2.16

Percentage ofsmall bowltypes 10 Type 2.20 5 Type 2.21

0 Type 2.22 PA-A transition Early Aksumite Middle Late Aksumite Type 2.23 Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.19. Percentage distribution of small bowl types by Field C occupational phases

Counts of jars and bottles found in the PA-A transition and Early Aksumite phase deposits again indicate that types are generally evenly spread in Field C, with relatively higher frequencies of Type 3.1 and Type 3.6 in the PA-A and Early Aksumite periods, respectively. On the other hand, the Middle and Late Aksumite occupational phases were dominated by jar and bottle Types 3.9 to 3.12 (Figure 7.20).

262 50

45 Type 3.1 40 Type 3.2 35 Type 3.6

30 Type 3.7 Type 3.8 25 Type 3.9 20 Type 3.10 15 Type 3.11

Percentage ofjar/bottle types 10 Type 3.12

5 Type 3.13 Type 3.14 0 PA-A Early Aksumite Middle Late Aksumite Type 3.15 transition Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.20. Percentage distribution of jar/bottle types by Field C occupational phases

Evaluating changes in the distribution and variety of cauldron types in Field C, there seems to be minor differences between the PA-A transition and the Early Aksumite period. In both occupational phases, the cauldron collection is constituted by Types 4.1 to 4.4. Types 4.1 and 4.3 tend to be more common in the PA-A transition, while Types 4.2 and 4.4 are more popular in the Early Aksumite period. The other recognizable variation between the two earlier occupational phases was the introduction of a new cauldron form (Type 4.5) during the Early Aksumite period. The vast majority of cauldrons in the Middle Aksumite period were represented by Types 4.2 to 4.5, although Type 4.6 is also first introduced in this period. The production of these types continued in to the next phase (the Late Aksumite period), but with different frequency distribution (Figure 7.21). In general, Types 4.3 and 4.6 stand out as the markers of the Late Aksumite period occupational phase (Figure 7.21).

263 40 35 30 Type 4.1 25 Type 4.2 20 Type 4.3 15 Type 4.4 10 Type 4.5 5 Percentage ofcauldron types Type 4.6 0 PA-A Early Middle Late Aksumite transition Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.21. Percentage distribution of cauldron types by Field C occupational phases

Similar to the trends observed in other ceramic vessel forms, changes in cup variety from one phase to another witnessed a smooth and gradual transition. The more common types, which should be regarded as distinctive elements of the local ceramic tradition, such as Types 5.5 and 5.6, occur in all of the phases. In general, Types 5.3, 5.4 and 5.6 could be considered as markers of the PA-A transition and Early Aksumite period phases. Together with Type 5.5, Types 5.4 and 5.6 continued to be popular during the Middle Aksumite period. Types 5.7 to 5.9 and a new cup form (Type 5.10) all dominate the Late Aksumite cup collections in Field C (Figure 7.22).

264 50 45 40 Type 5.3 35 Type 5.4 30 Type 5.5 25 20 Type 5.6 15 Type 5.7 10

Percentage ofcup types Type 5.8 5 Type 5.9 0 PA-A Early Middle Late Type 5.10 transition Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.22. Percentage distribution of cup types by Field C occupational phases

7.2.3. Field C Surface Treatment

In terms of surface treatment, the main trends already recorded in Field D phases are quite similar to those observed in Field C. The common surface treatment types (smoothing, slipping, burnishing/polishing and rough surfaces) were dominantly used in almost all Field C phases (Figure 7.23). Scraped surface sherds were more common during the PA-A transition and Early Aksumite Phases. In addition to the more common surface treatment types mentioned above, basket-impressed and cord-marked vessels become relatively more popular during the Early and Middle Aksumite periods and both decrease slightly in the Late Aksumite occupational phases (Table 7.16, Figure 7.23).

265 Table 7.16. Surface treatment type distributions across Field C stratigraphic phases Phases Scrapin Basket- Cord- Smoothin Slippin Burnishin Rough Total g impresse marke g g g/ d d Polishing PA-A 56 5 12 71 37 23 48 252 transition (22.2%) (2%) (4.8%) (28.2%) (14.7%) (9.1%) (19.1% (9.9%) ) Early 33 14 25 64 40 18 27 221 Aksumite (14.9%) (6.3%) (11.3% (29%) (18.1%) (8.1%) (12.2% (8.7%) ) ) Middle 7 81 137 236 209 183 49 902 Aksumite (0.8%) (9%) (15.2% (26.2%) (23.2%) (20.3%) (5.4%) (35.4% ) ) Late 18 68 92 416 228 197 155 1174 Aksumite (1.5%) (5.8%) (7.8%) (35.4%) (19.4%) (16.8%) (13.2% (46.1% ) ) Total 114 168 266 787 514 421 279 2549 (4.5%) (6.6%) (10.4% (30.9%) (20.2%) (16.5%) (10.9% (100% ) ) )

40 35

30 Scraping 25 Basket-impressed 20 Cord-marked 15 Smoothing 10 Slipping 5 Burnishing/Polishing 0 Rough

Percentage ofsurface treatment types PA-A transition Early Aksumite Middle Late Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.23. Surface treatment types percentage by Field C occupational phases

7.2.4. Field C Decorations

Thin and thick incisions were the chief decoration types used to embellish the surfaces of ceramic vessels collected from all Field C occupational phases. However, in comparison, sherds recorded from the earlier phases (PA-A transition and Early Aksumite period) were less frequently decorated than the one from upper phases

266 (Middle and Late Aksumite periods). Black-topped and notches on the lip were the main distinctive decorative features of sherds of the earlier occupational phases other than the most common types mentioned above (thin and thick incisions) but are most common during the PA-A transition. By contrast, decoration types such as corrugation, punctate marks and grooving could be considered as the main markers of the upper occupational phases (Middle and Late Aksumite periods), although all of these decoration types had already appeared in similar frequencies in the Early Aksumite period (Table 7.17, Figure 7.24).

Table 7.17. Decoration type distributions across Field C stratigraphic phases Phase Thin Thick Black Notch Corrugati Puncta Groo Com Bos Total incisi incisi - es on on te ve b s on on toppe the lip d and wavy line PA-A 18 6 15 13 0 0 4 2 3 61 transitio (29.5 (9.3%) (24.6 (21.3% (6.6% (3.3 (4.9 (4.7% n %) %) ) ) %) %) ) Early 38 17 4 6 9 14 20 11 8 127 Aksumit (29.9 (13.4 (3.1% (4.7%) (7.1%) (11%) (15.7 (8.7 (6.3 (9.7% e %) %) ) %) %) %) ) Middle 181 92 0 3 34 75 61 19 13 478 Aksumit (37.9 (18.9 (0.6%) (7.1%) (15.7% (12.8 (4%) (2.7 (36.5 e %) %) ) %) %) %) Late 208 299 4 13 24 37 30 22 8 645 Aksumit (32.2 (46.4 (0.6% (2%) (3.7%) (5.7%) (4.7% (3.4 (1.2 (49.2 e %) %) ) ) %) %) %) Total 445 414 23 35 67 126 115 54 32 1311 (33.9 (31.6 (1.8% (2.7%) (5.1%) (9.6%) (8.8% (4.1 (2.4 (100 %) %) ) ) %) %) %)

267 50 45 40 Thin incision 35 Thick incision Black-topped 30 Notches on the lip and wavy line 25 Corrugation 20 Punctate 15 Groove 10 Comb Percentagetypes decoration of 5 Boss 0 PA-A Early Middle Late transition Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.24. Percentage of decoration types by Field C occupational phases

7.3. Field B Ceramic Analysis Results

Field B excavations exposed bedrock after removing a 2.40 m thick deposit that was divided into 15 stratigraphic units, including architectural loci (see Chapter 5). A total of 101.22 kg. of potsherds was recovered from the excavations of Field B (Appendix B). Excluding pottery from disturbed topsoil (Locus 1), 1278 diagnostic sherds were analyzed from Field B excavations (Table 7.18).

Table 7.18. Field B diagnostic sherd counts, gufa counts and diagnostic sherd densities by excavated loci Locus Diagnostic Gufa Count Diagnostic sherd Sherds count Density (sherd/gufa) 2 140 318 0.440 3 134 192 0.697 4 151 170 0.888 5 Architecture 6 96 148 0.648 7 226 202 1.118 8 Architecture 9 119 111 1.072 10 143 165 0.866 11 63 107 0.588 12 125 160 0.781

268 Locus Diagnostic Gufa Count Diagnostic sherd Sherds count Density (sherd/gufa) 13 81 98 0.049 14 Architecture 15 Architecture Total 1278 1671 0.764 Based on ceramic sequencing, stratigraphic analysis and architectural style, three main occupational phases were reconstructed from Field B excavations: Middle Aksumite, Late Aksumite and Post Aksumite occupational phases (Chapter 5, Table 7.19).

Table 7.19. Field B diagnostic sherd densities gained by dividing sherd count by gufa count for each occupational phase Phases Diagnostic Gufa Count Diagnostic sherds sherds Density (sherds/gufa) Count Middle Aksumite (Phase 1) 388 476 0.815 Late Aksumite (Phase 2) 465 515 0.902 Post Aksumite (Phase 3) 425 680 0.625 Total 1278 1671 0.764

Comparing diagnostic sherd densities between stratigraphic phases (Middle Aksumite, Late Aksumite and Post Aksumite phases) indicated little variation across time with only a very slight decrease in the Post Aksumite period (Figure 7.25). An increase in the density of diagnostic sherds during the Middle and Late Aksumite periods compared to Post Aksumite phase could be explained by the discovery of activity areas, including a beaten earth surface layer, a possible outdoor kitchen, and a likely midden associated with these contexts (Chapter 5).

269 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3

0.2 Diagnostic sherds density sherds Diagnostic 0.1 0 Middle Aksumite Late Aksumite Post Aksumite

Figure 7.25. Field B diagnostic sherd density by stratigraphic phases

7.3.1. Field B Fabrics

In comparing ceramic fabric type distributions across Field B occupational phases, some variations were identified. All recorded fabric types were used throughout all occupational phases in Field B. The Middle Aksumite phase contains the highest count and percentage of BW sherd compared to the other fabric types identified in the phase. Compared to the other occupational phases, it also has the highest count and percentage of ORW fabric type used in Field B. GW in the Late Aksumite and GW and BLW in the Post Aksumite periods were potters’ preferred fabric types used to manufacture the majority of collected sherds (Table 7.20, Figure 7.26).

Table 7.20. Fabric group (count and %) distributions across Field B stratigraphic phases Phases ORW BW GW BLW Total Middle Aksumite 95 158 82 53 388 (24.5%) (40.7%) (21.1%) (13.7%) Late Aksumite 48 85 208 124 465 (10.5%) (17.6%) (45.4%) (26.7%) Post Aksumite 34 103 153 135 425 (8%) (24.2%) (36%) (31.8%) Total 177 346 443 312 1278 (13.8%) (27%) (34.7%) (24.4%)

270 50 45 40 35 30 ORW 25 BW 20 GW 15 BLW

10 Percentage offabric types 5 0 Middle Aksumite Late Aksumite Post Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.26. Fabric type (%) distributions across Field B stratigraphic phases

Each occupational phase in Field B showed both similarities and differences in terms of fine, medium and coarse ware distributions. Overall, coarse ware sherd counts and percentages seem to steadily increase over time, with medium ware sherds being dominant in every phase. In contrast, fine ware sherds steadily decrease from the Middle Aksumite to Post Aksumite periods (Figure 7.27).

50 45 40 35 30 Fine 25 20 Medium 15 Coarse

10 Percentage ofware types 5 0 Middle Aksumite Late Aksumite Post Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.27. Percentage distribution of fine, medium and coarse wares in Feld B Phases

Similar to Fields C and D, sand, mica, quartz and organic matters and other materials including grog were the major inclusion types recorded in the analysis of Field

271 B diagnostic sherd fabrics. Sand was the predominant inclusion type used in the Middle Aksumite period. During the Late and Post Aksumite periods organic substances and other substances such as grog and to a lesser extent mica became the most popular ceramic fabric inclusion types (Figure 7.28).

50 Sand

40 Mica 30

20 Quartz

10 Oranic matter and others Percentage ofinclusion types 0 (grog) Middle Late Aksumite Post Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.28. Percentage of major inclusion types used to produce Field B ceramic assemblages

7.3.2. Field B Ceramic Forms

The ceramic formal types recovered from Field B revealed a slightly different trend in distribution compared to previously discussed fields. There is very little or no change in the number/percentage of collected vessel shapes across phases. Even though bowl and cup shapes were still more or less dominant in each phase, as in other fields, jars/bottles are more frequent in Field B. The representation of food processing and cooking vessels (mainly basins and cauldrons) in each phase in Field B is lower compared to that observed in other fields (Table 7.21). The high frequency of jars/bottles in Field B ceramic collections may suggest that one of the rooms discovered in this field was associated with storage.

272 Table 7.21. Field B vessel shape type totals and percentages by occupational phases Phases Basins Bowls Jars/bottles Cauldrons Cups Total Middle Aksumite 10 72 54 10 53 199 (5%) (36.2%) (27.1%) (5%) (26.6%) Late Aksumite 11 73 64 12 75 235 (4.7%) (31%) (27.2%) (5.1%) (32%) Post Aksumite 13 73 61 17 51 215 (6%) (34%) (28.4%) (8%) (23.7%) Total 34 218 179 39 179 649 (5.2%) (33.6%) (27.6%) (6%) (27.6)

More detailed observation of the distribution of basin shapes in Field B reveals a general decrease in the number of recorded type varieties over time. During the Middle Aksumite period, an almost equal distribution of four basin types (1.2, 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6) were recorded. Three basin types (1.5, 1.6 and 1.7) were observed during the Late Aksumite period, but the collection was significantly dominated by Type 1.6. The Post Aksumite period basin collections were represented by an almost equal presence of only Types 1.7 and 1.8 (Figure 7.29).

Type 1.2 40 Type 1.4 30 Type 1.5

20 Type 1.6 Type 1.7

Percentage ofbasin types 10 Type 1.8

0 Middle Aksumite Late Aksumite Post Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.29. Frequency (%) distribution of basin types by Field B occupational phases

A total of 218 bowls, 86 (39.4%) large and 132 (60.6%) small, were recovered from Field B deposits. As discussed above, in other fields, small bowl types constituted more than 60% of bowl collections in every phase. The same trend was recorded during the Middle and Late Aksumite period occupations in Field B. However, this pattern was

273 completely reversed in the Post Aksumite phase when 60.3% of the identified bowls were large types (Table 7.22).

Table 7.22. Frequency distributions of large and small bowl types by Field B occupational phases Phases Large Small Total bowls Bowls Middle Aksumite 17 55 72 (23.6%) (76.4%) Late Aksumite 25 48 73 (34.2%) (65.8%) Post Aksumite 44 29 73 (60.3%) (39.7%) Total 86 132 218 (39.4%) (60.6%)

As far as the distribution of large bowl types is concerned, the Middle Aksumite phase is dominated by Type 2.12. Other types (2.11, 2.13, 2.17 and 2.18) recorded during this phase have almost equal frequencies. During the Late and Post Aksumite periods, large bowl types 2.17, 2.18 and 2.19 become more popular (Figure 7.30).

Type 2.11 40 Type2.12 30 Type 2.13

20 Type 2.17 Type 2.18 10

Type 2.19 Percentage ofbowl large types 0 Middle Aksumite Late Aksumite Post Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.30. Frequency (%) distribution of Field B large bowl types by phase

In general, relatively fewer small bowl types were represented in Field B deposits compared to the other fields discussed above (Fields D and C). Types 2.14, 2.15 and 2.16 were represented in every phase but their counts and percentages vary over time. Both Types 2.14 and 2.15 seem to become less frequent after the Middle Aksumite

274 period, while Type 2.16 remains common until the Post Aksumite phase. While Type 2.9 is only found in the Middle Aksumite period, a new type (2.20) was introduce during the Late Aksumite period and continued to be produced in the Post Aksumite occupational phase (Figure 7.31).

45 40 35 Type 2.9 30 Type 2.10 25 20 Type 2.14 15 Type 2.15

10 Type 2.16 Percentage ofsmall types 5 Type 2.20 0 Middle Aksumite Late Aksumite Post Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.31. Frequency (%) distribution of small bowl types by Field B occupational phases

The Middle Aksumite phase produced jar/bottle types 3.11, 3.12, 3.13 and 3.14. Type 3.13 dominates these collections and Type 3.11 is only recorded in this period. All jar/bottle types identified during the Middle Aksumite period, except Type 3.11, also continued to be manufactured in the Late Aksumite phase. However, a newly introduced type (3.15) become the dominant jar/bottle shape during both the Late and Post Aksumite periods (Figure 7.32).

275 70

50 Type 3.11 40 Type 3.12 30 Type 3.13

20 Type 3.14 Type 3.15

10 Percentage types jar/bottle of 0 Middle Aksumite Late Aksumite Post Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.32. Frequency (%) distribution of jar/bottle types by Field B occupational phases

As far as cauldron are concerned, the Middle Aksumite phase was dominated by Type 4.2 and 4.4. Types 4.5 and 4.6 were typical markers of Late and Post Aksumite periods cauldron collections respectively (Figure 4.33).

50 Type 4.2 Type 4.3 40 Type 4.4 30 Type 4.5 20 Type 4.6

Percentage ofcauldron types 10

0 Middle Aksumite Late Aksumite Post Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.33. Cauldron types frequency (%) distribution by Field B occupational phases

The pattern of distribution of cup types in Field B phases seems to present a unique trend. Types and features occurring in one phase were mostly absent in other phases, i.e. the usual pattern of the continuing presence of common types in every

276 identified phase seems to be absent. Only Type 5.6 was identified in the Middle, Late and Post Aksumite periods (Figure 7.34), but it decreases significantly after the Middle Aksumite period. Type 5.10 is introduced in the Late Aksumite period and continues to be popular in the Post Aksumite period.

60 Type 5.4 50 Type 5.5 40 Type 5.6 30 Type 5.7

20 Type 5.8

Percentage ofcup types Type 5.9 10 Type 5.10 0 Middle Aksumite Late Aksumite Post Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.34. Frequency (%) of cup types by Field B occupational phases

7.3.3. Field B Surface Treatment

The most common surface treatment types (smoothing, slipping, burnishing and rough) identified in the analysis of Ona Adi ceramic collections are also well represented in every Field B occupational phase, although they vary somewhat in frequency. For instance, during the Middle and Late Aksumite periods, the frequency of common types is characterized by minor variations compared to the Post Aksumite phase, when smoothing was recorded as a significantly dominant surface treatment type. In addition to the most common types, basket-impressed and cord-marked ceramic surface finishes were important types recorded during the Late Aksumite period (Table 7.23, Figure 7.35).

277 Table 7.23. Frequency (count and percentage) distribution of surface treatment types by Field B occupational phases Phases Basket- Cord- Smoothin Slippin Burnishing/Polishin Rough Total impresse marked g g g d Middle 26 (6.3%) 9 158 72 43 102 410 Aksumite (2.2%) (38.5%) (17.6%) (10.5%) (24.9%) Late 37 (7.4%) 54 133 62 75 141 502 Aksumite (10.8%) (26.5%) (12.4%) (14.9%) (28.1%) Post 8 (1.7%) 15 239 54 32 115 463 Aksumite (3.2%) (51.6%) (11.7%) (6.9%) (24.8%) Total 71(5.2%) 78 530 188 150 358 1375 (5.7%) (38.5%) (13.7%) (10.9%) (26%)

40 Basket-impressed Cord-marked 30 Smoothing 20 Slipping

10 Burnishing/Polishing Rough 0

Percentage ofsurface treatment types Middle Late Aksumite Post Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.35. Frequency (%) distribution of surface treatment types by Field B occupational phases

7.3.4. Field B Decorations

The distribution of decoration types observed in Field B deposits resembles that observed in other fields. Thin incision decorations dominated Middle Aksumite period sherds, and gradually decrease in frequency over time. Thick incisions, grooving, punctate and black-topped decorated sherds are also well-represented during this phase. The presence of significant quantities of black-topped sherds at this phase is unusual. As discussed above (Chapter 6, Sections 7.1.4 and 7.2.4), black-topped sherds were one of the main attributes of Late Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition period ceramic

278 assemblages. As discussed in Chapter 5, a possible wall foundation trench was noticed in the excavation of a Middle Aksumite period room in Field B marked by a beaten earth surface found sealed against walls L14 and 15 (Figures 5.19 and 5.20). The ceramics associated with this fill layer contained mixed period potsherds which may indicate the addition of fill from elsewhere during the construction of the building to level the surface. This could explain the presence of black-topped sherds in this phase. No significant variations were observed in the patterns of the distribution of different decoration types used during the Late and Post Aksumite periods. In both periods, thin and thick incisions were the dominant decoration types (Table 7.24, Figure 7.36).

Table 7.24. Frequency (count and percentage) distribution of decoration types by Field B occupational phases Phase Thin Thick Black Notch Corrugati Puncta Groov Com Boss Tot incisio incisio - es on on te e b al n n toppe the lip d and wavy line Middle 64 35 14 4 1 13 19 4 8 162 Aksumit (39.5% (20.7% (8.6% (2.5%) (0.6%) (8.1%) (11.7 (2.4 e ) ) ) %) %) (4.9 %) Late 68 111 1 10 1 16 9 2 3 221 Aksumit (30.8% (50.2% (0.4% (4.5%) (0.4%) (7.2%) (4.1%) (0.9 (1.3 e ) ) ) %) %) Post 55 128 3 7 0 15 13 0 2 223 Aksumit (24.7% (57.4% (1.3% (3.1%) (6.7%) (5.8%) e ) ) ) (0.8 %) Total 187 274 18 21 2 44 41 6 13 608 (30.8% (45.1% (3%) (3.5%) (0.3%) (7.2%) (6.7%) (1%) (2.1 ) ) %)

279 60

Thin incision 40 Thick incision Black-topped

30 Notches on the lip and wavy line Corrugation Punctate 20 Groove

Percentage ofdecoration types Comb

10 Boss

0 Middle Aksumite Late Aksumite Post Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.36. Decoration types distribution by Field B occupational phases

7.4. Field A Ceramic Analysis Results

Field A excavations produced a total of 119.88 kg. of potsherds. Of these collections, excluding ceramics from disturbed topsoil (Locus 1), 1091 diagnostic sherds were analyzed (Table 7.25).

Table 7.25. Field A diagnostic sherd counts, gufa counts and diagnostic sherd densities by excavated loci Locus Diagnostic Gufa Count Diagnostic sherd Sherds count Density (sherd/gufa) 2 495 1036 0.47 3 122 386 0.31 4 341 320 1.06 5 32 86 0.37 6 Architecture 7 Architecture 8 Architecture 9 Architecture

280 Locus Diagnostic Gufa Count Diagnostic sherd Sherds count Density (sherd/gufa) 10 Architecture 11 68 71 0.95 12 24 13 1.84 13 9 19 0.47 Total 1091 1931 0.56

Four main occupational phases were identified in Field A based on a combination of evidence including the construction style of recovered architecture, stratigraphy and associated artefact studies such as ceramic sequencing (see Chapter 5).

Table 7.26. Field A diagnostic sherd densities obtained by dividing sherd count by gufa count for each occupational phase Phases Diagnostic Gufa Count Diagnostic sherd sherd Density (sherd/gufa) Count Early Aksumite (Phase 1) 32 86 0.37 Middle Aksumite (Phase 2) 350 339 1.03 Late Aksumite (Phase 3) 214 470 0.45 Post Aksumite (Phase 4) 495 1036 0.47 Total 1091 1931 0.56 Comparing diagnostic sherd densities between stratigraphic phases (Early Aksumite, Middle Aksumite, Late Aksumite and Post Aksumite phases) indicates little variation across time with the exception of an increase during the Middle Aksumite period (Table 7.26, Figure 7.37). An increase in the density of diagnostic sherds during the Middle Aksumite period could be explained by the discovery of a possible cooking feature and its platform associated with this deposit. The cooking feature consists of a brick and slate installation found sealed against wall L10 just outside the stepped wall (L6), and could suggest a domestic function for the building (see Chapter 5, Figure 5.13). This suggestion is strengthened by the identification of various tableware and storage vessels associated with these stratigraphic levels (see below).

281 1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

Diagnostic Diagnostic sherdsdensity 0.2

0 Early Aksumite Middle Late Aksumite Post Aksumite Aksumite

Figure 7.37. Field A diagnostic sherd densities by stratigraphic phase

7.4.1. Field A Fabrics

During the earlier occupational phases in Field A (Early and Middle Aksumite periods), ORW and BW fabric were most popular. ORW in particular appears to decrease over time from a height in the Early Aksumite period. An increase in GW and BLW fabrics was noticed starting from the Middle Aksumite period and continuing through to the Late and Post Aksumite phases, when these fabrics become widespread and constitute the typical markers of the ceramic collections paste in Field A (Table 7.27, Figure 7.38).

Table 7.27. Fabric group (count and %) distributions across Field A stratigraphic phases Phases ORW BW GW BLW Total Early Aksumite 17 10 5 0 32 (53.1%) (31.3%) (15.6%) Middle Aksumite 107 13 78 34 350 (30.6%) 1(37.4%) (22.2%) (9.7%) Late Aksumite 20 37 104 53 214 (9.3%) (17.3%) (48.6%) (24.7%) Post Aksumite 85 98 177 135 495 (17.2%) (19.8%) (35.8%) (27.3%) Total 226 275 365 225 1091 (20.7%) (25.2%) (33.5%) (20.6%)

282 60

40 ORW 30 BW 20 GW

10 BLW Percentage offabric types

0 Early Middle Late Aksumite Post Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.38. Fabric type percentage distribution across Field A stratigraphic phases

More than 75% of the analyzed ceramic collection in Field A is composed of fine (39.7%) and medium (37.4%) ware diagnostic sherds. Fine ware sherds in particular constituted the largest recorded pottery counts and percentages through the Early, Middle and Late Aksumite periods. On the other hand, coarse and medium ware sherds were more prevalent during the Post Aksumite period (Figure 7.39).

40 Fine 30 Medium 20 Coarse

Percentagetypes ware of 10

0 Early Middle Late Post Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.39. Distribution (%) of fine, medium and coarse wares in Field A Phases

Quantitative (number and percentage) analysis of sherd paste composition indicated that sand was the most common non-clay component (inclusion type) during

283 the Early and Middle Aksumite periods. Other inclusion types rarely seen included quartz in the Early Aksumite period and organic substances, and quartz and mica in the Middle Aksumite period. Mica and organic matters and other materials (including grog) were the dominant inclusion types identified during the Late and Post Aksumite periods. However, a sizeable number of sherds still have both sand and quartz inclusions in their fabric composition during the Late and Post Aksumite periods (Figure 7.40).

90 80 70 60 50 Sand 40 Mica 30 Quartz 20 Oranic matter and others (grog)

10 percentageofinclusion types 0 Early Middle Late Post Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.40. Major inclusion types (%) used to produce Field A ceramic assemblages

7.4.2. Field A Ceramic Forms

All recorded vessel form types at Ona Adi were identified in Field A. As noticed in other fields, bowls constituted the highest number (321) and percentage (47.2%) of the assemblage. In comparison to other fields, cups are less well-represented in this area. In other excavation fields, cups were the second most commonly identified vessel shape (see above). In Field A, jars/bottles were the second most widespread pottery shapes recognized in the ceramic collections (Table 7.28).

284 Table 7.28. Field A vessel shape type totals by occupational phases Phases Basins Bowls Jars/bottles Cauldrons Cups Total Early Aksumite 2 9 ( 3 1 (5.5%) 3 18 (11.1%) 50%) (16.6%) (16.6%) Middle Aksumite 16 85 40 27 34 202 (7.9%) (42%) (19.8%) (13.3%) (16.8) Late Aksumite 7 69 23 11 36 146 (4.7%) (47.2%) (15.7) (7.5%) (24.6%) Post Aksumite 25 158 72 44 15 314 (7.9%) (50.3%) (22.9%) (14%) (4.7%) Total 50 321 138 83 88 680 (7.3%) (47.2%) (20.2%) (12.2%) (12.9%)

More detailed observation of the distribution of basin types in Field A reveals a general increase in the recorded variety of types across occupational phases. Type 1.2 was the only basin type represented during the Early Aksumite period. Although Type 1.2 continues into the Middle Aksumite period, Type 1.4 and to a lesser degree Type 1.5 become dominant in this period. Types 1.7 and 1.8 are most popular in the Late Aksumite phase. Type 1.6, although appearing since the Middle Aksumite period, becomes more common in the Post Aksumite period, along with Type 1.7 (Figure 7.41).

100 90 80 70 Type 1.2 60 Type 1.4 50 40 Type 1.5 30 Type 1.6 20 Type 1.7 Percentage ofbasin types 10 Type 1.8 0 Early Middle Late Post Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.41. Frequency (%) distribution of basin types by Field A occupational phase

Table 7.19 displays the numbers of large and small bowls represented in each occupational phase. Except for the Early Aksumite phase, small bowls were dominant in all periods (see Table 7.29).

285 Table 7.29. Frequency distribution of large and small bowl types by Field A occupational phase Phases Large Small Total bowls Bowls Early Aksumite 6 3 9 (66.7%) (33.3%) Middle Aksumite 32 53 85 (37.6%) (62.4%) Late Aksumite 21 48 69 (30.4%) (69.6%) Post Aksumite 77 81 158 (48.7%) (51.3%) Total 136 185 321 (42.4%) (57.6%)

Type 2.11 was the most common large bowl identified in the Early and Middle Aksumite periods, while Type 2.2 only appears in the Early Aksumite period. Type 2.18 first appears in the Middle Aksumite period and becomes more popular in the Late Aksumite Period, alongside Type 2.13, which does not appear in other phases. Type 2.19 dominates the large bowls recorded during the Post Aksumite period (Figure 7.42).

50 45 40 35 Type 2.2 30 Type 2.11 25 Type2.12 20 Type 2.13 15 Type 2.17 10

5 Type 2.18 Percentage ofbowl large types 0 Type 2.19 Early Middle Late Post Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.42. Frequency (%) distribution of large bowl types by Field A occupational phase

The number and types of small bowl shapes varied considerably among occupational phases in Field A. In some cases, such as during the Early Aksumite period, only one type (2.9) is represented. In general, both the variety of types and number of small bowl vessels were significantly enriched through time. However, Types

286 2.15 and 2.16 are most common in the Middle Aksumite period with Type 2.16 increasing in popularity during the Late Aksumite Period. Type 2.20, although relatively common in the Late Aksumite period, becomes the dominant small bowl type observed in the Post Aksumite period (Figure 7.43).

100 90 Type 2.9 80 70 Type 2.10 60 Type 2.14 50 Type 2.15 40 Type 2.16 30 Type 2.20 20

10 Type 2.21 Percentage ofsmall bowltypes 0 Type 2.22 Early Middle Late Post Type 2.23 Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.43. Frequency (%) distribution of small bowl types by Field A occupational phases

The distribution of jar/bottle types across occupational phases reveals a similar trend to that of small bowl types observed above. Overall, some identified types exhibit an increase to a peak and then decline in abundance through time. Type 3.2 is the most common jar/bottle type in the Early Aksumite period, and does not appear in any other phase in Field A. The only other jar/bottle type represented in the Early Aksumite period is Type 3.6, which continues to appear in the Middle Aksumite phase, but decrease significantly. Type 3.11 is dominant in the Middle Aksumite phase, and decreases in frequency thereafter. Types 3.13-3.15 all first appear in the Late Aksumite period, with Type 3.15 dominating in both the Late and Post Aksumite periods (Figure 7.44).

287 70

60 Type 3.2 Type 3.6 50 Type 3.7

40 Type 3.8 Type 3.9 30 Type 3.10 20 Type 3.11 Type 3.12

Percentage ofjar/bottle types 10 Type 3.13 0 Type 3.14 Early Aksumite Middle Late Aksumite Post Aksumite Aksumite Type 3.15 Occupational phases

Figure 7.44. Frequency (%) distribution of jar/bottle types by Field A occupational phase

Comparing the number and variety of cauldron vessel reveals some changes within the ceramic tradition from the earlier to the later phases in Field A. There is noticeable variation during the Early and Middle Aksumite period. Only one type (4.1) was observed during the Early Aksumite, which disappears thereafter, but the number of types significantly increases during the Middle Aksumite and following periods. Types 4.2-4.5 occur in both the Middle and Late Aksumite periods, with Type 4.6 as a new addition in the Late Aksumite period. While Types 4.4 and 4.5 continue into the post Aksumite period, the cauldron vessel collection in this phase was highly dominated by Type 4.6 (Figure 7.45).

