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Home , Sport psychology

01-Kremer-4218-CH-01.indd 1 09/06/2011 4:02:44 PM 01-Kremer-4218-CH-01.indd 2 09/06/2011 4:02:44 PM Definition: The chronology of key events in the development of sport psychology from its earliest roots through to the present day.

Contrary to popular opinion, sport psychology is not a new phenomenon (Kremer and Moran, 2008). From the time of the Ancient Greeks there is strong evidence to show that preparation for sporting competition has been willing to acknowledge the mental alongside the physical. Indeed, the standard four-day procedure followed by Greek athletes in the build-up to their games (known as the tetrad) incorporated specific time set aside for psychological skills training, including concentration (Day 2) and relaxation (Day 4). Given the importance that commentators, both paid and unpaid, 1.1: of the history

routinely attach to ‘the mind’ in athletic performance, it should come as psychology sport no surprise to learn that the world of sport has long recognised that success will depend on ‘total preparation’ involving the mind as well as the body. However, despite this tacit acceptance, sport psychology had to wait several centuries before finally being afforded due recognition as an academic enterprise in its own right (Green and Benjamin, 2009), and even today there is still resistance from traditionalists who resent the interference of ‘shrinks’ in what they see as their unsullied world of sport. From ancient roots it took until the early 20th century to see the coming-together of the subdiscipline from diverse sources – but not before a number of false trails had been laid. While there had been some interest in sporting personalities, play, motor learning, reaction times and 3 transfer of training around the turn of the 19th century, the individual who is now generally credited with carrying out the earliest systematic sport psychology research is Norman Triplett.

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4 introducing sport psychology (Davis etal., 1995). his tinued toworkuntilhisretirementin1931, allthewhileextending of ChildStudyatKansasStateNormalSchool(KSNS)wherehecon- porter ofallformssport, in1901hebecameHeadoftheDepartment US athletestorunthe100yardsinunder10seconds)andactivesup- pull aflagaroundtrack. A keensportsperson(hewas oneofthefirst tal workinvolvedchildrenwindingsilklineontoafishingreelsoasto cycling timeseitheralone, pacedorincompetition, whilehisexperimen- presence ofothers–see known associalfacilitation, ortheimprovementinperformance experimental investigationsofwhathecoined ‘dynamogism’ (now pline, socialpsychology. Hisdissertationwas based onarchival and his lastinglegacynotonlytosportpsychologybutalsoanothersubdisci- topic ofconjuringdeceptions), itishisMasters’thesisthathasbecome 1900. Although hisinterestswerewideranging (hisPhDwas onthe two yearslaterin1898, andfinallyhisPhDfromClarkUniversityin by IllinoisCollege(Jacksonville) attheageof28, followedbyhisMasters the (1925), wherehefocusedhis attentionnotoncompetitivesportbut Roudik establishedthefirstSovietsportpsychology laboratory inMoscow both pureandappliedsportpsychology. At around thesametime Culture inLeningrad inthe1920sandhad awideranging interestin Puni openedasportpsychologylaboratory attheInstituteofPhysical the establishmentofsportpsychology(seeRyba etal., 2005). Professor (A.C.) Puni(1898–1986)andPiotr(Peter) Roudik played keyrolesin (later referredtoasHitler’s Games). involvement aschieforganiseroftheinfamous1936BerlinOlympics in thedevelopmentofEuropeansport, arolelaterovershadowedbyhis under DrCarlDiem, apersonwhoplayedpositiveandsignificant role at theDeutscheSporthochschule(GermanSportUniversity)inBerlin The world’s firstdedicatedsportpsychologylaboratory openingin1920 concerted effortstoestablishsportpsychologyasascientificdiscipline. century onwards ineasternEuropeanuniversitiestherehadbeenmore activity inthewesternworldwas sparse. Incontrast, fromthelate19th legacy was notstronganduntilthe1930sevidenceofsportpsychology Born inIllinois1861, Triplett was awarded hisbaccalaureatedegree In theformerUSSR, fromthe1920sonwards both Avksenty While Triplett hadmadesomeimportant observations, hisacademic fulsome supporttoallformsofsportingactivitywithinthecollege psychophysiology ofmotorbehaviour. These endeavours reflectedin 5.25 ). The archival researchconsideredrecorded Cezarevich 09/06/2011 4:02:44PM longstanding interests in the psychology of sport that stretched throughout the 20th century in eastern Europe. It was in that decade that the person now generally regarded as the founding father of contemporary western sport psychology began to carve out his career at the University of Illinois. Born in 1893, Coleman Griffith was a lecturer in educational psychology at the University of Illinois when, with the help of his Dean and mentor Professor George Huff, he turned his sights towards sport psychology. Following his introduction of taught courses in sport psychology from 1923, in 1925 he set up the Athletic Research Laboratory and worked frenetically, writing more than 20 sport psychology articles and two books up until 1931. Sadly, the entire enterprise within the University then came apart for reasons now obscure but perhaps related to the Great Depression, or perhaps because the college’s head football coach, the legendary and highly influential Robert Zuppke, failed to see any benefit accruing to his team from all this academic research (Green, 2003). Disillusioned, Griffith then turned his attention back towards educational psychology, only once returning to sport psychology in 1937 when he was asked to work with the Chicago Cubs Baseball Club by the club’s owner, Philip Wrigley. Griffith worked more or less closely with management for three years but the relationship eventually petered out. The 1.1: of the history Cubs’ manager, Charlie Grimm, referred to Griffith as the ‘headshrinker’, psychologysport and would have nothing to do with his work (Gould and Pick, 1995) despite the considerable investment that the club had made in recording equipment and the huge investment that Griffith himself made in time, effort and report writing, including detailed analysis of every players’ performances, a very early forerunner of what is now so influential in most professional sports, notational analysis or the systematic recording and analysis of performance. The years following Griffith were fallow for most of sport psychology in the West, apart from a continuation of the longstanding interest in motor learning and motor control on both sides of the Atlantic. In eastern Europe the early work involving competitive sport continued to be 5 studied in European universities, such as Leipzig, often in conjunction with applied research, for example involving the mental preparation of Soviet cosmonauts. By 1960, sport psychologists were routinely working with elite Eastern Bloc athletes, and from the 1970s onwards Olympic competitors from countries including the USSR, East Germany, Hungary

