ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Several people provided me with the guidance and support necessary to complete this study. First and foremost, my sincerest thanks are due to my advisor, Dr.

Ahmet Atay, for guiding me through the Independent Study process, even from seven time zones away. His ability to assist me in my development as a scholar is to be commended, as he spent half of the semester overseas. Through Skype, Facebook, and e-mail he kept in constant communication with me during this study. Second, many thanks go to Dr. Denise Bostdorff, who was my partial advisor while Dr. Atay was abroad. While she had several senior Independent Studies to edit as well as her own Junior Independent Study advisees, she understood my situation and met with me in person to check on my progress. Third, I thank my parents, Brent Weingardt and Danielle Srour for understanding my lack of communication with them in light of the workload this study required. Their help throughout my entire academic career provided me with the abilities to complete a study such as this. Fourth, I thank my girlfriend, Margaret Donnelly for putting up with me throughout this entire process.

Without her words of encouragement and scholarly expertise I would have been exponentially more stressed. Lastly, I would like to thank my brothers in Xi Chi Psi for understanding the importance and seriousness I placed on this study. Through their support and understanding, I always had someone to talk to when the pressures added up.

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Purpose Statement ...... 1

Rationales ...... 2

Background ...... 3

Definitions...... 4

Methods...... 5

Conclusion ...... 6

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 7

Masculinity as a Social Construction ...... 7

Masculinity as Performance ...... 15

Narrative Criticism ...... 17 3

Conclusion ...... 20

CHAPTER III: ANALYSIS ...... 21

The Characters and Setting of Mad Men ...... 21

The Appearance of Manliness ...... 24

Success and Status ...... 30

Toughness, Confidence, and Self-Reliance ...... 33

Masculinity and Aggression ...... 36

Conclusion ...... 38

CHAPTER IV: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 39

Major Conclusions ...... 39

i Implications ...... 42

Limitations ...... 44

Recommendations for Future Research ...... 44

Final Thoughts ...... 45

WORKS CITED ...... 46

APPENDIX ...... 51

ii 1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Everyone has a different idea on what it means to be a man. Some think they need to be muscular and athletic, while others think a real man is an intellectual one. While the notion of this “ideal man” varies, one important variable is time. One medium through which the concept of masculinity has been through popular culture—most notably television. Recently, the American Movie Classics (AMC) television show Mad Men introduced us to an in depth look at 1960s society, painting a picture of New York City through masculine eyes. The popularity of the show has skyrocketed each of its four seasons, with the most recent season premiere amassing 2.92 million viewers (Schwartz).

Through its popularity, Mad Men has brought a renaissance of sorts towards for sixties culture in media (Elber). In this society men play a dominant role. The producers of Mad

Men create these different types of men, all the while providing different notions of masculinity. This masculinity is worth a gendered analysis since Mad Men portrays this culture as “cool.” This introductory chapter first will describe the purpose of this study, then its rationales, followed by definitions germane to this study, as well as the research method used.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this study is to examine how the characters in the television drama,

Mad Men, perform different types of masculinity. To carry out this study, I employ narrative criticism of four episodes from the first season.

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Rationales

This study should be useful for three reasons. First, this study is important because television—especially television entertainment programming—has the capacity to persuade viewers even when they are not conscious of such influence (Shrum 119).

Consumers tune in weekly to their favorite shows, and are unaware of the effects of the aggressive behavior or violence on screen. Studies have shown that heavier viewership of television programs can be linked to “violent crime” (123). In addition to acts of violence, increased television watching can lead to the purchasing of certain products, such as

“swimming pools…and luxury automobiles” (123). In its four seasons, the show has won thirteen Emmys and four Golden Globes, making it one of the most successful television shows on basic cable as well as television history. Due to this success, Mad Men reaches a vast number of viewers and continues to gain viewership (Karger). Mad Men was the first basic cable series to win the Emmy for Outstanding Drama Series (Elber). Analyzing

Mad Men’s the rhetorical messages pertaining to masculinity should shed light on the subtle messages of the show that may influence audience perceptions and perhaps even actions.

The second reason this study could prove useful is that Mad Men has been subject to little critical examination. Only one study by William O’Barr examined Mad Men and it details some aspects of how women in the show are portrayed, but did not breach the subject of masculinity (O’Barr). Therefore, the current study adds to the sparse scholarship on Mad Men and takes a focus—the performance of masculinity—that is unique.

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Lastly, this study should prove valuable because it will explore factors relevant to

“being a man,” which continues to be a significant issue today. This is an important issue to comprehend, since our social construction of masculinity contributes to how we think and act. Hegemonic masculinity, one type of masculinity examined in this study, I argue is prevalent in Mad Men. This study will look at masculinity via a perspective of performance theory, asserting that masculinity is performed. A hotly debated issue especially today, the ideal definition of masculinity is not clearly laid out. However, Mad

Men has its own take on the issue, and through the examination of narrative, this study will be able to conclude what that message is.

Background

First airing on July 19, 2007, Mad Men currently ranks as one of the most watched dramas on American television. Gaining in popularity with each season, Mad

Men escorts its viewers back to a time in the United States when substance abuse in the workplace was viewed as normal and sexual harassment had yet to be legally defined.

The show is admonished for its constant use of characters smoking and drinking, but at the same time is heralded for its historical accuracy. Focusing on an advertising agency on Madison Avenue in New York City, the work lives as well as the intimate lives of the characters are examined. Societal issues—such as homosexuality, politics, and class—are all uncovered in the program, and transport the viewer away from modern-day disputes for 45 minutes (Anderson 7-11).

The show shadows Don Draper (played by Jon Hamm), Creative Director for

Sterling Cooper for the fictional Madison Avenue advertising agency. Uncannily

4 successful at his job, Draper is the envy of the up-and-coming young businessmen, as well as the irresistible from all women. While maintaining a pristine image publicly,

Draper deals with inner demons and succumbs to adultery as well as an identity crisis.

Draper is married to his wife, Betty Draper (played by January Jones), and has a seemingly perfect life with two children. A war veteran in Korea, Draper returned to be rewarded with a successful job and a perfect family. However, the temptations of an alluring society surround him, and the show chronicles his life around these enticements

(Anderson 7-11).

Definitions

The key terms essential to my study are rhetoric, masculinity, and performance theory.

Like communication and culture, different definitions of rhetoric exist. According to Foss, rhetoric is the human use of symbols to communicate” (3). I primarily use Foss’ broad definition since my study looks at forms of nonverbal and verbal communication and cultural symbols. A symbol is “something that stands for or represents something else by virtue of relationship, association, or connection” (Foss 4). Since I did not look at an individual piece of literature, symbols and the way they were enacted were very important to my analysis.

Like rhetoric, masculinity also has several definitions. Being masculine is, of course, a social construct (Ricciardelli 64). While each society has its own definition and construct of what exactly qualifies as manly, each follows a of fundamental principle that principle consists of “personality characteristics, feelings, motivations, and ambitions that

5 flow from…different life experiences so that the members of these different groups become different kinds of people” (Lorber 13). Even though proven to be a social construct, for purposes of this study, the working definition of masculinity will be one in which a character exhibits qualities exemplifying a man in today’s society. Inside society, there are different elements of what we perceive to be masculine. For example, we might view the CEO of a company differently than we view a professional football player.

Whereas the athlete personifies physical dominance and strength, the CEO embodies intellectual prowess (Ricciardelli 64).

Performance theory will also be used as one of the theoretical frameworks of this study. According to Rosalind Morris, “the theory of performativity defines gender as the effect of discourse, and sex as the effect of gender” (567). Gender is applied as a performance; each individual acts out the role of their gender in order to achieve the hegemonic values. This theory can be used to define masculinity as well, since masculinity can be described as a role being played out (Ricciardelli 64).

Methods

For this study, I use rhetorical criticism, specifically narrative criticism.

Rhetorical criticism is a qualitative type of study technique that is “designed for the systematic investigation and explanation of symbolic acts and artifacts for the purpose of understanding rhetorical processes” (Foss 6). Hart and Daughton argue that rhetorical criticism serves several functions. First, “rhetorical criticism documents social trends”

(Hart and Daughton 23). Second, “rhetorical criticism provide general understandings via the case study method” (24). Third, “rhetorical criticism produces metaknowledge” (25).

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Lastly, “rhetorical criticism invites radical confrontation with others and their cultures”

(27). All of these prove useful in the understanding of this study and the approach taken.

More specifically, I employ narrative criticism. According to Foss, stories or

“narratives organize the stimuli of our experience so that we can make sense of the people, places, events, and actions of our lives” (Foss 307). To analyze narratives more closely, critics may examine any number of narrative elements: setting, characters, narrator, events, etc.(312-3). My study focuses on how Mad Men depicts its characters in the first four episodes of the program in order to gain insight on how the program constructs and performs different types of masculinity.