288 100 90 80 70 Type 4.1 60 Type 4.2 50 40 Type 4.3 30 Type 4.4 20 Type 4.5

Percentage ofcauldron types 10 Type 4.6 0 Early Middle Late Post Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.45. Frequency (%) distribution of cauldron types by Field A occupational phase

Not much can be said about Early Aksumite cup shape distribution in Field A. Only three cups, of Type 5.4 (2 in number) and Type 5.5 (1 in number) were recorded in this phase. During the Middle Aksumite period, Types 5.5, 5.6 and 5.8 were the most popular cup types. Type 5.5 disappears after this period, while Type 5.7 is only present in the Middle and Late Aksumite periods. Type 5.8 continues into the Post Aksumite period, while Types 5.9 and 5.10 first appear in the Late Aksumite period. Type 5.10 in particular dominates the Late and Post Aksumite period cup collections. However, Type 5.7, a widespread cup shape used in the Late Aksumite period, was absent during the Post Aksumite phase (Figure 7.46).

289 70

50 Type 5.4 Type 5.5 40 Type 5.6 30 Type 5.7 20 Type 5.8

Percentage ofcup types 10 Type 5.9

0 Type 5.10 Early Middle Late Post Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.46. Frequency (%) distribution of cup types by Field A occupational phase

7.4.3. Field A Surface Treatments

The most typical Ona Adi ceramic surface treatment types (smoothing, slipping burnishing/polishing and rough surfaces) were recorded from almost every occupational phase in Field A. However, during the Early Aksumite period, sherd surfaces were treated with only smoothing, slipping and burnishing/polishing. During the Middle Aksumite period, other than the typical types mentioned above, a fair number of sherds have surfaces embellished with scraping, basket-impressed and cord-marked techniques. In the Late and Post Aksumite periods the majority of recorded sherds have smoothed and rough surfaces. However, once again, in these occupational phases many of the surface treatment styles were in use although to varying degrees (Table 7.30, Figure 7.47)

290 Table 7.30. Frequency (count and percentage) distribution of surface treatment types by Field A occupational phases Phases Scrapin Basket- Cord- Smoothin Slippin Burnishin Rough Tota g impresse marke g g g/ l d d Polishing Early 0 0 0 19 6 11 0 36 Aksumite (52.8%) (16.7%) (30.6%) Middle 13 28 43 105 71 55 39 354 Aksumite (3.7%) (7.9%) (12.1% (29.7%) (20.1%) (15.5%) (11%) ) Late 0 4 20 83 32 28 47 214 Aksumite (1.9%) (9.3%) (38.8%) (15%) (13.1%) (22%) Post 8 16 5 126 77 53 210 495 Aksumite (1.6%) (3.2%) (1%) (25.5%) (15.6%) (10.7%) (42.4% ) Total 21 48 68 333 186 147 296 1099 (1.9%) (4.4%) (6.1%) (30.3%) (17%) (13.4%) (26.9% )

Scraping 40 Basket-impressed 30 Cord-marked Smoothing 20 Slipping 10 Burnishing/Polishing Rough Percentage ofsurface treatment types 0 Early Middle Late Aksumite Post Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.47. Frequency (%) distribution of surface treatment types by Field A occupational phase

7.4.4. Field A Decorations

Thin incisions, corrugation and punctate decorations were the typical markers of Early Aksumite diagnostic sherds in Field A. Together with the increasingly popular thick incision style, the importance of thin incisions and punctate decorations continued into

291 the Middle Aksumite period. Thin and thick incisions were still dominant styles during the Late and Post Aksumite periods, but grooving and bossed decorations also became more prevalent during these phases (Table 7.31, Figure 7.48).

Table 7.31. Frequency (count and percentage) distribution of decoration types by Field A occupational phases Phase Thin Thick Black Notch Corrugati Puncta Groo Com Boss Tot incisio incisio - es on on te ve b al n n toppe the lip d and wavy line Early 11 2 1 0 6 4 1(4%) 0 0 25 Aksumit (44%) (8%) (4%) (24%) (16%) e Middle 22 14 6 4 2 9 4 1 1 63 Aksumit (34.9% (22.2% (9.5% (6.3%) (3,2%) (14.3%) (6.3% (1.6 (1.6 e ) ) ) ) %) %) Late 18 37 0 1 0 7 14 0 5 82 Aksumit (22%) (45.1% (1.2%) (8.5%) (17.1 (6.1 e ) %) %) Post 61 86 0 3 0 6 28 0 3 187 Aksumit (32.6% (46%) (1.6%) (3.2%) (15%) (1.6 e ) %) Total 112 139 7 8 8 26 47 1 9 357 (31.4% (38.9% (2%) (2.2%) (2.2%) (7.3%) (13.2 (0.2 (2.5 ) ) %) %) %)

292 50

40 Thin incision 35 Thick incision 30 Black-topped 25 Notches on the lip and wavy line 20 Corrugation 15 Punctate

10 Groove Percentage ofdecoration types 5 Comb Boss 0 Early Middle Late Post Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Occupational phases

Figure 7.48. Distribution (%) of decoration types by Field A occupational phase

7.5. Intrasite Comparison of Ona Adi Ceramics

As indicated above, a total of 7,366 diagnostic sherds systematically collected from each excavated field at Ona Adi were analyzed in depth. This provided a large enough sample to track major ceramic trends in each excavated field and through occupational phases (see above). Due to the variation in size and quantity of excavated deposits between fields, diagnostic sherds densities were used instead of counts to establish relationships through exploratory statistics. Density was calculated by dividing the total number of diagnostic sherds by the number of baskets of sediment (gufa) excavated in each field (Table 7.32, Figure 7.49) and ceramic phase (Table 7.33, Figure 7.50).

293 Table 7.32. Diagnostic sherd density calculated by dividing diagnostic sherd count by gufa count for each excavated field Field Diagnostic sherds count Gufa count Diagnostic sherds density A 1091 1931 0.564 B 1278 1671 0.764 C 2417 4108 0.588 D 2580 4236 0.609 Total 7366 11946 0.616

0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 Total Diagnostic TotalDiagnostic sherdsdensity 0 A B C D Field

Figure 7.49. Total diagnostic sherd density by excavated field

Table 7.33. Diagnostic sherd density calculated by dividing diagnostic sherd count by gufa count for each occupational phase Occupational phase Diagnostic Gufa Diagnostic sherds count sherds count density Late Pre-Aksumite 167 353 0.473 PA-A transition 706 1101 0.641 Early Aksumite 863 1911 0.451 Middle Aksumite 2703 3433 0.787 Late Aksumite 2007 3432 0.584 Post Aksumite 920 1716 0.536 Total 7366 11946 0.616

294 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1

Diagnostic sherd density sherd Diagnostic 0

Phase

Figure 7.50. Total diagnostic sherd density by occupational phase

A comparison of total ceramic sherd densities between each field demonstrate that Field B produced the highest density of diagnostic sherds, followed by Fields D, C and A (Figure 7.49).

The trends in ceramic densities for Ona Adi in relation to occupational phase and across the site indicate some variation in diagnostic sherd density from the earlier into the later phases of occupations. Overall, an alternate increase/decrease oscillation trend was observed in diagnostic sherd density across time at the site. Ceramic materials increase in density from the Late Pre-Aksumite to the PA-A transition occupational phase, decrease in the Early Aksumite period, demonstrate a pronounced rise in the Middle Aksumite period and then indicate a decline again by the Late and Post Aksumite phases (Figure 7.50).

Four major ceramic ware (fabric) groups, ORW, BW, GW and BLW, were identified (Chapter 6). Several technical and stylistic variables were employed to manufacture these wares. Some of these variables include form, surface treatment, decoration, etc. (see above for detailed discussion of each variable).

295 Table 7.34. Ona Adi ceramic ware (fabric) type totals by excavated field (diagnostic sherds only) Ceramic ware Field A Field B Field C Field D Total (fabric) ORW 226 177 425 774 1602 (14.1%) (11.1%) (26.5%) (48.3%) (21.7%) BW 275 346 628 989 2238 (12.3%) (15.5%) (28.1%) (44.2%) (30.4%) GW 365 443 839 607 2254 (16.2%) (19.7%) (37.2%) (26.9%) (30.6%) BLW 225 312 525 210 1272 (17.7%) (24.5%) (41.3%) (16.5%) (17.3%) Total 1091 1278 2417 2580 7366 (14.8%) (17.3%) (32.8%) (35.1%) (100%)

Table 7.35. Ona Adi ceramic ware (fabric) type totals by occupational phases (diagnostic sherds only) Ceramic ware Late Pre- PA-A Early Middle Late Post Tota (fabric) Aksumit transitio Aksumit Aksumit Aksumit Aksumit l e n e e e e ORW 76 297 419 555 139 119 1605 (45.5%) (42.1%) (48.6%) (20.5%) (6.9%) (12.9%) BW 53 236 200 1203 346 201 2239 (31.7%) (33.4%) (23.2%) (44.5%) (17.2%) (21.8%) GW 27 132 145 695 924 330 2253 (16.2%) (18.7%) (16.8%) (25.7%) (46.1%) (35.9%) BLW 11 41 99 250 598 270 1269 (6.6%) (5.8%) (11.5%) (9.2%) (29.8%) (29.3%)

Total 167 706 863 2703 2007 920 7366

When comparing the diagnostic sherd fabric percentage amongst the phases across the site, Late Pre-Aksumite, PA-A transition and Early Aksumite period deposits are observed to be dominated by ORW sherds, whose popularity shows a sharp decrease after the Middle Aksumite period (Figure 7.51). Middle Aksumite period deposits show a significant increase in percentage of BW sherds. Moving to the Late and Post Aksumite occupational phases, both GW and BLW types increases in popularity (Figure 7.51`).

296 50 45 40 ORW 35 BW 30 25 GW 20 BLW 15 10 5 Percentage offabric types 0

Occupational phases

Figure 7.51, Total ceramic ware (fabric) percentage by occupational phase

A more or less similar trend that displayed in Figure 7.51 is observed when the distribution of fabric types both across fields and phases are analyzed (Table 7.36 and Figure 7.52). The Late Pre-Aksumite, PA-A transition and Early Aksumite periods assemblages in Field D, the PA-A transition and Early Aksumite periods assemblages in Field C and the Early Aksumite period assemblages in Field A were dominated by ORW potsherds. On the other hand, all the Middle Aksumite period assemblages across all excavated fields at Ona Adi were dominated by BW potsherds. However, during the Late Aksumite period in Fields D and C and the Late and Post Aksumite periods in Fields A and B, GW and BLW fabric types become more popular (Table 7.36 and Figure 7.52).

Columns are colour-coded as follows for ease of viewing: Late Pre-Aksumite, PA-A transition, Early Aksumite, Middle Aksumite, Late Aksumite, Post-Aksumite

Table 7.36. Distribution of fabric types across Ona Adi excavated fields and occupational phases

Fabric D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 C1 C2 C3 C4 B1 B2 B3 A1 A2 A3 A4 ORW 76 201 318 165 14 96 84 188 57 95 48 34 17 107 20 85 BW 53 164 129 612 31 72 61 302 193 158 85 103 10 131 37 98 GW 27 83 107 292 98 49 33 243 514 82 208 153 5 78 104 177 BLW 11 29 82 34 54 12 17 129 367 53 124 135 0 34 53 135

297 60

40 ORW 30 BW

20 GW BLW

Percentage offabric types 10

0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 C1 C2 C3 C4 B1 B2 B3 A1 A2 A3 A4 Fields and phases

Figure 7.52. Ceramic fabric types percentage by field and phase

Table 7.37. Cross tabs showing the observed and expected counts of ceramic ware types by occupational phase. Significant adjusted residuals underlined Ceramic Ware Phases ORW BW GW BLW Total

Late Pre- Count 76 53 27 11 167 Aksumite Expected Count 36.4 50.8 51.1 28.8 167 Adjusted 7.5 0.4 -4.1 -3.7 Residual PA-A transition Count 297 236 132 41 706 Expected Count 153.8 214.6 215.9 121.6 706 Adjusted 13.7 1.8 -7.2 -8.5 Residual Early Aksumite Count 419 200 145 99 863 Expected Count 188 262.3 264 148.7 863 Adjusted 20.3 -4.9 -9.4 -4.8 Residual Middle Aksumite Count 555 1203 695 250 2703 Expected Count 589 821.6 826.8 465.7 2703 Adjusted -2 20 -6.9 -13.8 Residual Late Aksumite Count 139 346 924 598 2007 Expected Count 437.3 610.1 613.9 345.8 2007 Adjusted -18.9 -15 17.6 17.5 Residual

298 Ceramic Ware Phases ORW BW GW BLW Total

Post Aksumite Count 119 201 330 270 920 Expected Count 200.5 279.6 281.4 158.5 920 Adjusted -7 -6 3.7 10.4 Residual Total 1605 2239 2253 1269 7366

Note: 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 28.77 Chi-square tests comparing the frequencies of ceramic fabric types by phase were conducted, allowing for the identification of statistically significant relationships in the frequency comparisons. The chi-square test revealed there to be a highly significant relationship between specific ware types and occupational phase (휒2=1756.100, 푑푓=15, p≤ .000). The post hoc test revealed these differences to occur within all occupational phases. As suggested by Figure 7.51, Late Pre-Aksumite deposits revealed more than expected ORW and fewer than expected GW, while the PA-A transition and Early Aksumite phases had more than expected ORW and fewer GW and BLW compared to the Late and Post Aksumite periods. Finally, the Middle Aksumite period revealed more than expected BW and fewer than expected GW and BLW wares (Table 7.37)

In the Late Pre-Aksumite, PA-A transition and Early Aksumite periods, ORW dominates the ceramic assemblages. During the Middle Aksumite occupational phase, BW vessels become more popular. GW and BLW vessels revealed a general steady increase in density from Late Pre-Aksumite to Post Aksumite and particularly during the Late and Post Aksumite periods, they were the most widespread ware types at Ona Adi. This sort of discussion to establish the general ceramic trends for Ona Adi and an in- depth evaluation of the ceramic collections within each field conducted above helped to identify both synchronic and diachronic changes in the use of specific ceramic materials across the site and through time.

In order to establish additional ceramic trends in the site, frequencies of vessel shape, and surface treatment types were compared among phases. Comparison of the frequencies of ceramic shape types among the occupational phases at Ona Adi reveal that bowls and cups were the dominant vessel forms in in all occupational phases except during the Post Aksumite period when jars/bottles replace the position of cups. On the

299 other hand, while basins represent the lowest percentages in every occupational phase, jars/bottles and cauldrons have generally equal distributions at the site in most of its occupational history (Figure 7.53).

30 Basins Bowls 20 Jars/bottles

10 Cauldrons

Percentage ofvessel formaltypes Cups 0

Occupational phases

Figure 7.53. percentage of vessel shape types by phases

To further explore vessel shape trends, a detailed analysis of the frequencies of specific ceramic formal types across occupational phases in all fields were conducted. As far as basin vessels are concerned, Type 1.1 presents is overwhelmingly dominant during the Late Pre-Aksumite period. Basins during the PA-A and Early Aksumite periods were dominated by Types 1.2, 1.4 and 1.5. Likewise, Types 1.6, 1.7 and 1.8 generally became more popular beginning in the Middle Aksumite period and continued into the Late and Post Aksumite phases (Figure 7.54).

300 70 60 Basin types 50 Type 1.1 40 Type 1.2 30 Type 1.3 20 Type 1.4 10 Type 1.5 0 Type 1.6

Total Diagnostic TotalDiagnostic sherdspercentage Type 1.7 Type 1.8

Figure 7.54. Basin types percentage by Phases

Similarly, Types 2.1 to 2.3 in the Late Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition periods, Type 2.11 in the Early Aksumite period, Types 2.12 and 2.18 in the Middle Aksumite period, and Types 2.12 and 2.17 to 2.19 in Late and Post Aksumite periods dominated the collections of large bowls in each phase (Figure 7.55).

301 60

40 Type 2.1

30 Type 2.2 Type2.3 20 Type 2.11 Type2.12 10 Type 2.13

Ceramic sherds percentage sherds Ceramic Type 2.17 0 Type 2.18 Type 2.19

Phase

Figure 7.55. Large bowl types percentage by occupational phase

The frequencies of small bowl types across phases shows both continuity and a steady increase in type varieties through time. However, in each phase a specific type stands out. For example, in the earlier phases (the Late Pre-Aksumite, PA-A transition and Early Aksumite periods) Types 2.4 to 2.7 were generally more prevalent. During the Middle Aksumite phase, small bowl types were dominated by Types 2.14 to 2.16. The Late and Post Aksumite periods produced the highest percentage of Type 2.20 in the site (Figure 7.56).

302

Type 2.4 35 Type 2.5 Type 2.6 30 Type 2.7 Type 2.8 25 Type 2.9

20 Type 2.10 Type 2.14

Ceramic sherds Ceramic percentage 15 Type 2.15 Type 2.16 10 Type 2.20 Type 2.21 5 Type 2.22 Type 2.23 0 Late Pre- PA-A Early Middle Late Post Aksumite transition Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Phase

Figure 7.56. Percentage of small bowl types by occupational phase

Although jars/bottles were present in every occupational phase from the Late Pre-Aksumite to the Post Aksumite periods, the percentage and number of jar/bottle types were more abundant in the upper levels, especially after the Middle Aksumite period. Type 3.2 in the Late Pre-Aksumite, and Types 3.1 and 3.7 in the PA-A transition period were better represented than other types. The Middle Aksumite phase ceramic assemblage exhibits a high diversity of jar/bottle forms in general and high frequencies of Types 3.9 and 3.11 in particular. Post Aksumite phase deposits produced the highest frequencies of Type 3.15 at Ona Adi (Figure 7.57).

303 50

40 Type 3.1 Type 3.2 35 Type 3.3 Type 3.4 30 Type 3.5 Type 3.6 25 Type 3.7 Type 3.8 20 Type 3.9

Ceramicsherds percentage Type 3.10 15 Type 3.11 Type 3.12 10 Type 3.13 Type 3.14 5 Type 3.15

0 Late Pre- PA-A Early Middle Late Post Aksumite transition Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Phase

Figure 7.57. Percentage of jar/bottle types by phase

The majority of the cauldron vessels of the Late Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition phases are of Type 4.1. Types 4.2 and 4.6, on the other hand, dominated cauldron collections from the Early and Middle Aksumite periods and the Late and Post Aksumite periods respectively (Figure 7.58).

304 70 60 Type 4.1 50 Type 4.2 40 Type 4.3 30 Type 4.4 20 10 Type 4.5

Sherdspercentage 0 Type 4.6

Occupational phases

Figure 7.58. Percentage of cauldron types by occupational phase

Most cups during the Late Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition periods were represented by Type 5.1. However, production of this type seems to stop after these phases, as it was not identified from deposits of other periods. The frequencies of cup vessels representing Types 5.3 and 5.6 reached their peak during the Early and Middle Aksumite periods respectively. Although diverse collections of cups were identified in the Late and Post Aksumite periods, Type 5.10 was the most popular cup type in both phases (Figure 7.59).

80 70 Type 5.1 60 50 Type 5.2 40 Type 5.3 30 Type 5.4

20 Type 5.5 Sherd percentage Sherd 10 Type 5.6 0 Type 5.7 Type 5.8 Type 5.9 Type 5.10 Cup types

Figure 7.59. Percentage of cup types by occupational phase

305 Correspondence Analysis (CA) was applied to the data presented in Table 7.38 in order to identify links between vessel formal types (row points) and fields and occupational phases (column points), within vessel shapes (row points), and within fields and occupational phases (column points). The following notations are used in the table below: A1 (Field A Early Aksumite period), A2 (Field A Middle Aksumite period), A3 (Field A Late Aksumite period), A4 (Field A Post Aksumite period), B1 (Field B Middle Aksumite period), B2 (Field B Late Aksumite period), B3 (Field B Post Aksumite period), C1 (Field C PA-A transition period), C2 (Field C Early Aksumite period), C3 (Field C Middle Aksumite period), C4 (Field C Late Aksumite period), D1 (Field D Late Pre- Aksumite period), D2 (Field D PA-A transition period), D3 (Field D Early Aksumite period), D4 (Field D Middle Aksumite period) and D5 (Field D Late Aksumite period).

Columns are colour-coded as follows for ease of viewing: Late Pre-Aksumite, PA-A transition, Early Aksumite, Middle Aksumite, Late Aksumite, Post-Aksumite

Table 7.38. Distribution of vessel formal types across Ona Adi excavated fields and occupational phases Vessel A1 A2 A3 A4 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3 C4 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 Form 1.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 1.2 2 3 0 0 2 0 0 3 2 0 0 1 5 21 0 0 1.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 0 2 4 2 0 0 1.4 0 7 0 0 1 0 0 1 3 5 0 0 6 11 3 0 1.5 0 4 0 3 2 4 0 3 1 17 8 0 3 9 7 0 1.6 0 2 1 13 3 11 0 0 1 24 33 0 0 0 56 3 1.7 0 0 3 8 0 0 3 0 0 12 26 0 0 0 3 5 1.8 0 0 3 1 0 4 4 0 0 11 15 0 0 0 16 1 2.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 7 0 0 0 2.2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 2 0 0 4 18 1 0 0 2.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 27 6 0 0 2.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 2 0 0 4 10 0 0 0 2.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 4 0 0 10 17 1 0 0 2.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 8 3 0 8 25 5 0 0 2.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 7 0 2 13 22 4 0 2.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 0 0 0 2.9 3 0 0 0 3 0 0 6 0 10 0 0 8 21 2 0 2.10 5 0 7 1 8 0 0 0 4 0 0 11 32 6 0 2.11 3 11 0 0 2 0 0 3 5 8 11 0 3 35 2 0 2.12 1 8 4 24 9 2 2 3 1 22 52 0 5 11 18 4 2.13 0 0 6 0 1 0 1 1 1 3 14 0 1 17 12 0 2.14 0 9 0 0 18 5 5 0 21 0 0 0 0 15 37 0 2.15 0 16 0 6 9 2 2 0 0 35 9 0 0 11 63 0 2.16 0 19 22 9 24 14 13 0 0 29 25 0 0 17 52 2

306 2.17 0 4 10 12 3 11 18 2 0 16 68 0 0 4 21 5 2.18 0 9 10 8 2 5 8 0 0 11 9 0 0 0 43 0 2.19 0 0 0 33 0 7 13 0 0 16 4 0 0 0 32 0 2.20 0 20 12 37 0 19 9 0 0 30 67 0 0 0 33 4 2.21 0 0 7 15 0 0 0 0 0 18 38 0 0 0 14 7 2.22 0 0 3 4 0 0 0 0 0 5 53 0 0 0 0 6 2.23 0 0 4 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 21 0 0 0 0 3 3.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 2 0 0 4 4 1 0 0 3.2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 5 1 3 0 0 3.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 3.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 3.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 4 0 0 0 3.6 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 1 8 2 0 0 3 9 0 0 3.7 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 2 0 0 4 14 0 0 3.8 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 10 5 0 2 19 0 0 3.9 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 28 21 0 0 4 49 0 3.10 0 4 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 19 14 0 0 3 8 0 3.11 0 11 15 3 8 0 0 0 0 22 17 0 0 2 33 0 3.12 0 9 0 16 11 13 4 0 0 14 26 0 0 3 26 6 3.13 0 0 4 14 23 6 18 0 0 5 8 0 0 0 0 6 3.14 0 0 3 11 12 17 0 0 0 4 3 0 2 3 21 4 3.15 0 0 9 28 0 28 39 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 7 4.1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 2 0 0 7 23 9 0 0 4.2 0 9 1 0 4 0 0 2 5 18 6 1 6 24 48 0 4.3 0 7 3 0 1 0 0 3 1 24 28 2 3 7 27 2 4.4 0 4 1 11 4 3 0 1 4 31 17 0 0 4 33 5 4.5 0 7 4 10 1 7 4 0 1 13 15 0 0 1 8 2 4.6 0 0 2 23 0 2 13 0 0 5 31 0 0 0 0 4 5.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 39 0 0 0 5.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 22 3 0 0 5.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 11 2 0 1 9 34 0 0 5.4 2 3 0 0 6 0 0 3 9 27 0 2 4 21 43 0 5.5 1 11 0 0 15 0 0 2 1 35 9 0 7 18 31 0 5.6 0 8 0 0 28 7 10 4 3 49 16 0 2 5 48 4 5.7 0 5 9 0 4 0 6 1 0 8 52 0 0 3 10 11 5.8 0 7 8 4 0 19 0 0 0 5 21 0 0 1 8 6 5.9 0 0 6 4 0 5 0 0 0 4 29 0 0 0 4 3 5.10 0 0 13 7 0 44 35 0 0 0 36 0 0 0 0 4 The CA analysis results were used to answer the following questions:

• What are the similarities and differences in the distribution of vessel shape types with respect to excavated fields and occupational phases?

307 • What are the similarities and differences among excavated fields and occupational phases with respect to vessel shape types?

• What is the relationship between vessel formal types and excavated fields and occupational phases?

Evaluation of the proportion of inertia accounted for by each CA dimension (axis) suggests that the dataset is multi-dimensional (Table 7.39). Dimensions 1 (36.2%) and 2 (17.3%) of the CA account for a cumulative of 53.5% of proportion of the total inertia. What do the two dimensions represent? In this case, both Axes 1 and 2 primarily register time (diachronic changes), although Axis 2 could reflect some synchronic variation (some periods seem to have more spatial variation between fields than others, see below), and this warrants some discussion.

Table 7.39. Eigenvalues associated with the successive dimensions (axes) estimated by CA of all Ona Adi vessel formal types. The eigenvalues measure the amount of inertia accounted for by each axis and can be re-expressed as percentages of the total inertia in the dataset. Dimension (Axis) Eigenvalue Percentage Inertia 1 0.362 36.2 2 0.173 17.3 3 0.102 10.2 4 0.086 8.6 5 0.066 6.6 6 0.038 3.8 7 0.037 3.7 8 0.032 3.2 9 0.03 3 10 0.019 1.9 11 0.016 1.6 12 0.014 1.4 13 0.014 1.4 14 0.007 0.7 15 0.005 0.5

Figure 7.60 shows the row profiles (vessel shape types) and Figure 7.61 represents column profiles (fields and phases). Each point represents a profile projected onto the plane represented by the two axes (Dimensions 1 and 2). Figure 7.60 displays all row profiles, i.e., vessel shape types (basins, bowls, jars/bottles, cauldrons and cups

308 and all associated sub-types). This figure shows that Dimension 1 seems to mainly separate assemblages containing Types such as 1.1, 2.1, 2.8, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 5.1, and several other vessel formal types situated on the extreme right of Axis 1 from all assemblages containing Types including 2.23, 3.15, 4.6, 5.10, etc. situated to the left side of Axis 1. This variation is temporal in the sense that vessel shape types located in the left extreme side of Axis 1 are the latest pottery types used in the analysis while the right-most vessel shapes tend to be earliest. The significance of the vessel formal type variations witnessed along Axis 2 is better understood in reference to Figure 7.62 below.

Figure 7.60. Correspondence plot of Dimension 1 (36.2% of variation) vs. Dimension 2 (17.3% of variation)

309

Figure 7.61 presents the column (excavated fields and occupational phases) profiles. The first axis (Dimension 1) appears to separate the Late Pre-Aksumite and PA- A transition phases from Late and Post Aksumite phases of occupation. The second axis (Dimension 2) appears to separate Middle and Early Aksumite phases (near the bottom) from Late Pre-Aksumite, PA-A transition, Late and Post Aksumite phases (near the top).

Figure 7.61. Correspondence plot of Dimension 1 (36.2% of variation) vs. Dimension 2 (17.3% of variation)

Finally, Figure 7.62 shows the CA plot in which both the row and column profiles (Figures 7.60 and 61) are presented in one graph. Both dimensions (Axes 1 and 2) produce a picture of the relationship between vessel formal types, fields and occupational phases. Accordingly, Types 1.1,1.3, 2.1, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4,

310 3.5, 4.1, 5.1 and 5.2 are the dominant ceramic shapes during the earlier stage (Late Pre- Aksumite and PA-A transition periods) of Ona Adi’s occupational history. In the later occupational phases (Late and Post Aksumite periods), in deposits closer to the topsoil, Types 1.7, 1.8, 2.19 to 2.23, 3.13 to 3.15, 4.5, 4.6, 5.9 and 5.10 were the dominant vessel shapes. In the Early and Middle Aksumite periods, assemblages are mainly characterized by 1.4, 1.5, 2.7, 2.9 to 2.15, 3.6 to 3.11, 4.3, 4.4, 5.3 to 5.6 ceramic formal types.

The placement of the different assemblages in Figure 7.61 suggested that some periods might have more variation between the assemblages from different fields than others. For example, the PA-A transition assemblage from Field D appears to be more similar to its Pre-Aksumite precursor in the same field than does the PA-A transition assemblage from Field C, which seems to be more distinctly intermediate between the Pre-Aksumite and Early Aksumite assemblages. The placement of the form types in relation to these two assemblages in Figure 7.62 suggests that the difference between the two PA-A assemblages may be due to the continued higher frequencies of Types 2.2, 2.3 and 5.2 in Field D, compared to the occurrence of these forms in Field C. Field D, therefore, might be suggested to display more conservatism in shape types during the PA-A transition compared to the Field C PA-A assemblage. The reason for this difference is difficult to determine but could potentially be either chronological or functional.

In contrast to the higher variation observed between the occurrence of different forms types in the different assemblages of the PA-A transition, the different fields’ assemblages in the Early Aksumite and Middle Aksumite periods cluster much more closely with each other, and thus seem to display much less variation in form representation. This is particularly true for the Middle Aksumite period. In contrast to the separation which characterizes the earlier periods, during the Late and Post Aksumite periods, the assemblages show much more overlap with each other, suggesting less differentiation between forms between these periods. The Late and Post-Aksumite assemblages in Fields A are as similar to each other as they are to contemporary assemblages from other fields. Similarly, although the Late Aksumite assemblage from Field B is closely related to other Late Aksumite assemblages, it is also the most closely related assemblage to the Field B Post-Aksumite assemblage. These relationships suggest that there may be some functional differentiation between

311 areas during the Late and Post Aksumite periods that is related to the representation of different form types.

Figure 7.62. Correspondence Analysis plot of Dimension 1 (36.2% of variation) vs. Dimension 2 (17.3% of variation)

In order to establish additional ceramic trends, the frequencies of particular surface treatments were compared between the phases at Ona Adi. Comparison of surface treatment frequencies by phase across the site reveals some important trends. The most common surface treatments (smooth, rough, slip, and burnish/polish) have high frequencies in every phase. However, the percentages of slipping, burnishing/polishing, and basket-impressed types are highest in the Middle Aksumite

312 period. The Late Pre-Aksumite, PA-A transition and Early Aksumite periods were found to have the highest frequencies of scraping surface treatment type. The percentages of the rough surface finish type reached a peak in the Post Aksumite period (Figure 7.63).

Totaldiagnostic sherdspercentage 0 Late Pre- PA-A Early Middle Late Post Aksumite transition Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite Aksumite

Scraping Basket-impressed Cord-marked Smoothing Slipping Burnishing/Polishing Rough

Figure 7.63. Ceramic surface treatment type percentage by Phase

A closer inspection of the distribution of surface treatment and decoration types at Ona Adi through comparing the data broken down by both phase and field reveals an important pattern (Tables 7.40 and 7.41 and Figures 7.64 and 7.65).