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6 introducing sport psychology Sport Psychology(AAASP, 1986)(see (FEPSAC, 1969)andthe Association forthe Advancement of Applied Européenne dePsychologieSportetdes Activités Corporelles the PsychologyofSportand Activity (NASPSA, 1969), theFédération on eithersideofthe Atlantic includingtheNorth American Societyfor Psychological Association (APA) formedaseparate divisionin1987 take greaterinterestinsportpsychology. For example, the American the late1980sthatparentdisciplineofpsychology slowlybeganto Exercise Sciences(BASES, firstfoundedin1984), anditwas notuntil British PsychologicalSocietybutthe Association ofSportand to regulatethepractice ofsportpsychologistsintheUKwas notthe sport psychologyallcamefromthesedisciplines. Indeed, thefirstbody physical educationandsportscience, andthemajor ‘players’ within behind alltheseinitiativescamenotfromwithin psycho was heldinRome1965. International SocietyofSportPsychology(ISSP), anditsfirstcongress tuted tofurthertheadvancement ofsportpsychology. This was the was instrumentalinhelpingfoundapioneeringbodyspecifically consti- Olympic GamesinMexico1968, alongwithFerrucio Antonelli, he athletes, andincludingtheCzechoslovakian team thattravelled tothe Vanek (Vanek andCratty, 1970). As wellasworkingdirectlywith he did’(Pelé, 1977). know anythingaboutfootball. IfPelé’s kneeisready, heplay the psychologist, saying: “You mayberight. The thingis, youdon’t instincts. According toPelé’s autobiography, ‘He justnoddedgravely at adequate fashion.’ Fortunately theteamcoachFeola trustedhis lacks fightingspirit. Heistooyoungtofeelaggressionandreactinan he concludedthatthe17-year-old Pelé was, ‘obviously infantile. He ness, includingaskingthemtosketchpicturesofmen. From suchtests ducted various testsontheplayerstodeterminetheirmentaltough- dentist butalsoapsychologist, Prof. Joao Carvalhaes. Carvalhaes con- in Sweden1958hadbroughtalongnotonlyanutritionistand Ahead ofitstime, theBrazilian soccerteamthatwonthe World Cup disciplines, including psychology, couldhelpimproveperformance. (Massengale andSwanson, 1997)ascoachesconsideredhowvarious mental practice andimagery(RobertsKimiecik, 1989). and Czechoslovakia usedsportpsychologists Prominent amongEuropeanpractitioners atthistimewas DrMiroslav It was aroundthistimethatsport sciencebegantotrulyemerge Over thenexttenyearsasuccessionofotherorganisationssprang up 1.4 ). However, thedrivingforce to helpwith self-regulation, logy butfrom s.” Which 09/06/2011 4:02:44PM (Division 47: Exercise and Sport Psychology), and it was in 1993 that the British Psychological Society (BPS) first set in motion the long procedure that eventually led to the creation of a separate BPS division ‘Sport and Exercise Psychology’ in 2004. Nowadays the discipline’s governing bodies are increasingly concerned with regulating the use of the term ‘sport psychologist’. For example, in the UK only those who are chartered through the BPS have the right to describe themselves by this title, and currently there are around 200 individuals who are either chartered or are in the process of becoming chartered. The history of sport psychology has been divided, chequered and tortuous, and it continues to make its mark to this day. Those who did not graduate as psychologists feel disenfranchised now that the parent discipline has attempted to exert greater control, while across sport psychology there continues to be tension between those who ‘do’ or practice sport psychology, and those who teach or research. Despite these tensions, the subdiscipline continues to grow and flourish.