Conclusion

The implications of masculinity are always going to be contested. With changing times as well as cultures, gender roles will differ. However, in Mad Men, one can take a static gendered approach on the portrayal of masculinity through its characters. Mad Men has encapsulated millions of fans in the United States as well as world wide, and very little scholarly examination has been performed. This introductory chapter stated the purpose of this study, which is to examine characters’ portrayal of masculinity in AMC’s

Mad Men. This chapter also defined several key definitions, provided some background information, and explained the method used to complete this study. The upcoming chapter will examine the scholarly works germane to this study.

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Since 2007, Mad Men has been lauded with critical acclaim, winning numerous awards after each of its four seasons. Taking place in 1960s New York City, the show is often noted for its historical accuracy and pronounced writing. Focusing on the Madison

Avenue advertising agency “Sterling Cooper,” the show covers the personal lives of characters as well as drama in the office. The main character is Don Draper, played by

Jon Hamm, who is the creative director of the firm. The plot follows his life at home and at work, as well as his extramarital affairs and literal identity crisis. Like other shows,

Mad Men portrays the men as powerful, and the women as submissive.

This chapter first discusses how masculinity is conveyed as a social construction, describes how television shows can be persuasive, offers a look at how masculinity is performed, and then discusses ways in which a narrative criticism functions.

Masculinity as a Social Construction

The term “masculinity” exists solely to counter femininity writes R.W. Connell (68).

However, what operates under the definition of masculine is derived from what different cultures perceive to be masculine. Belonging to a certain gender often has very little to do with having the right biological parts, rather it is how one acts (72). The social construction of masculinity is important in understanding what types of masculinities are portrayed in Mad Men.

Defining social construction is important for the purpose of this study. According to Paul Boghoissian, “to say of something that it is socially constructed is to emphasize

8 its dependence on contingent aspects of our social selves” (1). In terms of gender, for example, when a boy announces his plans to become a ballet dancer, eyebrows raise.

However, if he proclaims his intentions to be a fire fighter, this is viewed as normal. Our society is groomed to expect certain preferences and actions from both boys and girls, and this expectation creates an issue when either chooses to go against the socially constructed norms. The basis for construction of gender “is laid during the childhood years…[and] with the arrival of adolescence the game suddenly becomes real” (Brannon

7-8). With the coming of age, the expectations of gender roles change. Male teenagers are groomed to act like male teenagers, whatever those characteristics entail.

In 1976, Robert Brannon created four basic principles of masculinity, and as

Michael Kimmel notes, they have not strayed since (45). The first principle Brannon outlines that “being a man means not being a sissy, not being perceived as weak, effeminate, or gay” (45). Masculinity is the relentless repudiation of the feminine

(Kimmell 45). Being considered manly requires the appearance of non-femininity.

Second, “masculinity is measured more by wealth, power, and status than by any particular body part” (46). Job status, income, and family relations all contribute to this image of masculinity. Third, men must be “able to respond fully and appropriately to the situation at hand” (46). In emergencies, masculine must remain sturdy and rock-like— they must be in complete control. Last, men must “exude an aura of daring and aggression…take risks…pay no attention to what others think” (46). Men must broadcast a dangerous identity in order to prove their manliness.

Being male is defined biologically; however, according to Connell, one’s gender determines how the individual interprets society (71). If one is born male or female, he or

9 she will try and conform to the ways in which one’s culture or society has painted the norms. In the U.S. culture, masculinity has become associated with dominance, and especially dominance over the feminine (Kivel and Johnson 110). With that said, this expected dominance is dynamic and fluctuates with time and cultural context. In today’s era, masculinity encompasses characteristics such as violence, dominance, athleticism, and interest in heterosexual sexual concourse (Connell 67). Elements of masculinity, such as violence and dominance, are determined through cultural channels such as media and collective expectations.

Although masculinity is constructed through social aspects, such as family, schooling, peer pressure, as well as many other factors, for the purpose of this study, I will focus on media. According to Fred Fejes, masculinity is viewed from a mostly traditional standpoint in film and television, however it is “so idealized as to be unattainable” (18). Because of the persuasiveness of media, including television, the representations of masculinity contribute to the construction of it.

Traditional masculinity is best explained through hegemonic masculinity, which is the cultural normative belief of what exactly it means to be masculine, and is often described as being “not female” (Kivel and Johnson 111). Therefore masculine cannot exist without feminine, and both play off of one another in the construction of their respective norms. Athletic competition, for example, cultivates norms for masculinity.

These competitive sports often contain “episodes of aggression,” in which violent behavior joins the collective memory of masculinity. However, it is not just the active notion of competitive athletics that contributes to hegemonic masculinity: viewing of

10 these events as well as the glorification of these activities greatly contributes to the social construction (111).

Several social influences, such as media, military, sports, family, education, and peer pressure contribute to the social construction and performance of masculinity.

However, in this chapter I detail athletic and military influences.

Societal representations of masculinity are always looking to enhance the male image. In an analysis of eight different men’s magazines on sale in Canada, Ricciardelli found that although all catered to different demographics among men, each held close the notion that there is room for improvement physically, placing a high emphasis on gym work and bodybuilding. On the other hand, these magazines (Men’s Health, Esquire, GQ,

Maxim, Stuff, OUT, Details, FHM) depicted women in as wearing little or revealing clothing, suggesting masculine traits entail stereotypical views of women. Sports were also heavily glorified in these magazines, further promoting the idea that being masculine requires an enjoyment of athletics (69).

More traits that the masculine abide by are derived from military backgrounds, as

Hinojosa wrote. Using an ethnographic technique to conduct his study, he interviewed 43 men enlisted in the military. Hinojosa found that hegemonic masculinity correlates internally and externally. Externally, masculinity is embedded in the organization itself, the military in this case. For example, men in the military hold dominance over women because women are barred from dealing with combat and combat activities (180-1).

Internal masculinity is the hierarchy of different masculinities, in this case military rank

(colonel, captain, etc.). Through these interviews, the study found that male members of the military thought of themselves to be “more self-disciplined, better physically capable,

11 had greater emotional control, were more motivated by duty/honor/purpose, or were more intelligent than others” (191). Based on this study, we can argue that men must be mentally and physically tough to be considered masculine.

Military experiences are not the only ways in which hegemonic masculinity is created. Sport, for example, plays another integral role in its formation. A study conducted by Nick Trujilo examined former professional baseball pitcher Nolan Ryan and the media coverage surrounding the end of his career. In this media critique, Trujilo argues American hegemonic masculinity encompasses five different traits. First, hegemonic men assert “physical force and control” (1), meaning they show physical dominance or power, especially over women. Second, hegemonic men show

“occupational achievement,” meaning men choose work according to the idea there is a difference between “mens work” and “womens work” (1). Third, “familial patriarchy,” portrays hegemonic men as “breadwinners,” “family protectors,” and “strong father figures” (2). Fourth, “frontiersmanship,” or the romantiziation of bravery and courage are typical of media portrayals of hegemonic men (2). Lastly, “heterosexuality” (1), among hegemonic masculine archetypes is typical—with a wife and kids making up the family structure (2). Trujilo found Nolan Ryan to exhibit all five of these characteristics in media portrayals of him, therefore setting the prototype of hegemonic masculinity.

Media representations are one of the forces of the social construction of masculinity—especially television and movies. Masculinity is partially created via media representations, as mentioned earlier. The concept of sex is biologically constructed, whereas the idea of gender is socially formulated (Craig 2). Most behavior is not born, but learned via “economic, linguistic, psychoanalytic, and sociological” means (Craig 2).

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There means are what media is constructed from, depending on the society. A chauvinistic approach to women is often required when attempting to be considered

“manly” in media (Tragos 542).

Video games also portray women in ways that are rarely seen in real life. For example, in the video game “Tomb Raider,” main character Lara Croft is permanently displayed as physically strong yet containing feminine properties. All the while, Croft is always conveyed as possessing a large bosom. While the plot requires her to save the world, she is recast into the male gaze (543). This male gaze, according to Rachel

Calogero, is the perspective of events and situations in a sexually objectifying manner

(17). The study also claims that with the influx of magazines, television, and movies calling for men to reshape their image, the feminization of becoming masculine is underway (Tragos 543). Laura furthers this definition of the male gaze. Women in the media are “coded for strong visual and erotic impact to that they can be said to connote to-be-looked-at-ness” (Mulvey 11). She continues, adding women are essential in almost every narrative, however media representations of women are geared towards the pleasure of men (11).

While media products call for men to pay more attention to physical appearances, there are still movies and television shows attempting to return to “traditional” gender boundaries. For example, two Discovery Channel shows, Monster Garage and American

Chopper, focus on recreating “the [man] cave…the garage,” as a place for men to act as men (Tragos 547). The garage, according to this notion, is a place where men build objects or fix cars—where “men [seek] to reclaim a lost brotherhood” (547). Traditional masculinity has a 24/7 US cable channel devoted to the promotion of this lost element of

13 being a man. By carrying the moniker “the first network for men,” Spike TV provides a safe haven for men to be men (546). These dichotomies—one broadcasting a more progressive view of hegemonic masculinity and one conveying a more traditional sense of it—only contribute to the notion that masculinity is constructed by culture. In addition, programming like Comedy Central’s The Man Show was an aptly named show providing traditional beliefs in how to be a man—more specifically along the lines of overt sexism.