313 Columns are colour-coded as follows for ease of viewing: Late Pre-Aksumite, PA-A transition, Early Aksumite, Middle Aksumite, Late Aksumite, Post-Aksumite

Table 7.40. Distribution of surface treatment types across both field and phase (A1 (Field A Early Aksumite period), A2 ( Field A Middle Aksumite period), A3 (Field A Late Aksumite period), A4 (Field A Post Aksumite period), B1 (Field B Middle Aksumite period), B2 (Field B Late Aksumite period), B3 (Field B Post Aksumite period), C1 (Field C PA-A transition period), C2 (Field C Early Aksumite period), C3 (Field C Middle Aksumite period), C4 (Field C Late Aksumite period), D1 (Field D Late Pre-Aksumite period), D2 (Field D PA-A transition period), D3 (Field D Early Aksumite period), D4 (Field D Middle Aksumite period) and D5 (Field D Late Aksumite period)

Early, Middle and Late Aksumite periods assemblages in Field A were dominated by smoothed surface potsherds. However, during the Post Aksumite period, rough surfaced vessels become more dominant in Field A. Except during the Middle Aksumite period when rough and smooth surface vessels were equally popular, all other assemblages in Field B were dominated by smoothing surface treatment types. The Middle Aksumite period in Field C produced the highest percentage of slipped, polished/burnished (along with Early Aksumite phase in Field A) and cord-marked vessels at Ona Adi. On the other hand, Field D contains the highest number and percentage of scraped surface vessels at the site (Figure 7.64 and also Table 7.40)

314 60

10 Percentage ofsurface treatment types 0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 C1 C2 C3 C4 B1 B2 B3 A1 A2 A3 A4

Scraping Basket-impressed Cord-marked Smoothing Slipping Burnishing/Polishing Rough

Figure 7.64. Ceramic surface treatment types percentage by field and phase

Columns are colour-coded as follows for ease of viewing: Late Pre-Aksumite, PA-A transition, Early Aksumite, Middle Aksumite, Late Aksumite, Post-Aksumite

Table 7.41. Distribution of decoration types across both field and phase (A1 (Field A Early Aksumite period), A2 ( Field A Middle Aksumite period), A3 (Field A Late Aksumite period), A4 (Field A Post Aksumite period), B1 (Field B Middle Aksumite period), B2 (Field B Late Aksumite period), B3 (Field B Post Aksumite period), C1 (Field C PA-A transition period), C2 (Field C Early Aksumite period), C3 (Field C Middle Aksumite period), C4 (Field C Late Aksumite period), D1 (Field D Late Pre-Aksumite period), D2 (Field D PA-A transition period), D3 (Field D Early Aksumite period), D4 (Field D Middle Aksumite period) and D5 (Field D Late Aksumite period)

315 Late Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition periods assemblages in Field D and the PA-A transition period assemblages in Field C were dominated by thin incision, black- topped and notches on the lip and wavy line decoration types. In terms of the distribution of these decoration types, Field C PA-A transition period is more similar to Field D Late Pre-Aksumite period than Field D PA-A transition period. On the other hand, the Early Aksumite period collections in Fields D, C and A were dominated by thin and thick incisions, punctate and groove decoration types. However, based on the pattern of the frequency distribution of decoration types, Field D and Field C Early Aksumite assemblages are more similar to each other than Field A Early Aksumite period collections. In Field A, during the Early Aksumite period, corrugation is the second popular decoration type and this phase in Field A represents the highest frequency of corrugation type at Ona Adi. Thin and thick incisions, punctate, corrugation and groove decoration types were the potter’s most preferred ceramic motifs in all fields at the site during the Middle Aksumite period. However, Field B Middle Aksumite period decoration types distribution pattern were a bit differ from contemporary assemblages in other fields because of its black-topped sherd frequencies. Moreover, Middle Aksumite period assemblages in Field B have few corrugation types frequencies compared to the same phase assemblages in other fields. The Late and Post Aksumite collections in all fields in general were overwhelmingly dominated by thick and thin incision decoration types (Figure 7.65 and Table 7.41).

316 60

10 Percentage Percentage of decorationtypes

0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 C1 C2 C3 C4 B1 B2 B3 A1 A2 A3 A4 Fields and phases

Thin incision Thick incision Black-topped

Notches on the lip and wavy line Corrugation Punctate

Groove Comb Boss

Figure 7.65. Ceramic decoration types percentage by field and phase

In conclusion, intrasite ceramic analysis results reveal some important trends at Ona Adi across both fields and phases. Excavated fields varied in the size and quantity of deposits, so diagnostic sherd densities were compared. Based on sherd densities, Field B produced the largest amount of diagnostic sherd artefacts, followed by Fields D, C and A. The high sherd densities in Field B could be related to the discovery of activity areas including a possible outdoor kitchen and a likely midden in this field. To explore the nature of trends in the ceramic assemblages at an intrasite scale, frequencies were used to identify trends between phases and areas.

In terms of ceramic fabric, the Chi-Square analysis results indicated that BLW and GW are the dominant ceramic wares during Late and Post Aksumite periods. Late Pre-Aksumite, PA-A transition and Early Aksumite periods deposits were dominated by ORW fabric group. In between the upper and the lower stratigraphic sequence (Middle Aksumite period), deposits were characterized by BW fabrics. Similar general trends were observed when surface treatment and vessel shapes frequencies were compared among phases. For instance, basin, bowls and cauldrons were the dominant vessel forms in Field A, C and D. On the other hand, Field B presents the highest jar/bottle and cup types frequencies in the site. Chapter 8 will present a lengthy discussion and

317 summary that describes the main characteristics for each phase: dominant fabrics, forms, including specific form types, surface treatments, and decorations.

7.6. Chapter Summary

This chapter presents the results of the analysis of ceramic assemblages systematically collected from excavated trenches at Ona Adi. A description of the ceramic collections from each excavated unit in terms of fabric, decoration, surface treatment, and vessel shape was completed, followed by discussion of temporal and spatial variation across the site. In general, the results demonstrate conservatism in the identified ceramic assemblages and strongly suggest continuity in the ceramic sequence. In every category, distinctive markers of the local ceramic tradition types occur in many phases. Very limited numbers of types appeared exclusively in any single phases. The transition from one phase to another was characterised by a slow and gradual change of the recorded ceramic attributes. Together with the data presented in previous chapters, the results of the ceramic analysis are used to track cultural changes and developments as witnessed in the ceramic assemblages over time, possible use/function of spaces, and societal group distribution across the site and over time, as well as Ona Adi ancient community’s engagement in the local, regional, and global networks of short- and long-distance trade exchange systems.

318 Chapter 8.

Discussion

This chapter discusses the results of the Ona Adi ceramic analysis and its contributions to achieving broader ETAP research questions relating to the origin and development of social inequality/complexity in the Horn of Africa and the nature of the PA-A transition and following Aksumite periods in Eastern Tigrai. Key discoveries at Ona Adi, including undisturbed deep stratigraphy (over 5 meters) which reveals continuity in site occupations (from the Pre-Aksumite to the ethnographic periods), through its successive ceramic-bearing deposits and associated architecture, objects and other related evidence, will be reviewed and interpreted. One of the most important achievements of this study was the identification of a local ceramic tradition established at Ona Adi since at least the mid-1st millennium BC and apparently continuing into the 1st millennium AD and afterwards. This tradition is very similar to what has been named the Agame Ceramic Tradition by Fattovich (2010, 2012), which encompasses the Eastern Tigrai and Akale-Guzay (southern Eritrea) areas of the Horn. However, this ceramic tradition has never been analyzed in detail or in stratigraphic sequence. A new cultural phase, the PA-A Transition, is also identified, which opens up a broader picture of the origin, development and socio-economic nature of the Aksumite empire in Eastern Tigrai.

This chapter also includes cross-cultural comparisons of analyzed ceramic evidence at local, regional and global scales. This effort has confirmed that Ona Adi ceramic collections are comparable to very few available regional published ceramic data from the region. In addition, the spatial distribution of ceramic types at the site are investigated to locate activity areas and understand the organization of ancient Ona Adi communities. In general, Ona Adi’s location roughly midway between the Aksumite Kingdom hinterland and the coastal lowlands along one of the busiest ancient trade routes of the region, coupled with ceramic and other related archaeological data, suggest it to have been a substantive Aksumite urban area which underwent many structural modifications throughout its existence. Thus, Ona Adi provides a great opportunity to investigate differences between ancient urban and rural activities in the region and its continuous stratigraphy permits the definition of gradual changes in style,

319 technology and form/function of ceramics occurring during the PA-A transition and Aksumite periods.

8.1. Research Goal and Objectives

The Eastern Tigrai Archaeological Project (ETAP) is currently investigating the origins of Pre-Aksumite social complexity and the PA-A transition in the Gulo Makeda region of Eastern Tigrai. This dissertation research forms a crucial component of ETAP research. The study focuses on investigations of the town site of Ona Adi, which complements work completed at Mezber. The multidisciplinary project at Ona Adi represents the first systematic archaeological study of an Aksumite town site in eastern Tigrai. The overall goal of this dissertation was to investigate the nature of the PA-A transition and Aksumite periods in Eastern Tigrai through the study of the Ona Adi ceramic assemblages. The specific objectives of this dissertation research were to:

1. establish a fine-grained ceramic typology and seriation for the PA-A transition and the Aksumite periods represented at Ona Adi;

2. understand the organisation of social groups via analysis of scale and organization of ceramic production, distribution and range of activities through the PA-A transition and the Aksumite period;

3. investigate indigenous and external cultural elements present throughout the PA-A transition and Aksumite period as evident in ceramics.

The overall goal and objectives of this dissertation were achieved through systematic collection and analysis of ceramic data from the site. One of the most important and crucial results of ETAP investigations was the discovery of undisturbed Pre-Aksumite deposits underlying Aksumite levels at Ona Adi. Changes in style, technology and form/function of analyzed ceramics across each excavated deposit (temporal dimension) and throughout the site (spatial dimension) were systematically pinpointed to understand the chronology, social groups and the ancient Ona Adi community’s contact and exchange pattern.

8.2. Ceramic Phasing/Chronology

Ona Adi ceramic analysis results and the following discussion and interpretation forms the backbone of this dissertation and the culture history of the site. As already

320 mentioned, owing to its strategic geographical location as a frontier area between two major cultural spheres – the ancient Aksum-Yeha area to the west and the Ona culture and Red Sea coastal regions to the east -- Ona Adi and Eastern Tigrai communities both contributed to and were influenced by dynamic technological and cultural trends. The ceramic data mainly reveal the existence of a locally-based ceramic tradition3 with some similarities to other sites in the region. It is appropriate to name it the Agame Ceramic Tradition, as suggested by Fattovich (2010, 2012). This initial typlogical and chronological analysis of Ona Adi pottery has depended on comparisons with dated materials from the regions of Aksum and Yeha (Munro-Hay 1989; Phillipson 2000; Bard et al. 2014; Fattovich 1980), recently published Southern Tigrai ceramic data (Mifsas Bahri) (Gaudiello and Yule 2017), data from Mezber (D’Andrea and Welton in prep), Matara (Anfray 1966), Ancient Ona sites in the Asmara area of Eritrea (Schmidt et al 2008), and from other sites in the Red Sea coastal region such as Adulis (Zazzaro et al. 2014).

The 2013-15 excavations at Ona Adi revealed a substantial sequence of the Agame Ceramic Tradition which was established at the site by at least the middle of the 1st millennium BC and apparently continued into the 1st millennium AD. The Agame region encompasses the Eastern Tigrai and Akale Guzay (southern Eritrea) areas of the Horn. The Pre-Aksumite site of Mezber provides the earliest evidence of the Agame Ceramic Tradition from a primary context. At Mezber, the tradition is mainly characterized by gray and brown/red ware ceramics, with abundant micaceous temper and decorated with incised triangles sometimes filled with a white and red paste. These vessels often take the form of neckless jars, red-polished bowls and black-topped bowls dating from the mid-2nd millennium BC to the very beginning of the 1st millennium AD (Manzo and Gaudiello in prep). At Ona Adi, 5 major temporal phases (Later Pre- Aksumite to Late Aksumite periods) of this tradition were distinguished based on specific differences in the ceramic components (Table 8.1).

3 A ceramic tradition is defined here as a set of technological and stylistic ceramic attributes which characterize continuity in the manufacture of ceramics by a certain human group, indicating some obvious overlap (persistence) in the cultural identity of the group (Fattovich 2014).

321 Table 8.1. Synthesis of the most frequent attributes of Ona Adi ceramic phases Ceramic Designation Fabric Inclusions Formal vessel Decoration Surface Phase types treatment 1 Late Pre- ORW Sand and Hemispherical Thin incisions, Smoothed and Aksumite and Mica and globular notches on scraped Phase BW bowls, cups, the lip and surfaces and jars black top decorations 2 PA-A ORW Quartz and Micaceous Thin incisions, Smoothed, Transition and mica large and small notches on rough, Phase BW ORW and BW the lip, scraped/wiped bowls, with punctate surfaces thickened decoration, rounded rim, and bossing notches on the lip; large open micaceous brown ware bowls with notches on the lip and wavy incisions, piriform/ neckless jars 3 Early ORW Sand and Ring based Thin incisions, Slipped, Aksumite quartz bowls punctate polished and Phase decoration, smoothed corrugations surfaces 4 Middle BW Sand and Brown ware Thin and thick Slipped, Aksumite grog vessel forms incisions, polished and Phase including combing, smoothed flaring rim cross motifs surfaces small and large bowls, globular jars and cups 5 Late GW Grog, Gray/black Thick Rough, Aksumite and organics, polished cups incisions, smoothed and Phase BLK mica or bowls with grooving some polished incised surfaces decoration often consisting of engraved crosses.

322 8.2.1. Late Pre-Aksumite Phase

The earliest pottery at Ona Adi, Phase 1 (Late Pre-Aksumite Phase), is characterized by micaceous ORW and the absence of architectural remains. All sherds of this phase were recovered only from the deepest levels of Field D (Square D1 and D2) beneath the lowest architecture. These contexts were comprised of artefact-bearing deposits directly above the bedrock. The analyzed ceramic corpus during this phase is characterized by high-quality vessel crafting and well-controlled firing techniques. The ceramic assemblage chiefly consists of fine and medium-coarse orange-red and brown ware sherds with sand and mica as the dominant aplastic inclusions in their paste. The abundant availability of these inclusions in lower deposits of Field D and the presence of clay soil at Ona Adi suggest that potters used local raw materials to manufacture vessels of this phase. Rounded thickened rim bowls, black-topped bowls and cups with everted rims, and S-profile jars and bottles are the typical cooking, serving and storage vessels of this phase (Chapters 6 and 7, Table 8.2). Potters of this period seemed to emphasise careful selection and preparation of raw material for the paste, perfection of vessel forms and precise control of the firing atmosphere over surface embellishment. Decoration is very sparse and restricted to thin incisions, notches on the lip and wavy line motifs. Some evidence of slipped serving vessels, scraped cooking vessels and storage vessels were also identified.

Even though the Late Pre-Aksumite ceramic samples from Ona Adi were relatively small, some general comments can be made about the scale of production. The pottery repertoire generally did not demonstrate a high degree of standardization. There seems to be no agent or authority responsible for control of pottery production at the site in this period. Recorded vessel varieties seem to reflect specific local demands and were functionally oriented. Vessels appear to have been manufactured at the household level. The probability of vessel manufacturing in a production center with distribution to other parts of the settlement is less likely. The Late Pre-Aksumite phase settlement at Ona Adi is recorded only in a very limited part of the site so far (Field D) and ceramic production might be based on intensive communication and mutual learning among potters. Future large-scale archaeological investigation of Ona Adi should produce larger samples and expose greater areas of the site to better understand this period. According to CA types 2.1, 2.8, 3.3, 3.4, and 3.5 are all well associated with the

323 Late Pre-Aksumite period. However, Table 8.2 presents the most popular vessel shapes of the Late Pre-Aksumite period at Ona Adi.

Table 8.2. Summary of the most popular vessel forms during the Late Pre- Aksumite period Popular Type description Type Reference type class 1.1 ORW ledge rim, rounded lip basins Basin Figure 6.29.4 2.3 ORW micaceous large open bowls, Large bowl Figure 6.31.2, At Mezber, this form is with thick rounded rims, smoothed represented by Type IV.2 (Manzo surfaces, sometimes scraped/wiped and Gaudiello in prep). on the external surface, sometimes characterized by traces of red slip. 2.5 ORW/BW micaceous or black- Small bowl Figure 6.31:6; Figure 6.17A topped small closed bowls, with a slightly restricted profile at the orifice, slightly inverted or direct flat rims, smoothed to burnished internal and external surfaces. 3.2 ORW/BW micaceous cylindrical Jars/bottle Figure 6.31:14; Figure 6.37:3; Figure necked globular bottles or jars with s 6.38:10. At Mezber, this form is everted thickened rounded rims and represented by Type IV.2 (Manzo measuring ca. 8-14cm in orifice and Gaudiello in prep). diameter 4.1 ORW mineral tempered globular Cauldron Figure 6.40:6. Similar cauldrons but cauldron with vertical handles, with two to four horizontal handles everted thickened rims, measuring and straighter walls were discovered ca. 17-22 cm in diameter and with in Early to Classic Aksumite smoothed surfaces assemblages at Aksum (Wilding 1989, Fig. 16.222-230) and Adulis (Zazzaro 2013, Fig.12.10). 5.1 ORW/GW rounded cup with inverted Cup Figure 6.35.1. The same type was rims and pointed lips measuring ca. recorded at Mezber during ETAP’s 6 to 9 cm in diameter at the orifice. Gulo Makeda regional survey Example have smoothed to (D’Andrea 2008). These vessels are burnished surfaces decorated with similar to items from Matara bands on the external surface, discovered in Pre-Aksumite formed by round impressions assemblages (see Anfray 1966, PI. framed by two incised lines XXX. 147) An important issue worth discussion at this stage is the nature of the antecedents to later Pre-Aksumite ceramic phase at Ona Adi. In 2013, ETAP identified several mounds at Ona Adi. These mounds of earth and stones, raised more than 2 m above the ground surface, were described as tumuli possibly of pastoral origin mainly because of their shape and the concentration of white quartz nodules which are not found naturally in the region (Kebede Geleta, personal communication). At the time, ETAP members

324 speculated that the builders of these mounds were the original inhabitants of the site. The main reasons for excavating Field E (E1 and E2) were to discern the stratigraphy of one of these mounds and their immediate surroundings and to determine if pastoral burials were present. In particular, Square E2 was a 2 x 3 m test pit directly placed on one of the mounds recorded in our previous surveys (Figure 4.20, Chapter 4). Excavations in E2 uncovered two connecting wall fragments (Wall Locus 4 and 5, Chapter 4), forming a possible room. The thick room fill deposit and associated artefacts indicate a succession of secondary activities. For instance, at least four individuals buried at different times were found inside this structure. However, although highly disturbed, based on the general results of the E2 ceramic analysis and associated architectural building style, the mound and its associated finds can be dated to the later part of the Aksumite period. Based on our present state of knowledge, the mound builders of Ona Adi could not be the precursors of late Pre-Aksumite communities at the site.

Producers of the nearby Amba Fekada rock art (situated approximately 1 km south of Ona Adi) could perhaps have been the forerunners of Ona Adi Late Pre- Aksumite phase peoples. The rock paintings of Amba Fekada, variously referred to as Dahane, Ba’ati Fekada, and Enda Guieh, encompass two localities, the well-known main panel including a plough scene at Amba Fekada 1 and a nearby series of isolated images known as Amba Fekada 2 (D’Andrea 2005; D’Andrea et al. 2008; Meressa 2006). Absolute dating of these rock paintings is very challenging because of the absence of direct dating techniques. Scholars investigating rock art of the Horn have employed relative dating methods as a means of chronology (Cervicek, 1979; Brandt and Carder, 1987; Agazi, 1997, 2001). Accordingly, the earliest rock art style in the Horn, Surre-Hanakiya (naturalistic and semi-naturalistic paintings of humpless cattle) was dated to the mid-Holocene between 5000-3000 BP and the Dahthami style (schematic paintings, engravings depicting humped cattle) to ca. 2000 BP (Cervicek, 1979; Brandt and Carder, 1987; Agazi, 1997, 2001). However, the chronology of the Dahthami style of painting in the Horn of Africa has been questioned after the recent discovery of archaeological evidence which suggests the presence of humped cattle in the Greater Asmara area of Eritrea as early as 500 BC (Schmidt and Curtis 2009). The Amba Fekada rock art exhibits both Surre-Hanakiya and Dahthami styles of painting in the form of hunting and agricultural scenes (D’Andrea 2005; D’Andrea et al. 2008;

325 Meressa 2006). The co-existence of these scenes could be explained by the existing contacts between lowland hunters and highland farmers (see below for further discussion of this point). In addition, the pigment colour of the images supports the idea that one panel is represented (D’Andrea 2005, 2017; Meressa 2006). As already mentioned, Ona Adi and the Amba Fekada rock art are situated along the Mezber- Segelat-Kilat valley system, which connects the eastern Tigrai highlands to the lowlands of Erob Woreda and beyond since time immemorial. According to this interpretation, the Amba Fekada rock art could be tentatively dated to ca. 2000 BP (mainly to the Early Aksumite period) (D’Andrea 2005; Meressa 2006; Graziosi 1941; Clark 1980). The co- existence of hunting and farming scenes at Amba Fekada may also reveal “a gradual transformation of the hunter-gatherer communities to farming as could be deduced from the images of yoked humpless cattle (Bos taurus)” (Meressa 2006:116; D’Andrea 2005). Based on this interpretation, the rock art site could be dated as far back as the date of the earliest rock art style in the Horn, Surre-Hanakiya, at 5000 - 3000 BP (Meressa 2006; D’Andrea 2008; Braukamper and Cervicek 1975). Fattovich (1988) suggested that the Amba Fekada rock art was the product of pastoralists before the appearance of humped cattle in the 1st millennium BC. However, information obtained from the ceramics at the site does not support a long chronology for the Amba Fekada rock paintings. The earliest pottery collected from the surface of the Amba Fekada rock art site is contemporary with the Late Pre-Aksumite pottery assemblage at Ona Adi. According to the results of preliminary analysis of these ceramics, the rock shelter was likely used over many periods encompassing Pre-Aksumite, Aksumite, and Medieval period occupations and extending until the present day (Meressa 2006).

326

Figure 8.1 Amba Fekada Rock Art main panel

Ceramic and other archaeological data, such as lithics (Peterson 2017), strongly suggest that the first occupation of Ona Adi took place during the Late Pre-Aksumite period. The ceramic assemblage of this period (Phase 1 Ona Adi ceramics) is very similar to the Middle Pre-Aksumite ceramic phase identified at Mezber. Based on ceramic sequencing and radiocarbon dating, the Middle Pre-Aksumite Mezber ceramic phase is dated from the mid-8th to the very beginning of the 4th century BC (D’Andrea and Welton in prep). This ceramic phase at Mezber is characterised by an increase in ceramic types and variability, including new fabrics (pink, light brown and orange) and a wider use of red paint and slip. In particular, orange fabrics were becoming increasingly dominant (Manzo and Gaudiello in prep). These attributes are repeatedly recorded from cooking and serving vessels, such as in bowls with rounded thickened rims and black- topped bowls made using newly introduced fabrics and often with a red slip. Several new storage vessel types, including flat-bottomed flasks and bottles or jars with an S-profile, were also typical markers of this phase. Most of these ceramic types and features were recorded in the Late Pre-Aksumite phase of Ona Adi (Chapters 6 and 7, Table 8.1 and 8.2). The similarity in the ceramic assemblages of the Late Pre-Aksumite Ona Adi and Middle Pre-Aksumite Mezber ceramic phases are further reflected by the potters’ use of

327 wavy lines, two/three horizontal bands of elongated incisions parallel to the rim, notches on the lip and scraping to decorate the surface of their vessels. Thus, the later Pre- Aksumite ceramic phase assemblage at Ona Adi clearly mimics what had already been established at the purely Pre-Aksumite site of Mezber-- by far the oldest dated Pre- Aksumite site in the Horn of Africa to date (D’Andrea and Welton in prep).

This suggests that the ancient inhabitants of Mezber were culturally related to their Late Pre-Aksumite period Ona Adi counterparts. Ceramic and other archaeological data (lithic and grinding stones for instance) at Mezber reveal a significant increase in site occupation and expansion of settlement during the Middle Pre-Aksumite period at the site (Peterson 2017; Darcus-Nixon and D’Andrea 2017; D’Andrea and Welton in prep; Wiederick in prep). This is also consistent with ETAP’s previous and current survey results, which recorded an extremely rich and diverse array of Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite period archaeological sites on both sides of the Mezber-Segelat-Kilat valley systems, which connects Mezber to the lowlands and highlands of the region (D’Andrea et al. 2008; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014; Weiderick in prep). The florescence of archaeological sites along this valley corridor could have been directly associated with and part of the intensive expansion which occurred during the Middle Pre-Aksumite period at Mezber, between the 8th-4th centuries BC. Mezber reached its maximum dimension during the Middle ceramic phase and during the following Late Pre-Aksumite ceramic phase, while the size of the site was considerably reduced before its final abandonment at the end of this phase (D’Andrea and Welton in prep).

328

Figure 8.2. The fertile valley between Ona Adi and Amba Fekada rock art site (Image by Zoe Walder-Hoge)

The increase in site occupation and apparent territorial expansion during the Middle Pre-Aksumite period could have been motivated by the need to create easy and reliable access to existing trade routes and already established external contacts. According to the Mezber ceramic data, the earliest assemblages at Matara may be related to the Initial and Early Mezber Ceramic Phases, dated to the last centuries of the 2nd millennium BC-first quarter of the 1st millennium BC (Manzo and Gaudiello in prep). Similarities between the ceramic tradition of Mezber and others in Eastern Tigrai and central Eritrea can also be noted in the collections from the site of Meqaber Gaʽewa, found close to the modern town of Wuqro (Wolf and Nowotnick 2010). These data suggest ancient Mezber’s community involvement in networks with various cultural groups of the Horn and beyond since at least the end of the 2nd millennium BC (D’Andrea and Welton in prep). The formation of elite groups may also have been initiated at Mezber at the end of the Early Pre-Aksumite period as a possible result of this active multidimensional contact involvement, including the salt trade and/or in a hide-working craft industry, with some indirect effects of Sabaean traders (D’Andrea and Welton in prep; Peterson 2017). However, ancient Mezber’s contact with these areas appears to have intensified and reached its climax during the Middle Pre-Aksumite phase, as reflected in the adoption of relatively more foreign elements in the ceramic

329 repertoire of this period (Manzo and Gaudiello in prep). In the past, this period (mid-8th to 4th centuries BC) was alternatively known as the Ethio-Sabean/Damaat/Pre-Aksumite period because the culture of Western Tigrai experienced political, economic and ideological influences from South Arabia, coming mainly through long-distance trade route contacts which pass through the Eastern Tigrai highlands (Chapter 2; Anfray 1968; de Contenson 1981; Fattovich 1990, 2004; Phillipson 1998, 2009; Munro-Hay 1991). ETAP surveys suggested that one of these long-distance caravan routes passed near Ona Adi and was linked to the important ancient Red Sea trading centers of Adulis, Hirgego, Kohaito, Massawa, and Matara (D’Andrea et al. 2008; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014). ETAP also has estimated trading routes based on historical information and GIS (Geographic Information System) Least-Cost Path Routes from Adulis to Aksum using ArcGIS 9.3 software and ASTER Digital Elevation Model (DEM) maps (Figure 7.3). The analysis included real-world data and anisotropic modelling and the results roughly conform to those described in Periplus Maris Erythraei, for example, where Adulis to Aksum was described as an 8-day journey (Harrower and D’Andrea 2014). This work has further highlighted Ona Adi’s strategic location for trade. Since ancient times, Ona Adi has been positioned in a sphere of continuous cultural interaction between settled highland, mostly Christian, agricultural communities and diverse lowland, mostly Muslim, Afro-Saho pastoralist groups (D’Andrea et al 2008; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014; D’Andrea and Welton in prep). The Middle Pre-Aksumite Phase communities at Mezber could have traveled across the short valley corridor and begun to live permanently at Ona Adi in order to gain control or easy access to the trade routes that passed near the site. The short valley corridor that links Ona Adi and Mezber (ca. 2.5 km) is still frequently used by villagers today and the distance is about a 45 minute walk.

330

Figure 8.3. Hypothesized overland trade route from Adulis to Aksum, through Ona Adi (Map by M. Harrower)

Similarities between the types of animals and crops harvested during the later Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition periods at Ona Adi and Mezber also support the argument for cultural linkages. As indicated earlier, Mezber was a Pre-Aksumite village occupied as early as 1600BC, with an agricultural economy based on barley, lentil, linseed, cattle, goat, sheep, chicken and possibly t’ef (D’Andrea and Welton in prep). Similar macrobotanical and faunal remains have been collected from Later Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition contexts at Ona Adi (Meressa 2017, Woldekiros personal comm). ETAP also discovered a previously unrecorded site called Etchmare East, closely associated with Ona Adi, which has produced artefacts dating to the Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition periods as well as exposed human burials (D’ Andrea 2005; D’Andrea et al 2011). Ceramics collected at Etchmare East reflect what has been recorded at Ona

331 Adi and indicate a continued occupation of the area from 800 BC to AD 900, including the PA-A transition and all Aksumite periods (D’Andrea et al 2011). Carbon and nitrogen isotopic analysis was conducted on the Etchmare East human skeletal remains. The results revealed the existence of a dietary system that favored the consumption of Near

Eastern domesticates (C3 crops such as wheat, barley, lentil, etc.) over indigenous crops

(C4 crops, for example t’ef), based on one individual (D’Andrea et al 2011). This result is consistent with what has been recorded at Mezber and even with the modern rural Tigrayan dietary pattern and provides another form of evidence to support the claim that the first occupants of Ona Adi were culturally related to Mezber.

The plough scene and other paintings exhibited at the Amba Fekada rock art site could also have been the work of Middle Pre-Aksumite Mezber people who came to settle at Ona Adi. The earliest pottery sherds collected from the rock art site can be attributed to this period. Artefacts from surface collections from the Amba Fekada rock art site also include ater Stone Age (LSA) stone tools (Meressa 2006). These artefacts could have been the products of pastoralists who occupied and produced the hunting scenes and other naturalistic and semi-naturalistic paintings of humpless cattle executed at Amba Fekada. The pastoralists could have abandoned the rock art site before the coming of agriculturalists with ceramic technology or they could have co-existed with the new arrivals (see part 8.3 below for more discussion on this point). Graziosi (1941) suggested that given that the rock paintings of different styles seem to be of the same age, co-existence may be the best explanation for the rock art at Amba Fekada (Enda Guieh.). He suggested that the application of the same pigment (red pigment) to draw both hunting and ploughing scenes and the continued use of stone tools at the site to support his idea of co-existence.

A peculiar aspect of the Pre-Aksumite Ona Adi and Mezber ceramic evidence is its strong correlation with the principal prevailing social and economic developments of the time. As was discussed above and based on ETAP’s scientific archaeological investigations, the Eastern Tigrai data show the establishment of non-hierarchical agrarian-based, overwhelmingly indigenous ancient rural and urban communities in the region (D’Andrea et al 2008; Harrower & D’Andrea 2014; Nixon-Darcus & D’Andrea 2017; Peterson 2017; D’Andrea & Welton in prep). This contrasts with previous studies, which have stressed the role of South Arabians (Sabaeans) in the development of social complexity. The Pre-Aksumite Ona Adi and Mezber ceramic data strongly suggest a

332 distinctly local/indigenous developmental trajectory displaying strong continuity throughout the sequence. The Pre-Aksumite period pottery from Western Tigrai and other categories of archaeological data suggest contrasting trends. Categories of artefacts such as sculpture, monumental architecture and inscriptions (i.e. artefacts that might be interpreted as reflections of political power) tell a fundamentally different story from the artefacts associated with day to day life, such as pottery. Similar to what has been observed in Eastern Tigrai, the ceramic data in Western Tigrai mostly show a pattern of continuity (Phillipson 2007). The end of the Pre-Aksumite and beginning of Proto-Aksumite period in Aksum area was mostly defined by elite material cultural remains (monumental buildings, tombs, sculptures, etc. and associated elite worldviews) (Fattovich and Bard 2001). As such, in Pre-Aksumite Western Tigrai, some of the most significant political and ideological developments were not reflected in contemporary pottery. The assumed South Arabian colonialist or small trade diaspora community’s presence in some Western Tigrai archaeological sites was not clearly reflected in the ceramic data.

8.2.2. The Pre-Aksumite to Aksumite (PA-A) Transition Phase

By the end of the Pre-Aksumite period (ca. 400 BC), changes are evident in material culture and settlement patterns in Western Tigrai and Eritrea. However, based on the ceramic data at Ona Adi, a different picture is emerging for Eastern Tigrai. In Western Tigrai, the end of the Pre-Aksumite and beginning of what Fattovich & Bard (2001) term the Proto-Aksumite period was a time of pronounced cultural change. Proto- Aksumite socio-political features, as inferred from archaeological data, included: political fragmentation; consolidation of indigenous (as opposed to non-indigenous) cultural development as manifested in ceramic, lithic and architectural technology; emergence of new worldviews and belief systems; and changes in cultural contacts/trade, where Eastern Sudan and the Nile Valley cultures figured prominently with a decline in South Arabian/Sabaean influences. Based on these data, the Proto-Aksumite period was envisioned as the formative phase of the Aksumite state. The implication of this interpretation is that the Aksumite kingdom did not develop from Pre-Aksumite precursors in Western Tigrai, which are considered to be a distinct cultural manifestation (Fattovich & Bard 2001; Phillipson 2012). Despite these important findings in Aksum, our knowledge of the underlying factors in the emergence of the Proto-Aksumite period and

333 its impact beyond Aksum is scant because the period has been defined only in the Aksum area and is currently understood as a local phenomenon (Phillipson 2012; Harrower & D’Andrea 2014). A similar picture has emerged in the Asmara region, where sites appear to have been abandoned at the end of the Pre-Aksumite period (Curtis 2008).

