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DANTE’S IN THE COMMEDIA:

MUSIC, , AND THE CORRUPTION OF THE DIVINE

by

Rosina P. Zimmer

A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of

The Dorothy F. Schmidt College of Arts and Letters

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Florida Atlantic University

Boca Raton, Florida

August 2014

Copyright by Rosina P. Zimmer 2014

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

“E tutte le nostre brighe, se bene veniamo a cercare li loro principii, procedono quasi dal non conoscere l’uso del tempo.” (Alighieri Convivio IV)

“All our troubles, if we carefully seek out their , derive in some way from not knowing how to make a proper use of time.”

I would like to extend my sincerest gratitude to Dr. Kenneth Keaton for his guidance and encouragement during the entire course of this work and to Dr. Steven

Blakemore, who was of invaluable assistance the reading of the proofs, along with his thoughtful suggestions that were pertinent to this work. In addition, I would like to thank

Dr. Patricia P. Fleitas for her assistance and enthusiasm.

I would also like to give a special thanks to Dr. Susan Love Brown, who, at the onset of this project, was Interim Director in the Public Intellectuals Program, and graciously offered me the opportunity to explore this topic.

Inestimable assistance in my research was largely due to my association with

Prof.ssa Teresina Ciliberti, of the socia della Dante. I am grateful beyond words for her direction and support.

My deepest and most enduring debt is to my husband, Forbes Earl, who once again, has been most supportive and helpful in countless ways.

To the only wise, through , to whom be honour and glory

for ever and ever. Romans 16:27

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ABSTRACT

Author: Rosina P. Zimmer

Title: Dante’s Lucifer in the Commedia: Music, Pride, and the Corruption of the Divine

Institution: Florida Atlantic University

Dissertation Advisor: Dr. Kenneth Keaton

Degree: Doctor of Philosophy

Year: 2014

The entity of Lucifer has long been an area of study and confusion throughout history. Among notable literary minds, stands out as an illuminating poet who brings to light the essence and nature of this nefarious character and his influence on mankind. In his revelatory work, the Commedia, Dante touches on but does not explicitly detail the scope and importance that music and specifically, song, has on the redemptive purgation of the .

This work provides a more in depth investigation into the generally overlooked issue, that is, the origin and initial intent of song, the perversion of which, by whom and why, and Dante’s perception of the subject revealed in his missive to mankind. Along with the Commedia, we will examine scripture, writings of prominent theologians, scientific theory, along with other works by Dante to provide a link between Lucifer, music, the of pride, and the corruption of the divine.

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DANTE’S LUCIFER IN THE COMMEDIA:

MUSIC, PRIDE, AND THE CORRUPTION OF THE DIVINE

PREFACE...... 1

INTRODUCTION ...... 9 Methodology in the Commedia...... 10 Literature Review...... 11 Background...... 18 The Political and Cultural Spheres ...... 18 Dante’s Concept of the Commedia ...... 19

CHAPTER I: THE PILGRIM...... 26 The Pilgrim’s Condition in the “Dark Wood” ...... 26 2...... 33 Purgatorio 12: A Case of Free Will ...... 33 In Conclusion...... 38

CHAPTER II: WHO IS LUCIFER?...... 40 The Identity of Lucifer as ...... 43 Images of Lucifer in Scripture ...... 46 Aquinas on and Reason ...... 46 Lucifer as Artist: Musical References in ...... 51 Musical References in : The King of as Lucifer? ...... 52 Nomenclature...... 55 Modern Scholarship on Dante’s Lucifer...... 57 Concerning the Fall of Lucifer...... 59 On Angels ...... 60 In Conclusion...... 62

CHAPTER III: MUSIC ...... 64 Music...... 64 Music in Antiquity ...... 65 Music in the ...... 68 Literary Influences...... 69 La Scuola Siciliana ...... 70 Dolce Stil Nuovo...... 72 Golden Section: The Order of Design in Art/Music...... 75 Harmony ...... 76 The Psalm...... 77

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Rhythm as a for Life’s Cycles...... 79 The Power of Spoken Word and Song...... 80 Contemplative Life versus Active Life...... 82 Dante and Music ...... 84 The Effects of Music on the Soul in the Commedia ...... 85 The Pilgrim: “Retrosi Passi” Backward Steps ...... 88 The Sacred in Art/Music...... 95 St. ...... 95 Augustine ...... 96 The Perils of Music...... 97 Purgatorio: The Songs of Purgation Interrupted...... 99 In Conclusion...... 100

CHAPTER IV: PRIDE OF THE ARTIST ...... 102 Pride (La Superbia)...... 102 The Origin of Pride ...... 103 Dante on Pride and the Will...... 104 The Terrace of the Prideful: Purgatorio 10 ...... 106 Purgatorio 11: The Pride of the Artist...... 107 The Pride of Ulysses: The Desire for Knowledge ...... 111 Faith and Reason...... 115 Humility/Faith...... 117 As An Example of Humility ...... 118 In Conclusion...... 120

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ...... 122

NOTES ...... 129

WORKS CITED...... 132

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PREFACE

This study will examine the connection between Dante’s Lucifer, music and pride. Seemingly unnoticed, these outwardly disconnected strands are blended together and woven into a credible argument on which this dissertation is based. Dante’s spheres of influence, the knowledge and imagery of specific creative scholars, philosophers, theologians and poets will serve to explore this topic.

A study of Judeo-Christian scripture reveals that the genesis of sin, which results in a separation from the creator, began before man was created when an filled with pride reasoned that he could be like God. This angel, later to be known as Lucifer, was cast out of , taking an army of angels with him. This initial transgression introduced a propensity for disobedience, otherwise known as “sin nature” into the disposition of all mankind to follow. Evidenced in the initial evaluation of his creation in the , where a test was given to prove the character of man, we can observe the process in which this nature of disobedience is introduced, specifically, via the ability to reason.

Lucifer acts as the of sin and begins to introduce reason to man through the woman, . The tree of the knowledge of good and is forbidden, with the admonition from God:

And he commanded him, saying: Of every tree of thou shalt eat: But of the tree of knowledge of , thou shalt not eat. For in what day soever thou shalt eat of it, thou shalt die the death. (Douay-Rheims , Gen. 2.16–17)

1 He then leads Eve to reason that her disobedience would not result in death, as she misquotes God's charge not to eat of the fruit by adding the three words, “or touch it.” It could be logical to assume that through this addition in error, she reasons that she had already touched the fruit (one must pluck it from the tree in order to eat) and in fact did not die, and subsequently foregoes divine and disobeys. Pride and sin are in interplay here, as sin relates to disobedience, or the rejection of the will of God, which leads to disenfranchisement. Pride suggests that there is no need for God—one can exist subjectively, utilizing self-awareness and intellect, devoid of any connection or relationship with God. Simply put, sin places one outside of God’s (but not his awareness), and pride supports that very separation. The latter is Lucifer’s refrain.

This interwoven argument begins thus: In the Commedia, the once perfect angel becomes filled with pride, the first of the seven capital , according to the Catholic

Church on which Dante based his theology. I will demonstrate that Lucifer, “vermeo reo che ‘l mondo fóra, “the damned worm who pierces through the world,” (Alighieri Inf.

34.108) is the prideful artist of sorts. His “evil will, which only seeks out evil, conjoined

[sic] with intellect,” becomes the source of corruption which “sprona,” or “spurs” mankind to sin (Alighieri Purg. 11.20–21). Lucifer then uses every tool possible in order to destroy and subvert God’s intentions, which is primarily to be in a relationship with man. Just as he spurred the first man and woman to disobey and ultimately to sin resulting in a separation from God, I will demonstrate how the art of music, specifically vocal song in the hands of Dante the Pilgrim, and Casella, his collaborator on writing the music to Dante’s poetry “Amor che ne la mente mi ragiona,” (Alighieri Purg. 2.112)

“Love that discourses to me in my mind” becomes the song and Satan’s tool to perpetuate

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discord and serves as the conduit that hinders the upward journey toward .

Spurred by the pilgrim, Casella proceeds to perform their once earthly collaboration of this profane song, thus, leading the spirits and themselves in Purgatorio 2 to revert to their old worldly desires, and deflect from their destination towards sin.

The first of the three threads is Lucifer. The word Lucifer appears in the version of the . In the Hebraic Bible, the closest thing we have is in the

Book of as Satan (Job 1.6), which means adversary. By the Middle Ages, Lucifer was a well-established figure. Recognized as an angel, he was the light bearer, based on his title, and was once perfect in beauty. According to Dante, “la creatura che ebbe il bel sembiante” (Alighieri Inf. 34.18), “that creature who was once a handsome presence,”

“...giù dal cielo” (Alighieri Purg. 12.27) “fell from heaven.” This enigmatic figure becomes the first subject of the dissertation.

The second thread is music, specifically vocal music, both liturgical and secular.

The Old Testament documents the liturgical creation and function of music and song through the of David that were played on a stringed instrument by David, for his poetry. Aligned with scripture, in the early Christian era, music's primary responsibility was to enhance the meaning of the church liturgy. Chant melodies were designed to emphasize scriptural texts relating to the various parts of the Mass or Divine Offices.

Along with its liturgical function, vocal music served narrative purposes, be it religious text, love poetry, or some other type of written expression. These two categories of music, religious and secular, coexisted and intermingled throughout this period in history.

An inspection of the vocal songs from the onset in an episode in Purgatorio 2 reveals the thematic tensions of the continual wavering between the spiritual and the

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physical. Liturgical song dominates the purgatorial domain, beginning with the vulnerable spirits singing, “In exitu Israel de Aegypto,” (Alighieri Purg. 2.46) immediately followed by the secular song, “Amor che ne la mente mi ragiona,” executed by the artist Casella. This overt juxtaposition represents the elements of the nostalgic worldly ties as a diversion from the ascent while in Purgatorio. The momentary digression from the liturgical song as a crucial vehicle toward Paradiso is implied via

Cato in Purgatorio 2, and becomes a secondary link that concerns this work.

While the dualistic theme, or more specifically the sacred and profane, may have been analyzed in academia, the introduction of Lucifer as another element may provide provocation to engage in a new thought process in academic dialogue. The apparent allusions to music, more specifically, Dante’s abundant insertion of liturgical song in

Purgatorio and in Paradiso, and the absence thereof in of any song, spurred my interest to delve into the scriptural Lucifer for further investigation, as to a possible link between music and Lucifer. His transgression, the corruption of music through humankind bans him from the ability to speak. He can only utter sounds that translate into noise. The absence of any music, vocal or instrumental in Lucifer’s dungeon, Inferno represents, il contrapasso, the law of retribution and ultimate punishment. Lucifer’s domain, the Inferno, actually illustrates the principle of contrapasso that Dante uses: since Lucifer corrupted human music, then it is ironically appropriate that he himself cannot create or perform it.

Although Dante’s fantastical conception of Lucifer remains singular, through careful study, his fall has its origin in biblical references: “How art thou fallen from

Heaven, O Lucifer, who didst rise in the morning?” (Isa. 14.12) and in another scriptural

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verse, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven” (.18). Dante’s Lucifer bears similarities: “colui che fu nobil creato più ch’altra creatura, giù dal cielo, folgoreggiando scender da l’ un lato” (Alighieri Purg. 12.25–27), (“to one side of the path, one who had been created nobler that all other beings, falling lightning-like from heaven”). The word “nobil” suggests that he was originally a superior being, both physically and inwardly, as substantiated in Paradiso, “la somma d’ogni creatura”

(Alighieri Par. 19.47) (“the highest of all creatures”).

The Commedia situates this once beautiful creature in a pool of in the ninth and lowest bulge of Inferno 34. He is described as “la creatura che ebbe il bel sembiante

(Alighieri Inf. 34.18) (“the creature who had once been beautiful”). One can surmise that he had excellent traits, at least, from a physical standpoint. In Purgatorio 12, on the third of the terraces of the Prideful, the sculptured pavement lays out thirteen examples of punishment, a reminder of the unrepentant prideful sinners. Dante’s Lucifer is modeled after the biblical six– winged seraph, created to praise and worship God in Isaiah:

Upon it stood the seraphims: the one had six wings, and the other had six wings: with two they covered his face, and with two they covered his feet, and with two they flew. And they cried one to another, and said: Holy, holy, holy, God of hosts, all the earth is full of his glory. (Isa. 6.2-3)

Through his pride, the once noble creature challenged his creator: “...I will exalt my throne above the stars of God” (Isa. 14.13).

In the same chapter of the , the association of Lucifer to music and pride is made, this time with musical instruments, more specifically, to string instruments as one reads: “Thy pomp is brought down to Sheol, and the noise of thy psalteries;” (Isa.

14.11). Lucifer’s association with pride is explicit, however, his connection to music is

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underlying and requires analysis. The question remains, would these three links have eluded a scholar such as Dante who quoted more scriptural verses in his masterpiece than any other poet? (Hawkins 59). Perhaps Dante may have not been inclined to stress its significance, as it was already obvious in medieval times.

Music as a tool for the spiritual ascent towards God through worship (the endorsement of worship “lauda,” for example, through the works of ) was a prevailing theme in Dante’s time, and, of course, in the Commedia, where it was

Dante’s precept as well. The battle between the sacred and profane—the dilution through the mystification of the non-clerical texts that reinvented and distorted the sacred for the sake of pleasure represents the bending of the will against God (De Angelis 73).

From the beginning of creation, the fallen Lucifer’s objective, in the Garden of

Eden, was to use every possible tool to bend the will (to draw mankind away from God) in order to cause mankind to sin and ultimately to fail. That mankind in general is sinful is brought to the pilgrim’s attention in Inferno by a voice associating him with the, “fratei miseri lassi” (Alighieri Inf. 32.21), (“the wretched brothers”).

In the first terrace of the prideful, we learn that all sins arise from pride, the beginning of all sins: “O superbi cristian, miseri lassi, che de la vista de la mente infermi fidanza avete ne’ retrosi passi” (Alighieri Purg. 10.121–123), that is, (“O Christians, arrogant, exhausted, wretched, whose intellects are sick and cannot see, who place your confidence in backward steps”). Though the same essence, Singleton translates this verse as “blinded in the mind by sin.” He proceeds to clarify the verses addressed to the

“superbi cristian” as to the reason for their sickly mind:

As a result of ’s sin (a sin of pride) mankind “lay sick below in great error [blindness] for many ages, till it pleased the word of God

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to descend [in humility]” and become flesh. (Singleton Par. 2, Comm 217)

The central point is mankind’s sin nature, and the continual return to the error of transgression, of which Dante confesses throughout the Commedia. His only prescription for salvation is repentance. From the onset in Purgatorio, the pilgrim demonstrates his as he incites his musical partner to indulge in the negative secular song as opposed to the liturgical chant sung by the spirits.

Deviation from God’s will results in sin, and in the Commedia we find that

Lucifer prompts mankind through vocal music, or profane song, to stumble. The sin of pride interacts here, as music, the art, neither sacred nor profane, neither good nor evil, takes on the attitude of the artist, or maker of music who becomes a godlike creator and takes pride in adulation and glory that accompanies the song. That usurpation of the divine, the directing of the glory initially intended for God to oneself or others, is when music becomes a component that controverts God’s will. Thus, music becomes the second interwoven element.

The third thread is pride, as has been previously discussed, via Lucifer. This characteristic, along with the other six manifestations of sin, became implanted in the makeup of the first man and woman in the garden, and therefore passed on to all mankind. This imbedded nature and aspect of pride take a more specific form, that is to say, the pride of the artist, and materializes as one of the focal points of this project. In

Purgatorio 11, through the voice of the artist Oderisi di Gubbio, Dante maintains that the epitome of pride belongs to the artist. A once famous illuminator of manuscripts and a contemporary of Dante who lived in the second half of the thirteenth century, Oderisi speaks of earthly fame and the perils of excessive pride. He is referring specifically to the 7

pride of the artist, pride through of art. A deflection from the sacred in art could lead to deterioration and sin. In this case, the art form is vocal music. Lucifer, the ultimate personification of evil, overtaken by his pride through music, debased the otherwise liturgical inspirational music of the period, which was designed for worship, reducing the impact of the art for worldly pleasures originally purposed for that which was earmarked for divine intent.

8 INTRODUCTION

This dissertation will demonstrate the connection in Dante’s Commedia of

Lucifer, the art of music, and the sin of pride. This is particularly meaningful to Dante1 because as a poet, he struggled with the same temptations that all artists encounter. Dante offers hope of salvation to those who conquer the temptations of pride and aspire to loftier goals.

Of the numerous themes, thoughts, and teachings of the poem, to my knowledge little has been written on the association of Lucifer, the artistry of music, and the sin of pride. The fact that my research indicates that there is limited material on this triadic topic does not necessarily mean that it does not exist. It could mean, perhaps, that this link could have escaped the eye of the critic. Dante himself may not have been inclined to stress its significance, or perhaps its significance was already obvious for him as not to need an explanation. A detailed study of Dante’s relationship to Casella in Purgatorio 2 of Mandelbaum’s translation2 used in this dissertation, and the Commedia’s implicit and allusive references to relevant biblical and philosophical treatises will fuel my argument of this triadic relationship of Lucifer-music-pride, within the Commedia. In the course of this study, I will discuss thoughts on the times of the Middle Ages as they relate to the author, including the purpose of the Commedia’s universal message relayed in the anagogical interpretation of the Commedia, as to the urgency of seeking salvation in a lost and dying world.3

9 Methodology in the Commedia

One way to interpret the Commedia is to understand that the sum is greater than the parts of the work; that is to say that an understanding must be derived by connecting inferences of one line to another, along with the discovery of hidden meaning when compared to an awareness of the poet’s life and the historical significance of the time. Of the few times the poet addresses the reader, in Inferno he forewarns him of this fact, of the methodology to uncover meaning:

O voi ch’avete li ’ntelletti sani, mirate la dottrina che s’asconde sotto ‘l velame de li versi strani. (Alighieri Inf. 9.61–63)

(O you possessed of sturdy intellects, observe the teaching that is hidden here beneath the veil so obscure.)

In essence, one must delve deeply and then search throughout the work to discover the core of what the author is trying to convey.

While it is not explicit that Dante considered Lucifer the musical artist that I propose, it can be implicitly ascertained that the poet, in his dealing with the subject of music and song, was methodical in his placement of Lucifer in an environment where the very attributes that distinguished him from others were conspicuous in their absence. The lack of music and song in Inferno, is in juxtaposition with Purgatorio, where music indicates the spiritual development and progress of the and in Paradiso, where it becomes an expression of joy and exultation.

In Purgatorio 11, the spiriti are beseeching God for peace and help in obtaining humility. Their petition becomes a rendition of The Lord’s Prayer:

Nostra virtù che di legger s’adona, non spermentar con l’antico avversaro,

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ma libera da lui che sì la sprona. (Alighieri Purg. 11.19–21)

(try not our strength so easily subdued, against the ancient foe, but set it free from him who [incites] it to perversity)

The enemy spurs mankind to evil through art and guile. Lucifer, “il vermeo reo che ‘l mondo fóra,” “the damned worm who pierces through the world,” (Alighieri Inf. 34.108) is the prideful artist of sorts. His “evil will, which only seeks out evil, conjoined [sic] with intellect,” becomes the source of corruption which “sprona,” or “spurs” mankind to sin (Alighieri Purg. 11.20–21). One sees how the Pilgrim’s strength (virtù) is tried.

Through pride, profane song becomes the element, and tool that temporarily leads him and the spiriti to regress.

Literature Review

Of the numerous influential Dante scholars, taught in American academic institutions, Charles Singleton, Robert Hollander, and Teodolinda Barolini are the significant contributors to this study. Singleton’s Commentaries provides an in-depth study of the Commedia’s text, revealing the hidden references that birthed this work. His explanations of biblical allusions in the Commedia, found in his article “In Exitu Israel de

Aegypto,” give a clear understanding of the purpose of the deliverance of the Israelites, and how it relates to the purification of the spirits in Purgatorio. In his detailed book,

Dante: A Life in Works, Robert Hollander provides a frame of reference of Dante’s philosophical and theological views. Barolini concerns herself with the sin of pride, fundamental to the Commedia and to this project. In Barolini’s The Undivine Comedy:

Detheologizing Dante, the Homeric hero, Ulysses, serves as an example of ultimate pride that goes to his ruination. His detailed characteristics and flaws lead one to an

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understanding of the perils of pride and its propensity to failure, much like Lucifer and the angels, and Adam’s downfall. The article stresses the very center of the Poet’s desired good which is Paradiso, and provokes thought as to Pilgrim’s own inclination towards the sin of pride.

Robert Hollander’s study in Dante: A Life of Works, explains the role of Beatrice in the Commedia. In Purgatorio she is enlisted as “moral preceptor rather than as guide of truth.” Dante battled with the sin of , according to Hollander, the lower appetite

(Hollander 124). In Paradiso, she has the task of overseeing the correction of Dante’s intellect (124). Here, in the third cantina, on Dante, Hollander explains: “By the time she had finished instructing him, he had learned how to love her in his love for God” (126).

His last words to her are manifested through prayer (Alighieri Par. 31.91) that indicates that her mission was accomplished.

Specific to this dissertation, Dino Cervigni is one author who displays a unique understanding of Lucifer’s distinctive nature and attributes from both a biblical and medieval perspective. His commentary in the article “Lucifer,” found in Richard

Lansing’s exhaustive work, The Dante Encyclopedia, one of the several articles on the , and his article, “The Muted Self- Referentiality of Dante’s Lucifer” both denote Cervigni’s closeness to this project’s triadic topic. He describes the once beautiful angel’s hallmark before his rebellion and fall, which was to “ around God’s throne while singing His praise… intended for the praise of the divinity” (Cervigni 45). The author further substantiates Lucifer’s musical appointment, “Once the most sublime singer of God’s praise, Lucifer is now condemned to eternal silence; he is deprived of the word…” (46).

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The connection Cervigni fails to emphasize is not the absence of the spoken word in Lucifer’s torment, but of the total deprivation of song and music. One has to delve deeply into both Dante and Cervigni, among others, to arrive at the conclusion that the one attribute so deeply rooted in Lucifer’s being, the ability to produce music and song, is glaringly absent in the abyss. It stands to reason that Dante was purposeful in his relegating of this punishment in his description of Lucifer’s fallen condition. After all, the poet was well aware of the power of song as seen through his telling of the interaction with the spirits and Casella, both for redemption and transgression, and the negating of this most useful tool from Lucifer’s arsenal would be just and appropriate. This association of Lucifer to music, a subject often ignored and overlooked, identifies my contribution to Dante scholarship, and is central to the overall theme and purpose of this study.

In Public Intellectuals: A Study of Decline, Richard Posner asserts that a public intellectual is one who “applies general ideas to matters of public concern, working from the top down, theorizing about the abuses, corruptions, or injustices that he has discovered.” (Posner 20) Of the various critics, the “social critic,” perceives signs of moral and political decay. (20). Dante realized the urgency to expose the ills of his society within his milieu. Posner’s “thinker with a public voice” (22) could be attributed to Dante.

From a political perspective, Dante scholars, translators, and commentators have provided insightful information. My interest rests on the fact that Dante, as one of the six priori or priors of his beloved Florence, was a political figure from June 15, 1300 till he was banished sometime after 1302.

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Prue Shaw, both translator and editor of Dante’s political treatise Monarchia, tells of Dante’s development as a politician (Alighieri Monarchia xiii). Shaw helps to shed some light as to the purpose of this political treatise: to help the Florentines live more peaceably in the community of a very disorderly Florence. The author deals with Dante’s principles of “humanity’s collective purpose” (xxiii) and Dante’s “passionate concern for justice” (xxiv), both ingredients of the public intellectual. Shaw sheds some light as to the purpose of this political treatise.

Many could argue that Dante had a strictly personal agenda that was triggered by his anger towards those who exiled him from his city-state. Shaw’s comment: “the disinterested pursuit of truth with no thought of financial gain, the prize honorably won and bringing deserved glory, the confident trust in help from on high” (xix) substantiates the argument that Dante could have been considered a public intellectual. Shaw reminds us that Dante is not fighting as a man, but fighting for an idea (xi).

Shaw’s second point is that Dante was complex. Although he was not in agreement with papal authority, he proposed morality by paying tribute to in his political treatise, and in his other principal works including Vita Nuova, Convivio, and most abundantly, in the Commedia. From Monarchia, Shaw reminds us that “Christ stands at the centre of Dante’s political philosophy… take no gold or silver… my kingdom is not of this world… Peter, follow me” (xxxv). Dante is speaking from within, as he proposes man’s duty to his society. Only after a few years of his death, around

1327, the Monarchia was banned from the Church, and remained on the Vatican list of prohibited books until 1881 (xxxviii). However, Dante’s work was not in vain. This action inspired other commentators, such as Cola di Renzio to write a rebuttal, and

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Marsilio Ficino to write a in the vernacular; Monarchia, unlike the Commedia was originally written in . The translation attempted to clarify some of Dante’s meanings (xxxviii).

Dante’s political ideology is further explicated by Herbert W. Schneider in his translation of Dante’s De Monarchia, called On World Government or De Monarchia.