REFERENCES

Davis, S.F., Becker, A.H. and Huss, M.T. (1995) Norman Triplett and the dawning of

sport psychology. The Sport Psychologist, 9, 366–375. 1.1: of the history Gould, D. and Pick, S. (1995) Sport psychology: The Griffith era, 1920–1940. The psychologysport Sport Psychologist, 9, 391–405. Green, C.D. (2003) Psychology strikes out: Coleman R. Griffith and the Chicago Cubs. History of Psychology, 6, 267–283. Green, C.D. and Benjamin, L.T. (eds) (2009) Psychology Gets in the Game: Sport, Mind, and Behavior, 1880–1960. Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. Kremer, J. and Moran, A. (2008) Swifter, higher, stronger: The history of sport psychology. The Psychologist, 21 (8), 748–750. Massengale, J.D. and Swanson, R.A. (eds) (1997) The History of Exercise and Sport Sciences. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Pelé, with Fish, R.L. (1977) My Life and the Beautiful Game: The Autobiography of Pelé. New York: Doubleday. Roberts, G.C. and Kimiecik, J.C. (1989) Sport psychology in the German Democratic Republic: An interview with Dr Gerard Konzag. The Sport 7 Psychologist, 3, 72–77. Ryba, T., Stambulova, N. and Wrisberg, C. (2005) The Russian origins of sport psychology: A translation of an early work of A.C. Puni. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 17, 157–169. Vanek, M. and Cratty, B.J. (1970) Psychology and the Superior Athlete. New York: Macmillan.

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8 introducing sport psychology contrast, theBritish Association ofSportand ExerciseSciences inturnbyalengthyperiodofsupervisedexperience.followed In approved higherdegreerelatedtoSportand ExercisePsychology, Graduate BasisforCharteredMember(GBC), followedby an wellness (Andersen, 2000, 2005). harmony withthephysicalinimprovingsportperformanceandathlete wheat fromthechaffintermsofhelpingpsychologicalwork good oftheathleteorteam. Goodsportpsychologiststrytosortthe rience andknowledgetomakeapositivelong-lastingimpactforthe different fromonethathasbeengroundedinthenecessaryskills, expe- psychologist. However, thattypeofspontaneousinterventionisquite tively, thenunwittinglythatperson willalreadyhave practised asasport athlete’s thoughts, feelingsorperformance, eitherpositivelyornega- informed, solicitedorevenwelcomed, butifthey have aneffecton tion becomesanaïvesportpsychologist’. These viewsmaynotbe ficult asanyonewhovoicesanopiniononsportperformancebydefini- Ontheonehand,psychologist? thetriteanswerwouldbe ‘it is notdif- In thefirstinstance, howdoessomeonebecomeapractising sport chology (oracloselyrelateddiscipline)which qualifiesthepersonfor Psychological Society(BPS), normallyrequiresafirst degree inpsy- governance ofprofessionalpsychologyacross theUK, theBritish writing, youcanfollowoneoftworoutes. The bodythatoverseesthe become accreditedasasportpsychologistintheUK, atthetimeof regulations governingtheuseoftitle ‘sport psychologist’. To governing bodieshave workedhardtoestablishstrictcriteria and To ensurethatthegoodsonofferarenotdamaged, psychology’s through appropriate professional interventions withathletesandteams. through appropriateprofessionalinterventions Definition: The translation of sport psychology theory intopractice The translationofsportpsychologytheory 09/06/2011 4:02:44PM (BASES) requires a first degree in either psychology or sport science, followed by a higher degree in the other discipline, together with a period of supervised experience, and there are moves to try to harmonise the two systems. Today there are a growing number of accredited sport psychologists working across the globe, and the number seems set to continue to rise for the foreseeable future (Lidor and Bar-Eli, 2001). However, operating outside the bounds of these professional bodies, there are a great many self-styled ‘sport consultants’ who often have no formal training in psychology but who adopt the role of sport psychologist or mental coach. When choosing a sport psychologist, the watch-words for any athlete must be caveat emptor (buyer beware) for, as with any profession, the potential to harm as well as help is ever present. Many sportspeople have had difficult experiences with sport consultants whose advice may have been given with the best of inten- tions but which has lacked the psychological know-how to ensure good quality control. Having first established the credentials to be able to work with teams and athletes, a great many ways to practice then present themselves. Typically sport psychologists operate in at least three ways: as basic researchers (investigating the science of sport psychology but not

necessarily working with athletes or teams); as educational sport psy- 1.2: practising sport chologists (teaching and educating athletes and coaches); and as clinical sport psychologists (counselling or supporting individual athletes with psychology problems). In reality, many sport psychologists will fulfil all three roles at some stage in their careers, but the primary focus of this chapter will be on those who work directly with sportspeople and teams, in either educational or clinical roles, or a combination of the two. The distinction between the educational and clinical role can be blurred but was neatly characterised by Rainer Martens (1987) as the difference in the direction of travel of the intervention: either from abnormal to normal (clinical), or from normal to ‘supernormal’ (educational). That is, clinical sport psychologists will tend to use their clinical training to help address psychopathologies, including emo- 9 tional, behavioural and personality disorders, while educational sport psychologists will aspire to enhance ‘normal’ sports’ performance through appropriate interventions with both athletes and their coaches. When these two worlds come together, ethical problems can arise. In particular, an intervention may reveal an underlying clinical condition