In Eastern Tigrai, the time period roughly equivalent to the Proto-Aksumite Period has only recently come under study. As stated in previous chapters, in order to highlight this regional variation, ETAP researchers and this dissertation have used the term PA-A (Pre-Aksumite to Aksumite) transition to describe this period. The emerging picture based on Ona Adi ceramic analysis is that the Late Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition phases in Eastern Tigrai differ from those observed in the Aksum/Asmara areas, based on evidence of continuity in site occupation and an apparent absence of Sabaean influence. Besides the ceramic data, the PA-A occupation at Ona Adi is characterized by the beginning of construction of rectangular/square stone-walled habitation/domestic structures with a few possible identified room surfaces and successive layers of abundant artefact-bearing room fills. The cultural material remains of the Ona Adi PA-A transition contexts include: a high concentration of ceramic sherds; abundant macrobotanical and faunal remains including indigenous (noog) and Near Eastern (barley, wheat, lentil and linseed) crops, cattle and ovicaprines (Meressa 2017; Woldekiros personal communication); several grinding stones (Nixon-Darcus in prep); metal objects (D’Andrea 2013) and lithic tools, particularly scrapers (Peterson 2017).

334

Figure 8.4. Iron implement from Ona Adi, OA13.C1.2.8 (Image by Catherine D’Andrea)

Similar to the previous phase, there is a clear overlap in formal and stylistic vessel types between the Ona Adi PA-A transition and Late Pre-Aksumite Mezber ceramic phase collections. Most of the formal and stylistic vessel types from the previous phase (Phase 1) continue to exist during the PA-A transition (Chapters 6 and 7). However, the appearance of new formal vessel types further enriches the PA-A transition period ceramic collections. This could be associated with an increase in the size of Ona Adi and corresponding changes in daily life (Figure 5.7). In general, the PA- A ceramic assemblage at Ona Adi is characterized by finely produced handmade vessels, of which the most common formal types exclusive to this phase include: 1) micaceous large brown open bowls, with thickened rounded rims, smoothed surfaces and bands of notches on the lip (Table 8.3, Figure 8.5); 2) large open micaceous brown ware bowls with notches on the lip and bands of wavy incisions parallel to the rim on the internal surface (Table 8.2, Chapters 6 and 7); 3) micaceous small/large open brown/gray ware carinated bowls, with burnished or polished surfaces, sometimes black- topped (Chapters 6 and 7, Table 8.3); and 4) micaceous orange/red ware piriform neckless jars or bottles with everted ledge rounded rims (Chapters 6 and 7). According to CA types 2.4, 1.3, 3.2; and possibly also Type 2.3, 2.5 (particularly in Area D, less so in Area C) are all well associated with the PA-A transition period. However, Table 8.3 presents the most popular vessel shapes of the PA-A transition period at Ona Adi

335

Figure 8.5. External and internal surface s of micaceous large brown open bowls, with thickened rounded rim and notches on the lip. From right to left: Top OA14.D1.10.1103.57 and OA14.D1.10.1103 Bottom : OA14.D1.10.1103.53 and OA14.D1.10.1103.46

Table 8.3. Summary of the most popular vessel forms in the PA-A transition period Popular Type description Type class Reference type 2.2 BW large open bowls with thick Large bowl Figure 6.31.3, 6.17B&C. This type is rounded rim, decorated with also recorded at Bieta Giyorgis at bands of hatched lines or wavy Aksum (Perlingieri person comm) incised parallel lines on the internal surface and notches on the top of the rim (lip)

2.6 ORW or BW micaceous closed Small bowl Figure 6.31:5. This type could be small bowls, with rounded rims compared to similar vessel forms at and near-straight walls, deep Matara (Anfray 1966, JE 3030) and bodies and rounded bottoms. Aksum (Phillips 2000, Fig. 265 f).

3.1 BW micaceous globular bottles, Jars/bottles Figure 6.31:12. This type is identical measuring ca. 8-10cm in to Type IV.I recorded at Mezber diameter, with slightly everted (Manzo and Gaudiello in prep). thickened rounded rims directly attached to the shoulder (with no recognizable neck).

4.1 ORW mineral tempered Cauldron Figure 6.40:6. Similar cauldrons but globular cauldrons with vertical with two to four horizontal handles and handles, everted thickened straighter walls were discovered in rims, measuring ca. 17-22 cm Early to Classic Aksumite in diameter and with smoothed assemblages at Aksum (Wilding 1989, surface Fig. 16.222-230) and Adulis (Zazzaro 2013, Fig.12.10).

336 5.1 ORW/GW rounded cups with Cup Figure 6.35.1. The same type was inverted rims and pointed lips recorded at Mezber during ETAP’s measuring ca. 6 to 9 cm in Gulo Makeda regional survey diameter at the orifice. (D’Andrea 2008). These vessels are Examples have smoothed to similar to items from Matara burnished surfaces decorated discovered in Pre-Aksumite with bands on the external assemblages (see Anfray 1966, PI. surface, formed by round XXX. 147) impressions framed by two incised lines

PA-A transition ceramic and associated data seem to reveal new changes in the socioeconomic systems of Ona Adi, including the earliest stone-walled structures, the presence of metal objects, the emergence of new formal vessel types and an increased presence of stone scrapers. Another important trend noticed in this phase is related to the lack of adoption of new exotic ceramic elements. However, exotic ceramic features already present during the Late Pre-Aksumite phase, such as scraped and black-topped vessels, continued to exist during the PA-A transition period. The strong link between ceramic collections of Ona Adi and the Akale-Guzay area of southern Eritrea, and especially with Matara, continued during this phase (Anfray 1967; D’Andrea et al 2008). Peterson (2017) correlated the rise in the frequency of scrapers to an increase in hide- working activities at Ona Adi during the PA-A transition period. This evidence, in addition to marginal external influence on the ceramic corpus in the PA-A transition period, could suggest the rise of a local political entity at Ona Adi. Also, unlike the pattern in the Aksum area, the features of the PA-A transition ceramic tradition persisted for a relatively longer span of time and were still popular at least until the 1st century AD, as reported at Mezber (Manzo and Gaudiello in prep).

8.2.3. Early Aksumite Ceramic Phase

ETAP multidisciplinary studies have indicated that during the Aksumite period, sites in Eastern Tigrai seemed to enjoy greater economic prosperity, political stability, and frequent contacts with various communities at local, regional, and global scales (e.g., D’Andrea et al. 2008). More recent systematic regional settlement surveys (Harrower and D’Andrea 2014) have found little evidence for centralized Aksumite polities in the Gulo Makeda region of Eastern Tigrai and it is hypothesized that a heterarchical political system was in place at that time. The ceramic evidence presented

337 above, and its further detailed discussion herein strongly supports ETAP survey and excavation results.

A similar pattern of continuity is witnessed in the change from the PA-A transition to the Early Aksumite period ceramic repertoire. The transition seems to have been a slow development and was marked initially only by slight changes in pottery forms (see Chapters 6 and 7). As mentioned above, formal and stylistic elements of the PA-A transition ceramic phase are consistently well-represented during the first century AD. This could suggest and justify a different chronological framework not only for Pre- Aksumite collections but also for Aksumite period ceramic assemblages recorded at Ona Adi. At Bieta Giyorgis, Aksum, Bard et al (2014:304) characterised the ceramic sequence as: Proto-Aksumite Phase (360-120/40 BC), Early Aksumite Phase (120/40 BC-AD 130/190), Classical Aksumite Phase (AD 130/190-360/400), Middle Aksumite Phase (AD 360/400-550/610) and Late Aksumite Phase (AD 550/610-800/850). This chronology differs from the one suggested by the Ona Adi materials (Table 8.4). Even though future absolute dating will refine our ceramic chronology at Ona Adi, calibrated radiocarbon dates from Mezber clearly show substantial differences in ceramic chronology between archaeological sites in Eastern and Western Tigrai, especially during the onset of the Pre-Aksumite period and the formative stages of the Aksumite civilization (D’Andrea and Welton in prep; Table 8.4). Accordingly, the Early Aksumite ceramic phase at Ona Adi corresponds to the time period between the end of the PA-A transition (1st century AD) and the introduction of Christianity (c. 330 AD). Some elements of the Early and Classical Aksumite period Bieta Giyorgis ceramic sequences are subsumed into the Early Aksumite ceramic phase of Ona Adi, i.e., Early Aksumite period at Ona Adi includes the Early and Classical Aksumite periods at Bieta Giyorgis.

Table 8.4. Comparison of the ceramic sequences of sites in Eastern (Mezber and Ona Adi) and Western (Aksum and Bieta Giyorgis) Tigrai Mezber Ona Adi Aksum Bieta Giyorgis Initial Mid 2nd - - - (Archaic) millennium BC- very beginning of the 1st millennium BC Early Pre- The first - - - Aksumite quarter of the 1st millennium BC.

338 Middle From the mid- Mid 8th to 4th At Aksum this period comprises - Pre- 8th to the very century BC. two ceramic sequences: Pre- Aksumite beginning of Here called Late Aksumite I and Pre-Aksumite II, the 4th century Pre-Aksumite both identified from “D” site. BC. Ceramic Phase The two Pre-Aksumite stages recognized at D site represent a period of unknown duration between the eighth and the fifth centuries BC. Late Pre- From the very Beginning of 4th Adopted the Proto-Aksumite 360-120/40 BC. At Aksumite beginning of century BC to term and time range to describe Bieta Giyorgis this the 4th century the 1st century some residual sherds collected ceramic phase is BC to the 1st AD. But here it from secondary contexts at termed Proto- century AD is called PA-A Aksum. No Proto-Aksumite Aksumite Transition levels Ceramic Phase were excavated in Aksum in general. Early - From 1st century 1st century AD- ?3rd century AD. 120/40 BC-AD Aksumite AD to the At Aksum there are Early 130/190. This introduction of Aksumite I (1st-2nd centuries ceramic phase is Christianity AD) and Early Aksumite II (?3rd also called (ca.AD 330) century AD) ceramic phases Aksumite I at Bieta Giyorgis Classical - Mid-4th century AD to late 4th AD 130/190- Aksumite century AD. The date is based 360/400. This on ceramic sherds collected ceramic phase is from Primary deposits in also called Mausoleum, and East Tomb Aksumite II at Bieta and Tomb of the Brick Arches. Giyorgis Middle - Mid 4th century - AD 360/400- Aksumite AD to end of 5th 550/610. This /beginning of 6th ceramic phase is century AD also called Aksumite III at Bieta Giyorgis Late - Beginning of 6th End of 5th century AD to 7th AD 550/610- Aksumite century AD to century AD. The chronology is 800/850. This end of based on sherds from “K” and ceramic phase is 7th/beginning of upper level “D” site collections also called 8th century AD Aksumite IV at Bieta Giyorgis

The Early Aksumite ceramic assemblage at Ona Adi incorporated new vessels and surface treatment types. These include: a) ORW mineral-tempered open small bowls with flaring rim, red polished slip and grooved decorations on the external surface (Figure 8.7B); b) large ORW basins with deep incisions or notches on the internal surface, occasionally with rims characterized by a groove on the top, and a handle or

339 grip under the rim on the external surface (can be compared to Wilding 1989: 261, Fig. 16, 185-186); c) ORW mineral-tempered small open or closed bowls or cups with red polished slip and geometric thin incised decorations on the external surface (Chapters 6 and 7; Table 8.5); d) BW/ORW foot washers, with a slightly everted rim and horizontal platform laying on two vertical pillars in the middle, often bearing an incised and/or impressed decoration (Chapters 6 and 7; Table 8.5); and e) handled and necked red ware jars with ring bases and a pair of vertical handles, sometimes bearing a groove on the top, and with a thickened rounded rim (Chapters 6 and 7; Figure 8.6; Table 8.5). One of the major developments of the Early Aksumite ceramic assemblages at Ona Adi is evident in base morphology. Ring-based bowls and small/medium jars become more popular. Formal, stylistic and fabric attributes of Early Aksumite ceramic phases at Ona Andi are well-represented by whole vessels from the Fekada Maryam burial collections (Figure 8.6). These collections also clearly demonstrate the difference between contemporaneous ceramic traditions developed in Eastern and Western Tigrai, represented by Ona Adi and Aksum (Bieta Giyorgis) respectively. According to CA types 1.4, 2.7, 2.9, 3.7, and 5.4 are all well associated with the Early Aksumite period. However, Table 8.5 presents the most popular vessel shapes of the Early Aksumite period at Ona Adi.

Table 8.5. Summary of the most popular vessel forms in the Early Aksumite period Popular Type description Type Reference type class 1.2 Medium-coarse large open Basin Figure 6.29:3) ORW and Brown Ware (BW) basins with smoothed external and rough internal surfaces, narrow ledged rims the top of which are decorated with parallel incisions, and flat or rounded lips 2.11 ORW large open bowls with Large bowl Figure 6.32d, similar shapes reported at deep incisions or notches on Aksum (Wilding 1989, Fig.16:185-186, the internal surface. Examples p.261) have smoothed to rough internal and smoothed to polished external surfaces

340 2.1 ORW small closed bowls, with Small bowl Figure 6.31:10; Manzo and Gaudiello in prep smoothed to polished Type III.2 surfaces, sometimes with red slip visible on the upper body. Grooved parallel lines are present on the rim of the external surface. 3.6 BW cylindrical-shouldered Jars/bottle Figure 6.31:17. These vessels are similar to bottles with everted rims, s Type IV.7 recorded at Mezber (Manzo and measuring ca. 6 to 9 cm in Gaudiello in prep). diameter, with one vertical handle. 4.2 ORW/BW semi-globular Cauldron Figure 6.39:3. This type could be easily cauldron with a round bottom compared to a vessel recorded at Aksum and slightly restricted tapering (Phillips 2000, Fig.341a, p.391). rim, measuring ca. 18 to 23 cm in diameter 5.3 ORW cups with plain Cup Figure 6.42.1-3. These cups were recorded smoothed surfaces, with only in the Aksum area from Early and Classical a horizontal incision/groove Aksumite contexts (see Phillips 2000, Fig below the exterior rim 43a ; Wilding, Fig. 16. 22-23) and at Matara (Anfray 1966, PI.IV,JE3743)

341

Figure 8.6. Selected ceramic artefacts from a pit tomb at Fekada Maryam (Illustration by Stephen Batiuk)

At Aksum-Yeha, in combination with dashes, corrugations and bands of incisions, punctate markings are regarded as a main attribute of Classical Aksumite pottery (Phillips 2000, pp. 491-3). Contemporaneous potsherds collected from Ona Adi generally lack these typical Classical Aksumite decoration motifs. We have only 9 sherds collected from Squares C and A, and four sherds from Square E bearing typical decorations of the Classical Aksumite type (Figure 8.7, A and B). The vessels with Classical Aksumite decoration from the Aksum area were collected from the Gudit stela field and the Tomb of the Brick Arches. Both were burial sites and the ceramic collections are grave goods. This may be one explanation for the variation in body

342 surface treatment of Classical Aksumite vessels collected from Aksum and Ona Adi, as ETAP’s Ona Adi excavations have focused on domestic/habitation contexts.

Figure 8.7. Red and gray mineral tempered Aksumite sherds with vertical corrugated decoration

However, other available sources of ceramic evidence suggest a different interpretation. A rich collection of ceramic grave goods has been collected from the Classical Aksumite burial sites of Fekada Maryam (Figure 8.6), located at about 5 km south of Ona Adi, and Emba Derho in the Greater Asmara area of present day Eritrea. Despite their contemporaneity with the Aksum sites, both Fekada Maryam and the Emba Derho burial site grave goods lack Classical Aksumite decoration. This may indicate differences in ceramic surface decorations between the Ona Adi and Aksum area sites during the Classical Aksumite period that are not related to site function. Schmidt et al (2008, p. 264) described these ceramic disparities as “a more regional expression, remote from the influence of the Aksum center and selectively expressive of earlier, Ancient Ona cultural traits that remained vital and important on the Asmara plateau during the early 1st millennium CE”. The distance between Aksum and Emba Derho, in the Greater Asmara area, is about 200 km. Ona Adi is situated almost midway (110 km away from Aksum and 90 km from the Asmara area) between these two regions. How can we explain the differences in the ceramic assemblages between relatively closely located Classical Aksumite ceramic bearing deposits of Matara and Emba Derho, and Ona Adi and Aksum? As already indicated above, recent surveys (Harrower and D’Andrea 2014) have found scant evidence for centralized Aksumite polities in the Gulo Makeda region of Eastern Tigrai and it is hypothesized that a heterarchical political

343 system was in place at that time. The ceramic evidence supports this ETAP research result. This work in Eastern Tigrai demonstrates a need to update previously long-held but unchallenged theories and interpretations of the culture history of the northern Horn of Africa which have suggested Yeha and Aksum were centres of Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite polities, respectively.

8.2.4. Middle Aksumite Ceramic Phase

The full extent of Ona Adi was occupied by the Middle Aksumite period. Based on the established Ona Adi ceramic sequence (Chapters 6 and 7), the Middle Aksumite ceramic period can be roughly dated between the beginning of Christianity in the northern Horn (c.330/340) and the end of the 5th century/ beginning of 6th century AD. The ceramic data and other related evidence suggest this period as the peak in the power and prosperity of the ancient town of Ona Adi. The number of shared and traded ceramic items, particularly with polities of southern and central Eritrea and the Red Sea coastal regions (Anfray 1966; Zazzaro et al 2014; Peacok 2007), such as amphorae, glass and metal objects, beads and other luxury items, significantly increased during this period (Chapters 5, 6 and 7). There is evidence of bricks collected from excavations which suggest their use as a construction material (Chapter 5). Furthermore, large well- dressed pillars found in the present Enda Teklehaymanot church compound and other parts of the site (Figure 8.15 below) suggest that massive construction activities took place at this time.

The transition from the Early to Middle Aksumite period is also characterized by slow and gradual change in the recorded ceramic formal types (Chapter 7). Surface treatment, decoration, fabric and, vessel shape distribution across these periods suggest continuity in the ceramic sequence. In every category, distinctive markers of the local ceramic tradition types occurred in the previous phases also appeared in the Middle Aksumite and the following periods (Chapter 7). Very limited types appeared exclusively in a single phase.

Middle Aksumite ceramic assemblages are characterized by a variety of brown ware vessel forms including flaring rim small and large bowls, globular jars and cups, decorated with rich motifs of thick and thin geometric incisions, grooves and punctate designs, also recorded at Matara (Anfray 1966). Small open ORW ware bowls with a

344 groove parallel to the rim on the internal surface comparable to vessels from Beta Semati (Perlingieri and Taddesse 2014), brown ware cups with vertical or slightly closed rims (Chapters 6 and 7;Table 8.6), and handled and necked brown ware jars with a globular body and a pair of vertical handles, sometimes bearing a groove on the top, and with a thickened rounded rim, are some of the more distinctive formal features of the Middle Aksumite ceramic phase at Ona Adi (Chapters 6 and 7; Table 8.6). Brown and gray ceramic sherds bearing various cruciform motifs first occur during the Middle Aksumite period before they become ubiquitous and more popular in the following Late Aksumite ceramic phase. According to CA types 4.3 and 3.10 are all well associated with the Middle Aksumite period. However, Table 8.6 presents the most popular vessel shapes of the Middle Aksumite period at Ona Adi.

Table 8.6. Summary of the most popular vessel forms in the Middle Aksumite period Popular Type description Type Reference type class 1.6 Open large and shallow Basin Figure 6.29.2 BW basins with relatively thin walls (ca. 6-8 mm), but very thick rounded rims (ca. 36-41 cm rim diameter). 2.18 BW large open bowls Large Figure 6.32c and Figure 6.35:14 measuring ca. 23-26 cm bowl in diameter with a collared rim and round lip. 2.15 and Ring-based Small bowl Figure 6.33:10, 16-17 and Figure 6.35:12-13 2.16 ORW/BW/GW small closed bowls with smoothed to polished surfaces 3.9, 3.11 ORW ledged rim Jars/bottle Figure 6.38:6. Phillips (2000, Fig. 170c) recorded a and 3.12 globular jars/bottles with s vessel similar in form to this type at Aksum. pointed/rounded lips, measuring ca. 8 to 12 cm in diameter. 4.2 and BW/GW carinated Cauldron Figure 6.39:1-2. A similar vessel form is recorded at 4.4 cauldrons with slightly Wakarida, an intensive Aksumite settlement site everted rounded rims, situated about 25km east of Ona Adi (Eastern measuring ca. 16 to 25 Tigrai and Afar border) (Dugast and Gaja 2013, cm in diameter. Fig.25 above/top)

345 5.6 ORW cups with direct Cup Figure 6.41.6. Cups of this type were recorded in rims and wall profiles, several Aksumite sites in Eastern Tigrai including pointed lips and Ona Adi, Adi Aysama’t, Enda Gabriel, Adi Ahoune measuring ca. 5.5 to 8 and Gradenden during ETAP’s regional surveys in cm in diameter at the Gulo Makeda (D’Andrea 2008). Similar cups were orifice. also discovered at Matara (see Anfray 1966, PI. I) and at Aksum (Wilding, 1989: Fig. 16.336-342).

Another important event that most probably occurred at least during the closing stages of the Middle Aksumite period at Ona Adi was the construction of the ancient church. The church of Enda Teklehaymanot encompasses one of the main archaeological signatures of Ona Adi. Even though the present church is a modern building, the church yard and treasury room relics narrate a long history. There are numerous scatters of architectural debris in the churchyard, including ancient building walls and foundations, pillars and other cut stone monuments. Different versions of the prevailing oral traditions associate the foundation and history of the church with the Legendary Queen of Saba (Sheba). There were also several controversies over the proposed construction of a new church at the expense of demolishing the present “small” sized church building which could “properly match” the church’s long history. However, the Culture and Tourism Bureau of Tigrai prevented any new church building and deep excavations at Ona Adi and organized several heritage awareness creation activities. Due to these active processes and recent increases in tourist visits, mainly to visit the nearby historic monastery of Debre Damo and the border town of Zalambessa, local communities are very keen to protect the church and to know its history. The misunderstanding we faced in the initial stages of our excavations at Ona Adi was directly related to this background. It took some time for the local communities to understand that we were a team of experts who came to their village to investigate the history of the region and the site.

Based on the ceramic evidence, we can suggest the construction of the first church at Ona Adi towards the end of the 5th century AD. This date is associated with either the end of the Middle or the very beginning of the Late Aksumite period at the site. As indicated above (Chapter 6), cross motifs (represented by only three sherds) were introduced into the Ona Adi ceramic corpus during the late 4th/early 5th century AD, dated based on an associated coin, some parallels between the ceramic data of Ona Adi and Matara, and stratigraphic phasing. The significant increase and popularity of cruciform

346 decorations after the second half of the 5th century AD could be explained by the establishment of the church at the site.

8.2.5. Late and Post Aksumite Ceramic Phases

The Late Aksumite period at Ona Adi can be roughly dated between the beginning of the 6th century AD to end of 7th/beginning of 8th century AD. Even though the transition between the Middle and Late and Post Aksumite periods is characterised by smooth and gradual change, some important general trends were observed in the ceramic data. When comparing ware type proportions amongst the phases at the site, Late Pre-Aksumite, PA-A transition and Early Aksumite period deposits were dominated by ORW sherds, whose popularity show a decrease through time, especially after the Middle Aksumite period (Figure 7.52). Middle Aksumite period deposits show a significant increase in BW and GW sherds, while in Late and Post Aksumite occupational phases, both GW and BLW types increase in frequency (Figure 7.52).

The Late Aksumite ceramic phase is mainly characterized by the occurrence of small and medium sized bowls with flaring rims and ring bases, gray/black polished cups or bowls with incised decoration often consisting of engraved crosses, and cups and bowls with horizontal grooves parallel to the rim (Figures 8.8 and 8.9). All these types are also reported from Matara (Anfray 1966), Adulis (Zazzaro et al 2014) and Aksum (Phillipson 2000; Munro-Hay 1989) (Table 8.7). Typical of the Late Aksumite ceramic collections are also gray/black coarse ware globular bowls and basins with ledge rims and incised cross decorations on the lip, globular/carinated jars with conical necks, sometimes with a handle incised with geometric motifs, and globular shaped flat- bottomed cauldrons, sometimes with incised decoration on the handle and at the joint (Figure 8.8 and 8.9). According to CA types 2.20-2.23, 3.13, 3.15, 5.9 and 5.10 are all well associated with the Late and Post Aksumite periods. However, Table 8.7 presents the most popular vessel shapes of these periods at Ona Adi

347

Table 8.7. Summary of the most popular vessel forms in the Late and Post Aksumite periods Phase Popula Tye Description Type Reference r type class Late 1.6 and Open large and shallow BW Basin Figure 6.29.2 Aksumit 1.7 basins with relatively thin e walls (ca. 6-8 mm), but very thick rounded rims (ca. 36- 41 cm rim diameter). 2.17 BW and/or GW large open Large Figure 6.32g&I, Figure 6.33:19, bowls measuring ca. 21-24 bowl Figure 6.35:3. These bowls are cm in diameter with flaring typical of Middle and Late Aksumite rims. times both in Aksum (Wilding, 1989: Fig. 16.123) and Matara, where gray ware with polished surfaces is very typical (Anfray, 1966: PI.XII. JE3757). 2.2 BW/GW small closed bowls Small bowl Figure 6.34j. These bowls are typical measuring ca. 12-14 cm in of Middle and Late Aksumite times in diameter with inverted or Matara (Anfray 1966:Pl. IX(JE3588)), slightly vertical rims. and Aksum (Phillips 2000c: Fig. 273, g) 3.12 ORW/BW jars with handles Jars/bottle Figure 6.38:5. This type of handled decorated with impressed s jar was discovered at Matara (Anfray and sometimes molded 1966, PI. VIII,163) and at Aksum decorations. Examples have (Phillips 2000, Fig. 47 a & g; Wilding smoothed to polished 1989, Fig. 16.222 & 226). surfaces with varying but usually wide open apertures 4.3 - GW/BLW semi-globular Cauldron Figure 6.32b and Figure 6.39:6. A 4.6 cauldrons with wide mouths similar formal type is recorded at and collared necks, and Wakarida (Dugast and Gaja 2013, often with vertical strap Fig 27). handles, measuring ca. 22- 28 cm in diameter. 5.7 and ORW/BW ring-based cups Cup Figure 6.41.5. These cups are typical 5.1 with a flaring or ledge-rim of Late Aksumite assemblages at with a cross incised on top of Matara (see Anfray 1966, PI. XXXIV, it on the internal surface, 172-175). During ETAP’s Gulo measuring ca. 6-9 cm in Makeda regional surveys similar diameter at the orifice. vessel types were recorded at the site of Segelat (D’Andrea 2008). Post 1.6 and Open large and shallow BW Basin Figure 6.29.2 Aksmite 1.7 basins with relatively thin walls (ca. 6-8 mm), but very thick rounded rims (ca. 36- 41 cm rim diameter).

348 2.19 BW micaceous large closed Large Figure 6.32f and Figure 6.33:7, See bowls measuring ca.22-24 bowl similar shapes at Bieta Giyorgis cm in diameter with a flaring/ (Bard et al 2014. Figure 4) and everted rim and pointed lip. Matara (Anfray 1966, Fig. PI.II (JE3779)). 2.2 BW/GW small closed bowls Small bowl Figure 6.34j. These bowls are typical measuring ca. 12-14 cm in of Middle and Late Aksumite times in diameter with inverted or Matara (Anfray 1966:Pl. IX(JE3588)), slightly vertical rims and Aksum (Phillips 2000c: Fig. 273, g) 3.12 ORW/BW jars with handles Jars/bottle Figure 6.38:5. This type of handled decorated with impressed s jar was discovered at Matara (Anfray and sometimes molded 1966, PI. VIII,163) and at Aksum decorations. Examples have (Phillips 2000, Fig. 47 a & g; Wilding smoothed to polished 1989, Fig. 16.222 & 226). surfaces with varying but usually wide-open apertures 4.6 GW/BLW semi-globular Cauldron (Figure 6.32b and Figure 6.39:6). A cauldrons with wide mouths similar formal type is recorded at and collared necks, and Wakarida (Dugast and Gaja 2013, often with vertical strap Fig 27). handles, measuring ca. 22- 28 cm in diameter 5.1 GW/BLW rounded-bottomed Cup Figure 6.41.1. Similar formal types open cups with heights no and wares were discovered in many less than their ca. 6 to 10 cm Aksumite sites of Gulo Makeda such diameters as Dongolo North, Dir, Adi Kesho, Segelat, Embeyto, Fekada, Enda Gabriel, Adi Awli and many others (D’Andrea 2008)

In addition, painted sherds of purple painted Aksumite pottery (PPA) and mould impressed internal bases with a cross at the center are other important features of the Late Aksumite period (Chapter 6, Figure 6.22 A, B and C; Figure 6.30.1). The abundant presence of PPA wares in Eastern Tigrai and Southern Eritrea has been reported by previous scholars (Anfray 1966; Wilding 1989; Phillips 2000). In particular, Wilding explained his discovery of a few PPA sherds in the study of Aksum ceramic grave goods as a direct import from Eastern Tigrai and Eritrea (Wilding 1989, p311). Hence, PPA sherds could be one marker of a distinctive Eastern Tigrai local ceramic tradition and this is a widely agreed upon viewpoint to date (Phillips 2000).

During the Late Aksumite period, significant alteration of the environment, climate and social interactions resulted in the formation of new societal setting in Eastern Tigrai. The change in environment is due to general global warming and increased drought

349 frequency during this period (Terwilliger et al 2011; Fattovich 2012). Also, long occupation and unsustainable land use management led the degradation of the environment (D’Andrea et al 2008). These changes are manifested in the ceramic corpus of Ona Adi. Both the intensity and quality of ceramic production become increasingly diminished (Chapters 6 and 7; Figure 7.51). It is possible that the economy could not support specialist potters and semi-market oriented ceramic production This may indicate a decline in societal wealth and privilege differences.

Figure 8.8. Late Aksumite ceramic phase formal types examples: OA13.C1.2.534.27, B) OA13.C1.2.251. 184, C) OA13.A1.2.470.54, D) OA13.A1.2.470.3

Paradoxically, the Late Aksumite ceramic phase at Ona Adi also witnessed a sharp increase in the frequency distribution of non-local, shared ceramic fragments (Figure 8.23). Non-local formal and stylistic vessel types already adopted into the Ona Adi ceramic assemblage during previous ceramic phases continued to appear during this period. Moreover, both historical and archaeological sources clearly document the

350 mass displacement and gradual southward movement of people due to the disintegration and fall of the Aksumite empire (Phillipson 1998; Beharu Zewde 1991; Taddesse Tamrat 1972) during this period. As people from the Aksum-Yeha area and parts of present-day Eritrea, with different ceramic traditions, temporarily resided at Ona Adi and other Eastern Tigrai archaeological sites (in their southward retreat), a ceramic tradition of mixed character could easily be developed.

Figure 8.9 Late Aksumite ceramic phase vessel fragment examples collected from OA13.C2.534

8.3. Socio-Political Groups at Ona Adi

The identification of societal groups at the ancient multi-component town site of Ona Adi is yet another important aspect of excavations and systematic ceramic analysis outcomes at the site. As stated above, based on collected ceramics and other archaeological data, the first occupation of Ona Adi occurred during the Late Pre- Aksumite period. This ancient settlement seems to have been an outcome of a significant increase in site occupation and an apparent territorial expansion of

351 communities from the nearby Pre-Aksumite village archaeological site of Mezber during the Middle Mezber Pre-Aksumite Ceramic Phase (8th to beginning of the 4th century BC).