The show would feature women dressed in bikinis jumping on trampolines, and general shows of debauchery deemed disrespecting towards women. The premise of the show, not surprisingly, was created “for men who feel Oprah and feminism have too much influence in American culture,” further providing support for the feminization of the modern man (Palmer-Mehta 1053). The Man Show embodies Mulvey’s “male gaze,” as the women are purposefully painted in a sexist light for the enjoyment of men.

While some programs convey attempts at traditional masculinity, some tap into the metrosexual and more modern aspects of hegemonic masculinity. Shows such as

Queer Eye for the Straight Guy explore homosexual attempts at reaching “traditional” masculinity. On the reality TV show, several gay men take on the task of giving straight men makeovers to portray a modern man (Tragos 545). By providing makeovers for straight men, these “feminine” men provide a different view of masculinity for the participants. In addition, media like image-based magazines geared towards men are increasingly popular. Metrosexual men are those who spend a fair amount of resources to benefit their appearance (Pommper 682). Compared to the traditional man, whose body is free of such expenditures, metrosexual men are more conscious of their appearance. “The metrosexual is the epitome of the new man,” writes Tragos. Men who show an interest in

14 looking good or having tastes that pertains to physical appearance fall into the category of metrosexual. Magazines like “Cargo, Details, Men’s Health, Men’s Journal, Men’s

Fitness, Men’s Edge, GQ, Esquire, and Vanity Fair,” all qualify as media attempting to reach a growing market of metrosexual men looking to obtain a more appealing physical appearance (545).

One of the channels from which masculinity receives its social construction is through television—an increasingly persuasive medium. In my study, I examine masculinity through this perspective. Television is influential to the American public.

Marketers and advertisers spend millions of dollars every year providing advertisements between programs targeted at viewers. In a study published by L.J. Shrum, he argues that those who watch more television programming are susceptible to the messages and content they contain (126). When one becomes more accessible to the content shown, the accessibility to predisposed social constructs are greater. In addition, “those who view more television…activated and stored these constructs more frequently and recently than those who view relatively less television” (Shrum 126). In the average day, the TV set is used for about seven hours (126). Television, in comparison to other forms of traditional media is different, in that it combines visual and auditory messages to persuade large audiences. Because of this it is especially important to examine portrayals of masculinity on television. With television, there are programs specifically tailored to certain demographics, such as African Americans and homosexuals. In television, one can find entire channels devoted to their personal interest. By filling these niches, television reaches more people than any other traditional form of media (Bryant and Zillmann 45).

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While the persuasiveness of television advertising has been subject to scores of scholarly work, television programming is just as influential. When viewers tune into a situational comedy, for example, they may come to expect the situations portrayed. The casting, events, and social typing might become expected in real life scenarios after extensive television viewing. Even though this is a rare occurrence, television—unlike any other form of traditional media—can motivate and persuade its viewers unlike any medium before. Media representations, including television, are in fact regulated based on what can and cannot be represented or shown. While this may often than not deal with more advertisements than programming, this is without a doubt connected to the persuasiveness of these representations (Shrum 119).

Masculinity as Performance

Masculinity, many argue, is an act performed on an everyday basis. To perform,

Richard Schechner defines, is anything that is “being” or “doing” (22). However, these broad terminologies are broken down into several performance subcategories, with one of them being gender (25). Gender roles are performed, according to performance theory, through expectations and social constructions of the respected sex. Hegemonic forms a standard that men are based off, and therefore this masculinity is simultaneously being socially constructed (Migliaccio 227-8). Migliaccio’s study found masculinity requires the act of suppressing a wide range of emotions. This stoicism helps men perform their sociological norm of masculinity as “unhurt, unfettered and in control of situations, their lives and their emotions” (228). What Migliaccio mainly argues, however, is that friendship is another way in which masculinity is performed. By having same sex

16 heterosexual relationships, it allows men to express more intimate characteristics than if with a female partner. According to this research, men would benefit from more expressive relationships with women, however they do not take part in such for fear of being referred to as feminine—an apparent insult (229).

Athletic competition is one of the factors allowing masculinity to be performed.

Richard Pringle completed an analysis of the performance of an athletic identity, and searched for behavioral tendencies found with certain types of athletes. Among other characteristics he looked for, excessive drinking, degradation of women, and public drunkenness. What he found was that the athletic culture and identity promoted alcohol abuse, specifically in competitive individuals (Pringle 123). As athletics associated with masculinity, the dangers of the correlation of gender as performance are seen. The association of athletics and masculinity, Pringle writes, contributes intensely to the concept of hypermasculinity. Hypermasculinity is masculinity, however it is “carried out to the point of exaggeration” (Scharrer 616-7). Through intense competition between men, the drive to prove oneself is heightened (119). “Walk into any dorm on campus where there are guys…and you will be surrounded by sports,” (124) writes Michael

Kimmel. Men enjoy sports for the healthy competition, the physical exercise, and ability to show off their physical prowess. However, Kimmel notes men may be more interested in watching athletics than taking part in them, suggesting the socio-construction of masculinity has evolved to provide watching sports as a masculine trait (124-5).

Queer masculinity is another type of masculinity to be examined. A study by

Avila-Saavedra further examined the extent of gay masculinity in the media. Through examination of homosexual characters in several television shows, she looked at the

17 dominant themes and the construction of the queer identity. Her study found that through the use of more queer television characters, a displacement of heterosexual order was not found, although an increase in homosexual television characters were found (18-19). For example, in the Comedy Central animated television series South Park, Mr. Garrison, the a third grade teacher at South Park Elementary School, is portrayed as homosexual.

Although it is never explicitly stated in the show, his actions lead to such connotations.

Garrison throughout the show uses a puppet that takes on homosexual personas, provides companionship with a sex slave, and goes through apparent sex changes (Gournelos 270).

What’s more, in the 2005 film Brokeback Mountain, queer masculinity received a critical acclaim. In the film, the personal relationship of Ennis Del Mar and Jack Twist—two cowboys—was chronicled. While herding sheep in Wyoming the two grew close, culminating in a homosexual romance. All the while, the two frontiersmen tried to keep their traditional masculinity in tact—attempting to hide their queer tendencies (Boucher and Pinto 312-3). Queer masculinities are not always flaunted by their hosts, as is the case in Brokeback Mountain.

Narrative Criticism

The type of criticism I employ in my study, narrative criticism, is analysis of a story based on the characteristics that qualify it as such. Narrative criticism examines narratives, or as Donald Polkinghorne puts it, stories (13).

Just as humans are considered rational, social, and psychological creatures,

Walter Fisher states that humans are storytelling creatures. Building on Kenneth Burke’s theory that humans are symbol-using animals, “the idea of human beings as storytellers

18 posits the generic form of all symbol composition” (Fisher 63). He says that all human communication is in some way a sort of narrative, and defines narrative as “words and/or deeds…that have sequence and meaning for those who live, create, or interpret them”

(58). Fisher states that all human communication can be boiled down to the telling of some sort of narrative. Because we use symbols, we apply those symbols to form narratives. Fisher argues that storytelling is the paradigm of human communication, meaning that in some way all types of human communication occurs through the use of

Burkean symbols applies to narrative. Narratives are comprised of symbols, and therefore, according to Fisher, allow us to understand the world via narratives.

Polkinghorne supplements this description of narrative by adding that they “carry the values of our culture by providing positive models to emulate and negative models to avoid” (14).

According to Foss, narratives must have four specific features. The first is that the narrative in question must contain two actions. These actions can be “either active…or stative,” meaning they can either express an action or situation (Foss 307). The second element narratives must have in “the events in it are organized by time order” (308). The events in a narrative cannot be of two different scenarios; rather they must be a part of the same occurrence and be in some sequence of events. The third necessity a narrative must contain, according to Foss, is that it “must include some kind of casual or contributing relationship among events in the story,” (308) and this change must connect the two events somehow. Lastly, a narrative “must be about a unified subject” (308). The narrative, for example, cannot be talking about going to the beach at one point and then immediately going into studying for a test with no logical linking of the two actions or

19 relating them to each other somehow. By using these four requirements for narrative, one can move onto the next step in the narrative criticism process.

Since television shows are narratives, they can also be artifacts for narrative criticism. Artifacts for narrative criticisms can be any element that contains two events or has multiple ordered happenings. Artifacts can be many different things: “children’s books, short stories, novels, films, monologues by comedians, letters, interviews…or speeches” (Foss 310). In my study, the artifact I chose was the first four episodes of Mad

Men. Television programming, much like many other forms of media, can be considered narrative through their use of symbols, stories, and form.