Dante’s position on the status of governing becomes clear: the necessity of a single world government, in order to achieve a state of universal well-being (Schneider 8). He embraces Aristotle’s principle of the intellectual power of the individual man to guide and rule others (8). He makes analogies between rulers of a city and ruler of a household, stating that they should follow same rules: they must have a single government. In essence, the goal of mankind is analogous to the goal of a city government and household

(9). Dante believed that imperial authority did not depend on papal authority, and that the two, the church and state are separate entities. Dante claimed that the authority of the

Emperor comes from God. He maintained that, “Law should always be so interpreted as to promote the good of the commonwealth” (32). Man is guided by two forces; the supreme pontiff, “who guides with to life eternal” (79), and the emperor who leads man through philosophical instructions

Thomas Bender’s Intellect and Public Life speaks of the public’s awareness of the importance of the intellectual, and how the public must continually be formed and reformed. This process requires the collaboration and perhaps even the leadership of the intellectuals (144). Bender gives an understanding of one’s calling and becomes a model for the public intellectual. It clarifies how Dante’s passion for his city and his readiness to inform the public made him impervious to the obstacles of his society.

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Thomas Cahill’s collection of books from the Judeo-Christian and Greco-Roman cultures is highly informative. His Mysteries of the Middle Ages provides an overview of the cultural environment in the Middle Ages. He takes the reader through the development of literature, art, philosophy, and science, and helps explain the transition into what we know as western civilization today. Many people have a notion that the

Middle Ages were perpetually dismal, filled with ignorance, fear and superstition. Cahill presents the “freewheeling spirit of intellectual inquiry that invigorated the great urban universities of the thirteenth century” (Cahill 192). This period known as the high Middle

Ages integrated elements of Judeo-Christian and Greco-Roman cultures. This insightful information aids in the understanding of Dante’s scholastic participation in the university of Bologna a century later.

In his book Dante, Nick Havely discusses the hierarchical order, from the basic elements: minerals, plants, and animals through humanity to the angels and then to God.

He demonstrates that this concept reverts to Plato and Aristotle, and how this idea had been substantiated by Aquinas and developed in Convivio by Dante (Havely 184).

Further, the author makes a study relating the mood of the spiriti in Purgatorio and that of Dante who pays tribute to “the noble lady” in the love poem “Amor che ne la mente mi ragiona.”

Robert Hollander’s study in Dante: A Life of Works, he explains the role of

Beatrice in the Commedia. In Purgatorio she is enlisted as “moral preceptor rather than as guide of truth.” Dante battled with the sin of lust, according to Hollander, the lower appetite (Hollander 124). In Paradiso, she has the task of overseeing the correction of

Dante’s intellect (124). Here, in the third cantina, on Dante, Hollander explains: “By the

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time she had finished instructing him, he had learned how to love her in his love for God”

(126). His last words to her are manifested through prayer (Alighieri Par. 31.91), which indicate that her mission was accomplished.

In his The Age of Dante, Domenico Vittorini unravels the culture and literature from the eleventh to the early fourteenth century, around Dante’s death in 1321. The author gives an overview of radical change that took place within that time frame in all facets of Italian life-the political, social, cultural and religious. The fourteenth century was considered early Renaissance. This period speaks of the age of the Italian city-states that helped end the system of feudal lords (Vittorini 116).

Kenneth Keaton's The Mystery of Music was useful to explain the practice and historical context of music in the Middle Ages.

Jeremy Yudkin in Music in Medieval Europe describes an era lasting anywhere from 800 to 1200 as a time of scarcity and specificity in music—from the liturgical song devoted to bringing an awareness of and prayer to God to the populace, both monastic and urban, to the dramatic depiction of the stories in Christendom conveyed through the use of melody and harmonious vocalization.

The utilization of music to moral directives to the people and to instruct them in the ways of the good was also prevalent at this juncture. Heard not only in urban environs, but carried throughout the taverns into the rural countryside, this rarely transcribed art form made its way through time to present itself in the modern age solely via rare signs of oral hand me downs.

Eventually embraced and captured by the learned, the secular song became the domain of intellectuals and nobility to the enchantment of aristocratic patrons, who

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enjoyed polyphonic performances in their parlors. The scarcity of music at the time was partially due to the lack of technology and to the nature of its purpose. Each instance of sound had a specific importance, as bells were utilized in marking time, drums as a call to war, stories expressed through song in noble gatherings, and the choir was employed as a call to worship (Yudkin 16–17). In all, music was a reflection of the times of the Middle

Ages, and Yudkin is a strong proponent of music as a unique and microscopic look into this period in history.

Background

To begin a discussion of Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) and his philosophy, it is necessary to go back to the thirteenth century, the inception Italian literature. During this time in Florence, as well as in all the other city-states that formed the very fragmented

Italian territory, only a small percentage of people were literate in Latin. Those were the intellectuals: writers, men of medicine and law, and the clergy. While the learned and clergy incorporated Latin into their daily lives, the masses spoke different dialects, such as il vulgare, an offshoot of Latin. Of these numerous dialects the Tuscan form eventually evolved into the Italian language, much by Dante’s efforts.

The Political and Cultural Spheres

The predicament that encompassed two institutions, the papal and empire had different repercussions in Europe and in Italy. In the western countries the plight was solved through state unification, whereby in Italy any attempt for political unification was futile. For this reason, the plurality of the regions and cities within those regions brought about the establishment of independently governed city-states. Even literature produced a diversity that cannot easily be reduced into a single system or structure. Hence, when

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examining Dante’s times it is necessary to consider the multifarious cultural state of affairs in Italy.

As a scholar, Dante had studied Latin, and in addressing the learned, this was the language that he used. For instance, in his principal work, De Vulgari Eloquentia, he made a plea for Italy to adapt the Tuscan dialect as the official language of Italy. De

Monarchia, his political and social treatise, was also written in Latin. Vita Nuova and

Convivio, two major works that were meant to reach the public, were both written in vulgare, specifically, the Tuscan dialect. Dante’s masterpiece, the Commedia, that was intended to influence humanity as well, also used the Tuscan dialect to promote his universal message.

Dante’s Concept of the Commedia

In a sonnet attached to his translation of The , Henry Wadsworth

Longfellow describes Dante’s state when writing the Commedia:

Ah! From what agonies of heart and brain, What exultations trampling on despair, What tenderness, what tears, what hate of wrong, What passionate outcry of a soul in pain, Uprose this poem of earth and air, his mediaeval miracle of song! (Wilkins 72)

Longfellow concurs with Dante as to its divine element, by naming the Commedia

“miracle of song.” Indeed, this last among the many works is described as the poet’s masterpiece, and for several reasons. In Bergin’s Perspectives on the Divine Comedy,

Yvonne Batard makes an observation as to the poet’s greatness:

One would have to be an historian, naturalist, astronomer, geographer, philologist, jurist, musician and… from time to time psychoanalyst. It would be well to be a poet too. (Bergin 103)

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In essence, Dante could easily be labeled a factotum in the arts.

One can only marvel at Dante’s forbearance; the adversity encountered was never a threat to his faith. Throughout the Commedia, he evokes biblical passages and makes endless scriptural references. It seems that with all his calamities, Dante became a man with a cause, a of sorts, indeed a scriba. A prophet is compelled by the gravity of to communicate it to the people.

From a theological and philosophical standpoint, the purpose of what Dante perceived as his divinely inspired work is two-fold: the author is assiduously searching his soul, while simultaneously conveying a moral, spiritual and universal message to humanity. The world is progressively evil and only through repentance is there hope for eternal salvation.

In Dante’s philosophical treatise, his message on speaks to all: the philosopher, pagan, Jew, Christian, or member of any sect. Opinions are the result of human reason and the product of that reasoning, when erroneous, is due to either the deficiency of reason and lack of instruction. Here Dante is challenging several issues: the number of , the worship in antiquity of false , and the number of

Intelligences (angels) created. These topics were usually mulled over by academicians

(Alighieri Dante’s Il Convivio 48–49). According to Dante, one subject that was agreed upon is the distinction of humans and angels in regards to their way of life. Mankind possesses a “double blessedness” one for the active or civil life, and one for the contemplative life. The intellect of the angels is “one and perpetual,” and therefore these

Intelligences are entrusted with the contemplative life, which is “more excellent and more divine.” It stands to reason that Dante acknowledges and commends those humans who

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have chosen a life of contemplation. However, those who have taken the path of the active or civil life are not condemned for choosing thusly, as long as they balance this double-blessedness. In sum, a contemplative life “is more divine, and the more divine a thing is the more it is like God; and if it is more loved, the more has its blessedness been bountiful;” (48-49).

The unending struggle between good and evil remains the subject of philosophers and theologians alike. Dubbed “poema sacro” (Hawkins 59), Dante’s masterwork, the

Commedia, leans heavily on biblical texts and Christian ideology. Rife with scriptural paraphrases and biblical imagery, it can be said that more than any other poet of his time,

Dante relied on the word of God. Peter Hawkins further substantiates this argument:

“…the Bible is the Commedia’s most abundant source of quotation and allusion”

(Hawkins 59). The whole of the Commedia is essentially a fictionalized message of the biblical tenet: “man is a sinful creature, and is in need of salvation” (64).

Chapter I explicates the Pilgrim’s condition, one that requires introspection. A particular episode in Purgatorio 2 becomes the impetus of my research. Here, we are introduced to a profane song—the only one of its kind in the Commedia. Casella is about to perform “Amor che ne la mente mi ragiona,” a canzone from Convivio that eulogizes

Lady Philosophy, or Wisdom. While analyzing this canto, the objective is created via two distinctive expressions of song: the first, of praise and worship, In Exitu Israel de

Aegypto, representative of a contemplative life; second, the secular song, Amor che ne la mente mi ragiona, originally in Convivio, one of Dante’s poems set to music by Casella, representative of the active life. This juxtaposition is deliberate, demonstrating Dante’s

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fragility and instability as he wavers between the contemplative and the profane. It is

Cato, the of Purgatorio, who halts Dante and brings him back to his senses.

His transformation begins with the reed, the humble plant of humility, which is expressed in song. The humble learn to assemble their voices in unity, with thanksgiving in praise to God, as an example for all. Dante the poet is putting forth his case for salvation to mankind, and is making it clear of the significance of contemplative music and song in the redemptive process, just as he clearly warns of the danger of music that is profane and directed toward worldly gain and fulfillment.

Ultimately the Pilgrim advances with the assistance of those around him. He must be grateful for many things: his master sent by Beatrice to guide and rescue him from the eternal horrors of hell, and for his beloved Beatrice, the inspiration of his poema sacro and conduit to Paradiso. He is thankful as well for his musician friend Casella, the catalyst that spurred the guardian Cato to turn him from the “retrosi passi,” “backward steps,” toward the right path, before Beatrice finally leads him to enlightenment. Above all, he is grateful for having been spared Lucifer’s fate of eternal damnation. In contrast to Lucifer’s immediate fall, “lightning-like from heaven,” the Pilgrim’s journey is slow and one of gradual transformation, impeded and drawn backward at times by the remnants of Lucifer’s deceptions.

Chapter II will with the portrayal of Lucifer as the one solely responsible for the condition of mankind’s sinful nature. One could argue however, that were not forced by Lucifer to do so. The poet would then defend his position, about

Lucifer’s responsibility and machinations, therefore contending that Lucifer is indeed responsible for mankind’s sin according to Inferno 34:

If he was once as handsome as he now 22

is ugly and, despite that, raised his brows against his Maker, one can understand how every sorrow has its source in him! (Alighieri Inf. 34.34–37)

In essence, according to Dante, every source of wretchedness, starting with Adam’s disobedience stems from “the damned worm that pierces through the world” (34.108).

The first man and woman may not have been forced by Lucifer, but were spurred by him to do their own will, not their maker’s. This sentiment was fostered by three prominent medieval theologians, Augustine, Gregory the Great, and Aquinas. Their influence in

Dante’s time on theological matters will be addressed.

This chapter will delineate the original intent and purpose of God for mankind along with the intended function of all angelic beings according to scriptural references, aligning with the three primary theologians who influenced Dante on this topic,

Augustine, Gregory, and Aquinas. Additionally, it will shed light on Lucifer and the un- fallen angels’ relationship to music and the intended purpose of such as it relates to the salvation of mankind.

Lucifer, once perfect in beauty, was endowed from creation with all that was necessary to produce music and song in heaven, and to introduce worship to all creation, and to lead the universe in praise unto God. Consumed with conceit, however, he envisioned himself as the subject of adulation, and his desire for fame and glory, caused him to rebel against his creator.

In addition to the Bible, Dante draws from his preceding works, particularly from his philosophical treatise Convivio, questions regarding angels, their attributes, free will, the intellect, and music, all of which become important components of this work. The

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mythological element added to this mixture makes for a fantastical picture of the Lucifer we are about to encounter in Inferno.

Chapter III will discuss the significance of music, its nature and structure, and the part it plays in this study. Among other things, music in the Middle Ages served liturgical purposes, as the Church had some knowledge of the power that lay within. Dante, too, understood the mystical properties of song as he was familiar with the writings of the

Greek philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato, who wrote on music’s capacity for affecting the state of mind and well-being. This association, as we will see, bears on

Dante’s characterization of Lucifer, where the poet recognizes the element of song as a captivating tool for the forces of evil. This paradigm of control that emanated from

Lucifer’s nature as a musician allows the poet to render an image of the malefic effectiveness of this art form. Dante, the Poet, places blame on profane song, and the characters in his work warn of the danger of being taken in and mesmerized by music that is created independent of the creator.

Conversely, music that is in accordance with the original intent of God is recognized for its value in drawing the Pilgrim and other souls in the Commedia towards their objective, Paradiso. A picture of divine intellect and the mathematical structure that causes sound and music to function as it was intended can be seen here too, as we briefly investigate how harmonies and rhythms that are in accordance with all aspects of design in creation can effectively draw hearts in the right direction, that is, back to the source and father of all creation. This type of music, via a correctly ordered and structured display of humility, was understood in the Middle Ages as authentic worship, and Dante makes it clear that he understands its importance and significance as he employs the

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contemplative song in his message. This truth is also evident in its opposite form in the

Inferno, where there is a conspicuous absence of all sound except for the gnashing, discordant cacophonous cries of the tormented.

The fourth chapter focuses on the definition and origin of pride and how Dante connects it to the artist in Purgatorio. Dante has placed the sin of pride in the ultimate position in the hierarchy of transgression, where it is appropriately labeled La Superbia in the Italian vernacular.

According to Dante, the souls who have not reached a point of harmony with

God—but who will eventually be saved—are relegated to a place in Purgatorio, where a purging of sin can be realized. A treatise on the dangers of fame and self-adulation by the medieval illustrator Di Gubbio in Purgatorio 11, is described through the use of the subjects Cimabue and Guinizzelli, an artist and a poet respectively, who, through their rise and fall illuminate the vanity and fleeting nature of human glory.

As an example of the unrepentant, the Pilgrim encounters the personage of

Ulysses, who appears as a flaming fire. Consumed with pride to the point of destruction,

Ulysses is deemed the false counselor for his ability to deceitfully persuade and is cursed, as was Lucifer, with the inability to speak. The artistry of Ulysses’ prevarication is accurately interpreted as one who is “artful in his guile.” This fraudulent counselor, as we will detail in this chapter, is compared to the disobedient Adam, a new Adam. Ulysses’ damnation lies in his failure to repent, and he resides in the story as an archetype of

Lucifer and perfect example of those who are destroyed by pride.

25 CHAPTER I: THE PILGRIM

The Pilgrim’s Condition in the “Dark Wood”

Dante the Pilgrim, at thirty-five, what he considers the midpoint of his life, finds himself in a “selva oscura” [dark wood], having gone astray from “la diritta via,” or

[straight path]:

Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita mi ritrovai per una selva oscura, ché la diritta via era smarrita.( Alighieri Inf. 1.1–3)

(When I had journeyed half of our life’s way, I found myself within a shadowed forest, for I had lost the path that does not stray.)

The tale of the Pilgrim in his journey describes the monumental difficulty one encounters when attempting to subjugate the wanton nature of evil. A storyline renders as such; our protagonist is subjected to the reality of the eternally damned as he is led by his guide,

Virgil, through Inferno. Virgil, symbolizing reason, relays to the Pilgrim that he was sent by the symbol of faith, Beatrice, who is already in Paradiso. Virgil is sent to persuade the

Pilgrim to change his ways, and therefore rescue him from eternal damnation. Virgil paraphrases Beatrice as he explains how he happens to be there:

e temo che non sia già sì smarrito, ch’io mi sia tardi al soccorso levata. per quel ch’i’ho di lui nel cielo udito. Or movi, e con la tua parola ornate e con ciò c’ha mestieri al suo campare, l’aiuta sì ch’i’ ne sía consolata. (Alighieri Inf. 2.64–60)

(From all that I have heard of him in Heaven, he is, I fear, already so astray that I have come to help him much too late. 26 Go now; with your persuasive word, with all that is required to see that he escapes, bring help to him, that I may be consoled.)

Virgil then, becomes the Pilgrim’s guide in order to help deliver him from his predicament, but only for a designated time. Eventually we learn why his guide, and symbol of reason, accompanies the Pilgrim only so far in his journey, until Beatrice the emblem of faith takes over for the Pilgrim’s final deliverance and destination. Here, the

Pilgrim’s confession from the onset, “mi ritrovai per una selva oscura” (Alighieri Inf.

1.2) needs explication to make a point. Mandelbaum’s translation of the word “ritrovai” is “I found myself” and slightly different from mine, which is [by the prefix ri, one can say with assurance, I found myself once again] indicating that the Pilgrim had been in this state of spiritual loss at least once before. This is noted simply to serve my argument.

As an exile, Dante must have been going through a drastic midlife crisis as Virgil substantiates the repeat performance of the pilgrim’s human condition:

Ma tu, perchè ritorni a tanta noia? perchè non sali il dilettoso monte ch’è principio e cagion di tutta gioia? (Alighieri Inf. 1.76–78)

(But why do you return to wretchedness? Why not climb up the mountain of delight? the origin and cause of every joy?”)

The words that indicate his return to wretchedness are as follows: “Ma tu perchè ritorni,” otherwise, “But why do you return.” Here, the translation for the term “tanta noia” or [such annoyance] is translated by Mandelbaum as “wretchedness,” clearly, the meaning is conveyed: according to his own admission, he seemed to have erred considerably.

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This shadowed forest, or “dark wood” continues to be a topic of in-depth study.

Fiora A. Bassanese renders her interpretation:

The lack of an exact geographical locus for the dark wood has led some commentators, both medieval and modern, to see it as oneiric image, a powerful dream, rather than an actual (albeit fictional) place. The narrator’s confusion as to how he entered the wood, explained as a state of sleep “at the point when I abandoned the true way,” (11-12), suggests a dormant state of more exactly a loss of conscience, which leads to spiritual death. Although Dante’s poem is generally not considered a dream-, there are several references in Inf. I to a dreamlike state of being in which the wood functions as a typological dreamscape which oppresses and confines the dreamer. In the Bible and in early , sleep was associated with both spiritual disorder and a condition of sinfulness. The canto’s emphasis on emotions and reactions supports a psychological reading of the space as a projection of Dante’s state of mind. (Bassanese 288)

The state of sleep that Bassanese mentions could refer to a spiritual sleep, or spiritual condition, where one is unaware of the Truth. In scripture one reads; “wherefore he saith:

Rise thou that sleepest, and arise from the dead: and Christ shall enlighten thee” (Eph.

5.14)

Many scholars have speculated as to the meaning of the statement, “che la diritta via era smarrita” [that the Pilgrim had strayed from right path]. The word “smarrita” has several meanings; here, it is most likely interpreted as “lost” in the moral sense. Affected by the terror displayed before his eyes, he makes a vow of repentance, and without hesitation, sheds the cord of pride (Alighieri Inf. 16.106–114).

Continuing in his course to the entrance of Purgatorio, steadfast in his vow he dons the reed of humility, as suggested by Cato, the guardian of Purgatorio (Alighieri

Purg. 1.94–105). Confronted by “il nocchiero” or the [celestial] helmsman,

Virgil tells him to kneel: “Fa, fa che le ginocchia cali. Ecco l’angel di Dio,”4 so the

Pilgrim exercises his first act of humility. He is now ready to take in the hundred or more

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newly arrived souls, in a vessel guided by the helmsman. They are all singing as in one voice, a song taken from the first line of Psalm 113, and representative of the contemplative music that pervades Purgatorio and Paradiso. They, too, realize the validity and importance of praising God in song as the voices suddenly begin to worship in unison:

In exitu Israel de Aegypto, cantavan tutti insieme ad una voce con quando di quel salmo è poscia scripto (Alighieri Purg. 2.46–48).

(In exitu Israel de Aegypto with what is written after of that psalm, all of those spirits sang as with one voice.)

Furthermore, the sound coming from the voices of the one hundred or more spirits is “as though from a single voice” (48), which suggests unity and harmony. The same conditions were required in song as noted in the record of King David concerning the dedication of the temple: “And when the trumpeters and singers were joined in unison, making one sound to be heard in praising and thanking the Lord…” (2 Chron. 5.13) This unity and harmony of the singers suggests total humility, as all humbly combine to create a sound that is heard as “one voice.” This is not simply a case of musical harmony, where singers would attempt to join together in singing notes that would be harmonious in pitch, but a melding of hearts in complete unity of mind, soul and body, a reflection and manifestation of their single-mindedness toward God.

Charles Singleton’s article “In Exitu Israel de Aegypto” speaks of Dante’s conversions as having been patterned after the Exodus of the children of Israel. This

Exodus is an instance of the pattern of conversion in the Bible that enables all mankind to

“reach the other shore.” Singleton discovers in the reading of St. Gregory this Exodus

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pattern, but has yet to mention that the pattern is the structure for the salvation of man through the redemptive work of Christ. The completed conversion of man did not occur until the final act of God was completed “It is finished,” (John 19.30) and this helps us to understand why the sinful inclinations “obnoxia vitia” (Singleton 1960 6) still plagued mankind following these attempts at conversion. As Singleton continues, he touches on the completed work by Christ on the cross in his mention of this “descent-ascent” pattern of redemption. Christ, represented by the angel who scorns all human means (Alighieri

Purg. 2.31) is the substitution for man and makes the descent into hell to enable man to ascend into heaven. The former prideful ascent of man is cancelled out by the complete humility of Christ in his descent. Here we see again that Christ is the antithesis of Lucifer in his humility. Singleton speaks of three exoduses as three conversions: one failed exodus in the Prologue, one conversion in the Proem (Alighieri Purg. 1) and the third in

Purgatorio 2. By failed conversion in the Prologue, he refers to “expected vitiae or beasts” (Singleton 1960 7) the temptations as the obstacles to have been overcome.

According to Singleton, the conversion of the spiriti in the Proem takes place despite the “shores so distant,” those same shores that Singleton believes were sailed by the ancient hero Ulysses (Singleton 1960 4). The third conversion takes place in

Purgatorio 2, as the spirits “cantavan tutti insieme ad una voce” (Alighieri Purg. 2.47).

Perhaps, a better word for these conversions would be “deliverance.” In the case of the children of Israel, the word deliverance could apply as well: the chosen people were literally delivered out of captivity, and also symbolically delivered, graced with another chance to turn away from sin toward obedience to God. I believe the chosen people

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crossing the red sea represent man’s struggle as he seeks the way to the “promises”

(Singleton 1960 8).

Man’s natural inclination is to cling to the notion of achievement of conversion by works rather than by grace through the work of Christ “il celestial nocchiero,” the helmsman (Alighieri Purg. 2.43). This is perhaps the reason for the failed attempts, in that if one were to strive to convert oneself there would remain a measure of pride. This creates a vicious cycle of pride and humility. Christ, the helmsman came to do something the spiriti could never achieve, and the key to receiving grace is for one to acknowledge this fact. The sin of pride can never be eliminated as long as man takes some credit for his salvation. Christ led the way for man to embrace total humility by humbling Himself, and then giving Himself to all mankind, allowing us to take on His nature: “Not by works, lest any man should boast” (Eph. 2.9).

This virtue of humility is the key to our salvation, as Singleton points out:

The man who returns through descent to the desert shore, there to gird on a rush, returns to attempt once more to cross the “great desert” and ascend the mountain. It would seem to be this girdle of rush that makes all the difference now. This time the advance to the promises will prove successful. The descent to humility has been a return to “Exodus.” (Singleton 1960 12)

Singleton recognizes the connection between the Exodus and the conversion of the souls; this realization is uttered by the master Virgil as he comments on the arrival of the souls at the shores, with “l’angel di Dio” at the helm (Alighieri Purg. 2.28):

Vedi che sdegna li argomenti umani, sì che remo non vuol, né altro velo che l’ali sue, tra liti sì lontani. (31-33)

(See how much scorn he has for human means; he’d have no other sail than his own wings and use no oar between such distant shores.)

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It is no wonder that the souls on the “desert shore” (Singleton 1960 7) together with the

Pilgrim still succumb to a love song (Alighieri Purg. 2.43). As Singleton puts it,

these new pilgrims forget the promises, forget that they are pilgrims, and gather around the singer “as if nothing else touched their minds.…Yet their backsliding is allowed to last but a moment. Old Cato rushes upon the scene to make them mindful of their journey and to send them upon their way up the mountain slope.” (Singleton 1960 8)

Christ, the helmsman, is wondering when will mankind acknowledge His work and promise, instead of relying on his own means through his own efforts. One would expect unwavering behavior from the Pilgrim by now, having encountered the different experiences and opportunities.

In the Terrace of the Prideful, the Pilgrim had confessed of his “overswollen pride” (Alighieri Purg. 11.120).5 Perhaps the “via smarrita” could mean [wayward], referring to the episode in Purgatorio 2, whereby we observed the Pilgrim who exposes his prideful nature through a profane song, which causes him as well as the company of souls to sin. Almost immediately after witnessing the display of humility by the spiriti, he encounters Casella, and in this opportune moment to reunite with his old friend, he succumbs to his pride, and reverts to the worldly existence thus embracing his former nature, calling for a salacious song of sensual desire. Having so quickly forgotten the horror that so soundly led to a vow of contrition, he returns to the mire only to be rebuked by Cato, who reminds him of his error. Still affected by the remnants of pride, the stumbles, therefore, as a consequence of his artistry of poetry and song, unwittingly dragging other spirits backwards as well. The Pilgrim eventually changes course toward

Paradiso, the mountain of delight, the destination that is achieved through repentance.