Initially, farmers and artisans (particularly hide workers and ground stone makers) are two social groups clearly identified at Ona Adi, through their direct and indirect material culture remains. Artisans possessed the technological knowledge and responsibility of crafting ancient Ona Adi’s household tools such as pottery and grinding stones, and site inhabitants practiced an agropastoral economy. The large ceramic collections (see previous chapters), grinding stones (Nixon-Darcus 2017) and scrapers (Peterson 2017) collected from the site witnessed the work of artisans. Macrobotanical and faunal remains collected from all contexts at Ona Adi reveal the establishment of an agricultural economy mainly based on barley, lentil, linseed, noog, t’ef, etc. and cattle, goat, sheep, and chicken (Meressa 2017, Woldekiros personal comm). This full-fledged agricultural economy and dietary system that favored the consumption of Near Eastern domesticates (C3 crops such as wheat, barely, lentil etc.) over indigenous crops (C4 crops, for example t’ef) has been confirmed by ETAP’s discoveries from the site of Etchmare East and Mezber (D’ Andrea 2005; D’Andrea et al 2011; D’Andrea and Welton in prep).

Around 400 BC, changes in the socio-economic organization of the community at Ona Adi seem to take place, including the construction of the earliest stone-walled structures, the first appearance of metal and glass objects, the emergence of new formal vessel types and an increased presence of stone scrapers (Chapters 5, 6 and 7; Table 8.8; Peterson 2017). This change was chiefly triggered by the consolidation or at least the presence of a new societal group- elites - at Ona Adi. Before directly explaining this new socio-economic system at Ona Adi, it is essential to provide some contextual information about the historical trajectories of elite formation in Ethiopia and the Horn.

Scientific archaeological and historical research conducted in northern Ethiopia and the Horn have suggested many factors for the emergence of elite societal groups in the region (Sergew Hable Sellassie 1972; Fattovich 1988, 1990, 1994; Phillipson 2000, 2014; D’Andrea et al. 2008; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014; Curtis 2004). However, two factors seem to stand out as particularly fundamental: 1) the continuous demographic movement of lowland pastoralists to the highlands (Fattovich 1988, 1994; Ehret 1979; Kobishchanov 1979); and 2) the establishment of an intricate web of interactions and

352 long-distance trade (Munro-Hay 1991; D’Andrea et al. 2008; Schmidt et al. 2008). The importance of movement of lowland pastoralists to the highlands and consequent elite and state formation in the region is explained by the prominent Ethiopian history specialist late professor Merid W.Aregay as follows:

… lowland pastoralists came up not only with a total disregard, if not disdain, for agricultural labour and for craftsmanship, but also with tightly communal organizations suitable for raiding and plundering. When such pastoralist groups decided to settle in the highlands they did so by superimposing themselves over the sedentary communities, without appropriating the land for themselves. They did not work the land themselves, finding it more convenient to leave it in the hands of the subjugated farming communities and to live off the tributes they extracted from them (Merid W. Aregay 1997:31)

Lowland pastoralists could have formed tightly organized military bands composed mainly of young men under the leadership of the bravest and most experienced warriors amongst such peer groups (see Merid W. Aregay 1997 for detailed discussion and summary of this process). This kind of societal group organization was akin to what Kobishchanov (1979:210) describes as an “ethnic militia” created for claiming, patrolling and protecting markets, trade routes and other vital resource grounds (see also Munro-Hay 1991). Several ancient inscriptions discovered in the northern Horn also discuss these military bands, some of which were contemporary with the occupation of Ona Adi. For instance, the inscription of Adulis clearly mentions the significance of military bands along with Mahrem (“the god of war and the divine father of all Aksumite kings”- to which a dedicatory monument was built) in its available fragmented segment of the text (Sergew Hable Sellassie 1972: 62-63). Munro-Hay (1991:227) also suggested that the word people cited in an inscription on the famous 4th century AD Aksumite king Ezana’s memorial monument was synonymous with military bands or armies in general.

Some scholars have argued that the earliest military bands in the highlands could have developed from lowland mobile hunting bands originating from pastoralist communities who lived along the Red Sea littoral to whom agricultural activities were unimportant or secondary (for example, Ehret 1979). For Ehret (1979), initial lowland pastoralists were Ge’ez speaking bands who comfortably superimposed themselves over the Kushitic Agaw highland agriculturalists and later became rulers of the Aksumite kingdom. Hence the “Ge’ez speaking Aksumites founded their city and state over a solid

353 base of Agaw agriculturalists” (Merid W. Aregay 1997:33; Sergew Hable Sellassie 1972; Taddesse Tamrat 1972).

As mentioned above and stated in the inscription of Adulis, lowland pastoralist bands conquered and annexed highland areas for the sake of securing long-distance trade routes and controlling sources of significant trading commodities such as ivory, gold and incense. As consequence of this process, several garrison centers developed in the highlands, which have been historically documented since antiquity. For instance, in one of king Ezana’s inscription, regiments named Mahaza, Mettin, Daken, Hara and Laken are listed, formed to patrol trade routes and other resource centers including the agriculturally most productive and best-watered lands (Kobishchanov 1979). Considering the vastness of the areas conquered and annexed by lowland pastoralists and associated garrisoned centers, “very likely the tributes imposed upon the subjugated peoples were not centrally collected and stored but, rather, assigned for the maintenance of the troops garrisoned amongst them “(Merid W. Aregay 1997:33). This situation could have formed a foundation for the development of coexisting polities in Eastern Tigrai, possibly with leaders who were autonomous or semi-autonomous from Aksum. Existing epigraphic sources also reveal the appearance of at least three possibly independent polity leaders (D’MT, MKRB and MLK) in northern Ethiopia and the Horn during the Pre-Aksumite period (Phillipson 2012; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014).

Throughout the Aksumite period and afterward, elites often left annexed and conquered land in the hands of subjugated farming communities and depended on tribute extracted from them. This practice was highly institutionalized through the introduction of a Gult System (Dunning 1970; Crummey 1999). Gult was a complex socio-economic and political system which involved the rights to administer land, collect tribute and control labour power of farmers occupying these lands (Mengiste 2011; Pankhurst 1968). Gult shaped power structures and interactions among ancient polities of the Horn. The political relationship between Neguse Negest (king of kings, Aksumite kingdom rulers) and regional polity kings/elites was structured on the gult system (Hoben 1973; Taddesse Tamrat 1972). Regional kings/elites were generally gult holders. Except for providing service in time of war and periodically paying tribute in kind to the King of Kings in the assumed center (Aksum) (Munro-Hay 1991; Phillipson 1998,2000), regional kings/elites/chieftains were autonomous in administrating their respective polities (Dunning 1970; Merid W.Aregay 1986; Crummey 1999). The gult system also helped

354 regional kings/elites to build larger armies at very little cost to themselves through income gained from the land and conquered farmers. These historical developments and evidence could support the results of ETAP’s Gulo-Makeda surveys and excavations, which have suggested that an heterarchical rather than hierarchical pattern of political authority was present in the region since antiquity (D’Andrea et al. 2008; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014).

ETAP’s scientific archaeological investigations have demonstrated the existence of elite societal groups at Ona Adi at least by 400 BC. As cited above, we have uncovered the remains of both elite and non-elite buildings (Chapter 5, Figure 5.11). Several authors associate origin of political authority and inequality with the appearance of elite architecture and monumental constructions (Trigger 2003; Sassaman 2005). At Ona Adi and other Aksumite sites, elite residential structures were distinct from those of non-elite groups, based on several attributes including techniques of construction, materials used, foundations, wall and roof structures (see Chapter 5; Bard and Fattovich 2001; Munro-Hay 1991; Phillipson 1998). In general, elite residences had stepped stone walls that were “reinforced with a framework of exterior and interior longitudinal timbers tied together with rounded cross-beams called monkey-head” (Lyons 2007:186-187; Plant 1985; Figures 5.11 and 5.12). Phillipson (1998) argues that wood as a raw material for house building was an expensive item especially during the later Aksumite periods. According to him, the main difference between elite and non-elite buildings was the abundant use of wood and stepped stone walls in elite residences. Wood structures were not preserved at Ona Adi and as such I cannot comment on wood use in the site’s architecture. Moreover, at this stage of the excavations, only walls and incomplete rooms were recorded. Elite structures at Ona Adi are characterized by rectangular stepped walls with large corner stones which could have had wooden ceilings, similar to modern day traditional houses (see Chapter 5). The large corner stones and recessed or stepped walls, separated by consecutive steps, form a stable structure for long periods of time. In addition, the slate slabs present on top of the steps further increased the consolidation of the structure by preventing rain water from percolating into the wall body, which would otherwise easily wash away the mud mortar.

Imported and finely painted potsherds were uncovered in association with elite residential buildings, which could indicate the presence of individuals with enough wealth/status to be involved in the web of short- and long-distance exchange networks

355 (see section 8.4 below). Categories of artefacts that could be associated with elite activities at the site include pottery, metal, glass, grinding stones, bone and other objects (Table 8.8). For example, the proveniences of ceramic vessels suitable (more convenient) for the cooking/processing of meat, milk, butter, beer, etc provide a very interesting picture of the ancient community occupying the site (Table 8.8, column 3). It is interesting because the frequency distribution of these vessels in a given household could indicate socioeconomic position and diversity of meals consumed by inhabitants. Scholars indicate a strong correlation between food and identity such as status, ethnicity, gender, religion, and age (Arthur 2014; Haaland 2007; Lyons 2007). What are called luxury or high-status foods are generally important status indicators cross- culturally but are more specific to culture to culture (Berry 1994; Hayden 1996; Arthur 2002, 2003, 2014).

Recently published ethnoarchaeological work demonstrates that the majority of the Ethiopian population predominately depends on vegetarian meals (Arthur 2014; D’Andrea et al 2011; D’Andrea and Welton in prep; Lyons 2007; Nixon-Darcus 2014). Slaughtering of animals for meat is conducted rarely and is usually associated with yearly celebrations such as New Year, Meskal or Easter. This is mainly because meat and other animal products are expensive compared to the living standards and earnings of most Ethiopians. This indicates that the consumption of luxury foods such as meat, milk, butter and related drinks such as sua (locally made beverage) represent wealth, power, status and membership in a societal group who have access to these goods. Non-elite families have limited access to these meals, which diminishes the diversity of their diet and ceramic vessels used. D’Andrea et al (2011; Nixon-Darcus 2014) have suggested the establishment of similar culinary traditions (a predominantly vegetarian diet) during the Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite periods in the region. Other researchers also have pointed out the similarities between Aksumite and contemporary Tigrayan agrarian economy, diet and material culture (Michels 2006; Munro-Hay 1989, 1991; Phillipson 1998).

The high frequency distribution of ceramic formal types used for the cooking and processing of luxury meals which could include tihilo (small barley/wheat dough dumplings with meat sauce), sua (local beer), mase (local honey wine) and wine in Field A, C and to a certain extent D reveal the status of these households (Chapters 6 and 7; Table 8.8). Tihilo, sua and mase are highly regarded luxury foods associated with

356 wealth, power and status (for example see Figures 6.22D; 6.32h and 6.37.7). The consumption of these food items helps to bind people together socially, reinforce hospitality and manifest reciprocity during ceremonial and everyday activities. The discovery of these ceramic formal types associated with other elite artefacts such as imported/luxury ceramic items (amphorae, PPA, Sasanian pottery, etc), ceramic vessels with cruciform decoration, and metal, glass and other luxury objects (Table 8.8, Chapters 5, 6 and 7), as well as elite architectural elements in Fields A, C and D indicate the presence of elite societal groups at Ona Adi. According to Nixon-Darcus (personal comm), these squares also produced the largest and most varied grinding stone collections at the site. Larger grinding stones could have been used in surplus production of flour in elite houses. The discovery of two coins depicting as yet unidentified Aksumite kings in Square C (Chapter 5, Figure 5.27) further strengthens this claim. The wide array of evidence discussed above and the attempt to correlate relationships between foods, crafts and status all reveal the identification of elite and wealthy living quarters at Ona Adi. However, even though there were likely specialized artisan groups present at the site, their living quarters are not yet identified. Scientific ethnoarchaeological work conducted at Ona Adi and in Gulo-Makeda indicates the separate establishment of neighbourhoods for artisans away from those of elites and farmers (Lyons 2007). This might be the main reason for the lack of more direct evidence, such as artisan workshop areas, which indicate their household dwellings.

Table 8.8. Summary of frequency distribution of elite artefacts across excavated squares Excavated Imported/luxury Luxury food Ceramic Metal, glass, beads Squares Ceramic Items (beer, wine, vessel with and other luxurious (Amphora, milk, meat etc) cruciform objects PPA, Sasanian cooking/ decoration etc) processing ceramic vessels A 23 162 3 16 B 12 21 0 3 C 109 216 18 59 D 38 103 1 18 E 24 94 0 11

The emergence or consolidation of elite societal groups at Ona Adi could have been directly associated with the arrival and permanent settlement of lowland pastoralists in the area. The rock art sites at Amba Fekada and other nearby places in

357 the surrounding area indicate lowland pastoralist presence at Ona Adi since antiquity (D’Andrea 2005; D’Andrea et al 2008). Artefacts of surface collections from the Amba Fekada rock art site include Late Stone Age stone tools (Meressa 2006). These artefacts could have been the products of lowland pastoralists who produced the hunting scenes and other naturalistic and semi-naturalistic paintings of humpless cattle executed at Amba Fekada (Figures 8.1 and 8.2). Farming communities culturally akin to the Middle Mezber Ceramic Phase (8th - early 4th century BC) likely occupied Ona Adi during the Late Pre-Aksumite period. At approximately the same time or shortly thereafter, the earliest Amba Fekada painters could have decided to abandon pastoralism and hunting activities and started to superimpose their rule over the newly settled agrarian communities, following the historical pattern discussed above, and become the elites/rulers of the area. The plough scene and other schematic paintings exhibited at the Amba Fekada rock art site could have been the work of the earliest agricultural communities of Ona Adi who cultivated the fertile valley at the foothills of Amba Fekada. The earliest surface pottery sherds collected from the rock art site can be attributed to these groups. The application of the same pigment (red pigment) to draw both hunting and ploughing scenes and the continued use of stone tools reveal the formation of strong ties between the two social groups and the transfer of some aspects of the pastoralist culture into the settled agriculturalist populations.

The excavations and systematic ceramic analysis at Ona Adi has answered some questions but raised many others. Excavations are not yet complete; at least three additional seasons are required to gain a more complete picture of the site. Because our previous excavations focused on establishing chronology, horizontal representation (areal excavations/activity areas, spaces) of the site remains incomplete. For instance, we were not able to trace the living quarters of artisans (potters, hide workers and ground stone makers). Continuation of the excavations may yield other rich evidence that can help illuminate these research questions.

8.4. Ona Adi in global, regional, and interregional settings

The northern Horn is a dynamic location where peoples of many geographic areas have interacted since antiquity. It is an important corridor through which the peoples of Egypt and the Mediterranean world from the north, South Arabia from the east and the Indian subcontinent from southeast had the easiest access to African trade

358 goods in ancient times. As mentioned in Chapter 2, high mountainous terrain and plateaus, deep gorges and valleys, coastal plains, arid lowlands and parts of the great East African Rift Valley system are the main topographical features of the region. These created a system of highly contrasting and segmented ecozones within very short horizontal distances, where different cultural groups were developing but were constantly interacting through several river valley systems. This situation created fertile ground for the establishment of complex cultural systems in the northern Horn through the continuous movement and interaction of people of different regions. Analysis of the Ona Adi ceramic assemblages provides some hints about the nature and pattern of these interactions.

Even though the Agame ceramic tradition at Ona Adi is dominated by distinctive and abundant unique markers, as a multicomponent ancient town settlement, it is also characterized by continuity, gradual evolution and modification of some local vessel types as the result of active regional and interregional interactions beginning from the middle of the 1st millennium BC and including the whole of the 1st millennium AD. During the Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition periods, one of the most distinctive types of ceramic vessels recorded at Ona Adi have a scraped surface (Chapter 6, Figure 6.7). The scraped surface finish is by no means unique to Ona Adi or the Eastern Tigrai ceramic tradition. Scraped potsherds were first recorded in the upper Nile Valley area as far back as the 6th millennium BC and are the main attributes of the Atbai ceramic tradition, which flourished along the Eritrea-Sudanese lowlands (D’Andrea et al. 2008; Fattovich 1990). The presence of this ceramic surface treatment technique has also been previously reported from Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite contexts in the Aksum-Yeha area (Fattovich 1990). In Aksum-Yeha, the implementation of a scraping system to finish potsherd surfaces is quite rare and is limited to the internal surfaces of sherds. At Ona Adi and in Eastern Tigrai in general (D’Andrea et al. 2008), this surface treatment technique is quite ubiquitous and is employed on both internal and external surfaces.

Another imported Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition period trait that was successfully incorporated into Ona Adi’s local ceramic tradition is the black-topped treatment. Black- topped surface treatment and notches on the vessel lip are especially diagnostic of the PA-A transition period at Ona Adi (Chapter 6). Sherds with these kinds of decoration have been discovered at several sites in northeastern Africa, from the Nile Valley to the Aksum-Yeha area, central and southern Eritrea, Mezber and Ona Adi.

359 Arkell (1960) suggested that the Khartoum Neolithic, dated ca. 6200 bp, was the origin of black-topped pottery motifs. At the Pre-Aksumite site of Mezber, Ona Adi’s closest neighbor site, black-topped vessels are one of the main characteristics of the upper architectural levels of the site, appearing towards the end of the Middle Pre-Aksumite ceramic phase, dating from the mid-8th to the very beginning of the 4th century BC. Most of the black-topped potsherds from Ona Adi are collected from Square D’s lowest ceramic-bearing deposit, just above the bedrock. Its presence in the earliest contexts of Ona Adi may indicate an expansion in the extent of the black-topped motif after its earlier inception at Mezber in Eastern Tigrai . The combined occurrence of both scraped and black-topped vessels, a Nile Valley ceramic trait, in the ceramic assemblages of Ona Adi during the Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition period could suggest relatively intensive interaction with the Nile Valley civilizations and the adoption of these features through the Eritrean-Sudanese lowlands corridor.

Figure 8.10. Black topped bowl fragments from Ona Adi: A) OA15.D1.15.1154.18, B) OA14.D1.10.1115.15

No significant or clear impact of South Arabian cultural traits is reflected in the Ona Adi ceramic data. Ona Adi’s minimal cultural contact to the east with peoples from the other side of the Red Sea could only be suggested indirectly, through the emergence of ring-based vessels and a new jar form assumed to be a local imitation of the famous “torpedo vessels” or “jar type 4100” during the Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition period. Ring-based vessels and “jar type 4100” are the main cultural traits of South Arabian ceramic traditions that developed during the beginning of the first millennium BC (Porter 2004; Japp et al 2011). This evidence challenges claims of direct Sabaean power/control

360 over socio-economic forces in Eastern Tigrai and the origin of Pre-Aksumite polities. The emergence of social complexity, at least in Eastern Tigrai, can be explained by successful accumulation of wealth by the agrarian communities of the region generated through trade in indigenous products (D’Andrea and Welton in prep; Peterson 2017). In addition to the ceramic evidence presented above, the existence of external trade is further supported by the discovery of stamp seals (Figure 8.11A) and exotic raw materials such as carnelian beads (Figure 8.11 B) at Mezber (D’Andrea and Welton in prep). Many stamp seals have been also reported from Aksum (Phillipson 2000), mainly associated with 1st millennium AD contexts, and are interpreted as showing complex exchange of goods both at regional and global scales.

Figure 8.11. A) Example of stamp seal (MBR.C2.6.12.2884) found at Mezber and B) Middle Phase carnelian bead (MBR.A2.42.84.2662). Scale = cm (Image by C. D’Andrea)

Throughout the Aksumite period, archaeological surveys and excavations have presented clear evidence of the ancient trade that existed between the northern Horn, Byzantium, Arabia, and India (Munro-Hay 1989; Bard et al 2014; D’Andrea et al 2014; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014; Zazzaro et al 2014; Parker 2002; Peacock 2007; Whitcomb 1994; Hayes 1996). Some of the most reliable evidence for the existence of these trading relationships comes from pottery. We know the age of traded ceramic commodities from archaeological work completed in the areas where the pottery was made. This permits us to estimate the period during which the same types were traded and circulated. During most of the Aksumite period, ribbed Ayla-Aksum amphorae and sherds of blue-glazed Sasanian ceramic vessels are excellent trade markers which reveal the involvement of northern Horn communities in active exchange networks at a global scale. These ceramic types are ubiquitous and are found at sites in many parts of

361 the Mediterranean, Arabian and Indian Ocean, as well as in the northern Horn, including at Ona Adi.

Figure 8.12. Ayla-Aksum amphorae and blue glazed ceramic sherds from Ona Adi A) External and internal surfaces of amphorae sherds collected from OA13.C.2.251, B) External and internal surfaces of blue glazed sherd collected from OA14.C.18.952

Trade in Ayla-Aksum amphorae among communities of the Red Sea region was particularly intensive between the 4th and 7th centuries AD (Munro-Hay 1989; Peacock 2007; Zazzaro et al 2014). Many areas have been suggested as the area of origin of the Ayla-Aksum amphorae. However, based on the discovery of several undisputed kilns with high concentrations of intact melted and vitrified sherds, the best candidate for an origin point for Ayla-Aksum amphorae is assumed to be the ancient settlement of Ayla in Jordan (present day Aqaba) (Whitcomb 1994; Parker 2002; Raith et al., 2013). Archaeological excavations at Ayla collected several thousand sherds of Ayla-Aksum amphorae dating as early as the late 4th century, and they remain common through the 7th century (Parker 2002). From here, they were traded throughout the Red Sea region and have been collected from Adulis (Peacock 2007; Zazzaro et al 2014), Matara (Anfray 1966), Ona Adi (D’Andrea eat al. 2008; D’Andrea et al 2011), Beta Samati (Harrower et al., in press), Aksum (Munro-Hay 1989; Phillipson 2000; Bard et al. 2014),

362 the port of Berenike in Egypt (Hays 1996) and several Mediterranean sites, such as at Iskandil Burnu in Turkey, Carthage and sites in Spain , usually associated with strata dated between the early 5th to 7th centuries AD (Keay 1986; Pedersen 2008). Ayla- Aksum amphorae were also reported from sites in Yemen corresponding to the 5th to 7th centuries AD (Sedov 1992). Furthermore, evidence of Ayla-Aksum amphorae has been found in India (Tomber 2005). Some whole or nearly whole Ayla-Aksum amphorae from Aksum, Matara and Adulis are on display in the National Museum of Addis Ababa. At Aksum, their presence has been repeatedly reported since the 1906 Deutsche Aksum German Expedition. The amphorae from Aksum are similar to those from Egypt, and Wilding (in Munro-Hay 1989:314) describes them as follows:

...the jar material is of the long, thin, conical corrugated surface type. The base is generally buttoned. The rim is gently inswept after its shoulders, with a straight lip with a diameter of 11-12 cm. The rim is around 10 cm long and carries a pair of opposed vertical loop handles. As might be expected, the lips appear to be built to accommodate a stopper.

Wilding suggested that the Ayla-Aksum amphorae from Aksum were direct imports from Egypt. However, some scholars, due to the great number of examples, have claimed local Ayla-Aksum amphora production in Aksum, although no evidence of this has been provided to date (Zazzaro et al 2014). Amphora sherds collected from Ona Adi appear to support claims of indigenous production, as some of the examples from the site have a local-origin red-orange clay raw material as the dominant fabric. In addition to the paste difference, locally made amphora sherds at Ona Adi have a relatively wider and shallower ribbed rough surface and are dominantly sand tempered compared to the quartz-tempered, creamy smoothed surfaces of directly imported specimens. However, it is important to note that Ona Adi ceramic assemblages also provided rich evidence of undisputed, directly imported, morphologically standard amphora vessels (Figure 6.24B). What appear to be locally made amphora sherds at Ona Adi may actually be the result of the effects of post-depositional activities, which could have eroded the creamy and smoothed surface treatments of the originally imported items. Whether locally made or imported, the substantial presence of Ayla- Aksum amphora sherds at Ona Adi strongly attests to its active involvement in regional and global exchange networks of the ancient world. The question to be raised at this point is why were amphora vessels so important in the culture of various ancient

363 communities of the Red Sea region and beyond? What commodity (or commodities) was (were) transported in amphorae across these wider areas?

Figure 8.13. Probably locally made amphorae sherds from Ona Adi, Square C1 (OA13.C1.2.116.28 and 52)

Part of the answer seems to rely on the shape and composition of the amphora itself, which makes it an ideal transport container. As already stated in the direct quote above, morphologically, the standard Ayla-Aksum amphorae are characterized by a conical shape with a short neck, limited shoulders, a button base, a corrugated creamy body and opposed vertical loop handles (Figure 6.24B). Hard firing of the clay and an applied cream-colored slip generally created a watertight vessel surface which might have been convenient to store and transport liquid substances. However, there has been debate among scholars, and in general there remains no agreement about the specific contents transported in these amphorae. For example, some have suggested the amphorae as containers for agricultural products (liquid) from the area of the Middle East (Pedersen 2008), while others such as Donlinka (2003) have claimed the vessels as fish sauce (garum) transport containers. However, several studies have pointed to wine or date products as the most likely contents transported in these vessels (Peacock 2007). The total absence of indicators of fatty acids in residue analysis of some amphora sherds from Adulis helps to rule out the shipment of animal products, including fish, as well as olive oil, in Ayla-Aksum containers (Peacock 2007).

364

Figure 8.14 A possibly grape pressing (wine producing) ancient rock cut archaeological feature at Ona Adi

Another source of indirect evidence that could strengthen arguments about the importance of wine to the ancient communities of Ona Adi and Aksum, and especially to their elites, could be derived from rock-cut archaeological features recorded in these sites. A rock-cut feature at Ona Adi (Figure 8.14) was recorded by ETAP in 2005 and was interpreted as a possible fruit-press or wine manufacturing feature (D’Andrea 2005). It comprises two rectangular tanks, with varying sizes and perhaps also depths, systematically hewed into the top of massive natural boulders. This feature is located at the southern edge of the site, about 15m southeast of Field A and very close to (about 5m from) the remains of a huge well-dressed pillar (Figure 8.15). As already mentioned, this area of Ona Adi presented evidence of elite presence both in the form of characteristic architecture (a stepped-wall building) and exotic ceramics (for example, amphorae and blue-glazed Sasanian ware), as well as fragments of Roman glass.

365

Figure 8.15. Well-dressed pillar remains found c. 5m NW of the above rock cut features at Ona Adi, indicating an elite presence at the site

At Aksum, two prototypes of Ona Adi’s rock-cut feature have been recorded at Adi Tsehafi (‘the abode of the scribe’), about six km north-northwest of the town (Sutton 2008). Unlike the Ona Adi rock-cut feature, the interiors of these examples are filled with soil sediments; the tanks at Adi Tsehafi can be emptied and a fuller understanding of the features can be obtained. The interior portions of each pair of contrasting tanks (shallower upper and deeper lower chambers) at Adi Tsehafi are separated by a curved thin rock section placed between them. However, the two chambers (tanks) are directly linked by a means of a narrow gently arched channel excavated through the intersecting curved thin rock wall starting from the base of the shallow tank (the upper one) to feed its contents into the deeper, lower tank (Figure 8.16). The plans and cross-sections of these rock-cut features (Figure 8.16) and their detailed metric measurements were reported by the Deutsche Aksum-Expedition in 1906. Members of the Deutsche Aksum- Expedition interpreted the tank sets as fruit-pressers and more specifically believed the fruit to be grapes for pressing into wine (Philipson 1997). Phillipson (1997) has suggested that the Deutsche Aksum-Expedition’s interpretations of the Adi Tsehafi tank sets heavily relied on the presence of similar wine-presses cut into natural rock in Syria and the Levant. Phillipson (1998) further emphasizes the significance of grape seeds and their end products for the elites and royal families of ancient Aksumite societies through the discovery of grape seeds during excavations at Aksum and the symbolic representation of vine motifs on luxury elite material cultural remains, such as those depicted on both elaborate stone monuments and ivory objects.

366

Figure 8.16. The tank sets at Adi Tsehafi, plan and cross-sections: upper; northwestern set; lower; south-eastern set (modified after Phillipson 1997)

More recently, Laurel Phillipson (2006) has claimed the presence of abundant gold resources around Aksum and suggests their exploitation as one of the chief sources of wealth and regional power of the Aksumite kingdom during the first half of the first millennium AD. However, several other archaeological and historical works have claimed otherwise. The extended direct quote below (Munro-Hay 1991:131), with a wide range of references, explains the case:

The full tally of Aksumite exports came from all over its area of hegemony. … along the route Adulis-Koloe-Aksum-Kueneion came ivory, and a tusk was even found during the excavations at Adulis (Sergew Hable Selassie, 1972: 74-73), eloquent witness to this part of Aksum's trade network. Kosmas stated that from the Blemmyes (Beja), who lived in the Red Sea

367 hills, came emeralds, carried for sale into India by Ethiopian merchants (Wolska- Conus, 1973: 352-3). From islands in the Red Sea came tortoise shell, and from Sasu (perhaps the gold-bearing Fazugli region in modern Sudan) came gold in exchange for salt, iron, and meat (Wolska-Conus, 1968: 360). The gold was probably for internal use (Kaleb, the contemporary ruler, issued more different types of gold coins than any other Aksumite ruler) and was purchased with salt from the lowland Danakil region (used in bars, called amole in later times, as a currency throughout the Ethiopian region), cattle on the hoof, and iron.

To back up a rather oversimplified hypothesis, Phillipson suggests that some of the Adi Tsehafi rock cut features, and more specifically the mistah werki specimen, had a gold-working function (L. Phillipson 2006). She cites sources reporting the presence of similar sets of rectangular tanks with connecting pipes in the Nubia-Nile Valley civilization with an identical function (gold panning/production). However, Sutton (2008) has rejected the foundation of this speculative hypothesis through the presentation of detailed arguments about the structural differences between the Aksumite and Nubian rock-cut features. Even though he proposes another alternative interpretation for some of the Adi-Tsehafi rock cut features, specifically as altars or sacrificial places to slaughter selected animals and drain their blood, he mostly subscribes to the wine production argument for interpreting the function of both the Aksum area and Nubian sets of rock- cut tanks with connecting pipes.

While discussions about the function of these enigmatic rock-cut features are ongoing and remain open to reconsideration, most archeologists currently support the claim that their construction was intended for viticulture and wine production purposes, especially for the elite population of the region, including ancient Ona Adi and Aksumite societies. This was particularly true after the 3rd century AD, when “a fashion for wine made from grapes was spreading from the Mediterranean, and in particular Egypt, up the Nile to communities, or at least certain classes therein, living well beyond the Roman imperial frontier….” (Sutton 2008: 32). The timing of the increase in popularity of wine consumption across the Mediterranean and Red Sea regions is particularly intriguing as it overlaps with the wider circulation of amphorae and various other glass containers such as beakers and goblets, ideally suited for wine transportation and consumption. In addition to large quantities of amphora vessel fragments, exotic glass beakers and goblets (ideal wine containers) have been recoded from excavations at Ona Adi and Amba Feqada (D’Andrea et al 2008; D’Andrea 2015) and Aksum (Munro-Hay 1989; Phillipson 2000). These were most probably manufactured in the Mediterranean world,

368 including Egypt and the Levant, and imported into the northern Horn as wine storage and consumption vessels. Other beautifully crafted luxury imports from further east, such as blue glazed Sasanian sherds recorded from excavations at Aksum, Ona Adi, Matara and Adulis could also be included in these categories arriving perhaps via the Indian Ocean and Red Sea (Phillipson 2000; D’Andrea 2015; Anfray 1966; Zazzaro 2014).

An important point, although less well-explained by previous works, are the factors which would have led to the spread of this luxury taste (wine) to areas of the northern Horn. One possible factor behind the rise in popularity of wine consumption across the Horn could be directly linked to the spread of orthodox Christianity in the region. As already mentioned in previous chapters, Christianity first appeared in Aksum and then later in other territories of the Horn beginning in the 2nd quarter of the 4th century AD, following a top-down pattern. First royal families and elite peoples embraced Christianity, which was followed by a mass conversion of ordinary people, particularly at the end of the 4th and the beginning of the 5th century. Past and even current adherents of Orthodox religion in the Horn of Africa are characterized by their conservative and zealous behavior in strictly following the faith. The presence of hundreds of ancient monasteries, thousands of churches, and dedications of several days to saints of the religion every month are an indication of this behavior. One of the most crucial aspects of the religion is the practice of communion during important occasions such as baptism, marriage and during the old age of followers. At any holy communion service, bread and wine are consecrated and shared to symbolize the body and blood of Christ. The demand for wine and its continuous popularity among ancient communities of the Horn could have been directly connected to this holy Orthodox Christian religious service.