According to Hart and Daughton, there are three ways in which narrative advances persuasion, leading to a large reason narrative criticism is important. Narratives

“disarm audiences by enchanting them, they awaken within audiences dormant experiences and feelings, and they thereby expose…some sort of propositional argument”

(Hart and Daughton 88). Given the quantity of narrative the American culture takes in, this should come as no surprise. Television and movies are two of the largest perpetrators of pushing narratives. When reading, watching, or listening, we are most likely taking in some sort of persuasive narrative (Knowles 175). Television, according to Bryant and

Zillmann, “is a centralized system of storytelling” (44). Television programming consists of narratives that writers and producers create to present appealing content to a culture or society.

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Conclusion

Within this chapter, I have investigated scholarly works pertaining to several different areas of my study. I first explored the social construction of hegemonic masculinity through current cultural and societal norms. Then I discussed factors pertaining to the persuasiveness of television, observing a correlation that the more television is watched, the more persuasive it is perceived. I then explained masculinity as a performance; designating masculinity like all other human actions is an act. Finally, I described narrative and narrative criticism according to various rhetorical critics, such as

Walter Fisher, Sonja Foss, and Hart and Daughton. Using this information as a foundation, I examined the first four episodes of the first season of Mad Men, looking to find elements of these works in the artifact.

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CHAPTER III

ANALYSIS

In the pages that follow, I analyze the first four episodes of Mad Men in an effort to look at elements of masculinity through its characters. For the purposes of this study, I chose these episodes because they set up the characters and the setting for the remainder of the series. Most importantly, in these episodes the audience is able to gather basic information about the main characters. The episodes, titled “Smoke Gets in Your Eyes,”

“Ladies Room,” “Marriage of Figaro,” and “New Amsterdam” help convey traits of hegemonic masculinity through representations of their characters. While performing this study, I noted elements of masculinity that were discussed in the previous chapter. In this chapter, I first, provide a brief background of the main characters to deliver contextual insight to the reader. Then, I examine the four episodes organized by Brannon’s four elements of masculinity (non-femininity, success and status, toughness, and aggression.

The Characters and Setting of Mad Men

The main character of the show is Don Draper, portrayed by Jon Hamm. All events in the show revolve around and are connected in some way to his life in his office or at home with his family. In the 1960s, men were required to be the great provider and rule life both at the office and at home, leaving women in charge of the trivial tasks deemed unimportant. The women, at the same time, were submissive to the wishes of men. Don, in his mid forties, has a wife and two children. He lives in Ossining, NY, and works at the Sterling Cooper Advertising firm on Madison Avenue in New York City.

Don was brought up from humble beginnings and was stumbled upon by Sterling Cooper

22 partner Roger Sterling and was offered a job. Don is the extremely well paid creative director of the firm, and creates new slogans and advertising pieces for clients. He has been courted by other advertising agencies, and is often noted in the show as one of the best in the business. Don has several advertising executives that work under him, and expects nothing but the best from everyone. He takes his job very seriously, and is often working while not at the office, or thinking about his work in some way. At the office he is rarely seen without a drink in one hand and a cigarette in the other. He is extremely serious when it comes to all aspects of his life, whether it is at the office or having to deal with his personal life. While it may seem Don has a perfect life, at times he gets caught up in the 1960’s New York lifestyle. Don visits bars and lounges often, most of the time during his lunch hours and is rarely sober while at the office. He frequents multiple mistresses throughout the show, and lies to his wife, Betty, about his whereabouts. In the office, Don does not put up with the cavalier attitude of some of his co-workers, and reprimands them as such. Thus, he views men as the dominant gender in society, and because of it he has a difficult time adjusting to women having a larger voice in their changing culture.

Elizabeth Moss plays Peggy Olsen, Don’s secretary in the show. The first episode of Mad Men is also her first day of her new job. Because of this the audience can take in the Sterling Cooper attitude from inquisitive eyes. Peggy is recently out of a prominent secretarial school and resides in Brooklyn. Called “the new girl” by several of the male characters, Peggy is the subject of the constant male gaze. The male gaze, as Laura

Mulvey says, paints women in a sexual manner for the pleasure of men. For example, there are several scenes where the male characters overtly eye Peggy sexually. Peggy

23 does not understand the unwanted male attention, and asks why it is that every time a man offers to buy her lunch, she is “the dessert” (Wiener, “Ladies Room”). She is a proper girl, however she succumbs to office pressures when Peter Campbell, one of the

Junior Account Executives, shows up at her apartment door the night of his bachelor party.

Pete Campbell, played by Vincent Kartheiser, is one of the younger Junior

Account Executives at Sterling Cooper. Although Pete is grateful to have a job, he is unhappy with his job duties. His job description requires him to keep the clients for the firm happy and entertained. However, his father does not think it is a respectable job, and is rarely has a kind word for Pete. In light of these family pressures, he tries to be more involved in the advertising creative process—and is denied by Don several times. He constantly flirts and provides chauvinistic remarks to the female employees, especially

Peggy. Pete knows he can no longer act in a promiscuous manner due to his recent engagement, but has a hard time realizing this.

Sal Romano (played by Bryant Batt), is the art director at Sterling Cooper. He is gay and in the closet for fear of the ramifications it would have in the workplace. Sal’s main job is to create the final products Don and his creative team devise—whether they be print or television advertisements. While Sal may be in the closet, his attempts to prove his heterosexuality are at times over the top, even though it is unclear whether anyone suspects him of being queer. According to Brannon’s first principle of masculinity, not appearing feminine, Sal would seem very much so, as his profession and his love surround art—often considered a feminine trait.

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Rachel Menken is a client of Sterling Cooper, as well as a love interest for Don.

She is the daughter of a department store owner who is looking to attract high-end customers to her boutique. Intelligent and demanding, she seems to be a female image of

Don. Rachel knows how to act around men and knows how to not be persuaded by them.

She is not intimidated by men in any way, and refuses to let the male dominated society get in the way of her aspirations.

The last character that I analyze in this chapter is Roger Sterling (played by John

Slattery). Roger is the co-founder of the advertising agency, and while he seems to be way more involved in the day-to-day goings-on of the agency than his partner, Bert

Cooper, he still carries somewhat of a careless attitude. Never seen without a drink in his hand, Sterling served in the armed forces and contributes to what Bert Cooper calls “the

Navy attitude” of the agency, referring to the jovial manner in which they go about their work.

The Appearance of Manliness

Richard Brannon’s first principle of masculinity, titled “no sissy stuff” (13), implies that in order to achieve masculinity, men should not act feminine or achieve feminine characteristics. This notion is especially instilled in boys while growing up. The social construction of “being a sissy,” according to Michael Kimmel, is a potent insult for young males. In the first four episodes of Mad Men, this element above the other three may assume the largest presence.

In the first episode “Smoke Gets In Your Eyes,” Salvatore Romano violates the principle of appearing manly. As the art director for Sterling Cooper, Sal’s job is painting

25 and sketching, which are considered womanly interests. This analysis of his masculinity is mostly constructed via modern gay stereotypes. First, Sal is the art director of Sterling

Cooper. Art is considered a feminine interest, and Sal is the one in charge of all art for

Sterling Cooper. However, because he works in a male-dominated profession, questions of his sexuality are not raised. In addition, Sal’s attire and appearance are seemingly feminine, as his hair is always shown as straight and meticulous, as opposed to Don’s consistently rugged presence. Although it is not for certain, he seems to be wearing makeup—a predominantly feminine activity. Sal seems to have taken an extremely long time concerning his appearance—and extreme attention to physical appearance was often considered feminine in the 1960s. Later in the series the audience finds out the truth about Sal’s sexuality when he is confronted and seduced by a gay client.

Sal attempts to cover up his homosexuality in several events in the first four episodes by performing to mainstream masculinity. First, in a meeting in Don’s office, they go over some ads where Sal is asked to add a “sexy model” to his drawing. When

Don suggests he use a real model, Sal retorts, “I love my work!” (Weiner, “Smoke Gets

In Your Eyes”) Later in the same conversation, the subject matter turns to Peter

Campbell’s upcoming bachelor party at a nightclub, where Sal remarks that he will not attend because “If a girl is gonna shake it my face, I wanna be alone so I can do something” (“Smoke Gets In Your Eyes”). Sal aggressively states his interest in women, and by mentioning them in a degrading way asserts his masculinity, proving Migliaccio’s point of individuals adapting their gender roles to fit the status quo. By attempting to show that he is extremely interested in women, almost to the point of aggressively pursuing them, he puts on the cover of the hegemonic masculinity portrayed in the office.

