The Pre-Aksumite to Aksumite Transition in Eastern Tigrai, Ethiopia: The View from Ona Adi by Habtamu Mekonnen Taddesse M.A. (Archaeology), Addis Ababa University, 2010 B.A (History), Addis Ababa University, 2001 Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Archaeology Faculty of Environment © Habtamu Mekonnen Taddesse 2019 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Summer 2019 Copyright in this work rests with the author. Please ensure that any reproduction or re-use is done in accordance with the relevant national copyright legislation. Approval Name: Habtamu Mekonnen Taddesse Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Title: The Pre-Aksumite to Aksumite Transition in Eastern Tigrai, Ethiopia: The View from Ona Adi Examining Committee: Chair: Jonathan Driver Professor Catherine D’Andrea Senior Supervisor Professor Sarah Walshaw Supervisor Senior Lecturer Department of History Lynn Welton Supervisor Postdoctoral Fellow Department of Archaeology Durham University Ross Jamieson Internal Examiner Associate Professor Michael Harrower External Examiner Associate Professor Department of Near Eastern Studies John Hopkins University Date Defended/Approved: August 12, 2019 ii Abstract The Pre-Aksumite to Aksumite transition (PA-A transition) is a critically important period in the culture history of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa (ca. 400 BC – 1st century AD). Previous hypotheses derived from archaeological surveys, that the settlement of large sites in Eastern Tigrai was continuous during the PA-A transition, are tested in this study. A main objective of this dissertation is to develop the first systematic ceramic chronology of the PA-A transition and the Aksumite period in Eastern Tigrai, based on excavation and ceramic analysis completed at the site of Ona Adi. The work involved the definition of main features of the Agame Ceramic Tradition. This research, in addition to completed survey data, highlights the distant political and economic relationship between the putative centres of Aksum/Yeha and the outlying region of Eastern Tigrai during the PA-A transition and the Aksumite period. It also provides a glimpse into the social dynamics of the PA-A transition at Ona Adi and the political role of Eastern Tigrai during the PA-A transition and the Aksumite period in the Horn of Africa. The work also explores the local cultural development and the impacts of cultural contacts between Eastern Tigrai and surrounding areas during the PA-A transition and Aksumite period. The results represent important baseline data to facilitate the development of future archaeological investigations in the region. Keywords: ceramic seriation; Agame ceramic tradition; Pre-Aksumite; Pre-Aksumite to Aksumite transition; Aksumite; northern Ethiopia; social complexity iii Acknowledgements Many thanks to all those people who have generously provided me their critical assessments and advice to accomplish the writing of this thesis. I would not be, let alone accomplished this project, an archaeologist if not for my senior supervisor, Professor Catherine D’Andrea. When I first met Professor D’Andrea, I was a historian not an archaeologist. I have been involved in a number of her archaeological field projects in Ethiopia. Professor D’Andrea’s tireless work, her ability to persevere in building team spirit and her extraordinary industriousness totally changed my academic life. I developed a strong desire to become an archaeologist like Dr. D’Andrea. As a mentor, Dr. D’Andrea was also my MA degree co-supervisor. She shared with me not only her great intellectual supervision and her practical-based skills, she also stimulated me to think critically and creatively. In addition, she has covered parts of my dissertation research expenses from her own project grants (SSHRC Standard Research Grant No. 410-2011-1646 and SSHRC Insight Grant No. 435-2014-0182). I am grateful to Dr. Lynn Welton and Dr. Sarah Walshaw, members of my supervisory committee, for their critical assessments and advice, Dr. Ross Jamieson, my internal examiner, Dr. Michael Harrower, my external examiner and Professor Jonathan Driver, my examination committee chair. This project was mainly funded by Wadsworth International Fellowships. I was also benefited from a research grant from Simon Fraser University Graduate School for funding and support for travel to and from Ethiopia and partial monthly salary payment from Aksum University in Ethiopia. The Authority for Research and Conservation of Cultural Heritage (ARCCH) in Ethiopia and the Tigrai Culture and Tourism Office, Mekelle, granted the needed permission for this work. I would like to thank all the Eastern Tigrai Archaeological Project (ETAP) team members for their continued work and help. In particular to Shannon Wood, for teaching me how to use the total station and introduction to topographic mapping techniques and Dr. Michela Gaudiello for assisting me to understand how to deal with and handle large ceramic data in the field. I benefited from the knowledge of Dr. Cinzia Perlingieri, she practically showed and trained me on how to analyze ceramic materials in her field laboratory at Aksum Archaeological Museum. I am grateful to my friend Laurie Darcus and all her iv family members for creating a second home to me in Canada. I celebrated a lot of memorable and great holidays with them eating, drinking and chatting in their house. Finally, I am immensely indebted to my lovely and very strong wife Nebiat Desta and our gorgeous daughters. In spite of the many challenges we have faced with, Nebiat has the courage and stamina to inspire me to complete my studies so that I can create a better future for us. I feel very proud and honored to officially dedicate this dissertation to Nebiat and our kids. v Table of Contents Approval .......................................................................................................................... ii Abstract .......................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ iv Table of Contents ........................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ................................................................................................................... x List of Figures................................................................................................................ xiii Chapter 1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 1 1.1. Main Research Goal and Objectives ...................................................................... 4 1.1.1. Objective 1 .................................................................................................... 5 1.1.2. Objective 2 .................................................................................................... 7 1.1.3. Objective 3 .................................................................................................... 8 1.2. Eastern Tigrai Archaeological Project (ETAP) ....................................................... 9 1.3. Chapter Summary ............................................................................................... 11 Chapter 2. Background: Later Prehistoric/Early Historical Periods of the Northern Horn .................................................................................................... 13 2.1. Geographical, Environmental and Cultural Context ............................................. 14 2.2. A Brief History of the Archaeology of the Northern Horn of Africa ........................ 18 2.3. Culture History of the Northern Horn: Indigenous/Exogenous Debate ................. 27 2.4. Existing Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite Chronologies ............................................. 37 2.5. Chapter Summary ............................................................................................... 43 Chapter 3. Theory of Ceramic Studies and Social complexity .............................. 44 3.1. Theoretical Issues in Archaeological Pottery Classifications and Typology .......... 45 3.2. Seriation .............................................................................................................. 48 3.2.1. Definition of Seriation ................................................................................... 48 3.2.2. Underlying Assumptions of Seriation ........................................................... 49 3.2.3. Methods of Seriation .................................................................................... 51 3.3. Ceramic Classification ......................................................................................... 52 3.3.1. The Type-Variety Classification Method....................................................... 55 3.3.2. Multiple Classification .................................................................................. 58 3.4. Ceramics and Social Complexity ......................................................................... 59 3.4.1. Definition of social complexity ...................................................................... 60 3.4.2. Theoretical Background ............................................................................... 61 3.5. Chapter summary ...............................................................................................