Similar to any liquid substances, wine is a bulky product. Transporting wine in relatively fragile containers such as amphorae and glass vessels over a long distance, using any form of transportation (human porterage, pack animals, cargo, etc.), is a risky business. This task would have been extremely difficult to achieve across the highly fragmented and dissected terrain of the northern Horn hinterland, situated away from river transport. In the beginning, because only a few sectors of the population (Christian royal families and elites) required it, direct import of wine using amphorae could have been enough. However, with a sharp increase in the demand for wine associated with mass conversion of ordinary people to Christianity, satisfying local demand could have been more challenging and activities of import substitution would have been a natural

369 solution in response to the challenge. The development of viticulture in the highlands of the northern Horn and the design and installation of tank sets of rock-cut features such as the ones at Ona Adi and Aksum for processing the grapes and for fermenting and storing the wine, could have been a natural outgrowth of this process. At Ona Adi, parts of the fertile valley just south of the rock-cut feature and the possibly ancient dam remains southwest of the rock-cut feature could have been used for the cultivation of grapevines. Future clearance of the sediments in the Ona Adi tank sets and excavations therein could help us to record ancient grape seeds to justify this tentative hypothesis.

Another point worth mentioning related to the above discussion is the association of amphora sherds and ancient churches. Review of previous ETAP survey and excavation results reveal an interesting pattern of the presence of huge amphora sherds found at sites which have been reported as abandoned ancient church sites or in areas where ancient churches are still in use, although experiencing continuous structural modifications. Habitation sites situated away from church precincts provide very few or no amphora sherd fragments. All the large amphora collections at Ona Adi, Matara, Beta Samati, Aksum, Bieta Giyorgis and other Late Aksumite sites in Southern Tigrai have been collected from areas closely associated with ancient churches (Munro-Hay 1989; Phillipson 2000; D’Andrea et al 2008; Harrower et al., in press; Gaudiello and Yule 2017; Anfray 1966). This pattern may not be a coincidence, as ancient elite residential areas were mostly situated near to churches and amphorae were, at least initially, the material culture remains of elites. However, this association may also strengthen the explanation regarding the link between the spread of Orthodox Christianity in the region and the necessity of wine consumption. The implication of this interpretation is that amphorae were widely circulated in these parts of the ancient world as wine containers, encompassing active and continuous interactions with people of the Mediterranean, Middle East, Indian subcontinent, and Red Sea region, including the Horn. The active involvement of the northern Horn in this wide-ranging amphora/wine trade interaction system seems most likely to have been initiated as a result of religious, rather than economic, motives. As argued above, the spread and popularity of exotic wine consumption and with it amphora circulation in the Horn could have been linked to the beginning of Christianity in the region.

Another excellent ceramic trade marker which reveals northern Horn ancient communities’ active exchange network involvement at a global scale, comes from

370 vessels of African Red Slip Ware (Figure 8.17). This red-coated Roman earthenware vessel with a red-orange (10R 5/11) fabric is one of the most widely circulated items of the Roman Empire, found as far south as sites of the northern Horn, including Matara (Anfray 1966:44, PI.XXI), Ona Adi (Figures 8.17 A & B and 8.18), Beta Samati (Harrower et al. in press) and Aksum (Munro-Hay 1989:315; Phillipson 2000: 328-9, Figures 283e&h, 284a). Also known as Gaulish Samian ware in the Mediterranean region, the beginning of the production of African Red Slip (hereafter ARS) ware was tentatively dated to 220-240/250 AD, but it persisted over a long period after that (Hayes 1972). In the northern Horn region, fragments of ARS wares have been recorded from contexts associated with the late 4th to early 6th centuries AD (Anfray 1966; Munro-Hay 1989; Phillipson 2000; Harrower et al. in press). Although there is no question about the stylistic and technological influence that ARS ware had on the ceramic traditions of the Horn, there has been some disagreement about the manner of its impact. While Wilding (Munro-Hay 1989) stressed the physical importation of the vessels themselves, Phillipson (2000) tends to support influences mostly arising from the movement of ideas. All (4 in total) recorded ARS ware sherds from Ona Adi originate from Late Aksumite contexts. Based on the fabric and temper of the sherds (locally available clay and sand raw materials respectively), the Ona Adi ARS ware sherds appear to be more like a local imitation of imported prototypes registered at Aksum.

371

Figure 8.17. Internal and external surface of African Red Slip ware fragments. Top (OA13.C1.3.223.60) and bottom (OA13.C1.3.414.10).

Except for a single ARS sherd recorded during our 2017 regional survey of the southern Gulo Makeda woreda (D’Andrea 2017), Ona Adi materials lack some features of standard ARS vessel decorations. More specifically, small circular/oval raised bands in the center of a ledge rim (for example, Phillipson 2000:328, Figure 283d) are generally lacking in Ona Adi ARS specimens. D’Andrea et al. (2008) reported several distinctive regional ceramic elements in Gulo Makeda. One of these distinctive ceramic types, a red-orange ledge-rim ware (D’Andrea et al. 2008:166, figure 8b), is similar to the possible prototypes of Ona Adi ARS ware presented below (Figure 8.18). This sherd type is unique to Ona Adi and Eastern Tigrai because it accommodates both Pre- Aksumite (wavy line decoration) and Aksumite (fabric, form, and parallel incision decoration) ceramic traditions. This clearly manifests one specific example of the smooth transition and continuity in the development of ceramic culture at the multicomponent ancient town of Ona Adi. As indicated above, in terms of form and fabric attributes, these sherds (Figure 8.18) are categorized as a local imitation of ARS ware fragments. Based on this evidence we can claim that ancient Ona Adi potters were producing this vessel type equipped with some preconceived technological ideas gained from their constant

372 outside contact but using local raw materials and were successfully integrating it with an indigenous cultural setting. However, due to post-depositional effects, only very tiny fragments of the red slip (the main attribute of ARS ware) can be recognized from the body of these Ona Adi ARS ware sherds. The closest parallel to these Ona Adi ARS sherds are reported from Aksum (Phillipson 2000:328, figure 283h). However, the top of the rim in the Aksum material carries only two parallel incised lines, lacking the wavy line decoration in between.

Figure 8.18. Eroded Ona Adi African Red Slip ware sherds decorated with wavy lines framed by two parallel incisions on the top of the rim, collected from OA14.E1.2.762.283 and 14

Additional striking evidence of foreign ceramic technological and stylistic elements effectively incorporated into the locally-made Ona Adi ceramic repertoire are reflected by various cruciform motifs. As already stated above and in Chapter 6, many sherds with engraved crosses, mainly from Late Aksumite contexts, have been recorded from Ona Adi (Figure 6.25). To date, little is known about the origins of various ancient cross motif patterns of the northern Horn. Some have argued for an origin in the Mediterranean-Roman world (Phillipson 1998), others have claimed the Middle East region as an influence (Taddesse Tamerat 1972), and others have suggested Western Asia, including India, as a potential source of northern Horn cruciform motifs such as the ones depicted on the locally-made sherds of Ona Adi. However, many scholars have generally agreed that cruciform motifs were introduced into this part of Africa in association with the coming of Christianity (Taddesse Tamerat 1972; Sergaw Hableselassie 1972; Munro-Hay 1984; Phillipson 1998). In addition to the pottery

373 evidence, the association of the introduction of Christianity and cross motifs in the Horn is clearly indicated by the swift change in the manner in which Aksumite coinage was decorated. Pre-Christian Aksumite coins mostly carry one of the oldest solar symbols of the ‘crescent and disc’, which were common in the religions of South Arabia to which Aksum formerly adhered (Phillipson 2012; Fattovich 1994, 2004). These coins, usually gold and intended for international trade, were widely circulated during the Early Aksumite period (Figure 8.19A). Minted coins immediately abandoned the ‘crescent and disc’ symbol and embraced various forms of cross motifs after the introduction of Christianity to Aksum and other areas of the Horn. For instance, the large cross on the reverse of the coin (Figure 8.19B) symbolizes the country's shift to Christianity. This took place during the fourth century AD when a traveler named Frumentius converted Aksum's ruler, King Ezana (Sergaw Hableselassie 1972). The pre-Christian religious symbols of the sun and the moon disappeared from coins and were replaced by a cross, which was enlarged over the years.

Figure 8.19. Aksumite coins: A) Gold coin of King Endubis (c. 270-300 AD), B) Coin of King Joel, 6th century AD (Images by Tsegay Alem, Tigrai Tourism and Culture Office)

In contrast to Aksumite coins, the pottery evidence at Ona Adi presents a more complicated picture. Ona Adi and Aksumite ceramic assemblages contain a wide range of cruciform types (Figure 6.25 in Chapter 6 and Munro-Hay 1989: 297 fig. 16.394, respectively). For this discussion, the cross-motif types from Ona Adi and presented below (Figure 8.20) are of particular interest. These cross symbols, two appearing on the external surfaces of small closed bowls (Figure 8.20A&B) and two on the top of ledged- rims small open bowls (Figure 8.20C&D, also see Figure 8.9 above), are reminiscent of the famous bent swastika cross prototype. Many scholars have regarded the swastika as a repeated design that independently originated in different parts of the world. Close

374 parallels to the Ona Adi swastikas have been documented on: a coarse ware sherd at Berenike, a Ptolemaic-Roman port on the Red Sea coast of Egypt (Sidebotham and Zych 2010: 14 Fig 16); pottery and coins of early historic sites in South Asia, especially southern India and Sri Lanka (Rajan 2008:28, fig.3). Sidebotham and Zych (2010:11 fig. 11 and 12; 2010:14 fig.16) have also reported the discovery of a coin at Berenike which has a direct parallel at Aksum. In India and other Asian countries, the swastika was a crucial ancient symbol of worship or a ‘marker of goodness’ for many thousands of years and, even today, it still is a powerful symbol reflected on temples, buses, taxis, and on the cover of books.

Figure 8.20. Prototypes of swastika cross motifs at Ona Adi

The incorporation of this imported ceramic stylistic feature on locally-made vessels from Ona Adi could be traced to multiple sources. India is one strong candidate. Swastika crosses similar to the ones reported from India (Rajan 2008: 28.fig.3) and from Berenike (Sidebotham and Zych 2010.14 fig.16) have been documented on the curved wood panels and ceiling of the 6th century monastery of Debre Damo, which is approximately 10 km west of Ona Adi (Buxton 1970). Caches of Indian coins were also found by the 1906 Deutsche-Aksum expedition at the monastery (Kobishchanov 1979).

375 This may indicate contact and a possible trade relationship between ancient communities of this region (Eastern Tigrai) and India and other Asian civilizations. The trade routes along the Eastern Tigrai highlands that led to the Red Sea and to the Indian Ocean could establish Ona Adi and other major town centers of the area as a destination/resting place for merchants and travelers. Ideas regarding cruciform motifs might be exchanged during this trade and continued through sustained interaction. On the other hand, the interpretation that imported ceramic styles filtered into the repertoires of Ona Adi potters from their contacts with Indian merchants need not be exclusive. Oral tradition and some scholarly literature (such as Taddesse Tamerat 1972; Sergaw Hableselassie 1972; Phillipson 1998) have stated that the monastery of Debre Damo was founded by one of the nine saints (Abune Aregawi), a Syrian-born monk. Debre Damo is also known as Abune Aregawi (meaning the “older monk”) after the name of its founder. If the monastery was built by Abune Aregawi, the origin of the swastika cross engraved in the wood panel and ceiling of the church could be the Middle East. Ancient Egypt could also be another source of origin, because as indicated above, a sherd and a coin discovered from Berenike resemble the specimens from the Horn of Africa.

All of these lines of evidence considered together indicate the dynamic nature and wide range of contacts with which ancient Ona Adi communities and other people of the Horn participated during the Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite periods. What is important to note is that some of the adopted ceramic features from these networks of interactions have had long-lasting impacts on the cultural history of Ethiopia and the Horn. The long- lasting, deeply-rooted and continuous nature of the swastika cross, for instance, can easily be identified from its engraving in the window of the 12th century rock-hewn churches of Lalibela (Figure 8.22), almost half a millennium after its initial appearance in the ceramic assemblage of Ona Adi.

376

Figure 8.21. An engraved swastika cross in the window of the 12 century AD rock hewn church of Lalibela.

Beyond its economic and cultural contacts at a global scale, the ancient community at Ona Adi was also involved in a wide range of regional and interregional interactions. As already mentioned, the ecological diversity of the region, with temperate highlands and semiarid lowlands, caused the establishment of different subsistence patterns in the Horn, best described as nomadic or semi-nomadic herders in the lowlands and sedentary agro-pastoralists (mixed farmers) in the highlands (Fattovich 2012; Brandt 1984). As Fattovich (2012:6) stated, “the contiguity of different ecozones facilitated the emerging of a complex interaction network between local human groups, particularly for exchanging products between farmers and herders”. These important and constant regional and interregional interactions between physiographically diverse and dissected communities could have resulted in the production and circulation of some traded ceramic vessel types (Table 8.9).

Ona Adi’s distinctive Agame Ceramic Tradition seems to have extended beyond the site and may have regional implications. Parallels to some of Ona Adi’s common locally-made ceramic markers have been reported from other Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite sites of Eastern Tigrai and in the Akale-Guzay area of southern Eritrea (Anfray 1966; D’Andrea et al. 2008; Habtamu 2010; D’Andrea and Welton in prep; Table 8.9). Specific archaeological sites of this pedigree include: Sobea (Habtamu 2010; D’Andrea 2010), Mezber (D’Andrea and Welton in prep), Wakarida (Dugast and Gajda 2012) in Eastern Tigrai and Kaskase and Matara in Eritrea (Fattovich 2012; Schmidt et al 2008;

377 Anfray 1966). As already described above, this can be directly related to the “Agame Ceramic Tradition” (Fattovich 2012:11) that developed within the context of mixed- farming and herding ancient communities who occupied the Agame region (historically known as and encompassing the present day Eastern Tigrai and Akale-Guzay areas of Eritrea) since the early 1st millennium BC (D’Andrea and Welton in prep). The discovery of elements from this ceramic tradition as far south as the Eastern Tigrai Pre-Aksumite site of Meqaber Gaʽewa (Wolf & Nowotnick 2010) reveals the widespread nature of the Agame Ceramic Tradition and the existence of intensive interregional interactions within the territory of ancient Eastern Tigrai.

Table 8.9. Examples of regional parallel ceramic types collected at Ona Adi Ona Adi Sherds Description and dating of the Comparison Evidences type OA14.D1.10.1115.15 Black-topped cup Adulis Zazzaro and Manzo(2012) Figure 11 OA13.C1.2.251.182 Small closed gray/black Aksumite Matara Anfray (1966) Figure pottery, polished external surface JE3608 with cross bands of incisions OA13.C1.2.251.220 ORW jar fragment with combed Mifsas Bahri Gaudiello and Yule geometric pattern on the upper part (2017) Figure7.11.12 of the body and around the belly OA13.C1.2.251.91 Brown/gray Aksumite mineral Adulis Zazzaro and tempered ware red slipped closed Manzo(2012) Figure 10 cup with corrugation OA13.C1.3.223.38 ORW Aksumite mineral tempered Adulis Zazzaro and Manzo ware red slipped closed cup with (2012) Figure 10 corrugation OA13.C1.2.234.14 ORW micaceous and organic Adulis Zazzaro and Manzo tempered bowl fragment with (2012) Figure 9 incised rim, jars or bottles with incised moulded ledges on the shoulders. OA13.C1.2.132.62 Brown ware micaceous and Adulis Zazzaro and Manzo organic tempered fragment with (2012) Figure 9 geometric combed decoration OA13.C1.2.240.23 Fragments of ORW micaceous and Adulis Zazzaro and Manzo organic tempered ware fragment (2012) Figure 9 with geometric incised decoration OA13.C1.3.223.44 Large brown micaceous ware rim Adulis Zazzaro and Manzo sherd of a jar with scraped external (2012) Figure 12 surface OA14.3.644.66 ORW jars or bottles with incised Adulis Zazzaro and Manzo molded ledges on the shoulders (2012) Figure 9 OA13.C1.3.414.10 ORW Aksumite ware, polished and Sobea Habtamu 2010 sherd no. sliped internal surface, flaring rim SB09.A1.1.1374.102

378 Ona Adi Sherds Description and dating of the Comparison Evidences type

OA13.C1.2.534.187 Brown/gray Aksumite pottery, Matara Anfray (1966) figure 45 handle fragment, notches under (XXIII) the base of the handle OA13.B1.10.308.6 Brown Aksumite pottery, polished Sobea Habtamu (2010) sherd and slipped internal surface, flaring no. SB09.A1.1.1374.56 rim OA14.D1.2.597.39 Black inside and red outside base Sobea Habtamu (2010) sherd fragment with cross decoration no. SB09.A1.3.1447.57 inside OA14.D1.2.597.14 Black and orange color ring- based Sobea Habtamu (2010) sherd fragment with smoothed internal no. SB09.A1.3.1447.2 and external surface OA14.E2.6.880.66 ORW Aksumite rim fragments Sobea Habtamu (2010) sherd having five grooves below the rim, no. SB09.A1.3.1447.84 rough internal surface OA15.D2.5.1258.2 Brown Aksumite square handle Sobea Habtamu (2010) sherd fragment, smooth internal surface no. SB09.A1.3.1447.66 OA13.C1.8.435.3 ORW Aksumite rim fragments with Sobea Habtamu (2010) sherd dotted impression below the rim, no. SB09.A1.3.1447.33 polished external and rough internal surface OA13.C1.4.403.28 Brown Aksumite handle fragment Sobea Habtamu (2010) sherd with impression (notches) under no. SB09.A1.3.1447.78 the base OA13.A1.2.559.16 Brown Aksumite handle fragment Aksum area Typical Aksumite pottery with incision decoration found in Aksum, not in Matara (Phillipson 2000) OA14.E1.2.762.279 ORW Aksumite shoulder (neck) Sobea Habtamu (2010) sherd fragment, with groove underneath no. SB09.A1.3.1447.46 OA13.B1.10.19.53 ORW Aksumite rim fragment with Matara Anfray (1966), Figure VI: one groove under it, polished 3711 internal and outside surface OA13.A1.2.470.80 ORW Aksumite rim fragment with Sobea Habtamu (2010) sherd one groove under it, smoothed no. outside and inside surface SB09.A1.4.6.1456.94 OA13.A1.13.572.9 ORW Aksumite neck fragment Matara Anfray’s (1966), Figure having handle at its downward end, XIII: JE.3634 flaring rim top, smoothed surface OA14.C1.25.89 Brown Aksumite fragment of foot Matara Anfray’s (1966), Figure washer, smoothed outside surface XXV: 123 with dotted decoration and rough inside surface OA14.D1.9.836.56 Brown Aksumite flaring rim Typical to Everywhere in Matara fragment with incised decoration at Matara and its surrounding the top, smoothed surface, handle (Anfray 1966) at the base of the neck

379 Ona Adi Sherds Description and dating of the Comparison Evidences type OA13.A1.2.559.3 ORW Aksumite incense burner, Matara Anfray (1966), Figure VI: smoothed outside surface, rig- JE.3661 based OA14.C1.2 762.261 ORW Aksumite rounded thick base Matara Anfray (1966), Figure II: fragment, polished inside and JE.3793 burnished outside surface OA15.D2.5.1258.34 Amphora, body sherds imported Anfray 1966; Wilding 1989; Phillipson 2000 OA13.C1.2.234.27 Brown/black Aksumite body sherds Aksum Wilding 1989; Phillipson with dotted point impression 2000 (notches) on inside surface OA14.E2.8.891.110 ORW Aksumite rounded rim Aksum Wilding 1989; Phillipson fragment with vertical decoration 2000 on the base of the rim, polished inside and outside surface

Secondly, the Ona Adi ceramic assemblage reveals an interesting trend towards the adoption and sharing of ceramic types with other neighboring regions of the Aksum- Yeha area, the Ancient Ona Culture sites, the Red Sea coastal region, including Adulis, and sites of Southern Tigrai, especially Mifsas Bahri. The percentage distribution of shared sherds across the Ona Adi ceramic sequence shows signs of decline during the PA-A transition and Early Aksumite periods, compared to the Late Pre-Aksumite period (Figure 8.23). Several factors could be cited as potential causes for this trend. For instance, the emergence of a new cultural and political setting in the regions neighboring Ona Adi (Eastern Tigrai) could be an important factor. As discussed above, while Eastern Tigrai archaeological sites witnessed continuity in site occupation (D’Andrea et al 2008; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014), a radical shift in the existing culture in the Aksum area (Bard et al 2014; Fattovich and Bard 2001) and the abandonment of Ona Culture settlements around the Greater Asmara region (Schmidt et al 2008; Curtis 2009) occurred at the end of the Pre-Aksumite period. This would have significantly altered existing Pre-Aksumite regional interactions. A change in the orientation of foreign contacts from east to west (from South Arabia to the Nile Valley) developed in the Aksum area around the 4th century BC (the beginning of the Proto-Aksumite period) and could have played a major role in this development (Fattovich 2012).

380 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 pre-Aksumite PA-A Trnasition Early Aksumite Middle Aksumite Late Aksumite

Local% Shared%

Figure 8.22. Percentage of local vessel types and those with connections to neighboring regions recorded in the Ona Adi ceramic sequence

Stylistic vessel features unique to Ona Adi continue to dominate ceramic collections at the site during earlier Aksumite phases (Figure 8.23; D’Andrea et al 2008). The extension of ceramic attributes from the PA-A transition phase well into at least the 1st century AD (Chapters 6 and 7; D’Andrea and Welton in prep) and the minor presence of typical Classical Aksumite period decorations of the type recorded at Aksum could explain this development. During most of the Later Aksumite period, Ona Adi’s interregional, regional and global cultural contacts seem to have intensified to the extent that led to a major shakeup in the established Agame Ceramic Tradition (Figure 8.23). The Later Aksumite period ceramic assemblage at Ona Adi is particularly intriguing. Previous archaeological research has confirmed the disintegration and fall of the Aksumite empire at the end of the Late Aksumite period (Fattovich 2004 2010, 2012; D’Andrea et al 2008; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014; Curtis 2009; Munro-Hay 1991). The empire’s access to the sea and thus to global trade networks and other valuable natural resources was blocked through a combination of internal and external factors. Paradoxically, however, the Ona Adi ceramic data show a significant increase in the percentage distribution of shared ceramic sherds with neighbouring regions during this time, including Aksum and Ancient Ona sites in Eritrea (Figure 8.23). This could be directly associated with the well-documented displacement and southward mass movement of people and the gradual shift in the seat of the empire first to somewhere in Eastern or Southern Tigrai and ultimately to Adafa/Lalibela following the collapse of

381 Aksum (Bahru Zewde 2002; Taddesse Tamrat 1972). The apparent arrival of new people at Ona Adi and other sites in the regions of Eastern and Southern Tigrai following the episodes of upheaval in the Late Aksumite period could increase shared ceramic sherd frequencies, as exhibited in Figure 8.23.

8.5. Chapter Summary

Discussion of the results of the analysis of Ona Adi ceramic data indicates economic prosperity, the development of elites, sustained political stability, and the establishment of interregional, regional, and possibly international contacts. Furthermore, the ceramic evidence and its detailed analysis have supported the previous results of ETAP’s surveys and excavations. D’Andrea et al. (2008) suggested control of trade routes and highly productive agricultural areas as the main sources of economic prosperity in the region. ETAP surveys (Harrower & D’Andrea 2014) have found little evidence for centralized Aksumite polities in eastern Tigrai and it is hypothesized that a heterarchical political system was in place instead. This finding leads one to question the assumed political authority of Aksum and raises the possibility that quasi- or fully independent polities existed outside of Western (now Central) Tigrai. The available data from ceramics and other sources provide important insights into existing social groups and their internal organization. Future large-scale excavations at Ona Adi will help us to expand our knowledge about the internal political organization of Aksumite polities and the nature of their relationships and contacts with one another.

382 Chapter 9.

Conclusions

Time’s wheel runs back or stops potter and clay endure.

Robert Browning (cited in Van Der Leeuw and Pritchard 1984:3)

Ceramics are a key resource in archaeology. They are highly durable, preserve well and at the same time are highly plastic, enabling the production of many different types of items, including basins, bowls, jars/bottles, cauldrons, cups, figurines, etc. This dissertation has presented a significant new empirical contribution to the archaeology of Eastern Tigrai/northern Ethiopia, through the analysis and interpretation of a substantial body of ceramic evidence at the site of Ona Adi. The success of this research, however, lies in ETAP’s reconceptualization of how northern Ethiopian archaeology should address issues of social complexity and other related cultural developments in the region.

The century-long history of archaeological research in the northern Horn of Africa is mainly characterized by an uneven distribution of research attention across themes, in both space and time. The later prehistoric/early historic periods seem to have been given relatively little attention and the majority of researchers have worked in Western Tigrai, targeting the material remains of elite people and their ceremonial centers. This has greatly influenced interpretations of data and the development of hypotheses in the construction of the culture history of the northern Horn.

Chapter 2 evaluated the validity of various models and hypotheses developed in the northern Horn to interpret the origins of social complexity based on a critical review of the literature, focusing on theories that have dealt with the relative roles of exogenous and internal factors. Some scholars have emphasized the role and greater impact of external factors on the socio-economic and cultural development in the ancient northern Horn. The main sources of evidence arise from ceremonial and elite settlement centers and they have often employed epigraphic data to support their claims. The extreme form of such an explanation is the colonial model which argued that the coming of significant numbers of people from South Arabia to control trade routes and exotic African goods and to administer indigenous communities of the northern Horn coincided with the

383 development of advanced civilization in the region. Some recent archaeological work diminishes the role of exogenous factors. Focusing on regional and settlement pattern studies, as opposed to site-specific investigations, and systematic research of domestic (not elite) settlement sites, scholars have claimed an indigenous origin of social complexity. Artefacts such as ceramics and lithics, domestic architectural techniques and belief and ritual mechanisms have been provided to substantiate the indigenous factor model.

This dissertation research forms a crucial component of ETAP’s research. ETAP excavations at Ona Adi represent the first systematic archaeological study of an Aksumite town site in Eastern Tigrai. Excavations of the site exposed undisturbed, sealed ceramic-rich Pre-Aksumite deposits underlying Aksumite levels, revealing a long and architecturally complex occupational history. Excavations uncovered the remains of both elite (stepped wall) and non-elite buildings. The long occupation of the site over several cultural periods is clearly visible in the pottery record, in which we can identify Pre-Aksumite, PA-A Transition, and Aksumite period pottery. The overall goal of this dissertation was to investigate the nature of the PA-A transition and Aksumite periods in Eastern Tigrai through the study of Ona Adi ceramic assemblages. This goal was achieved through addressing three research objectives. Changes in style, technology and form/function of analyzed ceramics across each excavated deposit (temporal dimension) and throughout the site (spatial dimension) were systematically pinpointed to understand the chronology, social groups and the ancient Ona Adi community’s contact and exchange patterns.

9.1. Ceramic Phasing/Chronology

Two of the major contributions of this study are the identification of the PA-A transition and the establishment of a new ceramic chronology for the Aksumite periods in Eastern Tigrai, as part of the Agame Ceramic Tradition. At Ona Adi, five major temporal phases (Late Pre-Aksumite to Late/Post Aksumite periods), were distinguished based on specific differences in the ceramic components (Table 8.1). The earliest phase of cultural development, the Late Pre-Aksumite ceramic phase, appeared below the lower architectural level at Ona Adi and is associated with orange-red ware (ORW) and brown ware (BW) ceramic fabrics. Late Pre-Aksumite period ceramic data at Ona Adi is closely comparable to the ceramic assemblage of the Middle Phase of the Pre-Aksumite period

384 of Mezber both in fabric, form, and decorations. The analyzed ceramic corpus during this phase is characterized by high-quality vessel crafting and well-controlled firing techniques. The ceramic assemblage chiefly consists of fine and medium-coarse orange-red and brown ware sherds with sand and mica as the dominant aplastic inclusions in their paste. Rounded thickened rim bowls, black-topped bowls and cups with everted rims, and S-profile jars and bottles are the typical cooking, serving and storage vessels of this phase (Chapters 6, 7 & 8, Table 8.2). Potters of this period seemed to emphasise careful selection and preparation of raw material for the paste, perfection of vessel forms and precise control of the firing atmosphere over surface embellishment. Decorations are sparse and restricted to fragments of thin incisions, notches on the vessel lip and wavy line motifs. Some evidence of slipped serving vessels, scraped cooking vessels and storage vessels were also identified. The pottery repertoire generally did not demonstrate a high degree of standardization. There seems to be no agent or authority responsible for the control of pottery production at the site in this period. Recorded vessel varieties seem to reflect specific local demands and were functionally oriented. Vessels appear to have been manufactured at the household level. The probability of vessel manufacturing in a production center with distribution to other parts of the settlement is less likely. The Late Pre-Aksumite phase settlement at Ona Adi is recorded only in a very limited part of the site so far (Field D) and ceramic production might be based on intensive communication and mutual learning among potters. Future large-scale archaeological investigation of Ona Adi could produce larger samples and expose greater areas of the site to better understand this period.

During the lower architectural period at Ona Adi (the PA-A transition period), the production of ORW and BW ceramics continued but with a change in tempering elements from sand to quartz and with the addition of a few new forms and decoration types. This suggests strong ties to the earlier Pre-Aksumite period with the continuation of ceramic traditions mixed with new motifs and manufacturing techniques. Almost all formal and stylistic vessel types from the previous Late Pre-Aksumite phase continue to exist during the PA-A transition. However, the appearance of new formal vessel types further enriches the PA-A transition period ceramic collections. This could be associated with an increase in the site size and population of Ona Adi and corresponding changes in daily life. The overlap between PA-A Ona Adi ceramic assemblages and those of the nearby site of Etchmare East (located about 600/700 meters north of Ona Adi) could

385 support the idea of an expansion in site occupation during this phase. In general, the PA-A ceramic assemblage at Ona Adi is characterized by finely produced handmade vessels, of which the most common formal types exclusive to this phase include: 1) micaceous large brown ware open bowls, with thickened rounded rims, smoothed surfaces and bands of notches on the lip; 2) large open micaceous brown ware bowls with notches on the lip and bands of wavy incisions parallel to the rim on the internal surface; 3) micaceous small/large open brown/gray ware carinated bowls, with burnished or polished surfaces, sometimes black-topped; and 4) micaceous orange/red ware piriform neckless jars or bottles with everted rounded ledge rims (Chapters 6, 7 and 8; Table 8.3).

ETAP’s multidisciplinary studies have indicated that during the Aksumite period, sites in Eastern Tigrai seemed to enjoy greater economic prosperity, political stability, and frequent contacts with various communities at local, regional, and global scales (e.g., D’Andrea et al. 2008). More recent systematic regional settlement surveys (Harrower and D’Andrea 2014) have found no evidence for centralized Aksumite polities in the Gulo Makeda region of Eastern Tigrai and it is hypothesized that a heterarchical political system was in place at that time. The ceramic evidence presented in this thesis supports ETAP’s survey and excavation results.

The upper architecture at Ona Adi is associated with Aksumite ceramic-bearing deposits. The results of the analysis of Ona Adi Aksumite ceramic data reveals a continuous increase in the variation of vessel shapes/forms through time. This could indicate settlement expansion and increased complexity in ceramic production through time and the introduction of new vessel forms for a variety of activities/functions. The full extent of the site of Ona Adi (the entire 9.74-hectare area) was under occupation during the Aksumite period (Chapter 5) and 13 new varieties of crops were introduced and cultivated during this time period (Boardman 2000, 1999; Walder-Hoge 2018). The number of ceramic types collected from Ona Adi that show connections to neighbouring areas also shows a significant increase over time during the Aksumite period. Most of these ceramic sherds collected from Ona Adi are most similar to the ceramic assemblages of Adulis and the Akale-Guzay area of southern Eritrea, including Matara and the Ancient Ona Culture, but show relatively few ties to the Aksum/Yeha region of Western Tigrai. During the Aksumite period, however, similarity in architectural technology between these adjacent regions was evident.

386 Even though future absolute dating will refine our ceramic chronology at Ona Adi, calibrated radiocarbon dates from the site of Mezber clearly show the existence of substantial differences in ceramic chronology between archaeological sites in Eastern and Western Tigrai, especially during the onset of the Pre-Aksumite period and the formative stages of the Aksumite civilization (D’Andrea and Welton in prep). Accordingly, the Early Aksumite ceramic phase at Ona Adi corresponds to the time period between the end of the PA-A transition (1st century AD) and the introduction of Christianity (c. 330 AD), the Middle Aksumite ceramic phase can be roughly dated between the beginning of Christianity in the northern Horn (c. AD 330/340) and the end of the 5th century AD , and the Late Aksumite ceramic phase corresponds to the time period between end of the 5th/beginning of the 6th to the end of the 7th century AD. This chronology differs from that defined for Western Tigrai. In particular, the main change in ceramic chronology lies in the beginning of the Aksumite period. Both what has been called the Early and the Classical Aksumite periods in the Bieta Giyorgis ceramic sequence are subsumed into the Early Aksumite ceramic phase of Ona Adi, i.e., Early Aksumite period at Ona Adi includes the Early and Classical Aksumite periods at Bieta Giyorgis.