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Later, when Sal is at the bachelor party, one of his female companions says that she loves the male dominated atmosphere, and Sal responds with “I know what you mean”

(“Smoke Gets In Your Eyes”), acknowledging his own queer tendencies. In the second episode, when some of the executives are showing Don their ideas for a deodorant advertisment they made, Sal shows his art expertise—which we associate as a feminine trait (“Ladies Room”). In the same meeting, Sal lets his coworkers yet again know of his interest in women. Although in the first four episodes of the show, the audience is not informed about Sal’s sexuality, from the way he looks, talks, and acts one could be able to perceive him as queer. Sal’s sexuality is actually never officially identified in the sample of my study, however in later episodes he succumbs to his gay desires by kissing another man. He attempts to distance himself from being viewed as feminine can be seen as overcompensating in fear of being called gay. In addition, Sal consistently drinks and smokes as an attempt to fit the hegemonic and traditional masculinity of Sterling Cooper.

Part of this first principle of masculinity involves the avoidance of showing his or her emotions. While we most commonly associate masculinity with men, women can assert this masculine attribution. For Peggy Olsen, this occurs very early on in the show.

In the second episode, she walks into the restroom to find another female secretary crying—an obvious sign of femininity. Once Peggy comes to the realization that most men in the office want some sort of sexual endeavor with her, she takes it emotionally.

She runs into the bathroom and holds back her tears—showing that she not only is a strong woman, but she is strong enough to put up with men in a patriarchal society. This is not the only time Peggy is seen as masculine. On her first day on the job, several male co-workers make an effort to tell her to show more skin, as she is dressed rather

27 conservatively. “Are you Amish or something?” Pete asks her (Weiner, “Smoke Gets In

Your Eyes”). In the office, men are the ones showing little skin, and the women are seen as showing off their bodies. With Peggy showing little clothing, this causes Pete to cast her in a masculine light.

Pete has several moments in these episodes where he does not fit the first principle of masculinity. Pete is afraid of his coworkers thinking he is weak, therefore does not tell them about his fear of getting married. If he were to tell his friends of his nervousness, this would be a sign of emotional weakness—something masculine men do not deal with. While Pete does not reveal to his friends his fears, he has an emotional breakdown the night of his bachelor party, and winds up at the apartment of Peggy Olsen.

In the office Pete consistently eyes her and verbally degrades her based on her appearance, but in this scene it is clear he has feelings for her. Showing up at her door and revealing his fear of getting married—a rite of passage of manhood—reveals a feminine side to Pete. Later, in the third episode, Pete and his co-workers are riding the elevator up to their floor. Pete has just returned from his honeymoon and his friends jovially want him to discuss the intimate details. When Pete rejects to tell them, they assume his wife is domineering over him—putting Pete in the traditionally feminine role

(“Marriage of Figaro”). The man is stereotypically viewed as the one in control of the wife, and with Pete being put in the reverse position it paints him as feminine. Once again,

Pete is viewed as feminine when he gets fired from his job, in a scene where he begins uncontrollably sobbing in his office, unable to control his feelings (“New Amsterdam”).

In the office, men differentiate themselves from women in two ways—by assuming dominance over them and by drinking constantly, which is an indicator of

28 masculinity in this context. First, men are the only employees who have their own private offices. Women are relegated to working their desks, answering their phones, and doing various other tasks for them. In the first episode, Joan Hollaway—boss of the secretaries—describes to newcomer Peggy Olsen that “men need something between a mother and a waitress” (“Smoke Gets In Your Eyes”). The men in the office realize this sort of dominance over their female coworkers, and try to exploit it. Ken Cosgrove, one of the account executives, put it best when he said “You gotta let [your secretary] know what kind of guy you are. Then they’ll know what kind of girl to be” (“Smoke Gets In

Your Eyes”). This attitude among the men at the office lends itself to plenty of sexual harassment and unwanted sexual encounters. When a female doctor comes in to present medical hazards of cigarettes to Don, he fails to respect her opinion on the matter, saying that “psychology may be great for cocktail parties” (“Smoke Gets In Your Eyes”), suggesting that women have no business in the scholarly fields. Later in the same episode, while Pete is on the phone with his fiancé, he tells her that he is “giving up my life to be with you” (“Smoke Gets In Your Eyes”), suggesting that he is the one making a sacrifice and going through the trouble to marry—not her; that the man is giving up further dreams to be with the woman. This conversation fits in line with the societal norms of the 1960s, as Pete is putting himself ahead of his wife. Pete is a perpetrator of comments on Peggy’s appearance, noting that if Peggy pulled her waist in she “might look like a woman”

(“Smoke Gets In Your Eyes”). The carelessness of these statements suggests that this attitude towards women is a common occurrence with no punishment taken. In addition, when Paul corners Peggy in his office, he suggests they “push the couch in front of the door” (“Ladies Room”). The cavalier attitude taken towards women may be indicative of

29 the time period the show takes place in, but events like this set the attitude of sexism in the office.

Second, the pervasive alcohol use is a way in which the male characters promote their masculinity. Lemele and Mishkind write that “heavy drinking symbolizes greater masculinity than lighter drinking, and the more a man tolerates his alcohol, the more manly he is deemed” (213). It is clear from watching Mad Men that alcohol is an important part of the hegemonic male dominated society, as almost every male figure is seen with a glass of some sort of liquor in their hands. From the very first scene of Don at a bar, audiences receive the notion of prevalent alcohol use. “We drink because it’s what men do” (“New Amsterdam”), remarks Roger Sterling. In the beginning of the second episode when he is at dinner with Don and his wife, he asks to see the drink menu and demands that he will “have another one while I’m waiting for the list” (“Ladies Room”).

As one of the founders of the agency, Roger’s actions set the tone of the employees—and

Roger is always seen with a glass in one hand and a cigarette in the other. All executives have bars in their room, and routinely frequent their respective bottles multiple times a day. While alcohol in the office is banned in almost all workplaces today, liquor is casually consumed at meetings and even given as gifts. This sort of obsession with alcohol was indicative of the times, but more specifically was most prevalent on Madison

Avenue—where the notable advertising agencies were located. When Don pulls out a miraculous campaign pitch to a client, some of the younger executives gift him a bottle of whiskey. Drinking at the office is what separates the men from the women in the show. In the first four episodes women are never seen drinking, and in the rest of the show as well

30 the ratio is incredibly one-sided. Much in the same way constant degradation of women is shown, alcohol use is just as common—both at the office and at home.

Success and Status

In Mad Men, job rank is everything—and status is a large principle of hegemonic masculinity. Status is so ingrained in our culture, specifically when it comes to the self worth of someone. For example, in Death of a Salesman, Willy Loman tells his Uncle

Ben, “A man can’t go out the way he came in…a man has got to add up to something!”

(Miller 99). Robert Brannon defines success “in terms of occupational prestige and achievement” (19). For the male characters working at Sterling Cooper, they have some sort of status. At the top of the hierarchy is Roger Sterling ad Bert Cooper—the founders of the firm. Below them is Don, although he is involved in their business conversations even though he is not a partner. Don is seemingly second in command, though. The account executives report to Don, and he is their boss. He has the power to fire and hire workers. However in the hierarchy of the office, with a higher status come different outlooks.

Don Draper, the show’s primary character, has achieved one of the highest ranking—and highest paying—jobs at the agency. Don has achieved the socially constructed life goals of a man living in the 1960s, with an attractive wife, two kids, and a great job. All male figures in the show walk around with a sense of wanting to be as successful Don Draper. He puts across an image of perfection. Don is incredibly successful at his job, and everyone in the office knows how much of an asset he is to the agency. His primary role is convincing the clients that the ads he comes up with are what they need.

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Pete struggles with a lack of status in these four episodes. As the second principle of masculinity, status is important to being a man. Brannon writes, “simply being a doctor, lawyer, or moderately successful businessman is enough to qualify as success in most circles” (20). The quality of a job, especially in the 1960s, is derived from how much it pays. As a junior account executive, his role is to socialize with clients—and it does not pay much. He wants what Don has, and tells Draper that he has good ideas.

Having just gotten married, Pete looks at Don’s life and wants a similar lifestyle: he wants success, a family, and a well paying job. However, he aggressively tries to gain status by going against Don’s wishes by pushing his ideas on a client while out on the town, and that leads to Don firing him. Although he does not actually end up getting fired, he is put in his place and accepts his low status in the agency. Status in relation to masculinity is integral. With status comes respect, and respect is a quality Pete is striving to find in these first four episodes.

One of the first things I noticed about Don is his commitment to his job, and this is seen at the office and, more importantly, out of it. The very first scene of the program is of Don sitting alone in a bar. He is writing down notes on a napkin, and begins a conversation with his waiter about cigarettes. Later, when he walks into one of his mistresses apartment, he asks her if he could “run some ideas” past her (“Smoke Gets In

Your Eyes”). In another instance, at home Don lays on the couch and goes over some artwork for a client, while his wife Betty is making dinner and answering the phone. He is so caught up in his work, even though he is no longer at work (“New Amsterdam”). It can be implied that Don is successful at his job because of the time he spends out of the office thinking and working on office-related tasks. Don takes every aspect of his job

32 seriously, and does not put up with the careless attitudes of his coworkers. For example, when Pete returns from his honeymoon, his friends pull a prank on him by putting a group of homeless Chinamen in his office. When asked if he saw the prank, Don does not acknowledge it at all, and shifts the conversation to back to work. Don’s status relates to masculinity because he is focused on being more successful, and controlling those that work below him in the office hierarchy. Don is focused on retaining this status more than anything. When Pete attempts to provide witty remarks back to him, Don does away with him and fires him—proving that his status in the office has the ability to remove him of his job.