01-Kremer-4218-CH-01.indd 9 09/06/2011 4:02:44 PM 01-Kremer-4218-CH-01.indd 10 10 introducing sport psychology diminish, not grow, overtimeiftheinterventionhasbeensuccessful. need toseekoutoccasionaladviceandsupportbutthisislikely ance asandwhenrequired. That isnottosaythattheremaystillbethe with therightskillsandtechniquestobeableself-regulateperform- independence andself-reliancetoapointwheretheathleteisequipped goal ofthesportpsychologistmaybedifferent, tocarefullynurture in helpingathletestotrulygrowandmature. Instead, itisarguedthatthe over recentyearsithasbecomeapparentthatthismodelislesseffective best characterised asmedical, aimedat ‘curing’ orhealingtheathlete, but general termsisaddressedthroughawiderarray ofinterventions. the dominantissueovertimeasperformanceenhancementinmore may triggertheengagementwithasportpsychologist, itrarely remains way ofoptimalperformance. Furthermore, whileonespecificconcern not typicallypathologicalbutinsteadtheyareobstaclesthatstandinthe ‘prob primarily underpinnedbyamedicalmodelofintervention. all relyonagoodrelationshipbetweenclientandtherapist, andare (CBT) andsystemsorfamilytherapy. While verydifferentinapproach, psychodynamic (Freudian), humanist(Rogerian), cognitive-behavioural surprising thatthetypesofinterventioncanvary considerably, including range ofperspectivesthatcanunderpinclinicalpsychology, itisnot mately inparticulartypesofinterventionthatareused. Giventhewide appropriate training whichthenreflectsinamodelofpractice andulti- values alongwithatheoreticalparadigm thathasbeenacquiredthrough (Stainback etal., 2007). This islikelytoincorporate personalbeliefsand on the ‘practice philosophy’thatheorshebringstotheintervention same timeitensuresthat the ‘naïve being caughtinthecrossfirebetweendifferent messages, andat the many ways, notleastbecauseitavoids theplayerorteampotentially supported inthisrolebythesportpsychologist. This hasadvantages in where thecoachormanagerbecomesprimary pointofcontactbut the coachormanager. This opensthepossibilityofanalternativemodel person whoonadailybasisworksmostclosely withtheteamorathlete, raising seriousethicalandprofessionalconsiderations (see that wouldgobeyondtheprofessionalcompetenceofpractitioner, to helpthisprocessmaynotbethesportpsychologist butrather the In addition, accordingtoKremerandScully(1998), thebestperson The practice modelunderpinningaclinicalinterventionisprobably Educational sportpsychologistsoftenarefirstconfrontedwith The workofaclinicalsportpsychologistislikelytovary depending lems’ (e.g. confidence, concentration, stress), buttheseissuesare psychology’ thatmayha 1.3 ve informed informed ). 09/06/2011 4:02:44PM the coach’s previous interactions has now been cross referenced and balanced by input from sport psychology. In this way the sport psychologist becomes an integral part of the support team used by the coach or manager but is not centre-stage. Indeed, most coach development programmes now include significant elements devoted to sport psychology, and this model then becomes the natural progression. Robin Vealey (2007) has suggested that apart from distinguishing between educational and clinical approaches, it is also useful to categorise interventions as being either programme-centred (i.e. pre-planned sequence of activities) or athlete-centred (i.e. an interactive, needs-based approach), and also whether the intervention is concerned primarily with performance enhancement or with personal development. The sugges- tion is that the most successful are not narrowly confined but succeed in addressing not only immediate performance concerns but also broader lifestyle issues, and are tailored to the needs of individual athletes. Beyond this point the model of intervention will vary depending on the perspective of the sport psychologist and the context. According to Vealey (2007), these include the following models:

x systems for individual, team, organisational and family interventions; x self-regulatory or cognitive-behavioural models;

x behavioural management models; 1.2: practising sport x educational mental skills models; x developmental models; psychology x sport-specific mental skills models; x clinical intervention models; x perceptual training models.