9.2. Socio-Political Groups at Ona Adi

The identification of social groups at Ona Adi is yet another important aspect of the outcomes of the excavations and the systematic ceramic analysis at the site. Based on the collected ceramics and other archaeological data, the first occupation at Ona Adi occurred during the Late Pre-Aksumite period. This ancient settlement seems to have been an outcome of a significant increase in site occupation and an apparent territorial expansion of communities from the nearby Pre-Aksumite village site of Mezber during its Middle Pre-Aksumite Ceramic Phase (from the 8th to the beginning of the 4th centuries BC).

Initially, farmers and artisans (particularly hide workers and ground stone makers) are two social groups identified at Ona Adi, through their direct and indirect material culture remains. Artisans possessed the technological knowledge and responsibility for crafting ancient Ona Adi’s household tools such as pottery and grinding stones, and site inhabitants practiced an agropastoral economy. The large ceramic collections, grinding stones (Nixon-Darcus 2017) and stone scrapers (Peterson 2017) documented from the site witnessed the work of artisans. In particular, Peterson (2017)

387 documented a clear artisan presence in Eastern Tigrai through an examination of craft specialization focusing on hide working traditions during the Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite periods. Macrobotanical and faunal remains collected from all contexts at Ona Adi reveal the establishment of an agricultural economy mainly based on barley, lentil, linseed, noog, t’ef, etc., as well as cattle, goat, sheep, and chicken (Yemane Meressa 2017, Helina Woldekiros personal comm). Etchmare East and Mezber (D’Andrea 2005; D’Andrea et al. 2011; D’Andrea and Welton in prep) have also produced tangible data to support the suggestion that an agricultural economy and dietary system that favored the consumption of Near Eastern domesticates was in place at the site of Ona Adi.

During the PA-A transition period, changes in the socio-economic organization of the community at Ona Adi seem to appear, including the construction of the earliest stone-walled structures, the first appearance of metal and glass objects, the emergence of new formal vessel types and an increased presence of stone scrapers (Peterson 2017). This change was chiefly triggered by the consolidation or at least the presence of new elite groups at Ona Adi. The proveniences of ceramic vessels suitable for the cooking/processing of meat, milk, butter, beer, etc. provide an interesting picture of the ancient community occupying Ona Adi. It is interesting because the frequency distribution of these vessels in a given household could indicate the socioeconomic position and the diversity of meals consumed by its inhabitants. Scholars indicate a strong correlation between food and identity, such as status, ethnicity, gender, religion, and age (Arthur 2014; Haaland 2007; Lyons 2007). Luxury or high-status foods are generally important status indicators cross-culturally, but the details of which particular foods are considered high-status are more specific from culture to culture (Berry 1994; Hayden 1996; Arthur 2002, 2003, 2014).

388 were likely specialized artisan groups present at the site, their living quarters have not yet been identified. Ethnoarchaeological work conducted at Ona Adi and in Gulo- Makeda indicates the separate establishment of neighborhoods for artisans away from those of elites and farmers (Lyons 2007). This might be the main reason for the lack of more direct evidence, such as artisan workshop areas, which would indicate the location of their household dwelling areas.

9.3. Ona Adi in a global, regional, and interregional setting

Owning to its diverse ecozones and its vital geographic location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean, Red Sea and Indian Ocean outlets, ancient communities of the northern Horn (including Ona Adi) have a long history of active interactions at global, regional and interregional scales. The Agame ceramic tradition at Ona Adi is characterized by continuity, gradual evolution and modification of local vessel types as a result of active regional and interregional interactions beginning from the middle of the 1st millennium BC and including the whole of the 1st millennium AD. During the Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition periods, one of the most distinctive types of ceramic vessels recorded at Ona Adi has scraped surfaces. The scraped surface finish is by no means unique to Ona Adi or the Eastern Tigrai ceramic tradition. Scraped potsherds were first recorded in the upper Nile Valley area as far back as the 6th millennium BC and are the main attributes of the Atbai ceramic tradition, which flourished in the Eritrea-Sudanese lowlands (D’Andrea et al. 2008; Fattovich 1990). The presence of this ceramic surface treatment technique has also been previously reported from Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite contexts in the Aksum-Yeha area (Fattovich 1990). In Aksum-Yeha, the implementation of a scraping technique to finish potsherd surfaces is quite rare and is limited to the internal surfaces of sherds. At Ona Adi and in Eastern Tigrai in general (D’Andrea et al. 2008), this surface treatment technique is quite ubiquitous and is employed on both internal and external surfaces.

Another shared Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition period trait that was successfully incorporated into Ona Adi’s ceramic tradition is the black-topped treatment. Black-topped surface treatment and notches on the vessel lip are especially diagnostic of the PA-A transition at Ona Adi (Chapter 6 and 7). Sherds with this type of decoration have been discovered at several sites in northeastern Africa, from the Nile Valley to the Aksum-Yeha area, central and southern Eritrea, Mezber and Ona Adi. The combined

389 occurrence of both scraped and black-topped vessels, a Nile Valley ceramic trait, in the ceramic assemblages of Ona Adi during the Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition periods could suggest relatively constant and intensive interaction with the Nile Valley civilizations and the adoption of these features through the Eritrean-Sudanese lowlands corridor.

No significant or clear impact of South Arabian cultural traits is reflected in the Ona Adi ceramic data. Ona Adi’s minimal cultural contact to the east with peoples from the eastern Red Sea region can only be suggested indirectly, through the emergence of ring-based vessels and a new jar form assumed to be a local imitation of the famous “torpedo vessels” or “jar type 4100” during the Pre-Aksumite and PA-A transition period. Ring-based vessels and “jar type 4100” are the main cultural traits of the South Arabian ceramic traditions that developed during the beginning of the first millennium BC (Porter 2004; Japp et al 2011). This evidence challenges claims of direct Sabaean power/control over socio-economic forces in eastern Tigrai and in the origin of Pre-Aksumite polities.

Throughout the Aksumite period, archaeological surveys and excavations have presented clear evidence of the ancient trade that existed between the northern Horn, Byzantium, Arabia, and India (Munro-Hay 1989; Bard et al 2014; D’Andrea et al 2014; Harrower and D’Andrea 2014; Zazzaro et al 2014; Parker 2002; Peacock 2007; Whitcomb 1994; Hayes 1996). Some of the most reliable evidence for the existence of these trading relationships comes from pottery. We know the age of traded ceramic commodities from archaeological work completed in the areas where the pottery was made. This permits us to estimate the period during which the same types were traded and circulated. During most of the Aksumite period, ribbed Ayla-Aksum amphorae, sherds of blue-glazed Sasanian ceramic vessels and African Red Slip Ware are excellent trade markers which reveal the active involvement in exchange networks of the ancient communities of the northern Horn at a global scale. These ceramic types are ubiquitous and are found at sites in many parts of the Mediterranean, Arabian and Indian Ocean, as well as in the northern Horn, including at Ona Adi.

Ona Adi’s distinctive ceramic tradition seems to have extended beyond the site and may have regional implications. Parallels to some of Ona Adi’s common locally- made ceramic markers have been reported from other Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite sites of Eastern Tigrai and in the Akale-Guzay area of southern Eritrea (Anfray 1966;

390 D’Andrea et al. 2008; Habtamu 2010; D’Andrea and Welton in prep; Table 8.9). Specific archaeological sites include: Sobea (Habtamu 2010; D’Andrea 2010), Mezber (D’Andrea and Welton in prep) and Wakarida (Dugast and Gajda 2012) in eastern Tigrai and Kaskase and Matara in Eritrea (Fattovich 2012; Schmidt et al 2008; Anfray 1966). This could be directly related to the “Agame Ceramic Tradition” (Fattovich 2012:11) that developed within the context of mixed-farming and herding ancient communities who occupied the Agame region (historically known as encompassing present day eastern Tigrai and the Akale-Guzay area of Eritrea) since the early 1st millennium BC (D’Andrea and Welton in prep). The discovery of elements from this ceramic tradition as far south as the Eastern Tigrai Pre-Aksumite site of Meqaber Gaʽewa (Wolf & Nowotnick 2010) reveals the widespread nature of the Agame Ceramic Tradition and the existence of intensive interregional interactions within the territory of ancient Eastern Tigrai.

9.4. Future Directions

Although this dissertation has presented several notable research findings, it is acknowledged that further research is required to clarify and expand the ideas and approaches presented here. As noted in Chapters 1 and 2, this region has been so poorly investigated in the past, that sustained attention is still required to build upon ETAP’s pioneering scientific research achievements in the culture historical development of Eastern Tigrai in particular and the northern Horn in general. A few suggested areas for future attention are discussed below.

Additional excavations are required to increase the areal coverage of the Agame Ceramic Tradition. As discussed above, ETAP excavations at Ona Adi represent the first systematic archaeological study of an Aksumite town site in Eastern Tigrai. No other Aksumite sites have been scientifically excavated and studied to date in the region. Moreover, excavations at Ona Adi are not yet complete; at least three additional seasons are required to gain a more complete picture of the site. Because our previous excavations focused on establishing chronology, horizontal representation (areal excavation of activity areas, spaces, etc.) of the site remains incomplete. For instance, we were not able to trace the living quarters of artisans, such as potters, hide workers and ground stone makers. ETAP’s ethnoarchaeological work conducted at Ona Adi and in Gulo-Makeda indicates the establishment of separate neighbourhoods for artisans away from those of elites and farmers (Lyons 2007). This might be the main reason for

391 the lack of more direct evidence, such as artisan workshop areas, which could indicate their household areas. Widening the scope of research outside of Ona Adi on one hand, and continuation of the excavations at the site on the other hand, may yield additional rich evidence that can help illuminate both inter- and intra-site ceramic studies.

The analysis of the Ona Adi ceramic assemblage conducted here is the first of its kind conducted for an Aksumite site in Eastern Tigrai. As such, greater emphasis was given to answering basic research questions, such as chronology building and related issues. This leaves open the possibility of microscopically exploring fabric groups through petrographic analysis, which would enable the identification and provenancing of raw materials, and firing and shaping techniques employed in the Ona Adi ceramics. In this regard, the application of portable XRF (X-ray fluorescence) analysis to Ona Adi ceramics to double check the accuracy of the fabric types identified at site using macroscopic ceramic analysis methods will be crucial. A small representative sample of sherds from each identified fabric type could be selected to conduct XRF analysis. Positively correlated results would validate the use of the macroscopic method for the identification of clay, temper, production and firing techniques. The second potential methodological development would be the initiation of residue analysis of Ona Adi ceramic collections.

While this dissertation research has made an important contribution to the archaeological understanding of Eastern Tigrai and the northern Horn and formulates the first Aksumite period ceramic chronology of the region, it is recognized that further research can only enhance our understanding of this exciting and dynamic period of Ethiopian history.

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424 Appendix A.

Ona Adi pottery pail description (gufa count)

Site Name Field Name Square Name Locus Pail Date Serial # Supervisor Gufa Count Ona Adi A 1 1 1 4/23/2013 2 HM 28 Ona Adi A 1 1 2 4/24/2013 6 HM 62 Ona Adi A 1 2 3 4/24/2013 8 HM 106 Ona Adi A 1 1 1 4/24/2013 11 HM 28 Ona Adi A 1 1 2 4/24/2013 12 HM 16 Ona Adi A 1 2 3 4/25/2013 16 HM 37 Ona Adi A 1 3 4 4/26/2013 25 HM 70 Ona Adi A 1 3 5 4/26/2013 28 HM 31 Ona Adi A 1 2 3 4/26/2013 34 HM 36 Ona Adi A 1 4 6 4/29/2013 40 HM 51 Ona Adi A 1 1 1 4/29/2013 43 HM 28 Ona Adi A 1 1 2 4/30/2013 44 HM 15 Ona Adi A 1 1 7 4/30/2013 45 HM 45 Ona Adi A 1 2 8 4/30/2013 251 HM 28 Ona Adi A 1 2 9 5/1/2013 253 HM 44 Ona Adi A 1 2 10 5/1/2013 255 HM 9 Ona Adi A 1 2 11 5/1/2013 256 HM 11 Ona Adi A 1 3 12 5/2/2013 257 HM 47 Ona Adi A 1 1 13 5/2/2013 261 HM 35 Ona Adi A 1 1 14 5/2/2013 262 HM 52 Ona Adi A 1 2 15 5/6/2013 266 HM 116 Ona Adi A 1 4 16 5/7/2013 272 HM 56

425 Ona Adi A 1 4 17 5/7/2013 277 Hm 39 Ona Adi A 1 5 18 8/5/2013 284 hm 86 Ona Adi A 1 1 19 9/5/2013 290 hm 41 Ona Adi A 1 1 20 9/5/2013 291 hm 39 Ona Adi A 1 2 21 9/5/2013 294 hm 41 Ona Adi A 1 3 22 10/5/2013 454 hm 47 Ona Adi A 1 4 23 5/13/2013 460 hm 42 Ona Adi A 1 1 24 5/14/2013 465 hm 123 Ona Adi A 1 2 25 5/14/2013 466 hm 74 Ona Adi A 1 2 26 5/15/2013 470 hm 139 Ona Adi A 1 2 26 475 hm 0 Ona Adi A 1 3 27 5/16/2013 477 hm 93 Ona Adi A 1 4 28 5/17/2013 485 hm 84 Ona Adi A 1 1 29 5/17/2013 487 hm 76 Ona Adi A 1 2 30 5/17/2013 489 hm 118 Ona Adi A 1 5 31 5/20/2013 491 hm 32 Ona Adi A 1 3 32 5/21/2013 496 HM 74 Ona Adi A 1 2 33 5/21/2013 499 HM 78 Ona Adi A 1 2 33 509 HM 0 Ona Adi A 1 2 33 510 HM 0 Ona Adi A 1 2 33 511 HM 0 Ona Adi A 1 2 33 5/22/2013 551 HM 78 Ona Adi A 1 2 34 5/22/2013 553 HM 49 Ona Adi A 1 1 35 5/22/2013 554 HM 33 Ona Adi A 1 2 36 5/23/2013 555 HM 104 Ona Adi A 1 11 37 5/24/2013 565 HM 33 Ona Adi A 1 11 38 5/24/2013 566 HM 38 Ona Adi A 1 12 39 5/24/2013 569 HM 13

426 Ona Adi A 1 13 41 5/27/2013 572 HM 19 Ona Adi A 1 1 42 5/27/2013 575 HM 31 Ona Adi A 1 2 43 5/27/2013 579 HM 46 Ona Adi A 1 3 44 5/28/2013 581 HM 24 Ona Adi A 1 4 45 5/28/2013 582 HM 48 Ona Adi B 1 1 1 4/22/2013 51 SO 67 Ona Adi B 1 1 2 4/23/2013 55 SO 131 Ona Adi B 1 2 3 4/23/2013 57 SO 39 Ona Adi B 1 1 4 4/23/2013 60 SO 220 Ona Adi B 1 2 5 5/24/2013 63 SO 102 Ona Adi B 1 2 6 4/25/2013 67 SO 95 Ona Adi B 1 2 7 4/26/2013 78 SO 82 Ona Adi B 1 3 8 4/26/2013 84 SO 45 Ona Adi B 1 3 9 4/29/2013 89 SO 47 Ona Adi B 1 3 10 4/29/2013 94 SO 100 Ona Adi B 1 4 11 4/29/2013 152 SO 85 Ona Adi B 1 4 12 4/30/2013 157 SO 85 Ona Adi B 1 4 11 4/29/2013 158 SO 0 Ona Adi B 1 6 13 4/30/2013 167 SO 148 Ona Adi B 1 6 13 5/1/2013 174 SO 0 Ona Adi B 1 7 14 5/1/2013 177 SO 80 Ona Adi B 1 7 15 5/1/2013 182 SO 42 Ona Adi B 1 7 15 5/1/2013 188 SO 0 Ona Adi B 1 7 16 5/2/2013 192 SO 80 Ona Adi B 1 7 16 5/2/2013 198 SO 0 Ona Adi B 1 9 17 5/2/2013 301 SO 29 Ona Adi B 1 9 18 5/2/2013 304 SO 28 Ona Adi B 1 10 19 5/2/2013 308 SO 105

427 Ona Adi B 1 10 20 5/6/2013 312 SO 30 Ona Adi B 1 9 21 5/6/2013 315 SO 54 Ona Adi B 1 10 22 5/7/2013 323 SO 30 Ona Adi B 1 8 23 5/7/2013 326 SO 17 Ona Adi B 1 11 24 5/7/2013 329 SO 35 Ona Adi B 1 11 25 5/7/2013 335 SO 72 Ona Adi B 1 12 26 5/8/2013 341 SO 83 Ona Adi B 1 12 27 5/9/2013 347 SO 50 Ona Adi B 1 12 28 5/9/2013 352 SO 27 Ona Adi B 1 13 29 5/9/2013 361 SO 25 Ona Adi B 1 13 30 5/14/2013 371 SO 38 Ona Adi B 1 13 31 5/14/2013 374 SO 35 Ona Adi C 1 1 1 4/23/2013 101 EP 68 Ona Adi C 1 1 2 4/23/2013 105 EP 42 Ona Adi C 1 1 3 4/23/2013 109 ep 113 Ona Adi C 1 2 4 4/24/2013 116 ep 70 Ona Adi C 1 2 5 4/24/2013 121 ep 112 Ona Adi C 1 2 6 4/25/2013 127 ep 50 Ona Adi C 1 2 5 4/26/2013 129 ep 112 Ona Adi C 1 2 7 4/26/2013 137 ep 82 Ona Adi C 1 2 8 4/29/2013 145 ep 89 Ona Adi C 1 2 9 4/30/2013 202 ep 93 Ona Adi C 1 3 10 5/1/2013 213 ep 17 Ona Adi C 1 2 11 5/1/2013 214 ep 32 Ona Adi C 1 3 12 5/2/2013 223 ep 60 Ona Adi C 1 2 13 5/6/2013 234 ep 47 Ona Adi C 1 2 14 5/6/2013 240 ep 45 Ona Adi C 1 2 15 5/6/2013 243 ep 31

428 Ona Adi C 1 3 16 5/6/2013 249 ep 10 Ona Adi C 1 1 31 5/20/2013 379 SO 110 Ona Adi C 1 2 32 5/20/2013 382 SO 105 Ona Adi C 1 2 33 5/21/2013 387 SO 77 Ona Adi C 1 2 34 5/21/2013 391 SO 203 Ona Adi C 1 2 34 5/22/2013 398 SO 50 Ona Adi C 1 4 17 5/7/2013 403 ep 66 Ona Adi C 1 4 18 5/7/2013 406 ep 6 Ona Adi C 1 5 19 5/7/2013 411 ep 21 Ona Adi C 1 3 20 5/7/2013 414 ep 45 Ona Adi C 1 6 21 5/8/2013 418 ep 18 Ona Adi C 1 6 22 5/13/2013 426 ep 4 Ona Adi C 1 8 23 5/13/2013 429 ep 15 Ona Adi C 1 8 24 5/13/2013 435 ep 10 Ona Adi C 1 8 25 5/13/2013 438 ep 7 Ona Adi C 1 8 26 5/14/2013 442 ep 15 Ona Adi C 1 8 28 5/14/2013 446 ep 24 Ona Adi C 1 6 21 5/10/2013 450 ep 18 Ona Adi C 1 10 29 5/15/2013 501 ep 9 Ona Adi C 1 2 35 5/22/2013 516 SO 97 Ona Adi C 1 2 35 5/22/2013 519 SO 0 Ona Adi C 1 2 36 5/22/2013 521 SO 276 Ona Adi C 1 2 37 5/24/2013 534 SO 215 Ona Adi C 1 2 38 5/27/2013 542 SO 71 Ona Adi C 1 3 39 5/27/2013 621 SO 75 Ona Adi C 1 3 40 5/27/2013 627 SO 56 Ona Adi C 1 3 41 5/28/2013 631 SO 116 Ona Adi C 1 1 42 5/15/2014 641 ep 7

429 Ona Adi C 1 2 43 5/25/2014 642 ep 43 Ona Adi C 1 3 44 6/15/2014 644 ep 24 Ona Adi C 1 12 45 5/16/2014 649 ep 43 Ona Adi C 1 13 46 5/19/2014 654 ep 71 Ona Adi C 1 13 47 5/19/2014 657 ep 32 Ona Adi C 1 13 48 5/20/2014 661 ep 38 Ona Adi C 1 14 49 5/20/2014 665 EP 52 Ona Adi C 1 15 50 5/20/2014 668 EP 23 Ona Adi C 1 3 51 5/21/2014 671 EP 11 Ona Adi C 1 16 52 676 EP 15 Ona Adi C 1 14 53 5/22/2014 680 EP 13 Ona Adi C 1 3 54 6/22/2014 682 EP 8 Ona Adi C 1 3 55 5/22/2014 686 EP 9 Ona Adi C 1 2 56 5/23/2014 690 EP 41 Ona Adi C 1 3 58 5/22/2014 693 EP 10 Ona Adi C 1 18 60 5/23/2014 699 EP 11 Ona Adi C 1 2 61 5/23/2014 901 EP 44 Ona Adi C 1 3 62 5/23/2014 908 EP 42 Ona Adi C 1 3 63 5/23/2014 910 ep 23 Ona Adi C 1 3 64 5/26/2014 914 ep 43 Ona Adi C 1 18 65 5/27/2014 922 ep 61 Ona Adi C 1 18 66 5/27/2014 929 ep 80 Ona Adi C 1 18 67 5/27/2014 942 ep 30 Ona Adi C 1 18 68 5/28/2014 950 ep 75 Ona Adi C 1 18 69 5/28/2014 952 ep 20 Ona Adi C 1 18 70 5/28/2014 959 ep 33 Ona Adi C 1 18 71 5/29/2014 968 EP 50 Ona Adi C 1 18 72 5/29/2014 974 EP 75

430 Ona Adi C 1 19 74 5/30/2014 983 EP 70 Ona Adi C 1 18 75 5/30/2014 991 EP 26 Ona Adi C 1 18 73 5/29/2014 995 EP 73 Ona Adi C 1 18 77 6/2/2014 1001 EP 47 Ona Adi C 1 19 78 6/2/2014 1005 EP 89 Ona Adi C 1 19 79 6/2/2014 1010 EP 67 Ona Adi C 1 19 80 6/3/2014 1015 EP 71 Ona Adi C 1 20 81 6/4/2014 1022 EP 66 Ona Adi C 1 20 82 6/4/2014 1025 EP 52 Ona Adi C 1 20 84 6/4/2014 1033 EP 45 Ona Adi C 1 20 85 6/5/2014 1040 EP 33 Ona Adi C 1 20 86 6/5/2014 1045 EP 45 Ona Adi C 1 20 87 6/6/2014 1050 EP 55 Ona Adi C 1 22 88 6/6/2014 1055 EP 42 Ona Adi C 1 25 89 6/9/2014 1059 EP 37 Ona Adi C 1 25 90 6/9/2014 1066 EP 37 Ona Adi C 1 25 91 6/9/2014 1070 EP 7 Ona Adi C 1 25 92 6/10/2014 1075 EP 18 Ona Adi C 1 25 93 6/10/2014 1077 EP 15 Ona Adi D 1 1 1 5/16/2014 587 SO 150 Ona Adi D 1 2 2 5/16/2014 594 SO 183 Ona Adi D 1 2 3 5/19/2014 597 SO 175 Ona Adi D 1 3 4 5/19/2014 702 SO 200 Ona Adi D 1 3 5 5/21/2014 708 SO 98 Ona Adi D 1 6 6 5/21/2014 714 SO 96 Ona Adi D 1 6 7 5/23/2014 719 SO 89 Ona Adi D 1 6 8 5/16/2014 725 SO 90 Ona Adi D 1 6 9 5/26/2014 731 SO 232

431 Ona Adi D 1 7 10 5/26/2014 738 SO 168 Ona Adi D 1 7 11 5/27/2014 748 SO 68 Ona Adi D 1 13 22 6/10/2014 794 SO 75 Ona Adi D 1 13 23 6/10/2014 799 SO 20 Ona Adi D 1 7 12 5/29/2014 803 SO 175 Ona Adi D 1 7 13 5/29/2014 808 SO 220 Ona Adi D 1 9 14 5/30/2014 815 SO 112 Ona Adi D 1 9 15 6/2/2014 821 SO 97 Ona Adi D 1 9 16 6/2/2014 832 SO 93 Ona Adi D 1 9 16 836 SO 0 Ona Adi D 1 10 17 6/3/2014 840 SO 88 Ona Adi D 1 10 17 6/3/2014 849 SO 0 Ona Adi D 1 10 17 6/3/2014 850 SO 0 Ona Adi D 1 10 18 6/6/2014 1103 SO 87 Ona Adi D 1 10 19 6/6/2014 1107 SO 78 Ona Adi D 1 10 20 6/9/2014 1115 SO 55 Ona Adi D 1 10 21 6/9/2014 1121 SO 37 Ona Adi D 1 14 24 6/10/2014 1128 SO 29 Ona Adi D 1 14 25 6/11/2014 1132 SO 31 Ona Adi D 1 13 26 6/11/2014 1136 SO 25 Ona Adi D 1 14 27 6/11/2014 1142 SO 15 Ona Adi D 2 1 1 5/1/2015 1170 EP 75 Ona Adi D 2 26 57 1182 HM 38 Ona Adi D 2 26 57 1188 HM 0 Ona Adi D 2 26 57 1190 EP 0 Ona Adi D 2 27 60 1194 HM 34 Ona Adi D 2 2 3 1200 EP 77 Ona Adi D 2 2 2 6/4/2015 1202 EP 92

432

Ona Adi D 2 3 5 1205 EP 85 Ona Adi D 2 3 6 1212 EP 30 Ona Adi D 2 5 7 1215 EP 93 Ona Adi D 2 5 8 1226 EP 95 Ona Adi D 2 3 9 1233 EP 67 Ona Adi D 2 5 10 1243 EP 0 Ona Adi D 2 5 11 1245 EP 30 Ona Adi D 2 3 4 1248 EP 127 Ona Adi D 2 5 12 1254 EP 15 Ona Adi D 2 5 13 1258 EP 28 Ona Adi D 2 5 14 1261 EP 65 Ona Adi D 2 5 15 1263 EP 86 Ona Adi D 2 3 16 1272 ep 88 Ona Adi D 2 7 17 1282 HM 63 Ona Adi D 2 8 18 1285 HM 72 Ona Adi D 2 8 19 1298 HM 15 Ona Adi D 2 11 20 1300 HM 21 Ona Adi D 2 11 21 1302 HM 25 Ona Adi D 2 12 22 1306 HM 73 Ona Adi D 2 13 23 1312 HM 79 Ona Adi D 2 8 24 1319 EP 23 Ona Adi D 2 8 25 1329 EP 23 Ona Adi D 2 11 26 1331 EP 35 Ona Adi D 2 11 27 1340 EP 65 Ona Adi D 2 13 29 1341 EP 0 Ona Adi D 2 13 29 1353 EP 22 Ona Adi D 2 12 30 1355 EP 83 Ona Adi D 2 9 31 1357 EP 15

433

Ona Adi D 2 14 32 1366 EP 38 Ona Adi D 2 11 28 1370 EP 20 Ona Adi D 2 14 33 1376 EP 35 Ona Adi D 2 11 34 1378 EP 25 Ona Adi D 2 10 36 1386 EP 28 Ona Adi D 2 14 35 1395 EP 50 Ona Adi D 2 10 37 1398 EP 7 Ona Adi D 2 15 38 1405 EP 19 Ona Adi D 2 14 39 1413 EP 56 Ona Adi D 2 12 40 1417 EP 15 Ona Adi D 2 12 41 1419 EP 0 Ona Adi D 2 17 42 1424 EP 32 Ona Adi D 2 17 43 1430 HM 18 Ona Adi D 2 19 44 1435 EP 91 Ona Adi D 2 20 45 1451 HM 38 Ona Adi D 2 20 46 1452 HM 25 Ona Adi D 2 22 48 1457 HM 18 Ona Adi D 2 23 49 1461 HM 26 Ona Adi D 2 21 50 1464 HM 26 Ona Adi D 2 23 51 1471 HM 22 Ona Adi D 2 21 52 1474 HM 26 Ona Adi D 2 23 53 1481 HM 18 Ona Adi D 2 21 54 1483 HM 29 Ona Adi D 2 24 55 1487 HM 22 Ona Adi D 2 25 56 1489 HM 73 Ona Adi E 1 1 1 5/19/2014 751 HM 107 Ona Adi E 1 1 1 753 hm 0 Ona Adi E 1 2 2 755 HM 0

434

Ona Adi E 1 2 2 760 HM 0 Ona Adi E 1 3 4 766 HM 0 Ona Adi E 1 3 4 771 HM 0 Ona Adi E 1 3 5 777 HM 0 Ona Adi E 1 4 6 781 HM 0 Ona Adi E 1 5 8 783 HM 0 Ona Adi E 2 1 1 851 ACD 0 Ona Adi E 2 1 2 853 ACD 0 Ona Adi E 2 1 3 854 ACD 0 Ona Adi E 2 2 4 861 HM 0 Ona Adi E 2 2 5 862 HM 0 Ona Adi E 2 3 6 865 HM 0 Ona Adi E 2 3 6 875 HM 0 Ona Adi E 2 6 7 880 HM 0 Ona Adi E 2 7 8 886 HM 0 Ona Adi E 2 7 9 888 HM 0 Ona Adi E 2 8 10 891 HM 0 Ona Adi E 2 9 11 899 HM 0

435 Appendix B

Ona Adi ceramics registrations (2013, 2014 and 2015 field seasons)

Field A (2013) Serial # Pail Locus Date Diagnostic Non-diagnostic (KG) Total (KG)

0045 7 1 30 April2013 .42 2.02 2.44 0028 5 3 26 April2013 .06 .68 0.74 0043 1 1 29 April2013 .46 1.28 1.74 0262 14 1 02 May .14 1.02 1.16 2013 0256 11 2 1 May 2013 .02 .20 .22 0255 10 2 1 May 2013 .04 .12 .16 0251 8 2 30 April .10 .56 .66 2013 0266 15 2 06 May .82 3.14 3.96 2013 0008 3 2 24 April .22 .8 1.02 2013 0012 2 1 24 April .52 1.04 1.56 2013 0025 4 3 26 April .12 .84 .96 2013 0011 1 1 24 April .20 .82 1.02 2013 0044 2 1 30 April .08 1.58 2.26 2013 0277 17 4 07 May .30 1.00 1.30 2013 0253 9 2 01 May .34 .84 1.18 2013 0272 16 4 07 May .48 2.74 3.22 2013 0261 13 1 02 May .24 .64 .88 2013 0257 12 3 02 May .42 1.22 1.64 2013 0002 1 1 23 April .62 2.94 3.56 2013 0034 3 2 26 April .68 1.52 2.2 2013

436 0040 6 4 29 April .94 1.80 2.74 2013 0284 18 5 08 May .56 2.88 3.44 2013 0291 20 1 09 May .30 1.72 2.02 2013 0290 19 1 09 May .16 1.76 .92 2013 0016 3 2 25 April .88 4.88 5.76 2013 0465 24 1 14 May .34 1.00 1.34 2013 0466 25 2 14 May .58 2.46 3.04 2013 0477 27 3 16 May 1.22 2.74 3.96 2013 0006 2 1 23 April .32 .96 1.28 2013 0294 2 2 09 May .46 .96 1.42 2013 0260 23 4 13 May .20 .96 1.16 2013 0454 22 3 10 May .96 1.8 2.76 2013 0554 35 1 22 May .06 .54 .60 2013 0489 30 2 17 May 1.12 6.00 7.12 2013 0557 33 2 22 May 1.12 1.78 2.90 2013 0496 32 3 21 May 1.32 4.8 6.12 2013 0553 34 2 22 May .92 1.36 2.28 2013 0499 33 2 21 May 1.66 2.84 4.50 2013 0491 31 5 20 May .10 .16 .26 2013 0485 28 4 17 May .22 1.36 1.58 2013 0487 29 1 17 May .22 1.18 1.40 2013 0572 41 13 27 May .16 .56 .72 2013 0555 36 2 23 May 2.70 4.5 7.20 2013 0579 42 2 27 May 2.06 1.98 4.04 2013 0566 38 11 24 May .40 2.22 2.62 2013