Don is aware of his own status in the office. He knows he is one of the higher-ups, and he has the ability to fire people if he chooses. Putting him in this position to hold one person’s job in his hands is incredibly masculating. Additionally, when Peggy attempts to seduce Don, he pushes her away and tells her “I’m your boss, not your boyfriend”

(“Smoke Gets In Your Eyes”). He then threatens to fire her if she ever repeats her actions.

He has worked to get to where he is, which tells the audience Don is persistent and serious.

Don also serves as the breadwinner for his family, further showing the success of his job and further promoting 1960s social constructions. His wife is a stay-at-home mother who does not have to work because he makes so much money. He and his family live in a beautiful home in a beautiful neighborhood, and Don provides for them in every way financially. Don’s wife looks up to him and depends on his financial support. For example, one day, he comes home with a lavish piece of jewelry for his wife, and the next he surprises his daughter with a dog for her birthday. By showering his family with

33 gifts, Don shows his high status and promotes his masculinity. In the example of Don, status equals money.

Status is integral to masculinity. In these episodes, most all interactions at the office in some way dealt with status. For Don, status helps him keep control over those he works with, even if he has to fire or insult someone. For Pete Campbell, he is searching for higher status, and is often at the receiving end of Don’s harsh words. With status at

Sterling Cooper most certainly comes respect, and Don as well as the two partners command it.

Toughness, Confidence, and Self-Reliance

Brannon’s third principle of masculinity requires real men to show toughness, confidence, and self-reliance. Although he mentions this in relation to athleticism, in these first four episodes, physical activity is barely shown. As a majority of the scenes take place at the office, the chances to see physical activity are rare. As part of this third principle of masculinity, physical ability is important. Brannon writes “a physically big man is usually able to stand up to physical intimidation more easily than a small one”

(26). With physical toughness comes mental toughness. In one episode Don is seen completing some arm exercises before a big meeting. The other scene occurs before he goes to sleep, and Don does pushups in the bedroom. By showing these two scenes the audience knows Don is conscious of his physical state and understands the importance of exercise. Having served in the army (we see his Purple Heart in the first episode), as an audience we know Don is tough and courageous—more so than the younger executives who were not required to serve.

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Toughness under pressure is part of this principle of masculinity. The ability to be the “sturdy oak” (Brannon 26) is masculine, and several characters prove their masculinity under duress.

First, Don acts as the “sturdy oak” in the office. He rarely shows emotion, and goes about his business in nothing but a consistent manner. When Don gets back to the office after a late night in the city with his mistress, he already has a set of shirts ready to wear. In the event of an emergency, Don is prepared and ready to deal with any sort of spontaneous situation. In another episode, Roger walks into Don’s office and finds him just sitting there with a glass and remarks that he never actually sees him working. Don always is prepared for his job, however, and is working around the clock. As stated before, Don does plenty of work outside of the office, whether it is at a bar or his home.

He is always prepared for meetings, however this time he is not, it comes at a shock to everyone in the room. When meeting to discuss tactics to dissolve claims that smoking is unhealthy, Don seems to forget his notes and is at a loss for words. Don, through his creative wit, comes to a revelation as his clients are walking out the door and miraculously comes up with a brilliant campaign (“Smoke Gets In Your Eyes”). This shows that Don can always be counted on—especially under pressure. He is relied on by almost everyone in the office to perform at his best, Don is also the “sturdy oak” with his family. When driving home from dinner with his wife, he casually puts his arm around her. She seems content—showing that Don is always there for her and takes care of her.

When Don comes home his children happily greet him with smiles and adoration, proving that he is reliable to his family and all aspects related. His preparedness for all sorts of situations proves Don’s masculinity via the “sturdy oak.”

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Pete is incredibly confident in almost all aspects of his life, proving his ability to be the “sturdy oak.” From the way he talks to women to the way he handles clients,

Pete’s voice and the way he delivers his words exude self-reliance. His image projects that he is in control, and knows what he is doing at all times. He has no problem stepping up to Don, who is of higher status, and telling him he has good ideas. Pete knows he is smart, and is confident he can do the job of his other co-workers who make more than he does. Pete is so confident in his ideas, that while socializing on the town with a client, he goes outside of his job description and pitches his own ideas for a campaign, much to the dismay of Don and Roger.

Peggy also portrays the “sturdy oak” image. For example, when she is under the male gaze of the men in the office. When Pete Campbell and the rest of the younger members of Sterling Cooper are riding up the elevator on Peggy’s first day, she remains calm when they barrage her with subtle sexual assaults. When Peggy cannot take the pressure anymore, she walks into the bathroom thinking she will cry, however retains the

“sturdy oak” image and returns to her work unfazed. When Paul attempted to seduce her in his office, she calmly told him she was not interested and walked out very unemotionally.

Rachel Menken also exudes this image of the “sturdy oak.” As a client of Sterling

Cooper, she marches into the meeting and lets the board members know what she wants in her campaign. Her confidence in telling men what to do is seemingly out of line at times, and is possibly aggressive. Aggression, according to Brannon, is often considered a masculine trait, and is further explained in the next section (28). When Don attempts to tell her that the research his team compiled is correct, she remains calm and tells him he

36 needs to take another approach (“Smoke Gets In Your Eyes”). Rachel is aware that the men of the agency will manipulate her wishes, and will viciously attempts to get what she wants to help her business. Her stability during this meeting throws off Don and catches him unexpectedly, and he storms out of the meeting.

Masculinity and Aggression

Aggression, violence, and risk-taking are all features of the construction of masculinity. Richard Brannon notes that while the other three principles of masculinity portray men in a positive light, this last one seemingly does not. This last principle focuses on “the need to hurt, to embarrass, to humble, to punish, to defeat,” (27) meaning the perceived negative parts of being a man. Almost every character in these episodes performs some sort of aggression, both male and female.

Don is certainly aggressive despite his normally calm manner. First, Don chooses to focus his aggression on Pete by continually insulting him. After Pete walks in and degrades Don’s new secretary, Peggy, Don embarrasses him by telling him that no one will like him if he continues to be so aggressive towards women. When Pete suggests that

Don and their wives get dinner, Don agrees, but the tone of his voice indicates the opposite. This aggression builds up to the episode “New Amsterdam,” when Pete goes outside of his job description and Don goes ahead and fires him in front of his coworkers.

Second, Don’s aggression is directed towards Rachel Menken in their initial meeting, where Don proclaims that Rachel is “way out of line” for patronizing the work ethic and creativity of the agency. Once she refuses to back down, Don proclaims that he’s “not

37 going to let a woman talk to me like this,” and exits the meeting room (“Smoke Gets In

Your Eyes”).

Conversely, Pete displays aggression back towards Don. After he displays his campaign pitch in the meeting, the client likes it and walks away happy, thinking the idea was Don’s all along. Pete, happy that he formulated a good idea, brags to Don and tells him “I did something good, and you got the compliment for it” (“New Amsterdam”), telling Don his ideas need to be appreciated more often. Pete, consistently shut down by

Don, asserts his confidence and assumes the aggressive role that might offend his boss.

However, this is the risk he takes in attempting to gain more recognition for his job.

Rachel Menken, surprisingly, is the most aggressive overall character in these first four episodes. As a single woman, her voice is not clouded by her husband’s and therefore she speaks freely. In the meeting with the agency, she does not let Don and

Roger persuade her into using the agency’s research on her business. Rachel requests the assistance of Sterling Cooper to change the image of her department store, however she receives the same response at Don’s agency as the other advertising agencies. She goes on to explain that she expected more out of Sterling Cooper, and taunts the executives for having the same ideas as the other firms. While getting drinks with Don a few scenes later in an effort to keep her business, Don and Rachel enter a battle of wits, and Rachel ends up coming up with the wittier retorts. She compares herself to Don, and he cannot accept being compared to a woman. Rachel tells Don that “It must be hard being a man,” to which Don is flabbergasted (“Smoke Gets In Your Eyes”). She clearly has no issue with saying what is on her mind, even if it would be considered offensive. In a follow-up meeting with the agency, Rachel reprimands the team for compiling a recommendation to

38 her store without actually visiting it. Her aggression leaves the men of the room speechless, once again proving her aggression and dominance over her male counterparts.

When Don visits the store with Rachel, she forces him around the store pointing out different rooms and products as if he was on a leash. She even gives Don a pair of cufflinks, which could be seen as a move of romantic aggression.