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Dante reiterates scripture: “So I say to you, there shall be joy before the angels of God upon one sinner doing penance” (Luke 15.10).

Purgatorio 2

In Purgatorio 2, the artists Dante and Casella are about to commence with profane music, where they will be adored and revered by a mesmerized crowd, when

Cato6 the teacher begins to admonish and rebuke them, suggesting that the spirits shed their old snakeskin, thereby shedding the nature of pride that has afflicted and restrained them in their progression. Similarly noted in scripture we read, “…be clothed with humility, for God resists the proud, but gives grace to the humble” (1 Pet. 5.5). The performance of profane music they were prepared to initiate was in direct opposition to the Word of God. We read: “Sing to Him, sing psalms to Him; Talk of all his wondrous works…” (Ps. 105.2).

Purgatorio 12: A Case of Free Will

The horrors of hell continue to haunt the Pilgrim, as he and his master proceeds to

Purgatorio 12, the last canto in the terrace of the prideful. He observes sculpted carvings on the marbled floor of thirteen personae biblical and classical in nature, examples of

“lowered pride,” a reminder of their ruin. Lucifer, “the one who had been created nobler than all other beings” and now the most offensive, and disobedient, is the first they see.

The absorbed Pilgrim could not seem to take his eyes away from the sculpted floor that contained the unfavorable sight. It is his master who announces the handsome creature in white, whose face [trembled like the morning star] coming toward them.

In Eileen Gardiner’s Visions of Heaven & Hell before Dante, in “The City of

Christ” taken from the ancient studies of St. Paul’s , Paul speaks:

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And I said, ‘What then, Lord? Has their pride prevented them from entering the City of Christ?’ The Angel answered and said, to me, “The root of all evil is pride.” (Gardiner 31)

Simply stated, pride begat sin, as one can clearly see from the event of Lucifer’s fall, and thence came all wickedness from the progenitor of evil. It is important to note that in this canto, certain transformational things occur. From a distance Virgil instructs the Pilgrim to kneel for the approaching angel, named by The Pilgrim, mattutina stella (Alighieri

Purg. 12.90), which Mandelbaum translates as, “the trembling star that rises in the morning.” Virgil warns his pupil to prepare himself, because this day is like no other:

Di reverenza il viso e li atti addorna, sì che i diletti lo ‘nviarci in suso; pensa che questo dì mai non raggiorna. (Alighieri Purg. 12.82–84)

(Adorn your face and acts with reverence that he be pleased to send us higher. Remember- today will never know another .)

What Virgil is referring to, is the turning point. Today will be a special day that will transform the Pilgrim. The angel approaches with open arms:

A noi venìa la creatura bella, biancovestito e ne la faccia quale par tremolando mattutina stella. Le braccia aperse, e indi aperse l’ale; disse: ‘Venite: qui presso i gradi, e agevolemente omai si sale. A questo invito vegnon molto radi: o gente omana, per volar su nata, perché a poco vento così cadi?’ Menocci ove la roccia era tagliata; quivi mi battè l’ali per la fronte; poi mi promise sicura l’andata. (Alighieri Purg. 88–99)

(That handsome creature came toward us; his clothes were white, and in his aspect he seemed like the trembling star that rises in the morning. He opened wide his arms, then spread his wings; He said: “Approach: the steps are close at hand; From this point on one can climb easily. 34

This invitation’s answered by so few: O humankind, born for the upward flight, Why are you driven back by wind so slight? He led us to a cleft within the rock, and then he struck my forehead with his wing; that done, he promised me safe journeying.)

[The] “mattutina stella” [with] “le braccia aperse,” described by Mandelbaum as “the angel of humility,” reminds one of Christ, who opens his arms to those who call to Him and repent. In fact, it is visually symbolic of His crucifixion, and expressively symbolic of His acceptance and forgiveness of the sinner by his crucified “open arms.” Through careful study of scriptures, it is could be said that the angel is Christ who says, “I am the root and stock of David, the bright and morning star” (Apoc. 22.16). The encouraging words of the angel represent God’s merciful nature, telling man that salvation is obtainable for he who humbles himself. Since the Pilgrim put on the reed of humility, “il giunco schietto” (Alighieri Purg. 1.94), Virgil explains to him by the word “omai” (107),

[old Italian for oramai], which means that from this point on his upward bound journey is lighter. The angel indicates that this is not a common occurrence, by the usage of the word “radi;” it is, in fact a “rare” event because something is about to occur.

The long journey of transformation toward salvation is not without sacrifice, and therefore not everyone is willing to undertake it. Then the angel preaches momentarily to mankind. He wonders why man who was created to be with God allows himself to stumble, or literally, why he should lose his balance with such “poco vento” (Alighieri

Purg. 12 96), or [faint winds]. He proceeds to lead the Pilgrim and his guide to a split rock, perhaps as a sign of approval that the Pilgrim had chosen the right road, and liberates him of the sin of pride. This canto marks another turning point as the first “P” of

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the seven on his forehead disappears when pride, the first of all capital sins, is erased from his forehead.

And so, from Purgatorio 12 on, Dante is promised a lighter and more pleasant journey. Harmonious voices of the souls sing. Figuratively speaking, a weight has just been lifted from the elated Pilgrim. Not quite understanding why he is feeling transformed, Dante reverts to his guide Virgil for some answers:

… “ Maestro dì, qual cosa greve levata sè da me, che nulla quasi per me fatica, andando, si riceve?” Rispuose: “Quando i P che son rimasi ancor nel volto tuo presso che stinti, saranno, com’è l’un, del tutto rasi, fier li tuoi piè dal buon voler sì vinti, che non pur non fatica sentiranno, ma fia diletto loro esser sù pinti.” (Alighieri Purg. 12.118–126)

(… ”Master, tell me, what heavy weight has been lifted from me, so that I, in going, notice no fatigue?” He answered: “When the P’s that still remain upon your brow—now almost all are faint— have been completely, like this P, erased your feet will be so mastered by good will. that they not only will not feel travail but will delight when they are urged uphill.”)

The first P (Peccatum), which represents the sin of pride, is removed from the Pilgrim’s forehead, rendering his flight lighter. When his will becomes perfectly aligned with that of God, will the rest be erased, thus allowing him to advance to Paradiso.

Through the act of obedience, the Pilgrim willfully chose the right path, the road to salvation, with the help of reason, represented by Virgil, who with great approval,

“sorrise” “smiled”, as the Pilgrim feels less unencumbered. In contrast, the self- gratifying Lucifer and his cohorts are “those who have lost the good of the intellect”

(Alighieri Inf. 3.18) and therefore, chose disobedience, the road to destruction.

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From Purgatorio 12 on, the Pilgrim’s journey is easier because he has willfully chosen to change his course. As the hopeful Dante and Virgil embark on their ascent, they befittingly hear a song, “Beati pauperes spiritu,” of which the poet comments on the sweetness of the sound. Once again, Mandelbaum brings to mind the scriptural verse is the opening of the first beatitude, found in Matthew 5:3, “Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven” (Alighieri. Purg. 347). As a reminder to the proud, this beatitude could not be more appropriate, most likely urging the Pilgrim to chime in.

Just as David, the humble psalmist (Alighieri Purg. 10.64) was forgiven of all his sins, it is by no coincidence that in Purgatorio 27 the Pilgrim is freed of all his transgressions. The seven P’s, representative of the seven capital sins are finally removed from the Pilgrim’s forehead, symbolic of complete absolution.7 Freed from sin, the

Pilgrim is about to be crowned by his master Virgil. He is now well on his way to completing the rest of his journey through Purgatorio on to the kingdom of Paradiso.

Virgil confirms Dante’s deliverance:

… Il temporal foco e l’etterno veduto hai, figlio; e se’ venuto in parte dov’io per me più oltre non discerno. Tratto t’ho qui con ingegno e con arte; lo tuo piacere omai prendi per duce; fuor se’ de l’erte vie, fuor se’ de l’arte. (Alighieri Purg. 27.127–132)

(My son, you’ve seen the temporary fire and eternal fire; you have reached the place past which my powers cannot see. I’ve brought you here, through intellect and art; from now on, let your pleasure be your guide; you’re past the steep and past the narrow paths.)

Now that the Pilgrim’s will is “libero, dritto e sano,” “free, erect and whole,” he receives his master’s approval for having advanced: “per ch’io te sovra te corono e mitrio,” that is, “I crown and miter you over yourself” (142). 37

In Purgatorio 30 as Virgil makes his unnoticed exit, Beatrice assumes the responsibility of leading the Pilgrim to salvation. First the Pilgrim is baptized in the cleansing river of Lethe, and then his journey to Paradiso begins.

In Conclusion

The exchange of guide from Virgil to Beatrice is indicative of the synthesis that

Dante explains in Convivio—the rapport between philosophy and theology (Alighieri

Dante’s Il Convivio xxiii). Reason is limited—when dealing with metaphysical issues it brings one only to a certain point. Salvation is attainable only through faith. The access to

Paradiso is not granted if not accompanied by faith. Faith is necessary for those things that surpass our intellect, our understanding. The Pilgrim’s cleansing of sins occurs through the of . Through humility the Pilgrim had abandoned his will, thus rendering his intellect sound.

Mankind is always subject to temptation, and therefore can certainly fall into danger. Beatrice recommends anchoring oneself through belief. This could be an argument for steadfastness in the study of the scriptures in combination with faith—one who chooses, through free will, to eschew intellectual thought and by faith, to cling to the divine revelation, resulting in a grounded and stable single mindedness to avoid the temptations of “l’antico avversaro, “the ancient foe.”

How does this have anything to do with our next subject Lucifer? The real artist of sorts or con artist is Lucifer who contaminated tempted not only the Pilgrim to sinning, but Adam and Eve in the garden, and then, all of his progeny. Lucifer had failed as a superior angel, according to medieval thought, and by being cast from heaven his mission became corruption and ultimately destruction:

Per non soffrire a la virtù che vole 38

freno a suo prode, quell’ uom che non nacque, dannando sé, dannò tutta la sua prole. ( Alighieri Par. 7.25–27)

(Since he could not endure the helpful curb on his willpower, the man who was not born, damning himself, damned all his progeny.)

Lucifer had used his intellect to disobey and introduced the first sin, thus contaminating the world.

39 CHAPTER II: WHO IS LUCIFER?

And that great dragon was cast down, that old , who is called the and Satan, who seduceth the whole world. And he was cast unto the earth: and his angels were thrown with him. (Apoc. 12.9)

Throughout history, the entity of Lucifer has dominated the collective consciousness of the western world. Much confusion exists around the identity of

Lucifer, but for the purpose of this dissertation it should be established that in Dante’s perception, the titles Lucifer, Satan, the Ancient Foe, the Devil, and the Evil Worm, to name a few, were considered one and the same by the Poet. We can also rest assured that the figure of the King of Babylon in is none other than Lucifer, as referenced in

Richard Lansing’s The Dante Encyclopedia (Lansing. The Dante Encyclopedia 574). We can arrive at this conclusion through an understanding of the theologians, Augustine,

Gregory the Great, and whose teachings were prominent in Dante’s time, and that are widely accepted as having an influence on his work and ideology.

One question that has arisen among scholars and theologians today concerning the scriptural passages ascribed to Lucifer and their interpretations is whether the King of

Tyre in Ezechiel is in fact, Lucifer. As mentioned earlier, this perplexing creature has been designated with various monikers, more than likely due to his complex nature.

Some of the primary scriptural references that this discourse rests upon are found in

Ezechiel, where our subject can be literally read as the King of Tyre. The writings of

40 Augustine, Gregory the Great, and Thomas Aquinas, three of the most influential theologians of the medieval period, confirm this association. Most likely, Dante would have agreed with them, as well. Augustine’s reference to Ezechiel is found in his work,

The City of God:

And how do they answer the prophetic proofs- either what Isaiah says when he represents the devil under the person of the king of Babylon, “How art thou fallen, O Lucifer, son of the morning?” or what Ezechiel says, “Thou hast been in Eden, the garden of God; every precious stone was thy covering,” (Eze. 28:13) where it is meant that he was one time without sin; for a little after it is still more explicitly said, “Thou wast perfect in thy ways”? And if these passages cannot well be otherwise interpreted, we must understand by this one also, “He abode not in truth,” that he was once in truth, but did not remain in it.8 (Augustine 330).

Several things come into play. Here the theologian clearly establishes a correlation between the of Tyre in Ezechiel, and the biblical Lucifer, and makes the same association of Lucifer with the King of Babylon in the Book of Isaiah (14.12).

Furthermore, he maintains that at the time he was created, Lucifer was perfection, until he transgressed.

Pope Gregory I, also known as Gregory the Great, was the first theologian to become Pope whose contributions to Church doctrine are noteworthy. On the subject of angels, according to Lansing’s translation of Dante’s philosophical treatise Convivio,

Dante adheres to the order of angels as established by Gregory the Great (Alighieri

Dante’s Il Convivio 245–246). What is important here, is that Dante shares the same principles derived from the theologian who positions Satan in his Moralia:

And it is said to Satan by Ezekiel, Thou wast a seal of similitude, full of wisdom, and perfect in beauty in the delights of the Paradise of God. [Ez. 28.12] In the whole creation, then, men and angels came into being together, because they came forth distinct from every irrational creature. Because then in all the creation there is no rational being but men and Angels, whatever can not exercise reason, 41

is not made together with Man. Let it be said then to man, let it be said of the angel, who although he lost the power of his high estate, yet lost not the subtlety of a rational nature. (Gregory 32. 17)

The topic of Lucifer and angels is brought to the forefront in the Commedia. We can say that the medievalists considered Satan to be Lucifer. According to Gregory, angels and humans are endowed with intellect, and they both have free will. Dante embraced the same sentiments, and most likely recognized the Lucifer in The Book of Ezekiel.

The discussion in the writings of St. Thomas of Aquinas that refer to the aforementioned scriptural reference in Ezekiel 28 (Vulgate Ezechiel) confirms this as well: This argument substantiates the belief Aquinas held that the King of Tyre and

Lucifer are one and the same: For it is stated (Ezek. 28.14): “Thou wast a cherub stretched out, and protecting, and I set thee in the holy mountain of God.” Aquinas refers to the cherub as the “highest among the angels who sinned” (Aquinas Sum. Theol. I 317).

In Dante’s works, especially in his philosophical treatise Convivio and in the Commedia, there is sufficient evidence that Dante read Aquinas. However, in reference to the hierarchy of angels, Dante’s Lucifer is considered by many Dante scholars as a seraph.

Mandelbaum calls him an (Alighieri Par. 377). Aquinas believes Lucifer was a cherub, based on the description in Ezekiel. This topic will continue to be debated with no resolve. A palpable argument can be brought forth at this time that the writer of

Ezekiel did not intend for the subject in the verse mentioned in this study to indicate anyone other than Lucifer. Congruently, one must concede that the poet Dante would have also concurred with the characterization defined by Aquinas, Gregory and

Augustine alike.

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The Identity of Lucifer as Satan

The identity of Lucifer9 as Satan is addressed in the following. In Satan: The

Early Christian Tradition, Jeffrey Burton Russell claims that although there may be a dating problem, most likely , an early Christian writer (c 240 AD), is the person who first identified Lucifer as Satan (Russell 130). In addition, Origen maintained that

God created everything good, and that Satan was created a good angel (127), but through his own will became evil. This idea is in harmony with the medieval theologians

Augustine, Gregory and Aquinas whose major works influenced Dante. The word satan originates from the Hebrew satan, which means literally adversary. Satan is translated from the Hebrew ha-Satan to mean the accuser, which became synonymous with the word Lucifer in the early medieval Church. Dante refers to Lucifer as “L’antico avversaro,” “the ancient foe” (Alighieri Purg. 11.20).

Inquisitive and exacting in his work, Dante’s influences must not have been limited exclusively to Roman Catholic dogma. To complete the picture of his realms described in the Commedia, he must assuredly have searched for information and references outside of the limited translation of the Vulgate that was sanctioned by the

Church. In fact, his opposition to the tenets flowing from Rome can be duly noted as he places Popes in his Inferno. He utilized literary references that are unmistakably of

Jewish origin in the Commedia, such as the term judei or giudei, meaning the Jews, and other terms such as Hosanna, Sabaoth, and Jah, references that would be found in

Hebrew texts. He held the Jew in high esteem as he warns the Christian in Paradiso:

Uomini siate, e non pecore matte, sì che ‘l Giudeo di voi tra voi non rida! (Par. 5.80–81)

(be men, and not like sheep gone mad, so that the Jew that lives among you not deride you!) 43

This utilization of Hebrew terminology indicates that Dante was familiar with the

Hebrew culture, and to an extent, with .

The Vulgate translation of scripture, which was interpreted from Greek texts, had omitted the reference in Ezekiel to Lucifer as a musician, endowed in his physiology with musical instruments, rendering him fully capable of song and accompaniment. This omission may be understood in light of the Catholic practice of a cappella liturgical song, which would not have been congruent with the Old Testament picture of an angel assigned to provide worship at the throne of God with instrumental accompaniment.

Indeed, the term a cappella literally translates, as the chapel, referring to the Sistine

Chapel in the Vatican, where traditionally, liturgical song was performed without instrumental accompaniment.

This is an important omission as a key to the understanding of Lucifer, and of why Dante’s silenced character, the once proud artist who in his inception carried the position of worship facilitator, is now placed by Dante in the abyss absent of song and music. This silencing of Lucifer could be related to Dante’s understanding of his initial position as musician, who through the corruption of his gifting, must be relegated to the eternal abyss sans voice. Dante’s understanding of the Hebrew translation can be observed in this treatment of Lucifer in the Commedia.

Lucifer in the Commedia exhibits intellectual attributes and behavior that conform to Scripture, although his grotesque physical characteristics are primarily a product of

Dante’s imagination, albeit with the influence of scriptural imagery. The biblical Lucifer who fell from God’s grace, once “perfect in beauty” (Ezek. 28.12), is described in the

Commedia as, “la creatura ch’ebbe il bel sembiante“ (Alighieri Inf. 34.18) “that creature

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who was once a handsome presence.” The unrepentant Lucifer, in the hands of the poet, becomes a carefully crafted creature of evil, deliberately placed in the frozen lake of

Cocytus in the ninth and last bolgia of Inferno 34.

Dante intentionally transforms this vision of angelic beauty to a distorted, grotesque, bird-like being with one head and three faces, each devouring a prospective guest, who represent the ones Dante considered the three foremost sinners

S’ fu sì bel com’elli è ora brutto, e contra ‘l suo fattore alzò le ciglia, ben dee da lui procedere ogne lutto. Oh quanto parve a me grande maraviglia quand’io vidi tre facce a la sua testa L’una dinanzi, e quella era vermiglia; l’altr’eran due, che s’aggiugnieno a questa sovresso ‘l mezzo di ciascuna spalla, e sè giugniero al loco de la cresta. (Alighieri Inf. 34.34–42)

(If he was once as handsome as he now is ugly and, despite that, raised his brows against his Maker, one can understand how every sorrow has its source in him! I marveled when I saw that, on his head, he had three faces: one-in front-bloodred; and then another two that just above the midpoint of each shoulder, joined the first; and at the crown, all three were reattached.)

Dante builds a contrast between the misshapen creature of Inferno 34 and the once perfect Lucifer of the Bible. Lucifer’s three-faced monstrosity is a blasphemous parody and perversion of the Holy . Similarly, his angelic wings are transformed into the bat-like apparatus that keep lake perpetually frozen as the wind freezes Lucifer’s tears (Alighieri Inf. 34, 46–52). This “regis… inferni” [king of Hell] as described by

Virgil in the opening lines of Inferno 34, is a hideous creature devoid of any plumage that no longer represents goodness but evil and transgression. In order to understand Dante’s

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delineation of Lucifer, it will be fruitful to see the scriptural basis of this once angelic being.

Images of Lucifer in Scripture

There is sufficient evidence in the Commedia to speculate that when depicting his

Lucifer, Dante drew primarily from the Book of Isaiah (in the Vulgate, Isaias): “…the seraphim: the one had six wings, and the other had six wings…” (Isa. 6.2); “Thy pride is brought down to hell, thy carcass is fallen down:” (14.11), “How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, who didst rise in the morning” (14.12); and equally, from the Book of

Ezekiel: “Thou wast the seal of resemblance, full of wisdom, and perfect in beauty”

(Ezek. 28.12), “Thou wast perfect in thy ways from the day of creation, till iniquity was found in thee” (28.15). Furthermore, the Poet extracts from Luke, 2 Peter, and

Apocalipsis Ioannis (Revelation), as well as other scripture, to articulate in more detail

Lucifer’s inherent qualities and to expand his development. In addition, certain specific scriptural verses demonstrate how Lucifer is literally connected to music. The aforementioned verses in Ezekiel and Isaiah combine to paint a picture of the circumstances surrounding the nature and purpose of the angel Lucifer.

Aquinas on Angels and Reason

The ability to reason and make decisions requires the capacity to rationally, and to possess intellectual capability. This goes in concert with free will, and the duties and responsibilities of the angels serve as an indication of their intellectual capacities.

One cannot exist without the other, as the angel must have free will combined with intelligence in order to make rational, coherent decisions.

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Aquinas, who Dante read thoroughly, makes many arguments concerning the intelligence of angels, including but not limited to the statement, “…the intellectual light is perfect in the angel…” (Aquinas Sum. Theol. I 290), and Dante commonly referred to angels as “Intelligences” in Convivio (Alighieri Dante’s Il Convivio 44). With the understanding that man was created below angels as seen below, medieval philosophers and theologians concluded that angels would certainly possess intellectual capabilities along with the ability to feel emotion. Aquinas speaks of the angels who were created with a natural disposition to love their creator (Aquinas Sum. Theol. I 306). This, combined with free will and the intellectual capacity to choose, enabled them to honor and worship their creator without compunction. This, combined with the position of angels in the order of the universe, begins to explain the reason for Lucifer’s rebellion. In scripture we see that the placement of angels in God's hierarchy was above corporeal man:

“What is man that thou art mindful of him? or the son of man that thou visitest him? Thou hast made him a little less than the angels, thou hast crowned him with glory and honour…” (Ps. 8.5–6)

Angels were also through their inherent intellect given awareness of the mystery of God's plan for man, which was based on the Incarnation:

For all are ministering spirits, sent to minister for them who shall receive the inheritance of salvation (Heb. i.14); and this is brought about by the mystery of the Incarnation. Hence it was necessary for all of them to be instructed in this mystery from the very beginning. (Aquinas Sum. Theol. I 287)

This knowledge, that was set before them as the ultimate plan for the salvation and the glorification of man, begins to complete the picture of God’s work through and in the person of Christ, the son of man, and accounts for the reasoning of Lucifer that was borne

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of intellect but tainted by aberrant emotion. Partially aware of the mystery of God’s plan, yet unaware of the culminating passion of the cross, Lucifer mistakenly aids in the completion of the plan with the crucifixion. As read in Aquinas,

All the angels had some knowledge from the very beginning respecting the mystery of God’s kingdom, which found its completion in Christ; and most of all from the moment when they were beatified by the vision of the Word, which vision the never had. Yet all the angels did not fully and equally apprehend it; hence the demons much less fully understood the mystery of the Incarnation, when Christ was in the world. For as Augustine observes (De Civ. Dei ix. 21), It was not manifested to them as it was to the holy angels, who enjoy a participated of the Word; but it was made known by some temporal effects, so as to strike terror into them. For had they fully and certainly known that he was the Son of God and the effect of His passion, they would never have procured the crucifixion of the Lord of Glory. (Aquinas Sum. Theol. I 321)

Therefore, the angel Lucifer had limited knowledge of his destiny under God’s plan for all creation (Aquinas Sum. Theol. I 287). Aware of future events that would lead to his demotion through the of man in the person of Christ, he became enraged, and filled with pride and envy, rebelled against God. Essentially, what he wanted and expected was the position of second in the kingdom under God, and nothing less. He understood that Christ, the one who was created lower than he, would usurp his position.

What he failed to conceive was that the final act of sacrifice by Christ on the cross would be the defining action that would be key to the failure of his plan, leading to his ultimate demise.

In his capacity as a , and armed with this partial knowledge, Lucifer held sway over other angels who shared his displeasure, and through his charismatic and intellectual abilities, he compelled one-third of angelic hosts to follow. This sets the structure for the rebellion and war against God and all of his creation. This premise was 48

understood and illuminated by Dante, beginning in his Convivio (Alighieri Dante’s Il

Convivio 158), and eventually in his major literary work, the Commedia (Alighieri Par.

7.25–33), and later in this canto:

Principio del cader fu il maladetto superbir di colui che tu vedesti da tutti i pesi del mondo costretto. Quelli che vedi qui furon modesti a riconoscer sé da la bontate che li avea fatti a tanto intender presti: per che le viste lor furo essaltate con grazia illuminante e con lor merto, sì c’hanno ferma e piena volontate; (Alighieri Par. 20.55–63)

(The fall had its beginning in the cursed pride of the one you saw, held in constraint by all of the world’s weights. Those whom you see in Heaven here were modestly aware that they were ready for intelligence so vast, because of that Good which had made them: through this, their vision was exalted with illuminating grace and with their merit, so that their will is constant and intact.)