Whichever model is adopted it is likely to follow a particular strategy. Over the years a number of staged practice strategies have been suggested, but all are broadly similar in approach. Among the most popular is Morris and Thomas’s (2003) seven-phase model or strategy. The first stage is orientation, where the purpose of the intervention is clarified, objectives identified, and commitment determined in relation to per- 11 formance enhancement. Once the task is identified, the sport psychologist then conducts an analysis of the particular sport, followed by an individual/team assessment that is completed to develop a profile of strengths and weaknesses. This profile can be based on a number of quantitative and qualitative techniques including psychological tests and inventories, interviews, observations of the athlete performing (via

01-Kremer-4218-CH-01.indd 11 09/06/2011 4:02:45 PM 01-Kremer-4218-CH-01.indd 12 12 introducing sport psychology reflect realitymoreclosely. as sportpsychologists, soitistobehopedthattheimagewillchange and theprofessionregulatesworkofthosewhodescribethemselves difficult todispel. However, asthesubdisciplinecontinuestomature nothing couldbefurtherfromthetruth, butthesestereotypescanbe as falselyportrayed inthemedia. For mostpractising sportpsychologists experiences orstereotypicalimagesof ‘The Motivator’ typecharacters, viewed withadegreeofsuspicion, perhapsbecauseofpreviousnegative Andersen, M.B. (ed.)(2005) Andersen, M.B. (ed.)(2000) example whentestinganathleteorinstructingintheuseofmentalskills. but atotherstimestherelationshipmaybefundamentallydifferent, for skills maybebroughttobearatcertainoccasionsduringtheintervention equivalent tothatbetweenacounsellorandclient. Instead, counselling relationship withtheathlete. This isnottoimplythattherelationship successful interventionmustbeestablishinganddevelopingatrusting this, however, thereisawidespreadagreementthatthe cornerstoneofa ing thestagesthatcompriseasystematicintervention while itmayappearoverlyprescriptive, as training programme. improved personal ation skills arethen concentration imagery, chological skillstraining lete areplacedinthecontextofhisorhersport. The fifthstageis through aprofileanalysis, wherethepersonalcharacteristics oftheath- significant othersabouttheathlete. The fourthstageis videos, diariesand/orperformance statistics)andtalkingtocoaches within competition. The seventhandfinalstageinthisprocessis Kremer, J. andScully, D. (1998) What sportpsychologists oftendon’tdo: On To manyathletesandcoaches, professionalsportpsychologistsarestill In essence, theseven steps describetheprocessofactionresearchand (eds) empowerment and Kinetics. , andthisconsidersevidenceofperformanceenhancement, What SportPsychologistsDo goal setting, cognitivetechniques, skills, thoughtstopping and practised adjustment andadherencetothepsychologicalskills independence. InSteinberg, H., Cockerill, I. andDewey, A. inthesixthstage Doing SportPsychology , involvingpractical skillsrelatingtoe.g. Sport Psychology inPractice Sport Psychology REFERENCES .

Leicester: BPSBooks. pp.75–88. a general fr building self-confidence. stress management, . Champaign, IL: HumanKinetics. before being . Champaign, IL: Human it isvalu amework for conceptualisation implemented able. Beyond attention/ describ- evalu- These 09/06/2011 4:02:45PM psy-