Aggression is a unique requirement of being a man, however it is also seen in women. It requires confidence, physical strength, and daring. Don portrays this aggression by insulting Pete consistently, even when unprovoked. Pete, on the other hand, chooses to focus his aggression back on Don when he tells Don about his fault. Lastly,

Rachel shows her masculine aggression by entering a battle of wits with don almost every time they speak. Aggression is often considered to be shown by men, however in Mad

Men, it is shown women can show their aggression as well.

Conclusion

In this chapter I provided the results of my study of examining the first four episodes of the television show Mad Men. First, I introduced the main characters in the selected episodes as well as provided context of the 1960s time period. By doing this, I provided the audience with contextualization of the analysis itself. Second, I used narrative criticism to develop by findings. I organized them in accordance to Robert

Brannon’s four principles of masculinity—the appearance of manliness, success and status, the air of toughness, and aggression. Using this evidence in addition to my purpose statement, I have drawn conclusions as well as offer some recommendations in the following chapter.

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CHAPTER IV

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The prevalence of different types of masculinities in Mad Men are hard to ignore.

Influenced heavily by media representations, the narrative elements of television shows such as Mad Men are worth analyzing. Representations of masculinity are important, since they contribute to our collective social constructions. Since its debut in the summer of 2007, Mad Men has become one of the most popular shows on television, and is slated for its fifth season to begin sometime next year. Because of its exceptional popularity, I decided to examine how Mad Men displays different types of masculinity through its characters. In this study, I have reviewed the current scholarship and provided evidence directly from the first four episodes of the show. In this section, I will first outline the major conclusions of this study, followed by its implications and some recommendations for future research, and I will conclude with some final thoughts.

Major Conclusions

After my analysis of the first four episodes of Mad Men, I drew several conclusions. My first major conclusion is that Don Draper is the pinnacle of traditional hegemonic masculinity among all characters in the show. Don achieves all four of

Richard Brannon’s principles of masculinity—the appearance of manliness, success and status, the “sturdy oak” image, and toughness. Don encompasses all four of these elements, however in his office, success and status are the most important characteristics.

He exudes status in almost every situation, as Don is one of the most successful men in the office, and purchases expensive gifts for his wife in an effort to show this standing.

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Don also portrays a constant image of manliness, and in these four episodes does not exude any trait resembling something feminine. He positions himself as the “sturdy oak,” as he calmly recollects himself in an important meeting and delivers an advertising campaign off the top of his head. Don is cool, calm, and collected, and emanates masculinity in this show. However, Draper is not the only character that exudes dominantly masculine traits.

A second conclusion I draw is Rachel Menken, one of Don’s clients, is predominantly masculine, and represents the progressive woman. The 1960s was a time when women were submissive in almost every way towards men, and Rachel defies that.

This is most noticeable in a business meeting with Don, where she displays masculine characteristics of toughness and aggression towards the other men in the room. Most importantly, however, she outwits Don—proving women can exert aggression as well as men. Rachel reflects changing and progressive attitudes towards women, however those working at Sterling Cooper cannot accept her ideas on the matter. By showing her dominance over such a masculine figure, Rachel asserts herself as portraying a different kind of masculinity as well as debunking the thought only men can be masculine. By outwitting Don in the meeting as well as in her store, Rachel proves she is smarter than

Don. Moreover, Peggy is mostly portrayed as masculine is most scenes. In her first minutes on the show she is dressed conservatively, almost like a man. Because she did not attempt to show skin or cleavage, she was deemed masculine by the characters critiquing her.

Third, Mad Men presents queer masculinity as something needing to be hidden.

Through the shows homosexual character, Sal, the notion that homosexuality must be

41 suppressed for it to be accepted is established. In the first four episodes, it is clear to the viewer Sal is gay, however his only lines have to do with statements about women. He hides his queer tendencies by asserting chauvinistic statements about women. By hiding his homosexuality, he protects himself from the insults and other societal repercussions.

Even though Sal is gay, he still portrays a different type of masculinity. As the only gay character in these four episodes, Sal represents how the writers and produces or Mad Men view queer masculinity during this time.

A fourth conclusion I draw is both Pete and Peggy represent changing nature of gender. Pete is portrayed very feminine, as he displays feminine, whereas Peggy exhibits masculine characteristics such as toughness. For Pete, he wants to achieve higher status in his job. However, because of his feminine traits he cannot climb the hierarchy of the office. For Peggy, all she wants to accomplish is her job, however she is consistently bombarded with comments on her masculine appearance. By portraying dynamically gendered characters, Mad Men is exerting the notion that gender is constantly changing and there is no set definition.

The fifth conclusion I draw on in this show is about the representations of these masculinities. In Mad Men, traditional masculinity is treated as the only acceptable form of masculinity, where queer masculinity is either hidden or insulted. With Don, all of the men in show are jealous, while with Pete and Peggy; there is a dichotomy of their actions.

Either they conform to the social constructions of the times, or they can be viewed as queer. The representations of the masculinities in Mad Men vastly contribute to our understanding of social construction. Through the different characters portrayals of masculinities, the audience gathers an understanding of how exactly it becomes socially

42 constructed. While watching Mad Men, the audience develops and understanding of how

1960s society is constructed. It is simple to derive that men dominate women, and the women are acknowledge their delegation to the home and or minor office tasks.

Representations create reality for the audience, and contribute to their continually evolving social constructions.

Sixth, this study is a confirmation that gender and masculinity are performed.

Using Peggy as an example, we see how her construction of femininity is formulated from the first episode. Not only does she have both Joan and Pete asking her to change her appearance, but she also acknowledges the sexually aggressive nature of the men in the office. Because of this she attempts to fit in, and conform to the social constructions, thus, her femininity is acted upon based on these representations.

My final conclusion is that all characters in this show act to live up to the social constructions of gender—masculinity especially. The socially constructed gender rules of the 1960s set the tone for how the men act in at both work and home. In the office, women are cast into Mulvey’s concept of “male gaze,” as they are consistently scrutinized based on their appearance. Hegemonic masculinity, helped by the 1960s sex roles, is portrayed as the only acceptable type. Women accepted themselves as the having less privilege than men, while the men recognized their dominance over women. Those that do not adapt to what the hegemony implies are considered queer.

Implications

One major implication of my study is its reflection of the different types of masculinity portrayed in popular media. The persuasive element of television in society

43 today is increasingly more influential, and my study provides an analysis of masculinities in a popular culture. My study examines traditional masculinity through Don Draper, the show’s main character, as well as other characters. My research contributes to the research done on representations of traditional, queer, and feminine masculinities in media, specifically television. Although Mad Men takes place in the 1960s, an understanding of the basis of hegemonic masculinity is important. While there are certainly more types of masculinities in our society, my study examines mostly traditional and queer.

Another implication of this study is for more awareness from viewers. The show paints Don Draper as the (while flawed) hero, however his masculine views are not considered acceptable in today’s society. His womanizing, boozing, and lack of family values are not to be repeated by male viewers, and this study shows that while Don is technically considered masculine, there are other types to look after. Due to the persuasiveness of television, this study shows that Don is not to be looked up to. He may portray the four masculine elements, but Don is not happy even though Mad Men portrays his life as perfect. Through this representation, the show conveys the message that even though one can have wealth and status, more is required for happiness. Don portrays hegemonic masculinity, and via this representation the audience receives a negative portrayal of it.

The last implication of this study is it examines how masculinity is performed.

Through an examination of characters’ masculinities in the first four episodes, the reader can determine the types of masculinities and how they are performed at the office and at

44 home. The social constructions of these masculinities can also be seen, however the audience views only how they are performed in these episodes.

Limitations

There are a few limitations to this study. The first is that my study only looked at four episodes of the show, so the results do not cover all aspects of masculinity represented in the show. Since there have been four seasons and 52 episodes to date, this is a smaller sample of a much lager set. Second, this study examined a single element— character—rather than other aspects of narrative criticism. A look at multiple genres of current television shows would provide a better understanding of how masculinity is portrayed in film and television. Despite these limitations, however, this study provides an in-depth look at the portrayal of masculinity in different characters in an incredibly popular show on television today.

Recommendations for Future Research

After completing this study, there are a few recommendations I would make. First, in order to gather a greater perspective on masculinity in Mad Men, future research should look at an entire season, or at least a chronological year in the show. Conclusions based off of an entire season would be able to congregate all portrayals of gender in the show. By doing this, one would be able to assemble firmer conclusions on the character’s masculinities. A second recommendation I would make would to change the methodology. In future research I would ask investigators to complete a survey based or focus group based study so that modern analyses of Mad Men can be taken into account.

45

If asking for participants’ reactions to the portrayals of different masculinities, researchers would be able to examine the modern social constructions of masculinity.