In Mandelbaum’s translation, we see where Dante contrasts the good with the evil angels, clarifying that all had been given certain knowledge of what was to come.

That Lucifer continued to exercise his evil will after his fall is evident in Dante’s description of him in Purgatorio 11 and is key to this dissertation. The phrase, “che sì la sprona,” translated by Singleton as “who so spurs it” (Singleton Purgatorio 2 Comm.

225), [to evil] refers to Lucifer as the one who incites mankind to sin. The verb sprona, is derived from the infinitive spronare, which means to incite or encourage. Dante the Poet understood that Lucifer’s spurring to evil was an unrelenting, continual attack on the souls in Purgatorio, and he made it clear that the recitation of the Lord’s Prayer was necessary in this regard: “Deliver us from the evil one, and lead us not into temptation.”

This is the oft-repeated plea that serves confront and resist the spurring of the enemy. The

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souls in this scenario are praying against the “retrosi passi” “the backward steps”

(Alighieri Purg.10.123), which represent a regression back to sin. This brings to mind the backslidden pilgrim in Purgatorio 2, who I will discuss in the next chapter.

According to Aquinas, the great mystery that Lucifer was privy to lead him first to rebellion and subsequently to the attempt of corrupting mankind, resulting in the sin of

Adam, who, spurred by the serpent, entered into disobedience. According to Dante,

Adam could not endure the temptations. Dante, like Aquinas also was aware of the

Trinity’s plan. From Convivio, one reads:

When the infinite goodness of God willed to bring back into conformity with itself the human creature, who had been deformed by separation from God through the sin of the first man’s transgression, it was decreed, in that most elevated and most united consistory of the Trinity, that the Son of God should descend to earth to bring about this harmony. (Alighieri. Dante’s Il Convivio 158)

This redemptive act is articulated in these verses in the Paradiso:

Per non soffrire a la virtù che vole freno a suo prode, quell’uom che non nacque, dannando sé, dannò tutta sua prole; onde l’umana specie inferma giacque giù per secoli molti in grande errore, fin ch’al Verbo di Dio discender piacque u’ la natura, che dal suo fattore s’era allungata, unì a sé in persona con l’atto sol del suo etterno amore. (Alighieri Par. 7.25–33)

(Since he could not endure the helpful curb on his willpower, the man who was born, damning himself, damned all his progeny. For this, mankind lay sick, in the abyss of a great error, for long centuries, until the Word of God willed to descend to where the nature that was sundered from its Maker was united to His person by the sole act of His eternal Love.)

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Dante points to the redemption, contending that through a decree by the Trinity, “the Son of God should descend to earth”, in order to bring about the harmony disrupted by “the human creature” that had sinned (Alighieri Dante’s Il Convivio 158). Dante continues his commentary on the events occurring in the Garden of Eden before the fall when nature was separated from the creator, as mankind became corrupted. Redemption was made possible through, “the sole act of His eternal Love,” the sacrifice of Christ on the cross.

We now understand the true motive behind Lucifer’s actions. Erroneously perceiving God’s sovereign plan for creation as a personal rejection, his intellect becomes corrupted and distorted, or as Dante puts it, possessing “evil will” (Alighieri Inf. 31.55-

56).

Lucifer as Artist: Musical References in Ezekiel

Having established that Dante through his study of Aquinas must have equated the character in Ezekiel to Lucifer, we will explore the significant verses. These verses in

Ezekiel, a Jewish prophet in the Old Testament, describe in greater detail the original equipping of Lucifer with all attributes necessary for the appointed duties as leader of worship of the creator, as well as protector in the holy mountain of God:

Thou wast in the pleasures of the paradise of God: every precious stone was thy covering: the sardius, the topaz, and the jasper, the chrysolite, and the onyx, and the beryl, the sapphire, and the carbuncle, and the emerald: gold the work of thy beauty: and thy pipes were prepared in the day that thou wast created. Thou a cherub stretched out, and protecting, and I set thee in the holy mountain of God, thou hast walked in the midst of the stones of fire. Thou wast perfect in thy ways from the day of thy creation, till iniquity was found in thee. (Ezek. 28.13–15)

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In the Orthodox Jewish version, compiled by Phillip Goble in 2002, the difference although slight makes a more compelling argument as to the association of Lucifer and music:

Thou hast been in Eden, Gan ; every even yekarah (precious stone) was thy covering, the ruby, topaz and the diamond, the beryl, the onyx, and the jasper, the sapphire, the turquoise, and the emerald, and zahav; the workmanship of thy hand drums and of thy wind instruments was prepared in thee in the day that though wast created. Though art the keruv mimshach (anointed cherub) that guardeth; and I have set thee so; thou wast tamin in thy drakhim from the day that thou wast created, until wickedness was found in thee. (Goble Yechezkel 28.13–15)

The argumentation among scholars is whether these verses apply to Lucifer. Gregory the

Great, Augustine, and Aquinas attest to the fact that this description, “thou wast perfect in thy ways from the day of creation” can only refer to Lucifer before his fall. By the words,

“instruments… prepared in thee,” the suggestion is that not only was Lucifer supplied with the instruments necessary to produce music, he was music itself – the music created within for the appropriate presentation of a magnificent display of worship for the creator. The Douay-Rheims version defines the instruments as pipes, whereas the Hebrew version mentions hand drums and wind instruments as part of Lucifer’s physiology.

Musical References in Isaiah: The King of Babylon as Lucifer?

Lucifer was indeed given specific tasks and endowed with perfect musical ability.

Because of all those gifts combined, he saw that he was able to draw the other angels to himself. That was another source of his pride. Careful study of one particular verse in

Isaiah reveals some interesting inconsistencies. We will see how three versions all differ somewhat, some more drastically than others, and relevant to this work. We will begin with the Douay-Rheims version, which is derived from Latin Vulgate translation:

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All shall answer, and say to thee: Thou also art wounded as well as we, thou art become like unto us. Thy pride is brought down to hell, thy carcass is fallen down: under thee shall the moth be strewed, and worms shall be thy covering. (Isa. 14.10–11)

In the New King James translation of the identical scripture, it reads:

All they shall speak and say unto thee, Art thou also become weak as we? Art thou become like unto us? Thy pomp is brought down to the grave, and the noise of thy viols: the worm is spread under thee, and the worms cover thee. (Isa. 14.10–11).

The Orthodox Jewish version is as such:

All they do answer and say unto thee: 'Art thou also become weak as we? Art thou become like unto us? Thy pomp is brought down to the nether-world, and the noise of thy nevalim (harps); the rimmah (graveworm) is spread under thee, and the tola’at (worm) covers thee. (Goble Isa. 14.10–11)

As we observe here, in the Latin Vulgate/Douay-Rheims there is no mention of an instrument in verse 11. The two here, including other refer to a stringed instrument such as “viols,” “psalteries,” etc. It would appear that in the Latin versions the reference could have been deliberately omitted. This could possibly be from an intentional misrepresentation of the scriptures by the Church due to their theology and belief that music was seductive in nature. This may have resulted in the elimination of music in liturgy with the exception of the highly simplified and censored vocal songs, absent of any musical accompaniment.

Dante’s knowledge of Hebrew history seems substantial-his insertion of biblical characters from the Old Testament and the choice of David, as his prototype for humility and songs of worship to God. The vastness of liturgical hymns by the spirits and angels

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throughout Purgatorio and Paradiso as psalms of David become the center of attention, in juxtaposition to Lucifer- the antithesis of humility where he remains in his dungeon speechless.

Nevertheless, the sound of his stringed instruments that Lucifer was highly adept at producing was not meant for his own glorification, but was intended for the purpose of adulation of the creator. Consequently, Lucifer distorted God’s intended purpose for His music, in his vain attempt to bring glory to himself, and as a result, his music was contaminated with pride and rendered profane. While God had initially favored Lucifer above all angels, one may conclude that along with pride, Lucifer must have become equally filled with envy of his creator, before his insurrection (Apoc. 12.40).10 Since then, this evildoer has been lurking on earth, seeking revenge against his Maker by tempting and devouring man, God’s cherished creation. The medieval understanding of Lucifer emphasized his pride and envy of his creator and his objective, after his fall, to tempt human beings into falling.

Dante most surely maintained that Lucifer continues to spur mankind into sinning

(Alighieri Purg. 11.19–22). On Lucifer and the angels he rounded up for his revolt in heaven, Aquinas clarifies their status, and nature of sin:

The sin of the highest angel was the cause of the others sinning; not as compelling them, but as inducing them by a kind of exhortation. A token thereof appears in this, that all demons are subjects of that highest one (Aquinas Sum. Theol. I 318)

It would stand to reason that the most superior than the rest in makeup, still remained at the forefront. Lucifer, the highest angel, according to Aquinas induced the others to sin.

Dante the Poet was in agreement, as he argues in the canto 11 of Purgatorio (Terrace of the Prideful) that Lucifer spurs mankind to sin. Dante recognized music that was profane 54

and self-adulating as having no redeeming value other than to promote the sin of pride, but identified the value of contemplative song as having the purpose of directing one’s mind to the creator, and therefore to a path of redemption.

Nomenclature

In Scripture, Lucifer has been identified as cherub, seraph, and archangel, and has over time acquired myriad monikers as well, both inside and outside of Christendom.

Rather than focusing on all of his categories and names, I will concentrate on a larger picture –the gestalt image of the complete character in question. This will additionally explain the complex motives behind the fall and rebellion of Lucifer, a perplexing entity.

Dante considered Lucifer to be a seraph, hence, Dante scholars, for the most part, follow suit. This agreement most likely stems from the biblical seraph’s properties of six wings (Isa. 6.2), the same in number as the distorted Lucifer portrayed in Dante’s Inferno.

The biblical Lucifer had battled his counterpart the archangel , and had influence over one third of the angels that fell with him. This may have led to the notion that

Lucifer was an archangel as well, before his fall. Allen Mandelbaum, the Commedia’s translator chosen for this project, classifies Lucifer as an archangel (Alighieri Par. 377).

In scripture, the only angelic beings with wings are the cherubim and seraphim, two orders of angels, the seraphim being of a higher magnitude. Cherubim are beautiful and exotic, covered with precious stones. We are told that cherubim have four wings,

(Ezek. 1.23) while seraphim have six wings- two with which to fly, two that cover the face, and two that cover the feet (Isa. 6.2). This particular verse gives a detailed description of seraphim. We see in the following verse that the six-winged seraphim are designed to worship: “And they cried one to another, and said: Holy, holy, holy, the Lord

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God of hosts, all the earth is full of his glory” (Isa. 6.2). Dante’s depiction of his six- winged Lucifer is akin to the seraph, in that he was provided with three sets of wings.

Angels were made to worship. With his superior attributes, Lucifer may have been responsible for leading worship, and this further establishes the connection of music to

Lucifer as the six-winged seraph entrusted to bring about the melodious and perfect harmonies to God as he sat on his throne (Isa. 6.3). After all, as a winged seraph, as fully equipped as he was with all of the instruments and ability to make music it would stand to reason that Lucifer, with great beauty and prominence, would be tempted to aspire to be like the Most High God, allowing pride to enter and henceforth constitute the fall.

Additionally, Lucifer was created as the symbol of perfection, endowed with wisdom and “perfect in beauty” (Ezek. 11.12). In Art and the Christian Intelligence,

Robert J. O’Connell’s study on St. Augustine’s De Musica makes these observations:

Augustine has arrived at the point where he gives the fullest account which presents of the fall… the fallen condition involves an apparent paradox: the soul thou fallen remains ‘prudent’ enough to know that it should cleave to eternal realities, yet it does not in fact cleave to them. In all the beauties that delight and distract it, seeks (and dimly knows it seeks) the divine unchangeable equality which constitutes perfect beauty. (O’Connell 77)

The word “perfect beauty” in De Musica is being used in context of music. The once

“perfect in beauty” (Ezek. 28.12) was a description attributed to Lucifer, the progenitor of pride. Interestingly enough, yet making perfect sense, there is no other being in the Bible described as perfect. And so, according to description, this once master musician blends in with the seraphim, as Dante bestows him with six wings.

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Modern Scholarship on Dante’s Lucifer

In “Monsters Movements and ,” from Monsters in the Italian Literary

Imagination, Virginia Jewiss comments on the master deceiver of mankind, as to his purpose on earth. She relies on Augustine’s rationale in the City of God, for the answer:

Augustine insists that in the face of such seeming monstrosity man has no right to judge the wonders of divine creation, for God certainly has a reason for his acts…. Augustine’s emphasis is on the didactic and ethical impact of the monstrous; by moralizing monstrosity, he places it squarely within the framework of human salvation, disarming it of its evil powers and subsuming its fearful elements into divine intention. (Jewiss 187)

As Jewiss contemplates Lucifer’s transformation from “that once most beautiful darling of Paradise” (185), she describes Dante’s Lucifer in the final glacial abyss:

Despite his total inversion and negotiation, Satan nevertheless performs the mediating role he shunned in his vainglorious fight: he “ne fè scala col pelo” (made a ladder for us with his hair: Inf, 34:119). His legs become the pilgrim’s ladder of ascent, and Dante crosses his body as it were a stairway. Virgil, with Dante on his back, grasps the hairy legs and climbs. Satan is none other than the bridge linking the world below to that above, the vehicle through which Dante progresses on his journey. More specifically, it is in crossing Satan’s body that down becomes up and Hell is revealed as part of the pilgrim’s path to Heaven. Satan not only marks the farthest edge of the dark world. He is the threshold and bridge between Hell and Purgatory. (185)

The atmosphere of Inferno is in complete opposition to what Dante sees and hears in

Purgatorio.

In his dissertation, From “Selva Oscura” to “Divina Foresta,” James Fiatarone makes his observations; his description underscores the dispirited dwelling of Inferno:

The rites of hell are now limited to the mechanical rhythm of the masticating jaws of Satan, and of the movements of his arms and wings. Even speech and all sound (even the “nota di cocogna”) made by the shivering teeth of the frozen souls) will eventually come to an end in this atmosphere of total antithesis, that is, complete negation, not just ironic reversal, of all that is human or divine, including even 57

the elements of voice, song, and the acoustical phenomena present in previous cantos. (Fiatarone 45)

In contrast, Fiatarone stresses the contemplative disposition of the spiriti in Purgatorio:

Instead the Biblical song voiced by the souls in Purgatory is a humble prayer, as constructive as it is long and profound… It is humbly recited together with fellow spiritual companions… (39)

His comments attest to a great chasm that exists between the self-glorifying performance of the superstar, Lucifer, and the humble cries of the souls lifting up their voices in praise to God in Purgatorio.

In Scripture, the self-gratifying angel loses his desire to worship his creator. He has plans of his own. Lucifer’s rebellion, self- centeredness, and pride manifest in five “I will” statements. When he speaks of sitting on the mount of congregation, he intends to be the center of attraction, drawing the members of the gathering to himself. Lucifer’s lofty ideas were laid out when he declared:

I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt my throne above the stars of God; I will also sit on the mount of the congregation I will ascend above the heights of the clouds I will be like the ‘Most High.’ (Isa. 14.12–14)

As one continues to read, it is understood that God answers to Lucifer’s five “I Will” statements; indeed, having the last word. God’s response to Lucifer’s arrogance in Isaiah is strong and succinct:

…thou shalt be brought down to hell, into the depth of the pit. They that shall see thee, shall turn toward thee, and behold thee. Is this the man that troubled the earth, that shook kingdoms, But thou art cast out of thy grave, as an unprofitable branch defiled, and wrapped up among them that were slain by the sword, and art gone down to the bottom of the pit, as a rotten carcass. Thou shalt not keep company with them, even in burial: for thou hast destroyed thy land, thou hast

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slain thy people: the of the wicked shall not be named for ever. (Isa. 14.15–20)

In these passages, Lucifer is cast down, observed with disdain, mocked, thrown out of the grave as a carcass, and alienated. Dante also recognized the evil in Lucifer and dealt with him accordingly, in Inferno.

Concerning the Fall of Lucifer

There are many arguments that pertain to theories and explanations of Lucifer’s initial fall. Writers throughout history point to an overall picture of a pride and anger filled act of disobedience against the creator, fueled by envy. On the sin nature of Lucifer in his Summa Theologica, Aquinas alludes to two theologians, Augustine and Gregory, to substantiate his final assessment. First is a reference from Augustine to prove his point:

“Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xiv. 3) that the devil is not a fornicator nor a drunkard, nor anything of the like sort; yet he is proud and envious” (Aquinas Sum. Theol. I 313). Then

Aquinas proceeds to paraphrase from Gregory the Great’s Moralia: “Further, according to Gregory (Gregory xxxi), many vices spring from pride; and in like manner from envy”

(xxxi). Aquinas then, in Summa Theologica draws his own conclusions:

Consequently the first sin of the angel can be none other than pride. …So, after the sin of pride, there followed the evil of envy in the sinning angel, whereby he grieved over man’s good, and also over the Divine excellence, according as against the devil’s will God makes use of man for the divine Glory. (313)

One can only assume that on the subject of pride and envy and as to Lucifer’s disposition, the three theologians come to some agreement. Dante may have been influenced by their doctrine as well. As a reminder, the five “I will” statements on the mount of congregation from Isaiah (14.11–15) make a compelling argument of Lucifer’s ambition. This passage indicates a proud heart in combination with envy, clearly coveting what he desires but

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does not possess. Aware of his magnificent beauty and excellence, as the penultimate created being, Lucifer could have remained in his position of honor and served the only one higher than he. He did not consider or understand that as a creation, and not the singular creator, that anything greater than his current position was a blatant impossibility. By exploring the context of the biblical story of Lucifer, we can begin understanding the contextual background of Dante’s poetic cosmos.

On Angels

Dante, in his theological perspicacity, noted that angelic beings possessed their own free will, the ability to choose (Alighieri Purg. 11.10-12). Of both angels and men, the offering of their wills in the form of praise was sacrificial, and Dante fully understood this concept. It is congruent with the fall of Lucifer, as he willed direct praise toward himself. Therefore, man, having the natural propensity to sin as a result of the Fall, contains the desire as did Lucifer to receive praise, and consequently, the act of praise and worship becomes either self-centered or God-centered. Having free will, the act of praise is not only important in itself as an act of obedience, but is significant as a deliberate act of the will, requiring effort that goes against the natural desire to receive praise. The converse is true when praise is directed towards the self.

To offer one’s will to God is considered an act of sacrifice, according to Dante.

He uses the nature of angels as an example to illustrate this point:

Come del suo voler li angeli tuoi fan sacrificio a te, cantando osanna, così facciano li uomini de’suoi. (Alighieri Purg. 11.10–11)

(Just as Your angels, as they sing hosanna, Offer their wills to you as sacrifice, so may men offer up their wills to You.)

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Religious sacrifice for Dante is not the way we understand “sacrifice” today. His verses echo scripture; true, authentic praise is a religious sacrifice. In the book Hebrews, praise and sacrifice are one: “By him therefore let us offer the sacrifice of praise always to God, that is to say, the fruit of lips confessing to his name” (Hebrews 13.15). As a corollary, if there were no free will, it stands to reason that praise would not be a sacrifice, but a mandate. Paradiso as well, makes reference to the free will of angels:

Principio del cader fu il maladetto superbir di colui che tu dedesti da tutti I pesi del mondo costretto. Quelli che vedi qui furon modesti a riconoscer sé da la bontate che li avea fatti a tanto intender presti: per che le viste lor furo essaltate con grazia illuminante e con lor metro, sì c’hanno ferma e piena volontate; (Alighieri Par. 29.55–63)

(The fall had its beginning in the cursed pride of the one you saw, held in constraint by all of the world’s weights. Those whom you see in Heaven here were modestly aware that they were ready for intelligence so vast, because of that Good which had made them: through this, their vision was exalted with illuminating grace and with their merit, so that their will is constant and intact.)

The contrast between the prideful angel Lucifer who was banished from heaven and the humble angels is exhibited in their sound intellect and intact will.

In Scripture, the book of Psalms serves to verify the nature of angelic free will, as it defines God’s sole purpose for the creation of angels. They exist to serve God in five ways: to worship him; to do his will (concerning activities on earth); to acknowledge the voice of God’s word; to minister on God’s behalf (as also described in Heb. 1.14); and to please God while serving him. From the book of Psalms, one reads the biblical proclamation:

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Bless the Lord, all ye his angels: you that are mighty in strength, and execute his word, hearkening to the voice of his orders. Bless the Lord, all ye his hosts: you ministers of his that do his will. (Ps. 102.20–21)

The creation of angels with the ability and the intellect to choose right from wrong, thus giving them free will, was not an accident. God had a desire to reward the angels, and an intent to bless, or beatify them all, including Lucifer. To them, he said: “Bless the Lord, all ye his hosts, You ministers of His who do His will” (Ps. 103.21). The sacrifice of praise represents the will of creation aligning with the will of the creator. All angels had the ability to choose to do his will. It is not so far reaching to label Lucifer, the once angelic creature who was perfect in beauty, the leader of all music. There has to be a conductor, and with all his attributes, Lucifer was a precise fit. It is no wonder Dante rewards Lucifer with the proper retribution—speechless and devoid of song—for his having corrupted worship.

In Conclusion

In sum, this illicit, evil background is what Dante drew upon in his depiction of

Lucifer in the context of the darkness he embodied. That darkness was never intended, but resulted in man’s separation from God. A picture of Lucifer begins to emerge—the angel of light, perfect in beauty that introduces darkness to the world. He accomplished this by imparting his pride and disobedience to man, through the in the garden. We can begin to see the correlation between pride, envy, and the resultant fall of this angelic being and how a campaign had begun to destroy mankind. From the attributes of this magnificent creation, music becomes the instrument used by Lucifer to hasten the destruction of mankind.

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Dante understands that God’s goal through the incarnation of Christ is the mystery of reconciliation of man to God through himself in the person of Jesus, by the will of man and the faith and acceptance of his work on the cross as a substitute for sin

(Alighieri Par. 7.55–57). God’s goal through the incarnation of Christ is the reconciliation of man to God through himself in the person of Jesus, via the will of man and the faith and acceptance of his work on the cross as a substitute for sin (7.55–57).

Diametrically the opposite, Lucifer, the negative image of Christ, is solely interested in the corruption of the divine will of God through the deception of man, and the substitution of divine worship with prideful adoration, resulting in the ultimate destruction of God’s creation. This corruption manifests in the area of music as evidenced by this counterfeit worship directed at man instead of God, i.e., the artist, on stage,

Casella and Dante the Pilgrim in this case, who are about to embark on a popular song adored and revered by a mesmerized crowd and elevated to godlike status by the masses

(li spiriti). This essentially, is the corruption of the divine, as Lucifer has stolen what was intended for God, art, in this case, music and song, and relegated it to a meaningless parody of God’s original purpose. My analysis of music and its nature according to

Dante’s understanding as expressed in liturgical and profane song is the topic of the following chapter.

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Music

Music is the art of sound that expresses human sentiments. Claude Lévi-Strauss labels it, “the supreme mystery of the science of man” (Storr ix). In Musicophilia, Oliver

Sacks explains the properties of music in an eloquent and succinct manner:

Our auditory systems, our nervous systems, are indeed exquisitely tuned to music… the intrinsic characteristics of music itself– its complex sonic patterns woven in time, its logic, its momentum, its unbreakable sequences, its insistent rhythms and repetitions, the mysterious way in which it embodies emotion and “will.” (Sacks xii)

The mystery lies within these complex elemental properties. We may never completely understand how music affects us, as so much as we will never know all the secrets of the human brain, but we may undoubtedly conclude that it does indeed affect behavior, and

Lucifer, as Dante suggests, must have known this as well. This conction of this elusive art form to the biblical Lucifer is paramount.

In How Musical Is Man? John Blacking acknowledges music as a powerful tool, an enhancement of “human consciousness” (Blacking 114). Conversely, when used as a tool and not for its intended purpose as a means to exalt the creator, music, as Dante understood it, can lead to corruption, and ultimately demise. That is why music plays an extremely important role in Dante’s understanding of Lucifer’s character and fall. As the highest created being, his anatomical construction11 was based on musical instruments, that is to say he essentially was an instrument, fully equipped to bring glorious sounds and melodies to God in heaven. This purpose of directing praise and worship toward the 64 creator was the sole reason for his equipping, and not only was he endowed as a performer, he was visually stunning as well, “perfect in beauty.”

In order to discuss the function of music as it relates to the Commedia, let us first examine the dual nature of man—a constant struggle between the spiritual and temporal mind. The gift of music can be regarded in two ways—as an from God to the artist, or as an independently generated attribute, leading to self-aggrandizement and vainglory. From Dante’s perspective, art, independent of its creator, becomes temporal and unimportant, and is based on egoistic interests. Pertaining to this topic and paramount to this work in an episode in Purgatorio 2, where a poem written by Dante ”Amor che ne la mente mi ragiona,” and put to music by Casella, becomes a profane song and stumbling block that causes the Pilgrim to falter on his spiritual journey. This event will be a subsequent subject of study in the chapter on the Pilgrim.

That nature, according to Dante, follows “Divine Intellect and Divine Art” indicates that without God as the source “[one] scorns both nature in herself and art, her follower” (Alighieri Inf. 11.100–111). This scorn represents mankind’s rejection of the divine, a turning away from the source of all that is good, allowing pride to supplant the natural reverence and adoration that was the original intent of the gift of artistry. Dante understood the mesmerizing quality of music, as his poetry contains associations of sacred and profane song as to the paths of right and wrong. In order to see how he arrives at these conclusions, we need to look no further than to some of his influences in history.