1.3: ethical issues 13 09/06/2011 4:02:45 PM . gists cian’s cian’s . 3rd edn. 3rd edn. . . 2nd ed. 2nd ed. . clini al principles, al principles, Handbook of Sport Handbook of Sport sport psycholo Champaign, IL: Human Human IL: Champaign, Linking Theory and Practice Theory Linking – Psychologists strive to : – Psychologists establish – Psychologists establish Handbook of Sport PsychologyHandbook of Sport following five gener their ethical principles and code of applied psychology, applied psychology, Sport Psychology Sport Psychology: Theory, Applications and Issues Sport Theory, Psychology: Coaches Guide to Sport Psychology. Sport Psychology. Coaches Guide to A code of moral and professional principles and associated A code of moral and professional . 3rd edn. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. pp. 310–331. pp. Wiley. NJ: Hoboken, 3rd edn. . Principle A: Beneficence and Non-maleficence A: Principle benefit those with whom they work and take care to do no harm. and Responsibility Fidelity Principle B: relationships of trust with those with whom they work. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. pp. 287–309. pp. Wiley. NJ: Hoboken, perspective. In Tenenbaum, G. and Eklund, R.C. (eds) (eds) R.C. and Eklund, G. Tenenbaum, In perspective. Psychology Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology. Fitness Information WV: Morgantown, 215–252. pp. Wiley. Jacaranda Brisbane: and Summers, J. (eds) J. and Summers, Kinetics. Definition: sport psychologists act responsibly procedures to ensure that practising primary values and the profession’s at all times and in accordance with ethical standards. Vealey, R. (2007) Mental skills training in sport. in sport. (2007) Mental skills training R. Vealey, Lidor, R. and Bar-Eli, M. (eds) (2001) (eds) (2001) M. and Bar-Eli, R. Lidor, Martens, R. (1987) R. Martens, A (2007) Sport psychology: R.E. Taylor, III and J.C. Moncier, R.D., Stainback, Morris, T. and Thomas, P. (2003) Approaches to applied sport psychology. In Morris, T. T. In Morris, Approaches to applied sport psychology. (2003) P. Thomas, and T. Morris, must adhere to professional principles and codes of conduct in relation must adhere to professional principles and codes of conduct in The codes attached to each to their work and engagement with clients. but all are governed by similar international professional body may vary Association American Psychological the As one example, principles. 2010) revised recently (July (APA) conduct. The revised guide includes the The revised guide includes conduct. x x along with 10 standards: In keeping with other branches of In keeping with other branches 01-Kremer-4218-CH-01.indd 13 01-Kremer-4218-CH-01.indd 14 14 introducing sport psychology x may nothave achievedthisbalance. Unfortunately, historywouldsuggestthatmanypreviousinterventions with ethicalgoodpractice (Sachs, 1993; Moore, 2003; Andersen, 2005). challenges thatmustbeaddressedinordertobalanceeffectivepractice nature ofsportpsychologyinterventionsdopresentrealandsignificant would have littledifficultyinadheringtotheseprinciples, thespecial While itwouldbeexpectedthatanyprofessionalsportpsychologist x x in ethicalconsiderations andhowtodealwith ethicaldilemmas. mended thatallappliedsportpsychologistsshould routinelybetrained correspond toviolationsof APA EthicalStandards, andhencerecom- the authorsneverthelessconcludedthatmany reportedpractices could acknowledging therealdifficultiesfacedbypractitioners outinthefield, athletes, respondingtocoacheswhoabusetheirathletes). While referrals), ortoConfidentiality(e.g. coacheswhowant informationon without training, engagingindualrolerelationships, failingtomake mentioned, 78referredeithertoGeneral they oracolleaguehadfacedinthelasttwoyears. Ofthe89incidents were askedtodescribeethicallychallengingortroublingincidentsthat attracted toaclient’). Inafurtheropen-endedquestion, participants concurrently ascoachandsportpsychologistforateam’, ‘Being sexually in advertising’, ‘Using profanityinyourprofessionalwork’, ‘Serving deemed tobeethicallycontroversial(e.g. ‘Including athletetestimonials ness of, theexistenceof47differentbehaviours, 24ofwhich were (1994) askedrespondentstoindicatetheirengagementwith, oraware- for the Advancement of Applied SportPsychology(AAASP), Petitpas etal. differences withinthesample (e.g. menv. women; professionalsv. stu This surveyfoundfewerexamplesofcontroversial behaviour butmore to thepublicationof AAASP ethicscode In asurveyof508professionalandstudentmembersthe Association A follow-up, on-linesurvey of AAASP to privacy, confidentiality, andself-determination. respect thedignityandworthofallpeople, andtherightsofindi Principle E: RespectforPeople’s RightsandDignity services beingconductedbypsychologists. psychology andtoequalqualityintheprocesses, procedures, and entitle allpersonstoaccessandbenefitfromthecontributionsof Principle D: Justice and truthfulnessinthescience, teaching, andpractice ofpsychology. Principle C: Integrity –Psychologistsrecognizethatfairnessandjustice –Psychologistsseektopromoteaccuracy, honesty, Standards (e.g. members was in 1992(Etzelet issued subse providing serv –Psychologists al., 2004). viduals dents; quent 09/06/2011 4:02:45PM ices 1.3: ethical issues 15 09/06/2011 4:02:45 PM ism tice there potentially background), background), murkier as v. psychology psychology v. picture is rather picture is rather ). Within the UK, some practising sport psychologists sport psychologists some practising the UK, Within ). 1.4 and 1.1 Within the UK and Ireland, the the UK and Ireland, Within This can obviously lead to confusion and divided loyalties as to which This can obviously lead to confusion As to what makes sport psychology so unique within the discipline, within the discipline, sport psychology so unique As to what makes according to clear ethical standards there In order to begin to operate would regard themselves primarily as sport scientists but with a special would regard themselves primarily Association of with the British in psychology and so align themselves Others would see themselves as Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES). sport and be chartered as in sport, psychologists but with a specialism the British Psychological Society (BPS) psychologists under the aegis of 2003). by its ethical code (Kremer, and hence are bound professionally the date from which regulation of activities of UK applied psychologists the date from which regulation of activities of UK applied psychologists (HPC). fell under the governance of the Health Professions Council three separate bodies (BASES, BPS and the Psychological Society of BPS and the Psychological bodies (BASES, three separate and Ireland [PSI]) can claim to govern the work of sport psychologists The conduct. codes of according to separate each currently operates 2009 to coincide with August BPS most recently updated its code in there a number of issues that warrant close attention relating to the close attention relating of issues that warrant there a number will be dis- and these 