Final Thoughts

This study was incredibly taxing on myself, but I feel the final product was worth it. My results and conclusions are not surprising to me, as having seen this show before I knew what I might come up with through analysis. I knew from watching the show causally that all of the male characters strived to be like Don, however, with less influential characters like Pete and Rachel I was intrigued. Through this study I learned that these two characters represent shifting masculinities in a socially active time I performed this study, however, because I wanted to see from an academic and scholarly standpoint how exactly these men portrayed their own masculinities. I learned that through the representations Mad Men portrays, it only contributes to our social constructions. I enjoy analyzing television programs since I watch all of the time. It was interesting to look at one of my favorite shows from a scholarly standpoint, and can see myself partaking in a similar task for my Senior Independent Study. Overall, I enjoyed performing this study, because I got to analyze my favorite show, and write about concepts that fascinate me.

46

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APPENDIX Mad Men Episode Notes

“Smoke Gets in Your Eyes”

• Bar scene o “working while playing”—doing work while in a non-work atmosphere (confidence in job o knows what he wants (drink order) o always thinking about work (napkin, interviewing Sam etc) • Apartment scene o “You weren’t worried about waking me.” o The woman knows what drink order he wants without asking ! She serves him the drink (dominance) o Sexual concourse (Connell) o “What size Cadillac do you take?” –provider/$$$ • Elevator (Paul, Ken, ) o Subtle flirtations with new girl o “You gotta let them know what kind of guy you are. Then they’ll know what kind of girl to be.” • Pete’s Office o “why don’t you go shopping or something?” o “I’m giving up my life to be with you.” (dominance) • Joan and Peggy introduction o “Men need something between a mother and a waitress.” o Typewriters were made “simple enough for a woman to use.” • Don and Roger o Don has shirts ready (in case of emergency) o Part of getting ready requires drinking (women don’t drink) o Military service (purple heart) • Don and Salvator o “guys need a little sex appeal (woman in bathing suit) o “love” exploiting women—dominance o trying to hide homosexuality by acting in a hegemonic way o “should we drink before the meeting or after—or both? (confidence) o even when woman doctor provides logic, she’s wrong and Don knows better\ ! “psychology may be great for cocktail parties.” ! Shocked she’s a doctor o Women cannot top man’s genius • Don and Pete (Don’s Office) o Who’s your little friend here—Pete talking about Peggy ! Referred to her as “honey”

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o “Are you Amish or something?” suggesting Peggy wears too much clothing o Pete objectifying Peggy—“If you pull your waist in you might look like a woman.” o Don insults Pete (subordinate) • Don and Pete (walking) o Giving Pete wisdom of the job o Insults Pete again • Don and Meeting (Roger, Pete, Rachel) o Assumes customer is male • Peggy and Doctor o Doctor dominates over Peggy (why use a contraceptive if you’re not married? o “I will take you off this medicine if you abuse it.” o Assumes that women don’t know what’s good for them o “Easy women don’t find husbands.” • Meeting o Rachel takes charge over men (very masculine—domineering) o Don says Rachel is out of line ! “I’m not going to let a woman talk to me like this.”—domination • Don (Lucky Strike meeting) o “men live for danger.” • Don, Pete, Ken, Paul o Don doesn’t engage in bachelor party with subordinates o Alcohol is a gift • Don and Peggy o “Fear stimulates my imagination.” –love of danger o “I’m your boss, not your boyfriend.” o Threatens her • Bachelor party (nightclub) o Forces women to be at their table—with alcohol (uses $$$) o Salvator continues to act straight and enjoy the setting o Pete feeling up woman next to him (sexual aggression) o “Buy the girls whatever they want.” • Don and Rachel (bar) o Don has a hard time apologizing and saying he was wrong o Asks Rachel why she isn’t married—because women a her age should be married o Rachel retorts the gendered statement, showing she is of the same mental strength as Don o Rachel: “It must be hard being a man, too.” Don: “Excuse me?” • Pete and Peggy (Peggy’s apartment) o Pete—not masculine because he shows his feelings o Sexual concourse on behalf of Pete—knows he can get it

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“Ladies Room”

• Bar scene (Don, Roger, Mona, Betty) o Excessive consumption of alcohol “And I’ll have another one while I’m waiting for the list.” o “Don doesn’t like to talk about himself, and I know better than to ask.” – Betty o Don is in complete control • Car (Don, Betty) o Arm around betty o Driving drunk—the thirst for danger o Betty felt that she had to drink a lot to impress Don’s boss • Office (Don, Paul, Pete, Salvator) o Modern men… o “Just pretend it’s prom night—you be the girl.” • Joan and Peggy o Joan provides of Peggy, buying her lunch and insulting her • Lunch (Peggy, the guys) o Sexual jokes seem normal to the men • Don and mistress o Clear he’s having a marital affair and doesn’t care o Confident no one will know • Family dinner (Don, Betty, children) o “Betty, you have to get this taken care of.” o Don cannot accept that there isn’t something mentally wrong with Betty o “Why not open the hood and poke around?” as if Betty were a car and ensued a simple fix • Don and Betty (bedroom) o Don doing pushups before bed—athleticism o Betty: “Whatever you think is best.” • Don, Paul, Salvator, (Don’s office) o Sal shows his art expertise (feminine/queer) o Don expects perfection from ads o Don assumes women buy products for men (dominance) o Sal—continues to act straight o Don showing dominance over other men (“maybe I should stop paying you.” • Paul and Peggy o “I mean you can tell when a woman is writing copy, but sometimes she just might be the right man for the job.” • Don and Roger o Roger sets the attitude of masculinity in the office (drinking, smoking, attitude) o Roger sees no issue drinking before 5 PM

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o Don: What do women want? Roger: Who cares? o “I am very comfortable with my mind.” Roger Sterling o “I think it behooves any man to toss all female troubles into the hands of a stranger.” –Roger (women are weak and their husbands are the ones to “cure” them • Don and Betty o Don comes home happily drunk, because he bought betty a gift. • Paul and Peggy o Paul sexually attacks Peggy ! “We could push the couch in front of the door.” • Joan and Peggy (Peggy’s desk) o Joan dominating over Peggy, making her do more work • Peggy (bathroom mirror) o Could cry and show her feelings, but instead sucks it up and goes back to work (she’s different than normal woman) • Don and Mistress o Don says he smells “because I’m a man.” o Don still doing work outside the office (professionalism) Marriage of Figaro

• Pete and Guys (elevator) o Pete again feminine because his wife is apparently domineering over him • Peggy and Don o Office joke (paid an Oriental family to live in Pete’s office when he came back from his honeymoon). ! Focused on work/productivity • Don, Sal, and Paul o Don upset no work is getting done (Productivity o “Part of this job is doing things you don’t want to do.” • Don and Pete o “I was raised that men don’t wear jewelry (don’t be a sissy) o Consistently puts down Pete • Harry in meeting o Tells incredibly sexist joke (“I’m just kidding, she’s dead.) • Rachel in meeting o Outwits the men • Pete and Harry o Gossiping about Don’s extramarital affairs • Rachel and Don in department store o Gives him cufflinks, forcing Don around store o “so even then you enjoyed telling men what to do.” (on rooftop) • Don and Rachel (on the roof) o Don forcing masculine Rachel into kissing him ! He dominates over her ! Taking risks (he’s married)

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o “I have some checks to sign.” –Rachel • Don building playhouse • o needs a beer to do it (needs alcohol do bear with the feminity) o “Why don’t you run in the garage and get me another beer.” • Joke at party o “Your lawyer and your wife are drowning, and you have a choice: lunch or a movie.” o “Hey I’m missing the ballgame I may as well have some fun. • Helen bishop and the male neighbors o MALE GAZE • Kid knocks over a glass o “Go get your mother in here to clean this up.” • Don (in the car getting the birthday cake) o Don drives away—he does what he wants ! Got a dog without consulting Betty, drove off New Amsterdam

• Don, Trudy, and Pete o Continuously puts Pete down • Don and Rachel o Rachel declines to have lunch with Don, • Pete and his dad o Father doesn’t understand job Pete does, puts him down o Pete doesn’t live up to his father’s standards • Pete, Don, Sal, Walter o Pete tries to show Don isn’t giving client what he wants, Pete stands up for himself and asserts his masculinity over a dominant figure • Don at home o Don working on work in a non-work setting • Pete at dinner o Won’t refer to Don as his boss, doesn’t want someone over him suppressing his masculinity • Pete and Trudy (cab) o Pete unhappy his father in law is helping pay for the apartment, losing the feeling of self-worth ! Wants to live his life by his own accord • Walter and Pete o Pete tries to be like Don in doing work outside of work • Don and Pete o Don fires Pete for not doing what he says o Alcohol naturally the solution to trouble • Pete, his office o Cries—extremely feminine • Bert Cooper, Roger, Don

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o Don has to put up with his pride when Bert tells him he can’t fire Pete • Roger, Pete, Don o Roger completely reprimanding Pete for his actions • • Don and Roger o “We drink because it’s what men do.”