Music in Antiquity

We know comparatively little about the actual practice of music in antiquity, specifically in Ancient Greece. The problem is that Greek notation was primitive and

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incomplete—music in that society was largely an , memorized or improvised. From the roughly seven centuries that the Greece of antiquity flourished, only seven complete pieces survive, along with another dozen or so in fragments (Keaton

42–43). We do, however, know that music was supremely important to the Greeks. An educated man had to be trained in two areas: music for the mind and gymnastics for the body (music in this context included the practice of performance, along with elements of mathematics, philosophy, and theology) (41).

The Greek philosophers of music proposed the doctrine of ethos, in which music was stated to have a direct and profound influence attributing to music a mystic quality, capable of affecting one's state of mind, character, and well being. Music took on the function of guiding the intellect of man. That a mixture of good and evil permeates mankind stems from Plato’s idea that certain art can infiltrate and harm society.

According to Plato’s The Republic, the Greek word mimesis, synonymous to the word representation, originally pertained to the dramatic as opposed to narrative poetry.

Today, the word is used to mean “an artistic creation as a whole,” and refers literally to imitation. Poetry and paintings are two end results, labeled by the philosopher as imitations of life (Plato 334).

Particularly in both Ancient Greece and the Middle Ages, music and poetry were profoundly interconnected. Purely instrumental music was considered both unimportant and inferior to vocal music until around 1650 CE (Keaton 69–70). When Plato discusses poetry as it relates to the Doctrine of Ethos, music is understood. It intensifies the effect of the poem as it is set to music and sung (41). And what is poetry but literature as music?

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The Greek connection of poetry and music is further demonstrated through the

Muses, those divine beings who oversaw and inspired mankind's efforts in the arts. There is no muse of music, but there are three for poetry: Polyhymnia, Muse of Sacred Poetry;

Euterpe, the Muse of Song and Elegaic poetry; and Erato, the Muse of Lyric Poetry. The latter is so called because it is to be accompanied by the Lyre, a harp-like instrument.

Thus, the poetry was more than written or declaimed, it was likely sung. The Cithara, a stringed instrument, is the emblem of Erato, as the Aulos, a reed instrument, is the emblem of Euterpe. For the Greeks, music and poetry are one (41–42).

Plato is astounded by the power of poetry with its potentiality to harm even the best of minds. He believed that the understanding of truth was crucial as a necessary component for a healthy society. He contends that most poetry is damaging, as it often misrepresents God, who is “the sole cause of good” (Plato 69–71). He continues on the subject of good and evil:

For we have a far smaller of good than of evil, and while God must be held to be sole cause of good, we must look for some other factors other than god as cause of the evil. (71)

Plato warns against the false representations of truth. He considers the poetry of Homer and Heroditus, for example, as misleading and psychologically harmful to impressionable minds (69–70). In the pursuit of truth, one must search for it through philosophy, and not through poetry, as they are at opposite ends of the spectrum. A philosopher seeks knowledge and wisdom… anything short of developing “mind and character” or misrepresentation of truth, according to Plato should be subject to censure for the sake of a healthy society (69–70). In sum, Plato felt that his society was set up for failure as it was in constant flux. As a result, the Republic became a classical model of civilization.

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Music in the Middle Ages

Standard studies of the history of western music begin with the Middle Ages—not because there was no music prior to that time, but because the first large body of notated music that survives is the music of the Roman in the Middle Ages.

Music has existed for all of human history, but without notation or electronic recording, after a performance is over, there is no way to recover it (Keaton 42).

The music of the medieval Church is known as Gregorian chant. While there were other kinds of chant—Mozarabic, Ambrosian, Gallican, and the like—it was the cycle of chant that was collected and codified by (r. 590–604) that became the standard for the Church throughout its range (44).

The music was monophonic (a single melody with no harmony or counterpoint) and rhythmically free. It was based on the ecclesiastical modes, scales similar to our major and minor scales, but differing in details. They were given Greek names: dorian, phrygian, lydian, and mixolydian. The names were borrowed from the Greeks, but the structures were quite different from those Greek modes. Gregory arranged the chants for an annual cycle, going through each part of the Church calendar, setting appropriate music for Easter, Pentecost, Whitsunday, etc. Chant was part of the Mass whenever it was celebrated, and in the Monasteries, the faithful also observed the Hours of Divine

Office, eight daily periods of worship, prayer, and singing, again, arranged as appropriate for the season. Taken as a whole, this is a huge body of music (Keaton 44–47). And this would have been the music Dante knew.

Dante lived at the very dawn of the discovery of harmony, as composers began with primitive organum, and gradually explored the possibilities of simultaneous sounds.

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This was most active in France, but Italy was not far behind. And he would also have been familiar with the trouvere, troubadour, and the Italian trovatori, secular poet- musicians with their songs of chivalric love. This tradition was also monophonic and modal, but sung in the vernacular (Keaton 48-49). The song of Casella is the only example we have, to this date, of Dante's own poetry being set to music in his time.

Literary Influences

We learn from his works that Dante wrote both prose and poetry in Latin, as well as in the vulgare. According to Jefferson Butler Fletcher, several literary movements that preceded him had great influence in his writings.

Before his time, two types of literature were introduced in Italy: the first type stemmed from England, Il Ciclobretone, a literary genre that dealt with adventure and love, such as King Arthur and the Round Table. The second genre originated from

France, Il Ciclocarolingio, a type of literature composed in style and religious in nature, originating from the French rule of Charlemagne. A masterful example of this category was la Chanson de Roland, also known as la chanson de geste. By the thirteenth century the French language had also become fluent in the Italian territory. In fact, the

Italian aristocracy considered the French language to be superior, so much so, that

Benvenuto Da Imola, a literary commentator on Dante, came to the defense of the poet’s work in an attempt to quell this notion of superiority.

Meanwhile, earlier in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the French had made literary strides that became diffused throughout Europe. French literature had two systems, or schools of influence: firstly, the French literature of the north, known as the language d’oil, which would develop in France and was considered in Italy to be the neo-

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latin language, and more conducive to prose. Secondly, the language of the south, known as the language d’oc, from the region of Provence, known as Provençal, proved to be highly influential in Europe, particularly for its poetry on courtly love, l’amore cortese.

An example written in Latin, entitled De Amore, by Andrea Capellano conveys all the guidelines of courtly love as to the rules and regulations enforced by a lover toward his lady. Some prerequisites are listed for the knight or cavaliere willing to follow the mandates of this highly conventionalized medieval tradition: he must never be avaricious, he must never tell lies, he must always be direct with his lover and never employ a mediator, he should never approach a lady who is already being courted by someone else, he must serve the lady, and lastly, he must remain obedient to the rules in order to practice courtly love. Interestingly enough and despite all the detailed rules courtly love was a paradox—although the knight agreed to adhere to the rules, he could never try to attain his donna gentile or gentle woman. His goal was only to approach her and engage in dialogue; nothing else could ever occur, lest the relationship be destroyed. The suitor simply needed to elevate his love interest, placing her on a perpetual pedestal. Many of these southern French poets found their way into Italy, influencing other Italian poets to compose in the language d’oc (Fletcher 16–22).

La Scuola Siciliana

Around 1200 in Sicily a school of poetry emerged known as La Scuola Siciliana, its name taken from the court of the Emperor Frederick II, king of Svevia, which is

Germany today. Frederick had brought his throne to Palermo, consequently becoming king of Sicily and of the southern part of Italy, known as the Two Sicilies. His staff included intellectually refined noblemen who, after a day’s work engaged in writing

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highly elevated poetry. This group of poets excelled, under the auspices of Frederick II, and later under his son, Manfredi. Refugees, composed of troubadours from Provence, distraught by the Albigensian Crusade of 1208-18 found both solace and acclaim in

Frederick’s court. As indicated by Fletcher, this form of poetry was highly stylized, with love at its core, dwelling on the ideals of courtesy, and beauty of the woman, perhaps as a form of escapism from the mundane duties at the royal palace. This gesture of courtly love was manifested by a knight in the quest of the love of the noble woman, for the most part, a married woman. The poets utilized variations of this theme and even invented new metric forms of poetry while discovering new ways to express their refined sentiments

(Fletcher 16–22).

Earlier in the twelfth century some Italians regarded their own vulgare as too coarse and unacceptable, thus leading them to attempt the poetry in French. The most famous of these Italian troubadours was Sordello, who is mentioned by Dante in the

Commedia (Fletcher 18). Now, a century later, with the educated Sicilian townsmen demonstrating refinement in style, its acceptance was immediate, leading Italian poets to imitate the style in Italian. This form of new poetry became a symbol of pride and spread rapidly throughout Italy. Iacopo Da Lentini was the innovator of this highly stylized form of poetry. It is said that he invented the sonnet, which continued to permeate Europe.

Possessing perhaps, a spirit of differentness, Dante found a quality of pretense within the lyric of the provençal poetry. He felt that neither the courtiers of Frederick, nor the townsmen could have possibly meant what they recited. For the most part, the courtier would engage in feudal homage, as his gesture “would be controlled in act and expression by a rigid code of genteel conventions” (Fletcher 18), toward a noble lady,

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usually married, something Dante felt was unrealistic and insincere. The poet was for the most part, “servitor of the house as well as of the heart” and susceptible to bribery, in a time when “caste ruled and elegant women were in the ascendant” (18).

Dolce Stil Nuovo

Dante’s taste in poetry took on a form of its own. Of the different literary genre, he embraced the poetic style, il Dolce Stil Nuovo. Only a few generations before him,

Guido Guinizzelli poet and native of Bologna had espoused his poetic ideals: “gentility must come “da virtute,” [from virtue]. The true lover is the virtuous man, loving not by genteel code of caste, but by gentle code of character” (Fletcher 19). Suddenly the chivalric convention of love became spiritualized, and a nobler Italian poetry, il dolce stil nuovo emerged. Fletcher delves further into Guinicelli’s ideas:

Love, according to Guinicelli, is not merely peculiar to the gentle, or virtuous, heart. The whole virtue of such a heart is love. A virtuous disposition is one disposed to love. Love is the expression of a virtuous disposition. And that which incites the virtuous disposition to express itself is beauty. (20)

We read from Guinizelli’s Of the Gentle Heart, 2.18–20:

And so the heart created by God’s breath Pure, true, and clean from guile, A woman, like a Star, enamoreth. (20)

Fletcher underscores the gentleness of the heart, as he agrees with the old adage that, we always want what we can’t have. The beauty that is not yet attained and inspires the heart is itself gentle. This idea, had been espoused in the troubadour code, however now the stil novisti take the Scuola Siciliana one step further. In his closing verse, Guinizelli makes a plea to God for “‘the inevitableness of his love,’ the gentle lady who… had the likeness

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of an angel that was of thy kingdom,” (Guinizelli in Fletcher 20). Fletcher recapitulates the attributes of the gentle lover’s lady:

It was the angelic, the divine, in his lady’s beauty that drew to itself his virtuous desire as fatally as magnet the iron-filing. The gentle lover loves his lady because she is indeed made in the - and in that degree. She is a mirror in which God shows somewhat of himself in order to win a soul. (20–21)

This gentle woman becomes angelic, divine, beauty, and virtue, all of the qualities of God that attract God (Fletcher 20–21).

To Dante, Guinizelli’s ideas seemed more plausible than those of the troubadours, which were mostly poetic devices, albeit highly stylized in form; the stil novisti were grounded on spiritual underpinnings. This dolce stil nuovo “school” of poetry influenced

Dante and gave validation to his particular infatuation with Beatrice, with a spiritual implication first in his Vita Nuova. Beatrice has the ability to render the human soul noble. As a virtuous woman she becomes a spiritual introspection for the poet. Her gentleness and honesty are stil novistic characteristics. However, we also find remnants of courtly love: the single aim of courtly love is for the poet to sing praises to his lady, the ispiratrice of his work, his inspiration. The poet eulogizes his lady Beatrice. Her attributes, gentleness of heart, the sweetness of her glance, the beauty of her face, and her graceful ways, are all characteristics of courtly love. The book was written in Dante’s early years, around 1293, and as he matured, so did his ideas.

The connection between Antiquity and the Middle Ages is primarily a philosophical one. The scholastics, St. Augustine (354–430 CE), and Boethius (480–524

CE), influenced the writers of the early Middle Ages. Later in the thirteenth century there

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was a revival of the ancients in the scholastic mode of education, and Aquinas (c. 1225–

1274), played a major role in this resurgence of the classical period.

The relationship between Plato and Dante the Poet rests upon their similar philosophy. They viewed their own historical period as one of deep corruption and depravity, with a leaning toward destruction, and they were both concerned with the role of art in either sustaining or degrading societal and religious values.

The poet had learned about Plato, Aristotle et al. via the intermediary translations through his scholastic curriculum, and, in addition to classical sources, Dante was very familiar with medieval conceptions of music (Alighieri Dante’s Il Convivio 68–

72). Plato holds a special place in Dante’s Commedia, where he is placed within the noble citadel of Limbo, among other ancient philosophers such as Aristotle, Socrates, and others (Alighieri Inf. 4.130–144).

As expressed by Thomas G. Bergin in Perspectives on the Divine Comedy, Dante

Alighieri was an unequivocal voice of the Italians in the Middle Ages and understood the paradoxical nature of medieval life:

So violent and motley was life [he says], that it bore the mixed smell of blood and of roses. The men of that time always oscillate between the fear of hell and the most naïve joy, between cruelty and tenderness, between harsh asceticism and insane attachments to the delights of this world, between hatred and goodness, always running to extremes. (Bergin 88)

In essence, immediacy was imperative for this unpredictable environment, and Dante assumed the task of becoming the spokesperson at hand, emphasizing that the world is in dire need of spiritual awakening. Matters of the soul were monitored by the Church, which centered on the monotheistic premise that there is only one final authority—the

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creator of the universe—a benevolent God who is sovereign and omniscient and has revealed his will to humanity.

As a reflection of the social environment of the time, music during the early

Christian era, served to enhance the meaning of the church liturgy. Chant melodies were designed to emphasize scriptural texts relating to the various parts of the Mass or Divine

Offices. As music began to break away from its liturgical function and serve narrative purposes, it evolved by the addition of subtle composition devices that came from personal beliefs, and primarily from a need to accomplish some sort of function.

To the medieval religious mind, the creation of music was inseparably linked to the creator. An example of the intelligent order found in music and all of creation can be evidenced with a look at the underlying structure, (Alighieri Dante’s Il Convivio 71) in which the beauty arises from the symmetry and balance of the elements.

Golden Section: The Order of Design in Art/Music

The “pure authentic feeling of beauty” as described by Simone Weil (Blackwell

30) can be circumstantiated by an understanding of the evidence of a proportional system of order in the universe– a proportional system that Dante ascribed to as evidenced in his philosophical treatise (Alighieri Dante’s Il Convivio 71). Mathematicians, philosophers and artists have all come to the awareness of the existence of the formula for Divine

Proportion evident in all creation (71). This proportion, known as the Golden Section

(Golden Mean, Golden Ratio) from ancient times has been recognized in natural organic growth, art and architecture. What we have is literally, the formula for beauty and functionality. The underlying structure for all things of beauty and functionality created by God or man has been defined in this mathematical proportion.

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The Fibonacci series of numbers is another mathematical formula having the same proportions as the Golden Section. The relationship of this compositional element to music has been well documented in many cases, with such composers as Debussy,

Bartok, Mozart and Satie utilizing the understanding of this Divine Proportion in their compositions. In his book, Debussy in Proportion, Roy Howat goes on to say,

Fibonnaci’s series also provides a simple way of calculating the GS (Golden Section) of any number… so that no great mathematical skill is needed to manipulate numbers in this way. This prompts the question of whether the proportional pattern in Debussy’s music were designed consciously or intuited subconsciously… one’s attention is attracted by how often well-defined sections in Debussy’s music follow Fibonacci’s numbers at strategic places… (Howat 3)

This mathematical structuring offers an indication of the creator in art and defines beauty as absolute instead of relative. The timeless pursuit of artistic perfection is an attempt to emulate the creator, and evidence of the maker’s desire to express himself through us.

If we further examine and observe all aspects and possibilities of intelligent structure in creation, we can give weight to the concept of order in everything. Later in this chapter we will see where Augustine (CE 354–430) had an understanding of a numerical order present in musical compositions.

Harmony

Harmony was an important concept in medieval times. It was a musical/mathematical structure combining notes in order to form a pleasant sound. The fifth spacing of notes in the diatonic scale is considered most harmonious and natural, followed by the sounding of the fourth. The tritone exhibits dissonance, and because of its discordant, unpleasant quality, medieval musicians were discouraged from playing

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such strong chords. The tritone was considered diabolus in musica, or evil, because it was not pleasing to the ear (Keaton 42).

The Psalm

The life of the Middle Ages was wholly theistic, especially in the monastic life.

That shaped a contemplative musical practice, in that the whole of existence is a meditation of God. The psalms of scripture represented a form of sacred music, and they dominate the arena of the Commedia. As a means of spiritual cleansing, the psalms are distinguished from other hymns. A prayer by the spiriti from psalm is introduced in

Purgatorio II and another hymn from Psalm closes Paradiso 33. Dante gives them place as a contemplative measure for praise and worship, in Purgatorio as well as in Paradiso.

Dante’s insertion of liturgy in Purgatorio consists of hymns, which are based on biblical psalms, originating from a desire for worship and supplication. That mankind is

“ill-inclined” toward virtue was espoused by an influential fourth century theologian, St.

Basil (Strunk 64). Early on, he had adopted the homily in his service which is a religious sermon designed for spiritual, rather than doctrinal edification. As he realized the value of music for worship, he began to incorporate the psalm, a religious song of praise. He recognized that the sound of music with its melodious qualities renders the message fruitful, rather than falling on deaf ears of an ill-inclined man. St. Basil comments on the marriage of music and words:

For when the saw that mankind was ill-inclined toward virtue and that we were heedless of the righteous life because of our inclination to pleasure, what did He do? He blended the delight of melody with doctrine in order that through the pleasantness and softness of the sound we might unawares receive what was useful in words…For this purpose these harmonious melodies of the Psalms have been designed for us, … A Psalm drives away demons, summons the help of angels, …A Psalm is the work of the angels, the ordinance of Heaven, the incense of the Spirit. (64)

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He has an array of reasons for choosing the psalm:

A psalm is the tranquility of souls, the arbitrator of peace, restraining the disorder and turbulence of thoughts, for it softens the passions of the soul and moderates its unruliness… drives away demons… A psalm is the work of the angels, the ordinance of Heaven, the incense of the Spirit. (65)

St. Basil did not underestimate the importance of divine music as a means of deliverance from evil, exhortation for one another, and praise to God. His liturgy, the teachings of praise, worship, and exultation, still apply in the Eastern Church to this day (Strunk 64), must have been followed by Dante, as he refers to several psalms in Purgatorio. Dante’s spiriti are about to lift up their hearts together in a hymn in thanksgiving, “In exitu Israel de Aegypto” from Psalm 13. He describes the event: “Within sat more than a hundred spirits… all of them were singing together with one voice” (Alighieri Purg. 2.45-48).

This first and sizeable gathering is representative of the importance of harmony and unity in worship, as they learn to work together toward the goal of redemption.

Of the different instruments that were used for different purposes in the medieval

Church, the psaltery maintained its hegemony throughout the Book of Psalms. From the

Homily on the First Psalm, St. Basil continues:

although there are many musical instruments, the prophet made this book suited to the psaltery, as it is called, revealing, it seems to me, the grace from on which sounded in him through the Holy Spirit, since this alone has its source from the sound above. For the brass wires of the cithara and the lyre sound from below against the plectrum, but the psaltery has the origins of its harmonious rhythms above, in order that we may study to seek for those things which are on high and not be drawn down by the pleasantness of the melody to the passions of the flesh. And I think that by reason of this structure of the instrument of the words of the prophet profoundly and wisely reveal to us that those whose souls are attuned and harmonious have an easy path to things above. (Strunk 66)

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St. Basil speaks of the importance of the psaltery. Perhaps the harmonious nature of a stringed instrument, plucked with the fingers or with a plectrum, was appropriate for this undertaking. As played by David, a powerful anointing combined with the sound of this instrument broke the spirit of depression that tormented King . David delivered Saul through his music, evidence of a powerful tool and mechanism for deliverance from oppression. In Purgatorio, Dante invokes the psalmist, David, at the entrance of the terrace of the prideful as a symbol of humility and to direct the lost toward the contemplative song that aligns with Basil’s idea for divine invocation.

The nature of the stringed instrument the psaltery is in keeping with the bringing back of the soul to “the sound from up above.” As noted earlier, Lucifer was described in scripture references as having the sound of viols, psalteries, and harps (nevalim). What is notable in the Commedia is the absence of musicality in Inferno where Lucifer is stripped of instrumentation and is silenced by the poet.

Rhythm as a Metaphor for Life’s Cycles

Lucifer knew that man was created as a musical being– beginning with the tempo of the life force in man, a heart, beating at a perfect rhythm, incessantly marking time with a musical undercurrent. Rhythm and percussion go back to the ancient beginnings of man. Then there is the air, the wind. According to scripture, God breathed life into man,

“And the Lord God formed man of the slime of the earth: and breathed into his face the breath of life, and man became a living soul” (Gen. 2.7), and from that moment man was a wind instrument, a voice, a vibrating chord. We are so endowed with music that we cease to exist if it were to stop– a beating heart ends its rhythm, and we no longer exist.

One reason could be that we were created to express sound, to lift music to the heavens.

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In essence, man was to take over the responsibilities of Lucifer, the fallen angel who initially held the position of creating and maintaining the covering of God before his fall. Music, as Dante understood it, is inherently deep in the very being of man, as we were created to be the new covering for God. Music surrounds the throne of God. It covers Him. The voice of God is the sound of many waters, the combination of all of the frequencies in the universe. As Dante conveyed, those who have faith and are repentant, as the souls in Purgatorio, selflessly direct their attention towards the creator in worship and adulation. Song leads one on the path to righteousness. It is when voices combine in unison, with harmony and rhythm, and all are directed towards the creator, that man has fulfilled his purpose.

The Power of Spoken Word and Song

Dante speaks of song in the Commedia, referring to the sounds of worship that draw the lost along their way towards salvation. The Book of Apocalypsis Ioannis, known as Revelation, describes sound emanating from the throne of God as being the

“Sound of many waters…” (Apoc. 14.2) which is also referred to as the voice of God and of all creation. Dante must have recognized the importance and power of song as we see the angel Lucifer, frozen in the abyss devoid of sound.

It could be said that the original and initially the most important purpose of sound was to create music, and in turn to bring worship and praise unto the creator– but ultimately, sound was to become the instrument of destiny for all. Throughout all the dispensations of mankind up until today, sound and music have both held prominent positions in the future of man’s soul. Sound in form of the spoken word was the instrument of creation, “And God said…” (Gen. 1.3), and through voice, became a factor

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of life and death, “Death and life are in the power of the tongue…” (Prov. 18.21).

Explicitly, the power of the tongue is its ability to express thoughts, feelings, desires, commands, proclamations, and praise. The declaratory nature of this instrument utilizes sound to convey the message. God created voice, but intended it to be used with wisdom and understanding, lest it become a tool of destruction and evil:

But the tongue no man can tame, an unquiet evil, full of deadly poison. By it we bless God and the Father: and by it we curse men, who are made after the likeness of God. Out of the same mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing. My brethren, these things ought not so to be. (James 3.8–10)

Lucifer, misunderstanding the power of the tongue, had used it to precipitate his downfall, stating in Heaven: “I will exalt my throne above the stars of God, …I will be like the most high God” (Isa. 14.13). Dante reveals that he understood how Lucifer’s words had triggered his expulsion, as he places him as a mute in Inferno, stripped of his melodious voice. Eternally silent, he is an inverse to God’s incarnation,

Jesus, the word:

In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. The same was in the beginning with God. All things were made by him: and without him was made nothing that was made. In him was life, and the life was the light of men. And the light shineth in darkness, and the darkness did not comprehend it. (John 1.1–5)

We often speak before considering the implications of what we are saying. Perhaps this uncontrollable nature of the tongue is what caused Lucifer to stumble. However, it is precisely the vocalizations, the sounds uttered and heard by all that revealed his intent,

“for out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh” (Matt. 12.34).

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There is a distinct reason that music and song are a requirement for worship.

Dante throughout the Commedia stresses the need for contemplative song, and rejects the profane. Research has shown that speech and music are represented by opposite spheres of the brain (Storr 35), and there may be a correlation between this and the specific designation of music for the purpose of worship. Speech, being difficult to manage and control, fraught with a tendency for emotional outbursts, lends itself well to the scheme of Lucifer, as he already had a mastery and control of this aspect of humanity. Speech in mankind is easily manipulated due to its predisposition to uncontrolled utterances.

Contemplative Life versus Active Life

To Dante, both the contemplative and active ways of life are considered virtuous when directed toward the good, which to him, means in complete agreement with divine order.

Everything is virtuous in nature which fulfills the purpose toward which it is directed; and the better it does this, the more virtuous it is. Therefore we call a man virtuous who lives a contemplative or an active life, which he is by nature constituted to do. (Alighieri. Dante’s Il Convivio 14)

By nature, the will of mankind is meant to align with divine will. In essence, both have merit; the contemplative life is produced by “prayerful contemplation” which through music and song is called praise and worship (liturgical music) or prayer (without music), while the active life “seeks to supplement prayer with virtuous acts combined with manual or intellectual labor” (Meekins 21).