437 0569 39 12 24 May .10 .2 .30 2013 0559 36 2 23 May 1.22 2.00 3.22 2013 0581 44 3 28 May .44 .5 .94 2013 0575 42 1 27 May .20 .9 1.10 2013 0565 37 11 24 May 1.00 3.72 4.72 2013 0470 26 2 15 May 1.88 3.22 5.1 2013 0582 45 4 28 May .76 .68 1.44 2013 Total 32.46 87.42 119.88

Field B (2013) Serial # Pail Locus Date Diagnostic Non-diagnostic (KG) Total (KG)

0308 19 10 2 May 2013 1.36 4.26 5.62 0329 24 11 7 May 2013 .28 2.74 3.02 0326 23 8 7 May 2013 .1 .78 .88 0192 16 7 2 May 2013 3.36 5.82 9.18 0304 18 9 2 May 2013 .38 .78 1.16 0084 8 3 26 April 1.1 3.46 4.56 2013 0089 9 3 29 April 1.36 2.56 3.92 2013 0094 10 3 29 April .38 1.44 1.82 2013 0152 11 4 30 April 2.62 3.74 6.36 2013 0167 13 6 30 April 1.98 4.1 6.08 2013 0157 12 4 30 April 1.36 4.2 5.56 2013 0177 14 7 1 May 2013 1.72 2.96 4.68 0301 17 9 2 May 2013 1.46 1.64 3.10 0182 15 7 1 May 2013 .82 1.58 2.4 0060 4 1 23 April .44 2.68 3.22 2013 0057 3 2 23 April .04 .18 .22 2013 0055 2 1 23 April .2 .4 .60 2013

438 0051 1 1 22 April .3 .96 1.26 2013 0078 7 2 26 April 1.16 4.12 5.28 2013 0067 6 2 25 April .82 3.08 3.9 2013 0063 5 2 24 April .28 1.44 1.72 2013 0312 20 10 6 May 2013 .42 1.18 1.60 0315 21 9 6 May 2013 2 3.3 5.30 0323 22 10 7 May 2013 .32 1.8 2.12 0335 25 11 7 May 2013 .72 1.66 2.38 0341 26 12 8 May 2013 1.6 2.2 3.8 0347 27 12 9 May 2013 .52 2.24 2.76 0352 28 12 9 May 2013 .54 1.2 1.74 0371 30 13 14 May .34 1.2 1.54 2013 0361 29 13 9 May 2013 .62 1.24 1.86 0374 31 13 14 May 1.2 2.38 3.58 2013 Total 30.7 70.52 101.22

Field C (2013) Serial # Pail Locus Date Diagnostic Non-diagnostic (KG) Total (KG)

0223 12 3 2 May 2013 1.14 2.76 3.9 0249 16 3 6 May 2013 .6 .38 .98 0403 17 4 7 May 2013 .58 2.66 3.24 0243 15 2 6 May 2013 .24 .78 1.02 0234 13 2 6 May 2013 .52 .94 1.46 0411 19 5 7 May 2013 .16 .4 0.56 0414 20 3 7May 2013 .16 2.22 2.38 0406 18 4 7 May 2013 .42 1.06 1.48 0240 14 2 6 May 2013 .56 1.04 1.6 0214 11 2 1 May 2013 1.1 2.44 3.54 0129 5 2 26 April 1.36 3.58 4.94 2013 0105 2 1 23 April .3 1.18 1.48 0101 1 1 23 April 1.54 4.56 6.1 2013 0213 10 3 1 May 2013 .3 .8 1.1

439 0116 4 2 25 April 1.2 4.06 5.26 2013 0109 3 1 23 April 2.5 6.06 8.56 2013 0137 7 2 29April 2013 2 4.74 6.74 0127 6 2 26 April 1.02 2.66 3.68 2013 0121 5 2 25 April 1.32 2.06 3.38 2013 0145 8 2 29 April 2.46 5.62 8.08 2013 0631 41 3 28 May 1.2 2.18 3.38 2013 0382 32 2 20 May 2.7 6.17 8.87 2013 0621 39 3 27 May 1 7.04 8.04 2013 0627 40 3 27 May 2.66 3.72 6.38 2013 0438 25 8 13 May .02 .1 6.12 2013 0429 23 8 13 May .02 .06 .08 2013 0446 28 8 14 May 0.06 .12 .18 2013 0450 21 6 10 May .02 .12 .14 2013 0501 29 10 15 May .01 .01 .01 2013 0507 30 0 15 May 0.18 .18 2013 0426 22 6 13 May .04 .04 2013 0391 34 2 21 May 3.5 9.98 13.48 2013 0387 33 2 21 May 2.9 9.28 12.18 2013 0379 31 1 20 May 3.86 9.34 13.2 2013 0542 38 2 29 May 3.84 5.64 9.48 2013 0521 36 2 22 May 6.26 2.48 8.94 2013 0202 9 2 30 May 6.2 2.8 7 2013 0516 35 2 22 May 7.24 14.7 21.94 2013 0534 37 2 24 May 7.2 11.52 18.72 2013

440 0521 36 2 23 may 0 9.28 9.28 2013 Total 66.67 144.76 211.43

Field C (2014)

Serial # Pail Locus Date Total sherds Total diagnostics

641 43 2 15-May 3.74 56 644 44 3 15-May 3.64 76 649 45 12 16-May 1.1 35 642 42 1 15-May 1.08 15 654 46 13 19-May 5.38 81 657 47 13 19-May 2.38 20 665 49 14 20-May 2.7 41 668 50 15 20-May 1.4 20 661 48 13 20-May 1.34 22 671 51 3 21-May 1.98 23 682 54 3 22-May 0.78 18 693 58 3 22-May 0.44 11 680 53 14 22-May 1.08 20 686 55 3 22-May 1.8 36 676 52 16 22-May 0.16 1 901 61 2 22-May 1.62 19 696 59 3 23-May 0.44 9 690 56 2 22-May 2 37 699 60 18 22-May 0.22 3 908 62 3 23-May 1.5 24 914 64 3 26-May 6.86 87 910 63 3 23-May 3.66 70 922 65 3 26-May 9.36 142 942 67 18 27-May 2.32 19 929 66 18 27-May 2.44 34 950 68 18 28-May 5.144 74 959 70 18 28-May 1.04 14 952 69 18 28-May 1.7 17 968 71 18 28-May 1.52 16 974 72 18 29-May 2.32 26 995 73 18 29-May 2.4 38

441 983 74 19 30-May 3.46 47 991 75 18 30-May 0.42 3

997 76 18 02-Jun 0.56 9 4397 78 19 02-Jun 1.58 24 4400 77 19 02-Jun 1.8 29 4392 79 19 02-Jun 1 13 4385 80 19 03-Jun 1.5 7 4369 84 20 04-Jun 0.92 6 4377 82 20 04-Jun 0.7 11 4380 81 20 03-Jun 0.28 3 4358 86 20 05-Jun 2.5 20 4363 85 20 05-Jun 2.1 17 1050 87 20 5 June 1.95 18 1055 88 22 6 June 1.9 27 1059 89 25 8 June 2.3 39 1066 90 25 9 June 8.5 95 1070 91 25 9 June .5 7 1077 93 25 10 June 1.0 33 1075 92 25 10 June 1.0 28 Total 90.37 1293

Field D (Square D1) (2014) Serial # Pail Locus Date Total sherds Total diagnostics 587 1 1 16 May 3.50 43 599 2 2 16 may 8.1 11 597 3 2 19 may 4.54 64 702 4 3 19 may 13.30 236 708 5 3 21 may 4.28 57 714 6 6 21 may 9.86 140 725 8 6 23 may 7.62 101 719 7 6 23 may 6.12 91 719 7 6 23 may .50 5 731 9 6 23 may 13.16 181 738 10 7 26 may 7.00 98 803 12 7 29 may 6.48 79 748 11 7 27 may 3.88 38 808 13 7 29 may 6.32 67 815 14 9 30 may 3.30 30 836 16 9 2 June 1.5 16 821 16 9 2 June 3.1 43 832 16 9 2 June 4.0 49 836 16 9 2 June 6.00 74 840 17 10 3 June 1.00 0

442 849 17 10 3 June 0.231 1 850 17 10 3 June 0.237 6 1103 18 10 6 june 7.5 76 1107 19 10 6 june 7.3 81 1115 20 10 9 june 4.95 31 1128 24 14 10 june 1.0 15 1121 21 10 9 june 3.0 19 794 22 13 10 june 1.5 0 794 22 13 10 june 1.5 3 794 22 13 10 june 1.0 12 1136 26 13 11 june 0.5 8 1142 27 14 11 june 0.5 6 1132 25 14 11 june 1.0 11 799 23 13 10 june 1.8 28 Total 145.578 1720

Field E (Square E1) (2014) Serial # Pail Locus Date Total sherds Total diagnostics 751 1 1 19 May 9.26 99 751 1 1 19 May 2.1 11 751 1 1 19 May 8.76 96 753 1 1 20 May 21.56 201 755 2 2 21 May 10.42 68 755 2 2 21 May 5.9 66 762 3 2 22 May 18.66 69 762 3 2 22 May 12.26 94 760 2 2 22 May 2.68 40 762 3 2 22 May 14.78 159 766 4 3 23 May 10.54 116 766 4 3 23 May 7.20 50 771 4 3 26 May 11.60 106 777 5 3 26 May 13.06 124 781 6 4 27 May 0.54 3 783 8 5 28 May 1.7 28 783 8 5 29 May 0.7 8 Total 151.72 1338

Field E (Square E2) (2014) Serial # Pail Locus Date Total sherds Total diagnostics 853 2 1 28 May .12 0 851 1 1 28 May .06 0 861 4 2 30 May 6.66 89 854 3 1 20 May 2.50 15 862 5 2 3 June 10.5 114 865 6 3 3 June 10.1 70

443 865 6 3 3 June 8.0 85 875 6 3 5 June 7.00 78 875 6 3 9 June 10.00 81 880 6 7 9 June 11.50 81 880 6 7 9 June 9.00 109 886 8 7 9 June 7.00 49 891 10 8 10 June 13.00 56 891 10 8 10 June 8.501 84 891 10 8 10 June 11.50 96 888 9 7 9 June 7.00 60 889 11 9 10 June 2.5 34 Total 44.94 451

Field D (Square D1) (2015) Serial Pail Locus Date Total Diagnostic Non-diagnostic (KG) Total # diagnostic (KG)

1154 29 15 01 May 18 0.34 1.66 2 15 1176 31 17 05May 9 0.08 0.24 0.32 15 1169 30 16 04May 12 0.19 0.56 0.75 15 1158 30 16 01May 16 1.01 1.004 2.31 15 1150 28 15 01May 3 0.09 0.48 0.57 15 1212 6 3 05May 38 0.788 1.29 2.206 15 Total 96 2.498 5.234 7.732

Field D (Square D2) (2015) Serial Pail Locus Date Total Diagnostic Non-diagnostic Total # diagnostic (KG) (KG)

1226 8 5 06May15 57 1.05 2.66 3.71 1200 3 2 04May15 13 0.1 0.38 0.48 1248 4 3 04May15 21 0.72 1.29 2.00 1202 2 2 04May15 8 0.08 0.28 0.36 1170 1 1 01May15 10 0.118 0.788 0.906 1215 7 5 05May15 50 0.806 2.32 3.306 1205 5 3 04May15 66 1.26 2.66 3.92 1258 13 5 08May15 83 1.94 5.4 7.34 1272 16 3 08May15 75 1.37 5.2 6.9

444 1263 15 5 08May15 100 2.1 4.9 7.6 1261 14 5 08May15 41 0.7 2. 2.7 1282 17 7 11May15 17 0.7 1.4 2.1 1245 11 5 07May15 25 0.45 1.00 1.45 1285 18 8 11May15 16 0.31 1.8 2.1 1254 12 5 07May15 3 0.07 0.56 0.63 1233 9 3 06May15 37 1.0 1.6 2.6 1306 22 12 12 57 2.13 3.6 5.73 May15 1355 30 12 14 64 1.59 3.19 4.78 May15 1312 23 13 12 53 1.33 3.01 4.34 April15 1300 20 11 12 May 19 0.28 0.75 1.03 15 1319 24 8 13May15 14 0.24 0.59 0.83 1341 29 13 13 May 17 0.41 0.60 1.05 15 1370 28 11 14 may 14 0.5 0.44 0.95 15 1332 26 11 13 May 14 0.39 0.93 1.33 15 1298 19 8 11 May 9 0.23 0.4 0.64 15 1378 34 11 14 2 0.54 0.242 0.29 May15 1357 31 9 14 may 14 0.266 0.318 0.586 15 1329 25 8 13 may 16 0.26 1.26 1.52 15 1340 27 11 13 May 34 0.59 1.39 1.986 15 1366 32 14 14 May 13 0.29 0.79 1.08 15 1417 40 12 15 May 3 0.1 0.34 0.4 15 1430 43 17 18 May 7 0.22 1.4 1.6 15 1419 41 12 15May 7 0.28 0.712 0.996 15 1386 36 10 15 May 10 0.2 0.92 1.1 15 1445 45 20 19 May 14 0.22 1.2 1.46 15 1395 35 14 15 May 15 0.26 0.77 1.0 15 1451 47 19 19 May 17 0.55 2.1 2.24 15

445 1413 39 14 15 May 6 0.2 1.6 1.8 15 1424 42 17 18 May 14 0.46 1.6 2.15 15 1452 46 20 19 May 8 0.2 0.22 0.44 15 1435 44 19 18 May 22 0.56 1.8 2.42 15 1302 21 11 12 May 9 0.11 0.33 0.44 15 1405 38 15 15 May 0 0 0.68 0.68 15 1398 37 10 15 May 1 0.03 0.13 0.16 15 1376 33 14 14 May 20 0.41 1.44 1.86 15 1487 55 24 21 May 4 0.22 0.27 0.3 15 1464 50 21 20 May 22 0.7 1.5 2.3 15 1471 51 23 20 May 19 0.36 1.58 1.94 15 1481 53 23 20 May 7 0.08 0.566 0.64 15 1483 54 21 20 May 6 0.19 0.56 0.766 15 1461 49 23 20 May 11 0.26 0.72 0.98 15 1474 52 21 20 May 10 0.26 1.37 1.64 15 1457 48 22 4 0.07 0.67 0.74 1194 60 27 25 May 21 1.38 2.39 3.9 15 1182 57 26 22 May 42 1.8 2.67 4.47 15 1489 56 25 21 May 10 0.51 2.25 2.76 15 1188 58 27 22 May 50 2.68 4.3 6.93 15 Total 1321 34.13 85.836 119.966

446 Appendix C

Ona Adi Distribution of Vessel Forms Across Fields

Field A

Basins Phases Type 1.2 Type 1.4 Type 1.5 Type 1.6 Type 1.7 Type 1.8 Total Early Aksumite 2 2 Middle Aksumite 3 7 4 2 16 Late Aksumite 1 3 3 7 Post Aksumite 3 13 8 1 25 Total 5 7 7 16 11 4 50

Large bowls Phases Type Type Type2.12 Type Type Type Type Total 2.2 2.11 2.13 2.17 2.18 2.19 Early Aksumite 2 3 1 6 Middle Aksumite 11 8 4 9 32 Late Aksumite 4 6 1 10 21 Post Aksumite 24 12 8 33 77 Total 2 14 37 6 17 27 33 136

Small Bowl Phases Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Total 2.9 2.10 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23

447

Early Aksumite 3 3 Middle Aksumite 5 9 16 19 4 53 Late Aksumite 22 12 7 3 4 48 Post Aksumite 7 6 9 37 15 4 3 81 Total 3 12 9 22 50 53 22 7 7 185

Jars/bottles Phases Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Total 3.2 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 Early Aksumite 2 1 3 Middle Aksumite 4 2 2 1 4 18 9 40 Late Aksumite 2 5 4 3 9 23 Post Aksumite 3 16 14 11 28 72 Total 2 5 2 2 1 6 26 25 18 14 37 138

Cauldron Phases Type 4.1 Type 4.2 Type 4.3 Type 4.4 Type 4.5 Type 4.6 Total Early Aksumite 1 1 Middle Aksumite 9 7 4 7 27 Late Aksumite 1 3 1 4 2 11 Post Aksumite 11 10 23 44 Total 1 10 10 16 21 25 83

Cups Phases Type 5.4 Type 5.5 Type 5.6 Type 5.7 Type 5.8 Type 5.9 Type Total 5.10 Early Aksumite 2 1 3

448

Middle Aksumite 3 11 8 5 7 34 Late Aksumite 9 8 6 13 36 Post Aksumite 4 4 7 15 Total 5 12 8 14 19 10 20 88 Field B

Basins Phases Type 1.2 Type 1.4 Type 1.5 Type 1.6 Type 1.7 Type 1.8 Total Middle Aksumite 2 1 2 3 8 Late Aksumite 4 11 4 19 Post Aksumite 3 4 7 Total 2 1 6 14 3 8 34

Large bowls Phases Type 2.11 Type2.12 Type Type Type Type Total 2.13 2.17 2.18 2.19 Middle Aksumite 2 9 1 3 2 17 Late Aksumite 2 11 5 7 25 Post Aksumite 2 3 18 8 13 44 Total 2 13 4 32 15 20 86

Small Bowl Phases Type 2.9 Type Type Type Type Type Total 2.10 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.20 Middle Aksumite 3 1 18 9 24 55 Late Aksumite 8 5 2 14 19 48 Post Aksumite 5 2 13 9 29 Total 3 9 28 13 51 28 132

449

Jars/bottles Phases Type 3.11 Type Type Type Type Total 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 Middle Aksumite 8 11 23 12 54 Late Aksumite 13 6 17 28 64 Post Aksumite 4 18 39 61 Total 8 28 47 29 67 179

Cauldron Phases Type 4.2 Type 4.3 Type 4.4 Type 4.5 Type 4.6 Total Middle Aksumite 4 1 4 1 10 Late Aksumite 3 7 2 12 Post Aksumite 4 13 17 Total 4 1 7 12 15 39

Cups Phases Type 5.4 Type 5.5 Type 5.6 Type 5.7 Type 5.8 Type 5.9 Type Total 5.10 Middle Aksumite 6 15 28 4 53 Late Aksumite 7 19 5 44 75 Post Aksumite 10 6 35 51 Total 6 15 45 10 19 5 79 179

450 Field C

Basins Phases Type Type 1.3 Type Type Type 1.6 Type 1.7 Type 1.8 Total 1.2 1.4 1.5 PA-A transition 3 2 1 3 9 Early Aksumite 2 1 3 1 1 8 Middle Aksumite 5 17 24 12 11 69 Late Aksumite 8 33 26 15 82 Total 5 3 9 29 58 38 26 168

Large bowls Phases Type Type 2.11 Type2.12 Type Type Type Type Total 2.2 2.13 2.17 2.18 2.19 PA-A transition 14 3 3 1 2 23 Early Aksumite 2 5 1 1 9 Middle Aksumite 8 22 3 16 11 16 76 Late Aksumite 11 52 14 68 9 4 158 Total 16 27 78 19 86 20 20 266

Small Bowl Phases Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Tot 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.9 2.10 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 al PA-A 12 9 5 2 6 34 transition Early 2 4 8 3 17 Aksumite Middle 3 7 10 4 21 35 29 30 18 5 162 Aksumite

451

Late 9 25 67 38 53 21 213 Aksumite Total 14 13 16 12 16 4 21 44 54 97 56 58 21 426

Jars/bottles Phases Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Total 3.1 3.2 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 PA-A transition 6 2 1 3 2 14 Early Aksumite 2 1 8 2 1 1 2 17 Middle 2 2 10 28 19 22 14 5 4 106 Aksumite Late Aksumite 5 21 14 17 26 8 3 5 99 Total 8 3 11 7 18 50 35 39 40 13 7 5 236

Cauldron Phases Type Type 4.2 Type 4.3 Type 4.4 Type 4.5 Type 4.6 Total 4.1 PA-A transition 4 2 3 1 10 Early Aksumite 2 5 1 4 1 13 Middle Aksumite 18 24 31 13 5 91 Late Aksumite 10 6 28 17 15 31 107 Total 16 31 56 53 29 36 221

Cups Phases Type Type 5.4 Type Type Type Type Type Type Total 5.3 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 PA-A transition 6 3 2 4 1 16 Early Aksumite 11 9 1 3 24

452

Middle Aksumite 2 27 35 49 8 5 4 130 Late Aksumite 9 16 52 21 29 36 163 Total 19 39 47 72 61 26 33 36 333

Field D

Basins Phases Type Type Type Type Type Type Type 1.7 Type Total 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.8 Late Pre-Aksumite 3 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 6 PA-A transition 0 5 4 6 3 18 Early Aksumite 0 21 2 11 9 43 Middle Aksumite 0 3 7 56 3 16 84 Late Aksumite 0 3 5 1 9

Large bowls Phases Type Type Type2.3 Type Type2.12 Type Type Type Type Total 2.1 2.2 2.11 2.13 2.17 2.18 2.19 Late Pre-Aksumite 3 4 6 13 PA-A transition 7 18 27 3 5 1 61 Early Aksumite 1 6 35 11 17 4 74 Middle Aksumite 2 18 12 21 43 32 128 Late Aksumite 4 5 9

Small Bowl Phases Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Total 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23

453

Late Pre- 4 10 8 2 24 Aksumite PA-A transition 10 17 25 13 19 8 11 103 Early Aksumite 1 5 22 21 32 15 11 17 124 Middle 4 2 6 37 63 52 33 14 211 Aksumite Late Aksumite 2 4 7 6 3 22

Jars/bottles Phases Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Total 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 Late Pre- 4 5 1 3 13 Aksumite PA-A transition 4 1 2 4 3 4 2 2 22 Early Aksumite 1 3 9 14 19 4 3 2 3 3 61 Middle 49 8 33 26 21 137 Aksumite Late Aksumite 6 6 4 7 23

Cauldron Phases Type 4.1 Type 4.2 Type Type Type 4.5 Type 4.6 Total 4.3 4.4 Late Pre-Aksumite 7 1 2 11 PA-A transition 23 6 3 32 Early Aksumite 9 24 7 4 1 45 Middle Aksumite 48 27 33 8 108 Late Aksumite 2 5 2 4 13

454 Cups Phases Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Total 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 Late Pre-Aksumite 12 3 1 2 18 PA-A transition 39 22 9 4 7 2 83 Early Aksumite 3 34 21 18 5 3 1 87 Middle Aksumite 43 31 48 10 8 4 144 Late Aksumite 4 11 6 3 4 28

455 Appendix D

Illustrations of samples of the Ona Adi Materials

Panel 1

456

Panel 2

457

Panel 3

458

Panel 4

459

Panel 5

460 Description of Ceramic Illustrations in Each Panel No. Panel Type Square Sherd Fabric Description Phase/Period No. 1 1 2.20 C1 OA13.C1 BW/GW Small closed Middle and Late .2.33 bowls with Aksumite periods inverted or slightly vertical rims. 2 1 5.1 D1 OA14.D1 ORW/GW Rounded cup Late Pre-Aksumite .16.8 with inverted and PA-A rims and transition periods pointed lips 3 1 5.6 A1 OA13.A1 ORW cups with direct Middle and Late .2.67 rims and wall Aksumite periods profiles, pointed lips 4 1 4.3 C1 OA13.C1 BW Globular Middle and Late .2.35 cauldron with Aksumite periods narrow ledge- rim and handles 5 1 2.16 C1 OA13.c1. ORW/BW/ Ring-based Early, Middle and 3.51 GW small closed Late Aksumite bowls with periods. smoothed to polished surfaces 6 1 2.13 C1 OA14.C1 ORW large open Early and Middle . 2.43 bowls with out- Aksumite periods turned rims 7 1 2.18 B1 OA14.B1 BW large open Middle Aksumite .13.37 bowls period measuring ca. 23-26 cm in diameter with a collared rim and round lip 8 1 2.12 C1 OA14.C1 ORW, BW Fine to medium- Early, Middle and .3.65 and GW coarse large Late Aksumite open ledge-rim periods bowls 9 1 3.14 C1 OA13.C1 ORW/BW/ Bottles with PA-A transition, .2.7 GW cylindrical Early, Middle and vertical necks Late Aksumite and usually with periods a large flat-strap vertical handle between the shoulder and the neck

461 10 1 2.19 C1 OA13.C1 BW Micaceous large Middle Aksumite .2.36 closed bowls period with a flaring/ everted rim and pointed lip 11 1 3.11 C1 OA13.C1 ORW Ledged rim Early and Middle .3.36 globular Aksumite periods jars/bottles with pointed/rounded lips 12 2 2.21 A1 OA13.A1 BW/GW Small closed Late Aksumite .2.31 semi-globular period bowls with direct pointed rims. 13 2 2.14 C1 OA14.C1 ORW Small open Early and Middle .18.68 bowls, with Aksumite periods slightly everted rims, rounded and sometimes pointed lips 14 2 2.15 C1 OA14.C1 ORW Small open Early to Middle .18.21 bowls with Aksumite times direct to flaring rims 15 2 2.22 C1 OA13.C1 BW/GW Small closed Late Aksumite .2.136 (hole-mouthed) period bowls with inverted pointed rims 16 2 4.1 D2 OA15.D2 ORW Globular PA-A transitions .21.50 cauldron with Early and Middle vertical handles, Aksumite periods everted thickened rims 17 2 5.9 C1 OA14.C1 BW Cups with Middle and Late .2.65 vertical profiles, Aksumite periods straight rims and sharp lips 18 2 4.2 C1 OA13.C1 ORW/BW Semi-globular Early and Middle .18.70 cauldron with a Aksumite periods round bottom and slightly restricted tapering rim

462 19 2 5.8 A1 OA13.A1 BW Semi-globular Late Aksumite .2.47 cups with periods restricted upper bodies and rim profiles, and pointed lips 20 2 5.6 C1 OA13.C1 ORW cups with direct Early to Late .2.132 rims and wall Aksumite periods profiles, pointed lips 21 2 5.10 A1 OA133.A GW/BLW Rounded- Late and Post 1.2.38 bottomed open Aksumite periods cups with heights no less than their diameters 22 2 2.11 D2 OA15.D2 large open Early Aksumite .21.14 bowls with period relatively narrow/small ledge rim 23 2 2.17 C1 OA13.C1 BW/GW large open Middle and Late .2.63 bowls Aksumite periods measuring ca. 21-24 cm in diameter with flaring rims 24 2 4.6 C1 OA13.C1 GW/BLW Semi-globular Late and Post .2.4 cauldrons with Aksumite periods wide mouths and collared necks 25 2 4.6 A1 OA13.A1 GW/BLW Semi-globular Late and Post . 2.17 cauldrons with Aksumite periods wide mouths and collared necks 26 2 3.12 C1 OA14.C1 ORW/BW Jars with Early, Middle and .3.54 handles Late Aksumite decorated with periods impressed and sometimes molded decorations 27 2 2.13 C1 OA13.C1 BW/GW Bottles or jars Late Aksumite .2.12 with direct or period slightly everted rims

463 28 2 3.9 D1 OA14.D1 BW/GW Bottles with Early and Middle .8.19 cylindrical necks Aksumite periods and direct pointed or tapering rims 29 2 4.1 D2 OA15.D2 ORW Globular PA-A transitions .21.50 cauldron with Early and Middle vertical handles, Aksumite periods everted thickened rims 30 2 3.7 D1 OA14.D1 BW/GW Bottles with PA- transition and .10.17 cylindrical necks Early Aksumite and slightly periods everted rounded rims 1 3 2.1 D1 OA14.D1 ORW Direct everted Late Pre-Aksumite .15.28 rim profile, flat period lips 2 3 2.3 C1 OA14.C1 ORW Thick rounded Late Pre-Aksumite .22.8 rim profile and PA-A transition periods 3 3 2.2 D1 OA14.D1 BW Thick rounded Late Pre-Aksumite .14.6 rim, notches on and PA-A the lip transition periods 4 3 2.4 D2 OA15.D2 Black- Direct or slightly Late Pre-Aksumite .27.33 topped/O everted rims, and PA-A RW rounded lips transition periods 5 3 2.6 D1 OA14.D1 BW/ORW Rounded lips Late Pre-Aksumite .14.17 slightly inverted and PA-A rim and direct transition periods wall profiles 6 3 2.5 C1 OA14.C1 ORW/BW Inverted or Late Pre-Aksumite .25.2 direct rim and and PA-A lip profiles transition periods 7 3 2.8 D2 OA15.D2 ORW Carinated bowls PA-A transition .26.9 with slightly period everted rim 8 3 2.9 C1 OA14.C1 BW Direct vertical PA-A transition .22.38 and rounded rim and Early Aksumite periods 9 3 2.7 C1 OA14.C1 BW Direct/veritcal or Late Pre-Aksumite .25.19 slightly enverted to Early Aksimite rims periods 10 3 2.10 A1 OA13.A1 ORW Slightly inverted PA-A transition .5.4 direct rim profile and Early Aksumite periods 11 3 3.5 D1 OA14.D1 ORW/BW Everted Late Pre-Aksumite .9.13 rounded rims and PA-A profile, S- transition shaped jars periods

464 12 3 3.1 D1 OA14.D1 BW Globular bottles, Late Pre-Aksumite .10.24 with slightly to Early Aksumite everted periods thickened rounded rims 13 3 3.5 D2 OA15.D2 ORW/BW Everted Late Pre-Aksumite .23.2 rounded rims and PA-A profile, S- transition shaped jars periods 14 3 3.2 A1 OA14.A1 ORW/BW Cylindrical neck Late Pre- .5.11 globular bottles Aksumite, PA-A or jars with transition and everted Early Aksumite thickened periods rounded rims 15 3 3.8 C1 ORW globular body PA-A transition OA14.C1 and everted and Early .25.3 rounded rim Aksumite periods 16 3 3.3 D1 OA14.D1 BW Medium-sized Late Pre-Aksumite .14.22 globular jars period with conical necks and flaring rim profiles, 17 3 3.6 C1 OA14.C1 BW Cylindrical- PA-A transition .22.46 shouldered and Early bottles with Aksumite periods everted rims 18 3 3.4 D2 OA15.D2 ORW/BW piriform jars with PA-A transition .26.17 flaring rounded preiod to Middle rims Aksumite periods 19 3 3.4 B1 OA13.B1 ORW/BW PA-A transition PA-A transition to .13.29 Middle Aksumite periods 1 4 3.5 D2 OA15.D2 ORW/BW Everted Late Pre-Aksumite .26.36 rounded rims and PA-A profile, S- transition shaped jars periods 2 4 3.11 D1 OA14.D1 ORW ledged rim Early and Middle .9.56 globular Aksumite jars/bottles with pointed/rounded lips 3 4 2.4 D2 OA15.D2 Black- Direct or slightly PA-A transition .26.42 topped everted rims, rounded lips 4 4 2.16 C1 OA14. ORW/BW/ small closed Early to Late C1.20. GW bowls with Aksumite 17 slightly inverted rim profile

465 5 4 2.20 B1 OA13.B1 BW/GW Inverted or Middle and Late .7.15 slightly vertical Aksumite rims 6 4 5.6 C1 OA14.C1 ORW cups with direct Middle and Late .18.3 rims and wall Aksumite profiles, pointed lips 7 4 5.3 C1 OA14.C1 ORW Straight rims Early Aksumite .20.14 and rounded lips slightly thickened on the outside 8 5 3.15 A1 OA13.A1 GW/BLW Jars with Late and Post .2.9 carinated Aksumite bodies and vertical rims, pointed lips 9 5 3.15 A1 OA13.A1 GW/BLW Jars with Late and Post .2.33 carinated Aksumite bodies and vertical rims, pointed lips 10 5 4.2 A1 OA13.A1 ORW/BW slightly Early to Late .2.21 restricted Aksumite tapering rim 11 5 2.23 C1 OA13.C1 PPA Ledge-rim open Late Aksumite .2. 92 bowls 12 5 2.21 C1 OA13.C1 BW/GW Small closed Late Aksumite .2. 230 semi-globular bowl with rounded bottoms and direct pointed rims 13 5 2.22 C1 OA13.C1 BW/GW Hole-mouthed Late Aksumite .2. 184 bowls with inverted pointed rims 14 5 Amph D2 OA15.D2 Amphora Creamy fabric Late Aksumite ora .5.34 ammphora sherd fragment 15 5 1.7 B1 OA13.B1 BW/GW Basins with Late Aksumite . 4.11 deep nail punctate/impres sed markings on the interior surface

466