2003), relationship (Kremer, consultant/athlete psychol- applied sport in certain ways, While being unique cussed later. to base the including the need ogy is not exceptional in others, relationship with the athlete or team. intervention on a good personal it by its nature, relationships, In common with other client/consultant potential by a power imbalance and hence has the will be characterised to become abusive. and this can present regulating body, is a need to identify a sovereign history of sport psychology fractured immediate problems given the (see certified v. non-certified consultants; PE consultants; non-certified v. certified had been of ethical issues one hand that awareness suggesting on the hand flagging that but on the other since the earlier survey, raised inconsistencies in knowledge/awareness/prac were now worrying across the membership. professional standards apply. In the US this issue has been avoided as all In the US this issue has been avoided professional standards apply. including the broad church of those who work as sport psychologists, to adopt the agreed have and consultants, therapists sport counsellors, Ethical Standards. (2010) revised Association’s American Psychological American Society for the This includes those members of the North AAASP who and Activity (NASPSPA) Psychology of Sport and Physical or qualified as nor necessarily be trained APA, may not belong to the psychologists. 01-Kremer-4218-CH-01.indd 15 01-Kremer-4218-CH-01.indd 16 16 introducing sport psychology Confidentiality and Allegiance these aresummarisedbelow. 1993; Moore, 2003; Andersen, 2005; Pope and Vasquez, 2011), and attaching toasportpsychologyintervention(Biddleetal., 1992; Sachs, of authorshave goneontodescribethespecialethicalcharacteristics code shouldbeadheredto. are differencesthencommonsensewoulddictatethatthemorerigorous contradictory, fromapractical, ethicalandlegalstandpointwherethere While itisunlikelythattheguidanceofferedfromeachbodywillbe ing modelofreflexivepractice (Moore, 2003; Anderson etal., 2004). he orshebelongs, andshouldregularlykeepup-to-datethroughawork- ethical conductasagreedbytheprofessionalbodyorbodiestowhich Competency Having establishedasetofguidingprinciplesforpractice, anumber All practising sportpsychologistsshouldbeguidedbythecodeof those involved(see Andersen etal., 2001). the relationship, andincludingtherulesofconfidentiality, withall athlete, followedbyanopenandhonestdiscussion ofthenature the firstmeetingitisimportanttoestablishground-ruleswith by thelaw) thespecificsofclient’s authorisation.’ (p. 11). From the specificsofinitiatingrequestorevent, and(sofarasrequired of disclosuretothatwhichisconsistentwithprofessionalpurposes, 2009 BPSCodestatesthatpsychologistsshould ‘Restrict thescope personal relationshipwiththeathleteunlesshandledcarefully. The familiar tomanyappliedsportpsychologistsandcanunderminethe divided loyaltieswithregardtoconfidentiality. This dilemmais coach, manager orparent), immediatelycreatingthepossibilityof set upnotbytheclient(theathlete)butathirdparty(e.g. the a problemhasexisted, itsseverityandrelationshipwith otherlife the issuesareofaclinicalnatureanddeserving of areferral: howlong suggest thefollowingthreecriteriashouldbeused toestablishwhen that point. Inrelationtothethirdarea, Heymanand Andersen (1998) and expertiseboundaries’, andbeingdisciplinednottomove beyond common sensemustprevail inestablishingtheextentof ‘knowledge or c)psychologicalcompetence. Inrelationtothefirsttwoareasthen specialisms (e.g. biomechanics, physiology); b) knowledgeofthesport psychologist. This couldincludetheneedfor: a)othersportscience up issueswhicharebeyondtheprofessionalexpertiseofsport – This canbecomeproblematicwhereaninterventionopens –Inthefirstplacemanyinterventionsare 09/06/2011 4:02:45PM 1.3: ethical issues 17 09/06/2011 4:02:45 PM ful is use quickly and effectively it quickly and effectively – Any one-to-one counselling relation- – – The use of psychometric tests in applied sport – tant to pass clients on (Gayman and Crossman, 2006). For For 2006). and Crossman, tant to pass clients on (Gayman While the list of issues which have the potential to become the potential to become of issues which have While the list To help deal with such situations help deal with such To ship has the potential to be problematic, especially when the athlete ship has the potential to be problematic, person providing him or her with spe-comes to depend overly on the the fundamental danger, counter this To cialist or expert knowledge. The sport psy- be clear from the start. goal of the intervention should long-term dependency but rather chologist is not setting out to foster with a set of skills and knowledge soto empower and equip the athlete and in control of future lifethat he or she can become independent psychology has attracted some attention over the years. Lay people Lay some attention over the years. psychology has attracted tests, can often place uncritical faith in results obtained from such Where tests reinforcing the need to use tests sensibly and ethically. that it is important that the measures are appropriate, are employed, that they are used for the their psychometric properties are robust, and that they purpose and population for which they were designed, Interpretation of the are not used to inform selection procedures. results and subsequent feedback must be appropriate and written consent should be obtained for the release of any data. events (Kremer and Scully, 1998). These matters aside, where a relation- aside, These matters 1998). events (Kremer and Scully, onusship begins to become unprofessional or dysfunctional then the tofalls on the sport psychologist to take whatever steps are necessary including terminating the relationship if necessary. remedy the situation, pathology/personality disorders; anger and aggression control; aggression control; anger and disorders; pathology/personality sexual orientation; sexuality and and sense of self; identity issues relationship issues. events; unusual emotional reactions (e.g. depression and anger); lack and anger); depression reactions (e.g. emotional unusual events; enhancement interventions. performance of efficacy of traditional those applied sport psychologists who are trained in counselling and/ who are trained those applied sport psychologists of competence will be broader, or clinical psychology the boundaries issues which arise which are but even here there may be particular network that is more a referral beyond their experience and once readily to hand is likely to be useful. to have an established network of contacts, although recent research although an established network of contacts, to have psychologists are disturbingly would suggest that many sport reluc problematic is considerable, any of the following may warrant a spe- any of the following may warrant problematic is considerable, psycho- abuse; drug and alcohol eating disorders; cialist intervention: Use of Psychometric Tests Use of Psychometric Dependancy, Attachment and Abuse Dependancy,