On the subject of contemplation, Dante’s references included the Bible as well as theologians and philosophers. The idea that man must commune with God is a Thomistic ethical theory adapted from Aristotelian ethics (Sahakian 109). In Consolation of

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Philosophy, Boethius advocates, “Man’s body declareth that his mind was made to contemplate heavenly things” (Boethius 115). In “Contemplative Life,” Meekins offers a thorough description of Dante’s idea of contemplation:

In the most extreme and complete sense, contemplative life is a way of living in which the desire to love and know God through contemplation and a prayer excludes most active concerns and temporal occupations. The chief motivating factor for those who choose the contemplative life is love of God and spiritual concerns, together with the admiration for his works. Contemplation is thus also a joyful act of worship as a means of expressing that love. (Meekins 217)

Worship to Dante is an expression of love to God, and a means to commune with him.

In Convivio Dante realizes the primacy of a contemplative life, “which is more excellent and more divine” (Alighieri. Dante’s Il Convivio 49), and advocates the abandonment of worldly pursuits. This idea is carried through in the Commedia

(Alighieri Par. 32.7-9). He alludes to Boethius, his predecessor, on this topic of the futility of the temporal world. Dante utilizes the biblical story of the two sisters Martha and Mary to demonstrate the superiority of a contemplative life (Alighieri. Dante’s Il

Convivio 201). While Martha found it necessary to serve, Mary, who chose to sit by the feet of Christ,

…showed no concern for domestic affairs, but simply listened to the words of the Savior. The moral sense of these words is that our Savior sought thereby to show that the contemplative life was the best even though the active life was good. (201)

Jesus sees Martha troubled by Mary’s actions, and reassures her that Mary is doing the right thing: “But one thing is necessary. Mary hath chosen the best part, which shall not be taken away from her” (Luke 10.42).

Dante reflects on scripture as he expounds on his position:

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The moral sense of these words is that our Savior sought thereby to show that the contemplative life was the best, even though the active life was good.” (Alighieri. Dante’s Il Convivio 201)

As we learned earlier from Dante, the desire to know and love God brings us to a state of contemplation, of which worship is a form (Meekins 217). Mary chose for a moment to shut out the active life and commune with Jesus.

Dante and Music

Dante left behind minimal information on his scholarship in music theory, excepting the information in his philosophical treatise, Convivio. We know, however, that his scholastic background included music as one of the seven Ars Liberales, a mandatory component of scholasticism. The Commedia itself is a compilation of poetry in rhyme, with emphasis on music and song throughout Purgatorio and Paradiso. The deliberate omission of any musicality in Inferno serves as a contrast between the dark wood and the hopefulness of the souls as the journey towards redemption.

In Pietro Giordani’s Dante E La Musica, Jarro has some pertinent comments on

Dante’s relationship to music. About Dante we learn:

si dilettò nella compagnia d’uomini destri nella musica e compose volentieri poesie, che ad essi affidava perchè si vestisser di note. (Jarro in Giordani I)

[he delighted himself in the company of men skilled in music and composed willingly poems, that to them he would entrust so that they be dressed in notes.]

As a defense of Dante’s musical prowess, Jarro and Giordani are in complete agreement of the unity of the arts present in the Commedia. Having studied the classics, Dante knew that the ancients could not have conceived a disjointedness of Poetry and Music. Giordani refers to the poet as, “quel sovrano maestro di tutti gl’ingegni Italiani,” [that sovereign

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maestro of all the Italian genius]. He appreciates Dante’s harmony of the arts, which, “si facevano bellissima e amichevolissima compagnia,” [became beautifully and exceedingly friendly company]. Giordani continues: “Ma nella età di Dante, la poesia, il canto, il suono, la danza (come ne tempi della Grecia maestra d’ogni gentilezza).12 Here

Giordani is speaking of the poem, the song, the sound and the dance, uniting as one, a manifestation in Dante’s epoch as well as in Greek antiquity.

The Effects of Music on the Soul in the Commedia

Though little is written about Dante in reference to his musical affinities, we know that as a liberal arts scholar, he would have been familiar with music and its aesthetics. This is evidenced especially in the Commedia and detailed in Convivio, his philosophical treatise.13 The scholastic system helped formulate the structure of Dante’s

Paradiso, whereby he establishes the seven Ars Liberales of the Trivium and Quadrivium in relation to Dante’s ten heavens, or cieli.14 While his universe is assiduously laid out in the Commedia, the genesis of his design of this universe is introduced in his preceding

Book II of Convivio. In essence what concerns this project are above all, three heavens: the fifth heaven, Mars, which corresponds to Music, the ninth heaven or Cristalline, better known as the Primum Mobile, pertaining to Moral Philosophy, and the tenth heaven, the Divine Science, known as Theology.

Familiar to Aristotle and nearer to the earth, the ninth heaven deals with moral sciences, as depicted in the Commedia. The tenth heaven, the closest to Dante’s

Paradiso, deals with the Christian heaven, described as “the , beyond time and space.” Dante pre-announces his arrangement in Convivio, as he depicts the heavens, and positions the liberal arts, which he calls “sciences,” accordingly:

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As was stated above, then, the seven heavens nearest to us are those of the ; next come two heavens above them, which are in motion, and one above them all, which is still. To the first seven correspond the seven sciences of the Trivium and the Quadrivium, namely Grammar, Dialectics, Rhetoric, Arithmetic, Music, Geometry, and Astrology. To the eighth sphere, namely the Starry Heaven, corresponds Natural Science, which is called Physics, and the first science, which is called Metaphysics; to the ninth sphere corresponds Moral Science; and to the still heaven corresponds Divine Science, which is called Theology. And the reason why this is so must be briefly considered. (Alighieri Dante’s Il Convivio 69)

The liberal arts, therefore, are allocated within the first seven heavens with much deliberation.

Specifically, I shall concern myself with the liberal art, or “science,” of music, as it relates to the nine heavens in the Commedia, and its importance to my topic.

While assigning Music to the Fifth Heaven, known as “Il Cielo di Marte” or “The

Heaven of Mars” (71), Dante contemplates Music and Mars:

The other, as Ptolemy says in the Quadripartitus, is that Mars dries things out and incinerates them because its heat is like that of fire; and this is why it appears fiery in color, sometimes more and sometimes less, according to the density or rarity of the vapors which accompany it, which often ignite by themselves, as is established in the first book of Meteorics. Moreover, Music attracts to itself the human spirits, which are, as it were, principally vapors of the heart, so that they almost completely cease their activity; this happens likewise to the entire soul when it hears music, and the virtue of all of them, as it were, runs to the spirit of sense which receives the sound. (71–72)

According to Giorgio Inglese’s comments on Dante’s Convivio, the vapors of which

Dante speaks are explained in this manner:

proprio ‘evaporazioni’ che il calore naturale trae principalmente dal cuore. Come Marte attrae a se esaltazioni secche e calde, che lo fanno di colore più e meno affocato, così la musica attrae a se I vapori del cuore umano” (Alighieri Convivio 128).

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[…real evaporations that the natural heat draws principally from the heart. As Mars attracts to itself exhalations dry and hot, that render it by color more and less suffocated, so does music attract to itself the vapors of the human heart.]

Medieval thought held that the blocks of the world were heat, cold, moisture, and dryness, which existed in combinations that made up fire, earth, water and air, the elements of the macrocosm, or the universe. These same combinations of heat, cold, moist, and dry existed in human beings in combinations that created the four humors: yellow bile, black bile, blood and phlegm. These humors, existing in the bodies of human beings, and were analogous to the elements of fire, earth, air, and water in the universe.

The humors were believed to release spirits, or vapors, that affected the brain and the behavior of people. The character of a person, and the person’s appearance was thought to be determined by the predominant, or ruling, humor.

Mars is dry and hot, which is fire according to prevailing medieval thought, and reiterated by Dante (Alighieri Dante’s Il Convivio 71). The allocation of music to the fifth Heaven or to the center of the nine heavens signifies a sense of beauty and equilibrium; if one were to count from the first to the ninth heaven, or vice versa, the fifth sky is always in the center, as he has contended in Convivio:

The heaven of Mars may be compared to Music because of two properties: one is its most beautiful relation, for in counting the moving heavens, from whichever we begin, whether from the lowest or the highest, this heaven of Mars is the fifth and the middlemost of them all, that is, of the first, second, third, and fourth pairs. (71)

This oneness, or compatibility of Mars and Music within the universe, is a manifestation of divine providence. Dante, influenced by Pythagoras, believed that both the order and the magnitude of numbers were of significance. Further, whenever there exists an

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equidistant, or many points in relation to a fixed point, the mind always seeks God, who is everywhere equidistant.

Music, therefore, for its very completeness of sensations, and due to the sweetness that it provides for Dante can be equated to the heaven of Mars, or the fifth heaven. He compares Music to the heaven of Mars due to the property of harmony that both Mars and Music have in common (Alighieri Dante’s Il Convivio 71). Perhaps what Dante is positing is the equilibrium of the soul as it responds to and is affected by music. A reception of sound in harmony has the ultimate calming effect on the heart, and a balance of words and song not unlike the position of balance of Mars in the universe is obtained

(71). In addition, Music lures the “human spirits” or, what Dante calls, “the vapors of the heart, so that they almost completely cease their activity” (72).

Music, with its mesmerizing properties can render the subject immobile. This particular characteristic of music, the ability to distract an individual and cause him to regress is a theme that comes into play and is key to Dante’s propensity to err. In

Purgatorio 11 we learn from the Pilgrim that he had fallen prey to the temptations that almost led him to his downfall, due to his over-swollen pride (Alighieri Purg. 11.120).

This is in reference to the episode in Purgatorio 2. We learn how his actions—the distractions that take his eyes off the right path toward salvation—affect his ascending journey. In essence, he stumbles and succumbs to worldly pleasures that lead him and others to regress.

The Pilgrim: “Retrosi Passi” Backward Steps

We have already learned of the purpose of music from the beginning of creation.

In this segment, we will delve into the thoughts of related ancient theologians, as well as

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to pertinent contemporary writers, regarding the spiritual, scientific, and temporal ramifications of music and song.

As a reminder, we revert to the episode in Purgatorio 2. Cato, the guardian of the cantica of Purgatorio becomes the symbol of wisdom, warning the Pilgrim and his collaborator Casella, that the profane song, “Amor che ne la mente mi ragiona” or “Love that reasons to me in my mind” which they are about to embark on is greatly affecting their moral behavior causing the spirits to sin as they become equally mesmerized and cease all activity, thus impeding their upward journey. The episode serves to illustrate how easily one can stumble if not guided by wisdom.

In Purgatorio 2, the newly arrived spirits are singing a hymn, “In Exitu Israel de

Aegypto,” from the Book of Psalms. The repentant spirits are working out their transgressions, as they joyfully praise and worship in unison, as in one voice, representative of the one-mindedness toward God. Unsure of new territory, they look to the Pilgrim and Virgil for guidance, not realizing that the two are strangers as well to the territory, a foreshadowing of the digression they are about to experience.

Of the countless spiriti, the Pilgrim encounters the musician Casella, co-author of his poem, “Amor che nella mente mi ragiona” or, “Love that reasons to me in my mind.”

He asks Casella to perform the song for the spirits present, “the song that used to quiet all longings” (Alighieri Purg. 2.108). The artist within Casella inspires him to oblige, by commencing to sing. But pride takes over: Dante regresses to earthly desires, signifying his sinful nature, as he is suggestively desirous to hear his own words crystallized in the song. The spirits trying to stay on track are likewise mesmerized by the sweetness of the sound. They cease all activity and fix their eyes on the artist Casella, as he is about to

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perform. The subject matter, profane song, becomes problematic to the wise Cato, guardian of Purgatorio, since Casella and the spirits are working out their salvation while the Pilgrim is about to become a stumbling block to himself, to Casella, as well to the remainder of the spirits who are attempting to press onward toward salvation. Just when the crowd is rendered immobile, Cato admonishes the motionless crowd, “Qual negligenza, quale stare è questo?” What negligence, what lingering is this? The cessation of the captivated spirits represents a form of regression, “a going backwards” which is later explained in the Terrace of the Prideful, as “retrosi passi,” (Alighieri Purg. 10.123), or “backward steps,” that delay their upward movement towards Paradiso. Here is a reminder once again of the properties of music according to Dante’s Convivio:

Music attracts to itself the human spirits, which are as it were, principally vapors of the heart, so that they almost completely cease their activity; this happens likewise to the entire soul when it hears music, and the virtue of all of them, as it were, runs to the spirit of sense which receives the sound.” (Alighieri Dante’s Il Convivio 72)

The “ceasing of all activity” overtakes the spirits as well as Dante. Cato brings them back to their senses: “Correte al monte a spogliarvi lo scoglio che’esser non lascia a voi Dio manifesto” (Alighieri Purg. 2.120-122) or “Quick, to the mountain to cast off the slough that will not let you see God show Himself!”

As a reminder, the master Virgil had been warning the Pilgrim throughout Inferno and into Purgatorio of his defective will- an impediment to his ascent. Despite the constant warnings, in Purgatorio 2 the intoxication is complete, as the Pilgrim has just partaken of a lethal combination of self-worth mixed with profane music and song.

Perhaps this episode constitutes the Pilgrim’s condition which he verbalizes in his opening phrases of the Commedia: “mi ritrovai per una selva oscura, ché la diritta via

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era smarrita” (Alighieri Inf. 1.2-3), “I found myself within a shadowed forest, for I had lost the path that does not stray,” a subject that scholars continue to analyze. We can be sure of one thing, that whatever may have led to the selva oscura pertained to worldly pursuits, representative of the active life, as was the profane song, “Amor che ne la mente mi ragiona.”

The Pilgrim had differentiated between two kinds of life on earth, the active, and contemplative life, prefacing their dual blessedness; the active concerning the civil life, and the contemplative, embracing a spiritual lifestyle. After coaxing Casella, to engage in the song, “Amor che ne la mente mi ragiona,” for the benefit of all present, he is reminded by Cato to stay fixed on the things of God, instead of going backwards to the sin representative of worldly indulgence by succumbing to the influence of profane song.

He understood the contrast between the active and the contemplative. The psalms in the Purgatorio and Paradiso passages represent the contemplative that is focused on the divine. Dante’s dream in Purgatorio 19 reveals his understanding of the negative, or evil aspect of song as a siren attempts to lure him away from deliverance and into temptation and ultimate damnation. Fortunately, his guide, Virgil rescues the Pilgrim by exposing the lustful reality beneath the apparition of beauty. This represents the universal duality of music, and the ability of song to play upon the carnal self-gratifying desires of human flesh as well as to pierce the heart of the creator with unbridled love.

Dante’s famous translator, Allen Mandelbaum, entitles the theme of Paradiso 10 as “Divine wisdom and the harmony of Creation” (Alighieri Par. 85). The significance of this canto lies in the contemplative aspect of life on earth, a representation of divine wisdom, or divine revelation. Named the Sphere of the , the canto introduces notable

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figures that exemplify wisdom. Among them are theologians and philosophers who have pursued the loftier things of God. For all their godly attributes, Augustine, Aquinas,

Gregory the Great, the son of King David, and the philosopher Boethius, are all assigned to Paradiso.

Even in Paradiso, the Pilgrim can still be distracted or temporarily led astray.

Beatrice, who according to Dante guides him “from good to better,” directs him toward thanksgiving; in essence, to praise and worship his creator for having obtained the blessedness in heaven. She calls for Dante to contemplate God:

“E Beatrice cominciò: “Ringrazia, ringrazia il Sol del li angeli, ch’a questo sensibil t’ha levato per sua grazia.” (Alighieri Par. 10.52–54)

(And Beatrice began: “Give thanks, give thanks to Him , the angels’ Sun, who, through His grace , has lifted you to this embodied sun.”)

Mandelbaum adds “to Him” in his translation, as opposed to translating that Beatrice orders Dante that he should thank the Sun (Sol) that he capitalizes. One might ask why would the word “sun” be capitalized? According to Mandelbaum, the Sun, in its entire splendor serves as “a symbol of God who illuminates with intellectual light, first Himself, and then the celestial bodies” (Alighieri Par. 345). This association seems to allude to

Christ who is the light. It is at this moment when Dante becomes filled with such gratefulness that he has a transformation:

Cor di mortal non fu mai sì digesto A divozione e a rendersi a Dio con tutto ‘l suo gradir cotanto presto, come a quelle parole mi fec’ io; e sì tutto ‘l mio amore in lui si mise, che Beatrice eclissò ne l’oblio. (Alighieri Par. 10.55–60)

(No mortal heart was ever so disposed 92

to worship, or so quick to yield itself to God with all its gratefulness, as I was when I heard those words, and all my love was so intent on Him that Beatrice was then eclipsed within forgetfulness.)

At this point the Pilgrim has a denouement, a revelation of the significance of worship so intense that it eclipses his love for Beatrice.

In the ensuing verses there is a discovery that could be a connection to Lucifer’s original splendor, manifested in his physical beauty by the precious gems covering his body,15 with the beauty and glory of the song—gems created to adorn worship:

Ne la corte del cielo, ond’ io rivegno si trovan molte gioie care e belle tanto che non si posson trar del regno; e ‘l canto di quei lumi era di quelle. (Par. 10.70–73)

In Heaven’s court, from which I have returned, one finds so many fair and precious gems that are not to be taken from that kingdom: one of those , the song those splendors sang.

Perhaps Dante the poet understood that song, the divine music of heaven, is what Lucifer attempted to steal from the throne, but failing in his effort, is relegated to silence in the abyss. The splendor and power of worship remained with God, and contemplative song continues to move and influence the soul to repentance and love for the creator.

Indi, come orologio che ne chiami ne l’ora che la sposa di Dio surge a mattinar lo sposo perché l’ami, che luna parte e l’altra tira e urge, tin tin sonando con sì dolce nota, che ‘l ben disposto spirto d’amor turge; così vid’io la gloriosa rota muoversi e render voce a voce in tempra e in dolcezza ch’esser non pò nota se non colà dove gioir s’insempra.. (Alighieri Par. 10.142–148) 16

(His love (when each clock-part both drives and draws), chiming the sounds with notes so sweet that those 93

with spirit well-disposed feel their love grow; so did I see the wheel that moved in glory go round and render voice to voice with such sweetness and such accord that they can not be known except where joy is everlasting.)

At the closing, the essence of this canto of worship and contemplation brings all the sounds: the voice of the groom (sposo) together with sounds of the clock, such a sweet note. Clearly, the order necessary for the perfect functioning of the human psyche is interlaced with the ordered patterns of musical notes, and precise melodic structure of rhythm and harmonious tonal relationships. According to the Pilgrim, there is a coming together of the music and voice when worshiping, forming a melodious sound.

Both Boethius and Pythagoras understood the power of music, that a simple mode change could modify the behavior of an unruly individual. Oliver Strunk articulates this connection:

Indeed, it is well known how often song has overcome anger, how many wonders it has performed in affections of the body or mind. Who is unaware of Pythagoras, by means of a spondaic melody, calmed and restored to self-mastery a youth of Taormina who had become wrought up by the sound of the Phrygian mode? (Strunk 82)

As Dante was aware of Pythagoras’ theory of numbers and concept of cosmology through his study of the works of Aristotle, and Augustine,17 most likely he would have familiarized himself with the concept of the power of melody, as well. One cannot overlook the response to both the earthly and divine manifestations of musical order of the cosmos. This particular canto emphasizes the importance of contemplative music as we learned from Cato how profane song in Purgatario II became a distraction from their ascent, therefore hindering them from seeing “God show Himself!” (Alighieri Purg. 2.

123)

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The Sacred in Art/Music

Through the centuries art has been associated with the divine. In The Sacred in

Music, twentieth century author, Albert Blackwell, touches upon the ancient, as well as the now. Of the second century theorist Athenagoras, Blackwell writes, “Athenagoras of

Athens insists that we should speak of God as the musical artist to whom we attribute the harmony of the cosmos” (Blackwell 30). Blackwell notes that Simone Weil equates authentic beauty with the presence of God as she states that there is “an incarnation of

God in the world and it is indicated by beauty” (30). As we continue, we will examine this topic with the assistance of Augustine and St. Jerome.

St. Jerome

Medieval philosophers and theologians thought that music by itself was distracting to the soul. Throughout his studies of the classics, aside from the teachings of

St. Augustine, and based on similar theories, Dante was introduced to the thoughts of ancient theologians, among them, St. Jerome.18 This passage by St. Jerome most likely, was familiar to Dante:

We ought, then, to sing and to make melody and to praise the Lord more with the heart than with the voice…not after the fashion of tragedians, in smearing the throat with a sweet drug, so that theatrical melodies and songs are heard in the church, but in fear, in work, and in knowledge of the Scriptures. And let the servant of Christ sing so that he pleases, not through his voice, but through the words which he pronounces, in order that the evil spirit which was upon Saul may depart from those who are similarly troubled and may not enter into those who would make of the house of God a popular theatre. (Strunk 72)

Here we can see that St. Jerome had an understanding of music having a holy intent, and he warns against its use for anything, other than Godly purposes, reflecting the admonition of the Paul in his letter to the Corinthian church, “But let all things

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be done decently, and according to order” (1 Cor. 14.40).

Augustine

One perspective on music as it relates to the soul can be found in the writings of

Augustine, a reputable theologian of the fourth and fifth century who had a great impact on Dante. In Brian Brennan’s treatise, Augustine’s De Musica, it is stated that De Musica establishes him clearly as a “Christian musical theorist” (Brennan 267), although

Augustine was initially conflicted between the contemplative and sensual natures of music. As a young man, Augustine was more concerned with the liberal arts, and thereby began to write on the science of music, beginning with studies of rhythm and melody, which at that time, he considered the essential elements. It was after his conversion that he began to question the intellectual in music and began to concentrate on the spiritual aspect:

Looking back on this early work the later Neo Platonist was horrified that he had concentrated on transient and material things such as colour and form and turned his mind from the spiritual to the material. (Brennan 269)

Similar to St. Jerome’s transformation, it was his conversion that led Augustine to gain an understanding of the importance of the contemplative in song, as he recalls the impression that hymns of the Milanese church had upon him:

How did I weep, in Thy Hymns and Canticles, touched to the quick by the voices of Thy sweet-attuned Church! The voices flowed into mine ears, and the Truth distilled into my heart, whence the affections of my devotion overflowed, and tears ran down, and happy was I therein. (Augustine Confessions 65)

These hymns were integral in his conversion, eliciting emotion and directing his focus toward God. It was after this experience that Augustine began to focus on a reassessment

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of the nature of music as it pertains to science. Consequently, he moved toward a

Christian perspective as he contemplated the divine order necessary to produce the hymns that are effectual in moving one from the natural to the divine.

Having been schooled in the Pythagorean theory of numerically ordered musical thought Augustine was now forced to resolve the issue of the divine in music as it relates to liberal science as noted by Brennan:

There is a hierarchy of number from the One Himself down through the numeri. All music, good or bad, contains in some way the divine patterning. (Brennan 275)

Evidence of the divine in music transcends the intent of the composer, be it profane or contemplative. Augustine connected the scientific nature of music to the divine through the patterning of harmonies, just as the rational Pythagorean theory of music examines the mathematical tonal structure found in notes and their relation to one another. From this we can see the correlation with Dante’s Purgatorio, where song is implicit to salvation, as the sentiments of Augustine are reflected in Dante’s understanding of the part that music plays in the redemptive process.

The Perils of Music

A study of the Confessions, by St. Augustine, points to a serious influence on the life and works of Dante. In his book, Augustine expressed that, while engaging in praise and worship, he found a need to repent:

Thus I fluctuate between peril of pleasure, and approved wholesomeness; inclined the rather (though not as pronouncing an irrevocable opinion) to approve of the old usage of singing in the church; that so by the delight of the ears, the weaker minds may rise to the feeling of devotion. Yet when it befalls me to be more moved with the voice than the words sung, I confess to have sinned penally, and then had rather not hear the music. (Augustine Confessions 84)

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The virtuosity of the performer is capable of drawing the worshipper away from the intended course of devotion. This is precisely what Lucifer understood and utilized in his attempts to eliminate the effectiveness of song as a platform for veneration. Augustine recognized that the content of devotional song was more important than the beauty of the vocal aspirations, leading to the point of the realization of the need to repent for his having been drawn solely to the performance. As Dante the Poet warns in the Commedia, this speaks of the power of the art of song, and the danger of the mesmerizing nature of music as seen by his juxtaposition of the contemplative with the profane. Brennan further elucidates on this subject as he points out that Augustine in De Musica states that there had to be a “correct ethical disposition of music… music that is morally correct, not that which merely pleases the senses” (Brennan 275).

In Theology, Music and Time, Jeremy Begbie crystallizes what Augustine intended in De Musica, and his comments are pertinent to Dante’s project in the

Commedia: he calls upon several contemporary scholars such as Robert O’Connell and

Catherine Pickstock to substantiate St. Augustine’s ideas, as reflected in his work, De

Musica. We hear from Begbie:

Accordingly, the purpose of De Musica is to bring the soul to a recognition of its fallen state and promote its return to God, to move from the world of sense to the world of intelligibility. The soul is fallen from the restful contemplation of eternal truth, into the busy- ness of temporal activity. Because of the fall, we are ordered by the tapestry of time, ‘sewn into’ the order of spatio- temporality. We have become so many individual ‘words’, each forming part of the poem of the temporal whole but unable to perceive the harmony and beauty of the connected work. By immersion in temporal sequence, we have lost that purview of the whole temporal series we possessed prior to the fall. But reason possesses continuing insight into the higher, beautiful, unchanging order of numbers- this is the ground of its ability to pass judgement upon the lower ‘imitations’ of the temporal world. Music enables us to delight in the numbers of reason rather than the numbers of sense. It can assist the soul’s ascent under the trace of God from the realm of sense to the eternal, realm of 98

perfect number, and thus to God: ‘the presiding thrust of [De Musica] is this ascent from the realm of sense and authority to the higher world directly accessible to the eye of reason’. And music is in a very strong position to do this because no other art is equally independent of at least four of the five senses, and thus so strongly controlled by mathematical axioms. (Begbie 82)

Clearly, Augustine understood the relationship of mathematical order to music.

Moreover, Augustine, as Begbie notes, believe that the authentic purpose of music was

“to ‘re-collect’ the distracted/distended person, bringing him back from the distracting world of the temporal into that unity from which he fell” (Begbie 83).

This certainly applies to Dante’s conception of music, music that has a purpose, and that is to “re-collect,” or direct one back into unity with God through contemplative song. This coincides with the scripture that reads, “Make a joyful noise unto the Lord… come before His presence with singing,” and more importantly, “Enter into His gates with thanksgiving, and into His courts with praise” (Ps. 100.1, 2, 4).

Purgatorio: The Songs of Purgation Interrupted

As we see from scripture, entrance into the presence of God requires worship, or music, in harmony with the heart of God “Go ye into his gates with praise, into his courts with hymns: and give glory to him. Praise ye his name…” (Ps. 100.4). The spirits in

Purgatorio do just that-they enter humbly with thanksgiving and praise. More than one hundred spirits enter as pilgrims singing together with one voice, “In exitu Israel de

Aegypto.” This psalm sets the pace of the souls as they begin their journey to attain spiritual development in their struggle for purification.

Not unlike the ancient Israelites who wandered in the wilderness, the souls in

Purgatorio endeavor to loose the bonds of earthly sin. At this point, an unexpected interruption occurs: the Pilgrim encounters his friend Casella, who intones the secular

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and profane song, “Love that discourses in my mind.” Embracing this folly, he welcomes the “retrosi passi,” and progress is impeded until the watchful Cato rebukes their backward steps. This is an all too familiar scenario, and not unlike the Jewish slaves, who in their liberation from Egyptian bondage, attempted to return to their former persecution as they were besieged by momentary lapses of faith. The song from the past that returned in their minds distracted the Pilgrim and took the focus off of their destination, much like the wanderers from Egypt who temporarily lost sight of their promised land. The admonition by Cato sets the course straight for the souls in their journey, and assists them in their understanding of the valuable role that music carries in their purgative efforts.

From this point forward, they contemplate the true intent of music as a powerful instrument of worship and reconciliation that is instrumental in their salvation

In Conclusion

Music has been with us from the beginning of time. It is inherent in humankind, and has been a part of all known human societies. Because it predates recorded history, we cannot know how sound, through the plucking of a string, striking of a taut skin, or air passing over vocal cords effected primitive humans. But we do know that once religion evolved in human societies, music was always used as a way to signal our desire to communicate with the divine. This is true whether pagan, Hindu, Shinto, the , or any other (Keaton vii). In religious society, music was intended as praise to the creator, and in return, edifying the soul. It is clear from the works of theologians cited—theologians that Dante read and by whom he was influenced—that there is a continuing theme of the sacred in music: the purpose and origin of music as that of a vehicle for praise to God and a necessary instrument in the redemptive process of the

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salvation of man. The connection between the temporal and the sublime has also been established with an understanding of how sound functions in nature.

Through pride, the fall of Lucifer and subsequent corruption of man, music has been manipulated and utilized as a tool of destruction. Dante recognized the effect of music on the soul, as did other writer/philosophers from Socrates through Aristotle. He emphasized the polarity as an emergence of good versus evil and warned of the duality of music: the salvific or damning power of song.

101 CHAPTER IV: PRIDE OF THE ARTIST

Pride (La Superbia)

In the words of Italian author Laura Bazzicalupo, pride occupies the principal and predominant place in the hierarchy of capital sins and is the source, or root of all other iniquities: “È la radice. Dalla linfa del peccato di superbia ricevono nutrimento gli altri peccati che, sono, tuttti forme specifiche di superbia” (Bazzicalupo 7). [It is the root.

From the source, the sin of pride, the other sins, all of which are specific forms of pride, receive their sustenance]. The author continues to note that Augustine and Aquinas are in agreement that pride is the root and queen– the double appellative is indicative of a special position– that is, the top of the hierarchy itself. She adds:

È anche, la superbia, il culmine, la sommità della gerarchia stessa: la regina dei pecccati. E quindi, se essi fossero assenti, se la vita di un uomo fosse tutta virtuosa-anzi, se fosse assolutamente virtuosa- e la superbia fosse il coronamento di tanta virtù, essa basterebbe ad invalidire il senso di quella vita, gettandovi sopra un’ombra malefica. La superbia da sola, essendo il più grave dei peccati, basterebbe a condannare l’uomo. (8)

(And therefore, if the rest were absent, if the life of mankind were all virtuous– or better still, if it were absolutely virtuous- and pride were the crowning achievement of so much virtue, that would be enough to invalidate the sense of that life, throwing upon it a maleficent shadow. Pride alone, being the gravest of the sins, would suffice to condemn mankind.)

According to the Bible, “pride goeth before destruction” (Prov. 16.18). As the genesis of sin and the archetype of evil, all other transgressions fall under the umbrella of pride. One

102 might ask the question, from whence did pride originate, it being the genesis of all sin?

Surely, God did not manufacture pride as characteristic of Himself, and endow it to man.

Would God, in all his goodness and wisdom, create a being that was inherently prideful?

The theologian Augustine came to some conclusions regarding this question.

The Origin of Pride

In The City of God, Augustine maintained that at creation, the angels who “were made light,” had not only been given free will, but were enlightened with the wisdom to know how to live in favor and unity with God. The act of rebellion was entertained through reason as the angels willfully chose to reject true godly knowledge: “…but they have still the life of reason, though darkened with folly” (Augustine 1952b 328). As the angel Lucifer reasoned himself to be greater than he actually was, foregoing the rule and dominion of a good and benevolent creator, he manifested the sin of pride.

Initially Lucifer was not created with a sinful nature, as we see where Augustine concludes that as “the handiwork of the Most High” (330–331), he must have sinned after he was created.

In The City of God Augustine directs us to Isaiah 14 and Ezekiel 28 to help us understand Lucifer’s unblemished nature at creation:

As for what John says about the devil, “The devil sinneth from the beginning,19 they20 who suppose it is meant hereby that the devil was made with a sinful nature, misunderstand it; for if sin be natural, it is not sin at all. And how do they answer the prophetic proofs– either what Isaiah says when he represents the devil under the person of the king of Babylon, “How art though fallen, O Lucifer, son of the morning!”21 or what Ezekiel says, “Thou hast been in Eden, the garden of God; every precious stone was thy covering,”22 where it is meant that he was some time without sin; for a little after it is still more explicitly said, “Thou wast perfect in thy ways”? And if these passages cannot well be otherwise interpreted, we must understand by this one also, “He abode not in the truth,” that he was once in the truth, but did not remain in it. And from this passage, “The devil

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sinneth from the beginning,” it is not to be supposed that he sinned from the beginning of his created existence, but from the beginning of his sin, when by his pride he had once commenced to sin. (330)

Understanding the sequence of events leads one to these conclusions: Lucifer was created without sin, but had intelligence and reason, hence the ability to possess pride. There was no such thing as sin, because there had been no transgression, until Lucifer chose to transgress, through pride, therefore pride produced sin.

Simply put, Lucifer was not made with a sinful nature (Augustine 1952b 330). Sin entered when he rebelled against God. Augustine maintains that Lucifer’s prideful refusal to submit and subsequent rebellion damned him forever: “this present devil will never again return into the fellowship of the good” (329–330). As one of the fathers of the

Church, St. Augustine was a key theologian that Dante studied, placing him prominently in the Commedia.

Dante on Pride and the Will

Pride is not without consequences, both in natural and spiritual settings.

Retribution in the afterlife is only one of the consequences—an eternal punishment doled out to the arrogant and prideful. Earthly affects of pride, although temporal, can have serious ramifications, not dissimilar to the offence committed by Lucifer in heaven, particularly, a separation or dissolution of relationships. This is but one result of valuing oneself above others. Understandably, both Dante and Augustine considered pride as the most heinous of transgressions.

As the cornerstone of all transgression, pride is conceived in the mind, and is a result of a detached will. According to Dante, the will of a created being has to be intact, in unity with the will of God, “that Good” (Alighieri Par. 29.60–63), otherwise, there is a

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“disconnect.” This disconnected will functions purely on natural, or carnal reason, and in so doing is affected by fluctuating emotional conditions and circumstances. Mankind and angels, due to their intellect, have the ability to choose, which can be a blessing or curse.

Dante further elaborates on this in his understanding that the will of man and angels alike must remain in unity with the will of God. One could say that Lucifer may have understood this, as all his effort is directed toward the mind and will of man, understanding that if the will can be detached or disconnected, it would result in a breach in the relationship with the creator.

According to the Commedia, the shedding of pride in general requires an embrace of humility as the beginning of the process of transformation through which one is absolved of sin. Purgatoro, “that second kingdom” or “quel secondo regno” (Alighieri

Purg. 1.4), is where purification takes place. This is Dante’s concept, as well as the

“belief and legend of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries of an intermediate domain—a domain, however, that unlike Heaven and Hell, would disappear at the Last Judgement”

(Alighieri Purg. 317). Virgil distinguishes between “Il temporal foco e l’etterno,”

Purgatorio’s temporary fire, and the eternal fire of Inferno (Alighieri Purg. 27.127). The master confirms that Purgatorio is a place of preparation for advancing into Paradiso.

This requires an act of repentance, based on free will, and occurs when one has, through a combination of faith and reason, received and understood intellectually the reality of the good. The transformation only comes when a willful decision to repent is made through an understanding of truth. This process continues with praise and worship, an act exemplary of a contemplative life, and not feigned or directed out of the selfish desire to attain an end, but through pure humility and obedience. A voice of an angel was heard:

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“Venite, benedicti Patris mei,” sonò dentro a un lume che lì era, talc he mi vinse e guardar nol potei. (Alighieri Purg. 27.58–60)

(“Venite, benedicti Patris mei,” it sang within a light that overcame me: I could not look at such intensity.)

This bright angel echoing the words Venite, benedicti Patris mei, as suggested by

Mandelbaum (Alighieri Purg. 387), brings to mind the words of Christ. Mandelbaum quotes from the of Matthew 25.34:

Then shall the King say unto them on his right hand, Come, ye blessed of my Father, inherit you the Kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world. (387)

The aforementioned king, Jesus, is addressing those who believe in Him, and through their faith obey the Word—necessary components to complete the process that was set into motion by his sacrifice in order to gain salvation.

The Terrace of the Prideful: Purgatorio 10

Purgatorio 10 is the first canto in the Terrace of the Prideful. Here we find the proud atoning for their sins. The Pilgrim and his master are mounting a zigzag passage of rocky soil, too dangerous to traverse. This canto is a reminder of the ever present vice, that moral weakness in man that allows him to vacillate between choosing right from wrong:

Poi fummo dentro al soglio de la porta che ‘l mal amor de l’anime disusa’ perchè fa parer dritta la via storta, (Alighieri Purg. 10.1–3)

(When I had crossed the threshold of the gate that– since the soul’s aberrant love would make the crooked way seem straight–is seldom used.)

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The “mal amor” or “aberrant love,” is the love of evil ways, representative of Lucifer’s deceptive works. Here, the Pilgrim describes the arduous path:

Noi salavam per una pietra fessa, Che si moveva e d’una e d’altra parte, Sì come l’onda che fugge e s’appressa. (10.7–9)

(Our upward pathway ran between cracked rocks; they seemed to sway in one, then the other part, just like a wave that flees, then doubles back.)

Virgil, the voice of reason, warns the Pilgrim that some adeptness is needed to traverse the rugged path: “Quì si conviene usare un poco d’arte” (Alighieri Purg. 10.10), “Here we shall need some ingenuity.”23 As a result,

E questo fece i nostri passi scarsi, tanto che pria lo scemo de la luna rigiunse al letto suo per ricorcarsi, che noi fossimo fuor di quella cruna. (Alighieri Purg. 10.13–16)

(This made our steps so slow and hesitant that the declining had reached its bed to sink back into rest, before we had made our way through that needle’s eye.)24

While the outer edge overlooks the precipitous slope, the inner side is graced with reliefs in white marble, representing types of humility, extracted from both sacred and pagan history. A group of spirits approach, barely seeming human, as they are bowed down in an agonized position by the enormous rocks that they carry. Their “retrosi passi” or

“backward steps” are a reminder to the Pilgrim of their once arrogant disposition that was the cause of their failure to progress in their journey (Alighieri Purg. 10.121–123).

Purgatorio 11: The Pride of the Artist

In Purgatorio 11, the second canto of the prideful, the Pilgrim comes to understand that the epitome of pride belongs to the artist. Oderisi di Gubbio speaks of

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excessive pride and the perils of earthly fame.25 Here he is referring specifically to the pride through the creation of art: “Oh vana gloria de l’umane posse! com’ poco verde in su la cima dura,” “O empty glory of the power of humans! How briefly green endures upon the peak” (Alighieri Purg. 11.91–92).

In his day, Oderisi was known to have been very proud of his excellence in his artwork. He is now placed, by Dante, among other prideful artists, some literary, such as

Guinizzelli and Cavalcanti, or visual, such as Cimabue and Giotto. Oderisi as well as the others on this terrace have avoided the pitfalls of hell—they have made a willful effort to repent and change their course. Now they have the opportunity to expiate their sins with assuredness of reaching their destination. In this canto, Dante considered himself within this group of sinners, or more specifically, of repentant artists. He says as much, having been touched by the profound speech of the artist Oderisi of Gubbio. Dante bears his heart, as he confesses:

Tuo vero dir m’incora bona umiltà, e gran tumor m’appiani. (Alighieri Purg. 11.118–119)

(Your truthful speech has filled my soul with sound humility, abating my overswollen pride.)

Several times in the Commedia the Pilgrim confesses of his frailties, here, specifically, of his “overswollen pride.”

The most poignant message originates from Oderisi. He discusses the temporal condition of fame and stardom, and the price one must pay for the vanity of artistic excellence.

Di tal superbia qui si paga il fio; e ancor non sarei qui, se non fosse che, possendo peccar, mi volsi a Dio. (Alighieri Purg. 11.88, 90)

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(For such pride, here one pays the penalty; and I’d not be here yet, had it not been that, while I could still sin, I turned to Him.)

He is boasting of God’s , as to His willingness to forgive.

Oderisi goes on to say that the glory associated with fame is empty and fleeting.

His profound discourse on earthly fame becomes evident:

Non è il mondan romore altro ch’un fiato di vento, ch’or vien quinci e or vien quindi, e muta nome perché muta lato. (Alighieri Purg. 100–102)

(Wordly renown is nothing other than a breath of wind that blows now here, now there, and changes name when it has changed its course.)

Still working out his own salvation through the purgatorial fires, one can sense the remnants of pride, as the now brighter star, Franco Bolognese, outshines the resentful

Oderisi. To his consolation, he indicates that the Giotto replaced Cimabue who

“credette… ne la pittura tener lo campo,” (in painting, [he] thought he held the field)

(Alighieri Purg. 94–95), and the one, Guido, replaced the other, referring to Cavalcanti who overshadowed Guinizzelli in the art of poetry.

Oderisi’s diatribe brings to mind the thoughts of Boethius in his The Consolation of Philosophy:

When you think of your future fame you think you are creating for yourself a kind of immortality. But if you think of the infinite recess of eternity you have little cause to take pleasure in any continuation of your name. (Boethius 74)26

Boethius preaches on the futility of earthly fame, and how eternal longings supersede the temporal desires.

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Trying to adapt the virtue of humility and to flee from the temptations of ‘l’antico avversaro,’ the spiriti recite Dante’s adapted version of the Lord’s Prayer:

Nostra virtù che di legger s’adona, non spermentar con l’antico avversaro, ma libera da lui che sì la sprona (Alighieri Purg. 11.19–21).

(Try not our strength, so easily subdued, against the ancient foe, but set it free from him who goads it to perversity.)

The spirits are not to be led into temptation, but to be delivered from the evil one. This paraphrase of the Lord’s Prayer serves as a plea for forgiveness and an appeal for protection against the “ancient foe” (20).

Unlike the angels who were created to worship (Alighieri Purg. 11.10–11), the progenitor of pride, Lucifer, with his ill will, chose not to conform to God’s will, and his disobedience resulted in his rebellion, fall, and ultimate punishment. He disregarded truth, eschewed humility, and refused to worship his creator. Rather, he took worship that was intended for God and continued to spur mankind towards sin (11.21). We see how temptation easily overtakes the Pilgrim in Purgatorio 2, whose virtue was easily overcome by “l’antico avversaro” (Alighieri Purg. 11.20), “the ancient foe,” Lucifer. In this case, music, specifically profane song, is used as a tool to prompt the Pilgrim momentarily in Purgatorio 2, leading the spirits, Casella, and himself to regress. The spirits in Purgatorio 11, aware of Lucifer’s machinations, and of their virtues so easily subdued by the evil one (Alighieri Purg. 11.19–20), pray the Lord’s Prayer against the temptation of Lucifer in order to advance.

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The Pride of Ulysses: The Desire for Knowledge

In the Christian tradition, it is believed that Lucifer attempts to affect all men through pride, ultimately maneuvering mankind into a state of disharmony with God in an attempt to destroy God’s creation. In many cases he succeeds, when there is no repentance. Dante’s method of punishing the unrepentant transgressors is to place them in

Inferno, where they are fixed forever, perpetually separated from God. We are reminded of such impenitent sinners in Purgatorio 12, the last of the punished pride.

In Inferno 26 we see Ulysses as an example of pride and deception. The character of Ulysses is representative of how the function of pride through intellect is utilized to bring man into disharmony with the creator, and ultimately to his destruction. Augustine was aware of the pitfalls of the learned, as he spoke of the danger of pride through intellectual accomplishment: “Beware lest any man spoil you through philosophy and vain deceit, after the tradition of men, after the rudiments of the world…” (Augustine

City of God 15).

In the concluding verses of Purgatorio 1 Dante realizes the importance of humility, and contemplates the fateful route that Ulysses chose, which ultimately led the prideful sailor to his demise. Dante is all too well aware of the prideful Ulysses’ insatiable desire to go beyond his limits, an act of defiance and disobedience to God, in the circle of the fraudulent. In his reference to the hero, Dante may have drawn from Convivio, the treatise dedicated to Lady Philosophy, in order to prove his point. As translated by Richard Lansing from Convivio, Dante contemplates:

Here these words from Ecclesiasticus stand as a warning: “Who has sought out the wisdom of God that goes before all things?” as do those that admonish: “Do not seek the things that are too high for you, nor search into things that lie beyond your ken, but rather think upon the things that God has commanded, and further about his 111

works do not be curious” (that is, inquisitive). (Alighieri Dante’s Il Convivio 109–10)

This philosophy hearkens back to Ulysses.

Found among the fraudulent counselors in Inferno 26, Ulysses used his superior intelligence and deceivingly led hundreds of faithful followers to their destruction. From

Lectura Dantis Inferno, in “The Hard Begin” Letterio Cassata makes some comparisons of the pilgrim and the epic sailor:

Dante struggles to attain the summit of the mountain that is “the origin and cause of every joy” (78), a concrete metaphor for the moral freedom achievable, however imperfectly, “in the active life (that is, in the exercise of the moral virtues)” (Convivio iv, xxii). In contrast, the goal of Ulysses’ last voyage is “ the world that is unpeopled”(xxvi, 117), the island mountain of Purgatory, whose summit—though Ulysses, ironically, would be the last to know it—is in fact, the seat of the Earthy Paradise. (Cassata 17)

This “summit” can only be achieved with a contrite heart. Cassata explains a petrified

Dante who is greeted by three beasts on his initial journey. One reads:

Only after casting a terrified glance around him, and seeing no one else “in that vast wilderness” does he finally summon up the strength to cry out, of the contrite David, which are also the words of any repentant sinner: Miserere di me” (Have pity on me”{65}). But even after that humble and heartfelt cry, Virgil does not pronounce the salutary words. He merely reveals himself to be the great poet from Mantua, asking Dante the leading question: “But why do you return to wretchedness?/ Why not climb up the mountain of delight? (67- 77). The question is maieutic: “having Dante confess his own impotence is the most effective way to prepare him to accept Virgil’s proposal, his invitation to the spiritual journey that will rehabilitate Dante to the good, and thereby save him. (Cassata 19)

Therefore, while both Dante and Ulysses are guilty of pride, herein lies the difference between the two: Dante comes to a turning point. He contemplates:

null’altra pianta che facesse fronda o indurasse, vi puote aver vita, però ch’a le percosse non seconda. (Alighieri Purg. 1.103–105) 112

(There is no plant that lives below: no plant with leaves or plant that, as it grows, hardens-and breaks beneath the waves’ harsh blows.)

Having replaced his own cord of self-confidence with the reed of humility, Dante comes to the realization that there must be a willingness to change and take hold of the “giunco schietto,” “the reed,” which by its very nature is able to weather the harsh tempests of the sea, something Ulysses was unable to accomplish. Dante renounces his own will, dons the reed of humility, and yields to the cleansing of Purgatorio decreed by his Maker.

Dante draws attention to himself again in Purgatorio on the Terrace of the

Prideful. He makes mention of his “poema sacro” (Alighieri Par. 25.1), declaring that it was divinely inspired, and his guide Virgil was divinely appointed through Beatrice. In contrast, Ulysses never realizes the importance of the “giunco,” or “reed,” therefore he never humbles himself by shedding the cord of self-confidence, and never seeks the help of the divine.

On the dangers of worldly pursuits, in Secrets of God, Hildegarde Von Bingen, theologian, musician, historian, and moralist to the twelfth century, makes it clear that seeking earthly desires is what puts one on the same ground as Lucifer:

But that image you see like a serpent, lying supine in the darkness mentioned, shows that the Devil, that serpent of old, in the darkness of his wickedness, moves the desire of his cupidity against heavenly things when he persuaded mankind to descend from heavenly desires to earthly things. (Bingen 45)

Such manifestation brings Ulysses and his failings to mind. His prideful behavior devoid of humility brought him to damnation.

Consumed with pride, this Greek sailor represents the antithesis of virtue and humility. In his intense desire for knowledge, the egocentric Ulysses neglected his family

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and comrades, and sacrificed his men for his own agenda. There was nothing stopping him, as he claimed that neither the love he had for his son nor the love for Penelope, his wife,

…vincer potero dentro a me l’ardore ch’i’ ebbi a divenir del mondo esperto e de li vizi umani e del valore. (Alighieri Inf. 26.97–99)

(…was able to defeat me in longing I had to gain experience of the world and of the vices and the worth of men.)

Driven by pride, Ulysses acted on his own volition, very much like Lucifer. With deliberation, Dante banishes the false counselor to Inferno, and in addition, in retribution for having used the tongue to deceitfully persuade, this perpetrator is cursed with the inability to speak (Alighieri Inf. 26.16–18). With his intelligence and artistry of deceit, the ancient hero convinces Achilles to join him in sailing to Troy. Interestingly enough, what appropriately surfaces throughout the Commedia and resonates on the Terrace of

Pride, (Alighieri Purg. 9 thru 12), is the word arte in verse 61 of Inf. 26. Here it is carefully chosen and appropriately translated by Mandelbaum as “guile.” We can therefore conclude that Ulysses is indeed an artist, or it could be said one who is artful in his guile.

In Teodolinda Barolini’s commentary, “Ulysses, Geryon and the Aeronautics of

Narrative Transition” from The Undivine Comedy: Detheologizing Dante, the view is expressed that Dante’s Ulysses is a new Adam, a new Lucifer, based on the assumption that Adam’s transgression was that of pride. Here it is important to differentiate between the pride of Lucifer and the disobedience of Adam. The sin of Lucifer is most assuredly that of pride, and was the genesis of sin in man that was to come. But how did the sin of

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pride enter into man? Scripture reveals that Adam transgressed by not recognizing the deception that Eve had fallen into. He knew the command was not to eat the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil, but it was presented to him by Eve in such a way that through her omission of detail, and lack of diligence on his part, he partook of it. Adam freely received the nature of sin, not through pride, but by heeding the voice of the woman and not God.

Adam did not deceive– however, Ulysses, the fraudulent counselor, followed suit to his predecessor Lucifer, the father of all deception. Hence, Lucifer was thrown from heaven, Adam and Eve were expelled from the Garden of Eden, and Ulysses is forever damned in Inferno. “Then to Adam He said, ‘Because you have heeded the voice of your wife, and have eaten of the tree of which I commanded you, saying: ‘You shall not eat of it” (Gen. 3.17). This separates Lucifer and singles him out as the only one responsible for all sin in the world- the father of sin. Adam did not introduce sin through an act of pride,

Lucifer did. Pride is the father of sin, and essentially, Lucifer was the father of pride.

Ulysses is guilty of the same sin. Lucifer’s weakness was his fall, as was Ulysses’. “Pride goes before destruction and a haughty spirit before a fall” (Prov. 16.18).

Faith and Reason

In the Commedia, Dante poetically interprets one of the prevalent philosophical- theological topics of the Middle Ages; the debate on reason and faith, personified by the rapport between the poet Virgil and Beatrice. Formerly in Convivio he had given way to

Lady Philosophy, describing her as the most noble and most beloved daughter of God.

The poem dedicated to this most noble lady is “Amor che ne la mente mi ragiona.” This poem is the very poem put to music by his musician friend Casella, that in Purgatorio 2

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becomes the song that served to quiet [the Pilgrim’s] longings, and to lead the crowd astray- the action recognized as “retrosi passi” or “backward steps” (Alighieri Purg.

10.123) within the context of the upward journey toward salvation.

Richard Lansing in his translation of Dante’s Il Convivio focuses on the question of the poet’s perception and assessment of the issue regarding faith versus reason. While some would view Dante’s change in perspective in the Commedia as a reversal of this appropriation of Lady Philosophy as the beloved daughter of God, Lansing views the correlation of thought as more of a synthesis of faith and reason:

…it should be stressed that in the Convivio Dante never explicitly sets reason in opposition to faith or philosophy against theology. His goal, as the spirit and letter of the passage… is forever one of synthesis, of bringing together, or at least correlating, diverse systems of thought. (Alighieri Dante’s Il Convivio xxiii)

There could be a contradiction, however, as we read on in Lansing’s translation of Il

Convivio. In Book 2 of Chapter 4, Dante clearly places divine intellect above human reason: “…human intellect does not transcend the divine, but is out of all proportion transcended by it” (49). In Inferno, the issue of faith and philosophy is observed as the

Pilgrim, having lost his way in the selva oscura, depends on Beatrice, not Virgil, to lead him down the path to Paradiso. An observation may be made that reason is required to arrive at a point of understanding, at which time faith is necessary to continue. This aligns with the two Latin sentences that became catchphrases of the medievalists and withstood the debates: Credo ut intelligam, I believe in order to understand and Intellego ut credam, I understand (use reason) in order to have faith, and does represent somewhat of a synthesis of the two.

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The theological slogan “Credo ut intelligam,” [I believe in order to understand] a principle expressed by Augustine in one of the many sermons, and of the few which remained, he preached: “crede, ut intelligas” translated as, [believe in order that you may understand]. This Augustinian concept was championed by Anselm and became his one of his sermons. From Anselm’s Proslogium, we read a translation from the Latin:

O Lord, …I long to understand in some degree your truth, which my heart believes and loves. For I do not seek to understand that I may believe, but I believe in order to understand. For this also I believe- that unless I believed, I should not understand. (Anselm Chpt.1)

In essence, it requires having sound faith in God in order to uncover the mystery of the divine inscrutability. Only then, can mankind posses true understanding of the Creation.

Abelard’s mantra “Intellego ut credam,” “I understand in order to have faith” functions through the use reason.

Dante synthesizes both slogans, as Aquinas does, and affirms the complimentary aspect of faith and reason. Both are necessary for salvation; they support each other.

(Alighieri Dante’s Il Convivio xxiii). In the Commedia the poet envisions this idea; Dante the pilgrim is able to undertake this journey for salvation first with Virgil, the image of reason, and then with Beatrice, the embodiment of faith.

Humility/Faith

Contemporary author James R. Peters, in The Logic of the Heart, analyzes the thought of Augustine on the rationality of faith. He affirms that Augustine was aware of a connection between the love of God and wisdom, who understood that to obtain wisdom, one had to take on the character of God, that is, to selflessly seek the good and cling to it, through one’s own ability to reason. This would be a total submission of one’s mind and will, with complete humility. This road to wisdom requires a humble beginning in faith, 117

with the heart cleansed through the grace of God, with a clear understanding of the love of God with divine reason giving way to a true love for God (Peters 66).

Augustine’s works exercised “an enormous influence on the theology of the

Middle Ages, during which Augustine was perhaps the primary authority” (Hawkins 71).

His book The City of God underscores the importance of humility:

For I am aware what ability is requisite to persuade the proud how great is the virtue of humility, which raises us, not by a quite human arrogance, but by a divine grace… (Augustine The City of God 129)

For the sake of posterity, and as an ardent supporter of Augustine’s theological underpinnings, Dante suggests undertaking the road of humility to avoid the perils of hell and to eventually gain entry into paradise. The poet’s message much like Augustine’s lesson is articulated among the humble spirits in Purgatorio, whereby Dante is reminded of the punished pride of Inferno, among them, “colui che fu nobil creato più ch’altra creatura” or, “the one who had been created nobler than all other beings” (Alighieri

Purg. 12.25–26). These verses are suited for the lost in Inferno, whose ill will caused them to join the mastermind of iniquity: “ché dove l’argomento de la mente s’aggiunge al mal volere e a la possa, nessun riparo vi può far la gente” (Alighieri Inf. 31.55–57) that is, “for where the mind’s acutest reasoning is joined to evil will and evil power there human beings can’t defend themselves.”

David As An Example of Humility

Dante uses David as the artist who is in contrast to Lucifer. In Commedia Dante identifies himself with certain figures for various reasons. One such prominent figure is the biblical David, King of Israel, ancestor of Christ and author of the Book of Psalms, who was also known as a prophet, musician, poet, and songwriter. In Purgatorio 10, the

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Pilgrim gazes at a sculptured wall with examples of humility, where, in an interesting juxtaposition, Dante places the entrance to the Terrace of the Prideful.

Exemplary of a contemplative life, David pursued humility in spite of the power and wealth bestowed upon him in his station, and was the perfect representation of humility leading toward repentance, as David was well known to have fallen into sin and disobedience to God on numerous occasions. Despite the severity of his transgressions,

David had a true heart of repentance and became the ideal example for Dante in his attempt to convey the concept of contrition. Humbly repenting for his sins, he ultimately was placed in a position of high regard having the honor of being one of the of Christ.

One of David’s notable commissions in music occurred when King Saul, tormented by an evil spirit and unable to rest, summoned the boy. His worship with his voice and lyre, beckoning the presence of God, created an environment of deliverance from all demonic powers, allowing Saul to enter into a peaceful state of mind. This exemplifies the power of worship recognized and understood as an essential component to salvation through repentance, faith and humility.

Dante sees similarities between the biblical psalmist David and the shades of

Purgatorio. Not unlike the requirement for David to gird himself in preparation for entrance into the presence of God, the prideful shades on their initial journey in

Purgatorio are required to don the reed of humility before continuing on their journey.

This humility they demonstrate through praise and worship is representative of their contemplative disposition, aligned with heartfelt contrition. David’s act of worshiping

God with song and the sound of instruments is the model for Dante’s shades, as they also

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worship in the same manner. The unity, and harmony of the singers in Purgatorio, suggests total humility, as they combine to create a sound that is heard as “one voice.”

David is in complete unity of mind, soul and body, in harmony with God, which is a reflection of his love for him.

In Conclusion

There is a complex difficulty in the reconciling of the artist with the salvific concept, in that the artist exhibits and is aware of a level of superiority inherent in his gifting. Whether illustrator, painter, poet or musician, according to the Pilgrim, the artist ought not draws attention to himself; it is all, in vain. Here is the biblical and parallel verse to Oderisi’s message:

“Vanity of vanities,” says the Preacher; “Vanity of vanities, all is vanity.” Is there anything, of which it may be said, “See, this is new?” It has already been in ancient times before us. There is no remembrance of things that are to come By those who will come after. (Eccl. 1.2–11)

Therefore, according to Dante and to biblical teachings, the sin of pride can assuredly be associated with the artist. Dante the poet, or artist, as he considers himself, by counting himself among the prideful (Alighieri Purg. 11.118–119) is all too well aware of

Lucifer’s tenacity to draw men unto himself, ever leading us to evil. Salvation requires humility, a turning back from the carnal, while the artist is venerated and held in high esteem by the masses. The temptation is to completely give in to these carnal ,

“assertion of will” (Tsanoff 301), as Lucifer so chose to do. Self-exaltation is the sin of the gifted artist. On the other hand, for the artist to humble himself and deny the adulation, as did Christ, but instead direct it towards God is the ultimate denial of the

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will, an act of pure obedience, and a demonstration of these manifestations is enacted through Praise and Worship, an exhibition of true humility, and true love of God.

121 CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION

In the Commedia, Dante considers humankind’s fatal flaw– his ultimate failing– the sin of pride. This pride was instigated by the entity of Lucifer, who as the performing artist was equipped with all of the musical ability to vainly draw attention to himself.

Equating worldly, or human reason to vanity, he comes to the conclusion that philosophical thinking is but a temporal remedy to the human condition, that is, the absence of a real and tangible relationship with the creator, as experienced by Adam in the garden before the . The complexity of God and his creation goes far beyond what the mortal mind can consider, and to excogitate this reality is to begin a journey down a path that has many beginnings and a diversity of conclusions. The simplicity of Dante's “selva oscura” or “dark wood” sums up the result of leaning towards one's own reasoning and intellect for the answers to life's questions. Dante, through humility, finds that the answer comes only from the creator of the question: the author of the soliloquy, the composer of all song. He comes to the conclusion that only through divine reason and Revelation, in contemplation of the divine through song and a sacrifice of praise are the answers found—all else is vanity. God resists the proud, and gives grace to the humble, the scriptures say, and Dante knew this, as sung and paraphrased in the Commedia, by the once prideful and now repenting spirits: “Beati

122 paupers spiritu” (Alighieri Purg. 12.110). In essence, “God blesses the humble and resists the proud” (Matt. 5.3).

The arrogant, pride filled nature of man was introduced by Lucifer to the first man and woman with the inception of the fall and initial disobedience, where the warning was given not to eat of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil; in other words, do not reason for yourselves. God knew that if man were to supplant divine revelation with human reason, similar consequences to the fall of Lucifer would occur, as they did. It’s not to say that mankind is incapable of creative thinking and reason that is beneficial, but the emphasis is on the order of thought processes and the hierarchy of intelligent thought.

Dante realizes the ultimate source for wisdom is God, and all answers cascade down from there. To seek wisdom from God, and add it to our acquired knowledge is the correct procedure for enlightenment.

As we begin to grasp the power contained in music and utilize it as a reconciling force, we can begin to see its true purpose and contrast that with the destructive, divisive effect of the perverted counterfeit efforts Lucifer has applied to music in his attempts to destroy God’s creation. With this we can theorize that mankind was created for the sole purpose of carrying this magnificent attribute of God, in the absence of the original party,

Lucifer, for whom it was intended. In his creation of man, God endowed us with the inherent capacity to contain and express song, and produce worship and praise. It becomes more evident of the importance of this medium for expression when we consider that it is the one thing that is under attack most vehemently and of use most comprehensively by the enemy of man. The corruption of the divine, of this one thing

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that continually surrounds God, is the most effective tool in Lucifer’s arsenal. It is the one thing that can be directed in two ways: towards self, or towards the creator.

The artist Oderisi of Gubbio speaks for Dante on vainglory (excessive pride in one’s achievement), a term used for the gravest of all mortal sins, synonymous to pride.

This is precisely what drew Lucifer to failure—his musicality enabling him to expand his ego. Worldly renown in any field, such as musical or visual art, political, or in any other way is meaningless and soon forgotten. Dante makes references to the futility of human reason apart from divine revelation found in numerous scriptural verses. “Vanity, all is vanity,” says the Preacher in Ecclesiastes (Eccles. 1.2). “Nothing under the sun is new”

(1.10). On vainglory, the power of humans is questioned; the poet reverts to scripture as he reminds us that all flesh is like grass, and hence withers away (Ps. 89.6). The consequence of operating apart from Godly wisdom is forewarned: “And all things that are done, God will bring into judgment for every error, whether it be good or evil”

(Eccles. 12.14).

In his universal message of the Commedia, Dante is examining the reality of a fallen, broken world. Initially Dante may have found it difficult to eschew reason, however, in the Commedia his prescription for salvation is to rely solely on faith. His representative Beatrice attests to that fact. God does not reason as we know it, therefore it runs contrary to our human reason: “My ways are higher than your ways, and my thoughts higher than your thoughts” (Isa. 55.8). Who would send his only son to suffer and die a horrific death in order to save the world? It defies human reason. The entire concept of the birth, death, and resurrection of a is insane when considered rationally, but this irrational concept is what Dante understood as the way Christ was

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presented to the world scripturally. The complete story is revealed with the inclusion of the role Lucifer plays in his attempted attack on God and his creation, and how he utilizes reason and pride to deceive mankind, thereby creating a division between God and man.

Before his fall, Lucifer, the resplendent bearer of light, was placed in the Garden of Eden with all of his glory.

Thou hast been in Eden the garden of God; every precious stone was thy covering, the sardius, topaz, and the diamond, the beryl, the onyx, and the jasper, the sapphire, the emerald, and the carbuncle, and gold: the workmanship of thy tabrets and of thy pipes was prepared in thee in the day that thou wast created. Thou art the anointed cherub that covereth; and I have set thee so: thou wast upon the holy mountain of God; thou hast walked up and down in the midst of the stones of fire. Thou wast perfect in thy ways from the day that thou wast created, till iniquity was found in thee. (Ezek. 28.13–15)

God had considered him above all angels, and endowed him with great beauty and gifted him with music. In fact, he was the musical instrument that lifted up worship to God. He was the good angel, Lucifer, a magnificent created being, installed in a position of grandeur and responsibility.

This didn’t last long. In the period of time between God’s laying of the foundations of the earth (Gen. 1) and the fall of Adam (Gen. 3) he became filled with envy and pride. Observing the intimate relationship between God and his creation, Adam,

Lucifer must have considered what it would be like to be worshipped; after all, he was the most beautifully endowed of all creation. Pride and a lust for glory overcame him and he lost all fear of his maker, rebelling against Him. While in the Garden of Eden he contrived a plan to destroy mankind. Disguising himself as a serpentine creature he commits the ultimate crime of deception, resulting in the temptation and fall of Adam.

Having grievously offended God, he was made an example of fallen vanity, and was

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therefore cast from heaven. He is no longer the light bearer, the daystar that drew others to him. God dismantled him, and Lucifer was awarded the extreme humiliation of eating dust: “…on your belly you shall go, and you shall eat dust all the days of your life” (Gen.

3.3). The snakeskin necessary to be shed in order to put on the reed of humility that

Dante refers to winds up clothing Lucifer, who is no longer left with any splendor of which to be prideful. While in the Garden, he is stripped of his dignity with the remnant scales of pride. The scales he must drag are the perpetual reminder of his once perfect existence. The question then, is why would God give Lucifer free reign to deceive and to continue his evil work on earth?

The author of the Commedia knew that Lucifer’s creation was within God’s framework, not inside of ours. God’s mysterious presence permeates throughout Dante’s journey. The poet, indeed, counting his many blessings, is grateful for so many things.

His beloved Beatrice not only inspired him to write his sacred poem, but also sent him the master, Virgil, who in guiding him, helped Dante to reason along his journey, throughout Inferno and Purgatorio until Beatrice leads him to divine reason in

Purgatorio 30. The insertion of the musician and poet David, a symbol of humility, at the entrance to Inferno is an indication of the power of contemplative song that leads one to purgation of the soul. He is grateful for his musician friend Casella, the catalyst that spurred Cato the philosopher to bring Dante to his senses, on the road to salvation and finally to enlightenment. Above all, Dante is grateful for having been spared Lucifer’s fate of eternal damnation. His auspicious moment reveals the key to Paradiso:

oh maraviglia! chè qual elli scelse l’umile pianta, cotal si rinacque subitamente là onde l’avelse (Alighieri Purg. 1.134–36).

(O wonder! Where he plucked the humble plant 126

that he had chosen, there that plant sprang up again, identical, immediately.)

The moral that Dante makes lies within; those who aspire are able to see the “luce etterna,” the Eternal Light (Alighieri Par. 33.124). Whether theologian, layman or Dante himself, one must be willing to shed the cords of pride and put on the reed of humility.

This is the willful act of obedience. Certainly, Lucifer, not willing to obey God, was deceived by his own intellect and reason. In essence, God had entrusted Lucifer through the art of music, specifically through worship, to bring his people unto himself. In his failure to perform this assignment, God the creator took it upon himself in the person of

Jesus the Christ, the task of bringing back to himself His very own creation, man. Christ’s death served to deliver mankind from the bondage of sin and the consequence of death, the resultant price of sin, and reconciled God to man. Jesus became the mediator between

God and man. Dante reiterated the apostle Paul when speaking of the “Emperor of the

Universe” and his purpose:

…the Emperor of the Universe, who is Christ, son of the sovereign God…“He was the light that shines for us in the darkness,” as says; and he told us the truth concerning those things which without him we could not know nor truly perceive. (Alighieri Dante’s Il Convivio 50)

As Dante progresses through his narrative poem, his awareness of the need for humility and the source of enlightenment is clarified as he begins to manifest wisdom and understanding of the true source of eternal light and the essence of truth. His concluding statement portrays this realization:

O luce etterna che sola in te sidi, sola t’intendi, e da te intelletta e intendente te ami e arridi! (Alighieri Par. 33.124–126)

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Eternal Light, You only dwell within Yourself, and only You know You; Self-knowing, Self-known, You love and smile upon Yourself!)

At last Dante understands the true light and its source: the eternal light emanating from the Christ—the only acceptable light. Not the artificial luce displayed by Lucifer as he attempts to deceive mankind. Christ—the one and only Bright and Morning Star.

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NOTES

1. In this body of work, one must keep in mind that I will refer to the author, Dante the Poet, and the subject of the poem, Dante the Pilgrim. The Italian social concept of good and evil in the Middle Ages originated from a biblical world-view taught by the Catholic Church. As to which version Dante may have used, we learn that most medieval scholars, and (C.F.) used the Latin translation by Jerome, known as the Vulgate. However, one should not assume that a profound scholar such as Dante would not have familiarized himself with the Hebrew version, based on the fact that Jerome had involved himself with Hebraic studies. The Encyclopedia of the Jewish Religion (EJR) reads: “The writers and teachers of the Christian Church, from the post- apostolic age to about the seventh cent. Their interest in the and biblical led many C.F. to study Jewish interpretations and commentaries… Jerome and others quote Jewish interpretations of Scripture;” (Werblowsky and Wigoder. EJR 90). Unless otherwise noted for specific reason, for the sake of uniformity, I will cite the Douay–Rheims English version that is translated from the Latin Vulgate.

2. The author of the English translation in this dissertation is Allen Mandelbaum. Appropriate to this cause, my occasional translations appear in brackets.

3. Anagogical interpretation as in the Letter from Dante to Can Grande: “For me be able to present what I am going to say, you must know that the sense of this work is not simple, rather it may be called polysemantic, that is, of many senses; the first sense is that which comes from the letter, the second is that of that which is signified by the letter. And the first is called the literal, the second allegorical or moral or anagogical. Which method of treatment, that it may be clearer, can be considered through these words: `When Israel went out of Egypt, the house of from a barbarous people, Judea was made his sanctuary, Israel his dominion' (Douay-Rheims, Ps. 113.1-2). If we look at it from the letter alone it means to us the exit of the Children of Israel from Egypt at the time of ; if from allegory, it means for us our redemption done by Christ; if from the moral sense, it means to us the conversion of the soul from the struggle and misery of sin to the status of grace; if from the anagogical, it means the leave taking of the blessed soul from the slavery of this corruption to the freedom of eternal glory. And though these mystical senses are called by various names, in general all can be called allegorical, because they are different from the literal or the historical. Now, allegory comes from Greek alleon, which is Latin means “other” or “different.” (Alighieri. “Letter to Can Grande.” http://faculty.georgetown.edu/jod/cangrande.english.html).

4. The instruction to “bend, bend your knees; behold the angel of God,” further substantiates my assertion that the Pilgrim may be referring to Jesus, as read in scripture that no one is instructed to bow down to an angel, but to bow only to the Godhead: “And after I had heard and seen, I fell down to adore before the feet of the angel, who shewed me these things. And he said to me: See thou do not: for I am thy fellow servant, and of thy brethren the , and of them that keep the words of the of this book. Adore God.” (Revelation 22:8,9)

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5. Lansing, the translator of Convivio suggests that philosophical considerations may have led the poet astray. In his introduction, we are informed: “Many have argued that by embracing Lady Philosophy Dante sought to posit extraordinary claims for the power of reason as a human faculty, and for philosophy as an intellectual domain, to bring man into a state of happiness sufficient to ensure the salvation of the soul.” (Dante. Conv. Trans. Lansing xxi) In this treatise, Lansing argues that the intellectual domain took precedence over the “traditional” theological role of the Church and bride of Christ as conduit to eternal salvation (Ibid xxii). This exposition could be considered as “a kind of heretical, secular philosophism amounting to a sinful straying from the right way” (Ibid. xxii).

6. See Singleton , Charles S., Purgatario 2 Commentary, 41 119, 122.

7. Absolution: An ecclesiastical declaration of forgiveness of sins.

8. A medieval theological debate pertains to Lucifer’s condition at creation. Some theologians maintain that he was corrupt from the beginning, while Augustine contends that he was born perfect until he sinned. From The City of God, one reads: “And from this passage, “The devil sinneth from the beginning,” it is not to be supposed that he sinned from the beginning of his created existence, but from the beginning of his sin, when by his pride he had commenced to sin.” (Augustine 330)

9. Dante continued to assign a myriad of names to Lucifer, including but not limited to, Satan, Antico Avversaro or Ancient Foe, the Serpent, Worm, Dis, , the king of Hell, and others.

10. Envy is considered the second of the seven capital sins, a Christian notion embraced by Dante, and labeled as such in Purgatorio; in Scripture envy is considered the daughter of pride. It would seem logical that Lucifer, aside from being prideful, was envious as well, of God, his creator. Perhaps, one is more apt to be envious of a person who is in close contact, rather than of someone who is remote.

11. In Ezechiel, many translations describe a figure with musical instruments built into his anatomy: “the workmanship of thy tabrets and of thy pipes was in thee” (Ezek. 28:13). Some omit “tabrets” as does the Douay–Rheims, which was adapted from the Vulgate: “and thy pipes were prepared in the day that thou wast created” (Idem.). Additionally, there is another description of the instrumentality of Lucifer found in Isaias: “the noise of thy lyres” (Is. 14:11).

12. The word danza, [dance], refers to the Ballate, a type of poetry that remains in the poems of Petrarch and Boccaccio, [that men and women to the sound of music in dances, while dancing, were singing] is evidence that the alliance of these arts continued throughout the Middle Ages and later (Giordani 3).

13. In Convivio, a prelude to the Commedia, Dante claims as his human guide the philosopher Aristotle, whose “words are the supreme and highest authority (Dante. Convivio Trans. Lansing 162).

14. Ars Liberales, translated as the Liberal Arts are comprised of seven disciplines, and were mandatory in the scholastic curriculum of the Middle Ages. The first three disciplines known as the Trivium, are grammar, logic, and rhetoric, and the four disciplines known as the Quadrivium are arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. 130

15. Ezechiel 28:13

16. The “Bride of God” is the Church, which, at dawn, sings matins to “her Bridegroom,” Christ, “encouraging / His love.” (Alighieri. Paradiso. Trans. Mandelbaum Notes 349)

17. Dante would have learned of Pythagoras (c. 582–506 B.C.E.) through the works of Aristotle, Cicero and Augustine according to Leslie Morgan’s commentary in “Pythagoras,” from Lansing’s The Dante Encyclopedia 732.

18. Through his studies of the classics, St. Jerome (c 340-420 A. D.) had attained the status of an accomplished scholar, in Latin and Greek philosophy. A vision he had during his studies compelled St. Jerome to put aside his secular studies and concentrate on the things of God by delving deeply into scripture. He was ordained a presbyter in and was asked by to revise the old version of the Greek () Bible into the Latin Vulgate, which proved to be his greatest accomplishment, and it was this translation that was read by Dante.

19. From the Vulgate’s Ioannis 1 (I John 3:8) one reads: He that committeth sin is of the devil; for the devil sinneth from the beginning. For this purpose the Son of God appeared, that he might destroy the works of the devil.

20. According to Augustine in The City of God, ‘they’ refers to the Manicheans who were of the belief that Lucifer from the beginning was created with a sin nature, unlike the belief of the Church Fathers who maintained that Lucifer at creation was without sin.

21. Isa. 14:12

22. Ezek. 28: !3

23. Virgil as the Representation of Reason: After Dante’s era, reason was a primary tool responsible for human advancement, as along with reason came science, and ultimately literary and technological advancement. Dante considers reason as a benefit; in Purgatorio perhaps the most important character is that of Virgil, as we see that Dante utilizes him as guide. His presence brings an historical reality to the poem. Based on the Roman poet Virgil, to whom his affection to and admiration of is obvious, Dante places him in the role of leading the Pilgrim on the way toward salvation. He advances up to Purgatorio XXX. In spite of his desire to glorify Virgil (Hollander 864), Dante exposes Virgil’s limitations, the fact that he was a pagan. This means that he did not know Christ, the only one that leads to salvation, and he did not receive the sacrament of Baptism that absolves sins. In essence, the pagan Virgil lacked in faith and divine revelation, ingredients necessary for the promised destination. This is where the distinction between human and divine reason comes into play.

24. According to Mandelbaum, line sixteen in Purgatorio X is undoubtedly referring to the biblical passage that Jesus relayed to his disciples: “And again I say unto you, it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God” (Matt.19: 24) (Alighieri. Purgatorio. Trans. Mandelbaum Notes 340). Mandelbaum makes this biblical connection, perhaps because a wealthy man can easily become prideful with all his riches.

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25. Oderisi di Gubbio, was a once famous illuminator of manuscripts and a contemporary of Dante who lived in the second half of the thirteenth century.

26. An inspiration for Dante, Boethius penned this work while imprisoned by the emperor Theodoric and considered Philosophy as his muse, or “nurse.” Dante likens himself to the philosopher who was also exiled, but unfortunately killed brutally.

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