01-Kremer-4218-CH-01.indd 17 01-Kremer-4218-CH-01.indd 18 18 introducing sport psychology Heyman, S.R. and Andersen, M.B. (1998) When toofferathletesforcounselingor Gayman, A.M. andCrossman, J. (2006)Referral practices: Are sportpsychology Etzel, E., Watson, J. andZizzi, S. (2004) A web-basedsurveyof AAASP members’ Biddle, S., Bull, S. andSeheult, C. (1992)Ethicalandprofessionalissuesincontem- Andersen, M.B., Van Raalte, J.L. andBrewer, B.W. (2001)Sportpsychologyservice Sachs, M. (1993)Professionalethicsinsportpsychology. InSinger, R., Murphey, M. Pope, K.S. and Vasquez, M.J.T. (2011) Petitpas, A.J., Brewer, B.W., Rivera, P.M. and Van Raalte, J.L. (1994)Ethicalbeliefsand Moore, Z.E. (2003)Ethicaldilemmasinsportpsychology: Discussionandrecommen- Kremer, J. andScully, D. (1998) What sportpsychologistsoftendon’tdo: Onempow- Kremer, J. (2003)Ethicalconsiderations insportpsychology. InLavallee, D. and Andersen, M.B. (2005) ‘Yeah IworkwithBeckham’: Issuesofconfidentiality, privacy Anderson, A.G., Knowles, Z. andGilbourne, D. (2004)Reflectivepractice forapplied Drugs, CheatingandIllegality psychotherapy. In Williams, J.M. (ed.) Psychology consultants outoftheirleague? Psychology ethical beliefsandbehaviors inthenewmillennium. CA: MayfieldPublishing. 359–371. porary Britishsportpsychology. Practice delivery: Stayingethicalwhilekeepingloose. Macmillan. 921–932. and Tennant, L.K. (eds) Guide Applied SportPsychology behaviors inappliedsportpsychology: The AAASP EthicsSurvey. dations forpractice. What SportPsychologistsDo erment andindependence. InSteinberg, H., Cockerill, I. andDewey, A. (eds) Review and privilegeinsportpsychologyservicedelivery. thoughts ondissemination. sport psychologists: A reviewofconcepts, models, practical implicationsand 18–26. Cockerill, I. (eds) vention couldcontinueinsuchcircumstances. because itwouldbedifficulttoimaginehowanymeaningfulinter- ance, doesthiscreate anethicaldilemma? The answershouldbe ‘no’, that aclientisusingdrugsoranyillegalmeanstoenhanceperform- . 4thedn. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. , 1, 5–13. , 32(1), 12–18. , 8(1), 47–59. , 16(3), 236–250. Counselling inSportandExerciseContexts. Professional Psychology: ResearchandPractice ,

6, 135–151. Handbook ofResearchonSportPsychology . The SportPsychologist

Leicester: BPSBooks. 75–88. – When asportpsychologistbecomesaware REFERENCES The SportPsychologist Ethics inPsychotherapyandCounseling: A Practical Athletic Insight: The OnlineJournal ofSport Applied SportPsychology. Professional Psychology: Researchand , 18, 188–201. Sport and Exercise Psychology Sport andExercisePsychology , 6, 66–76. Journal of Applied Sport Leicester: BPSBooks. Mountain View, , 34, 601–610. . New York: Journal of 09/06/2011 4:02:45PM Definition: Organisations, sources and resources devoted to the science and practice of sport and exercise psychology

Sport psychology can be defined as the application of psychological theory and methods to the understanding and enhancement of athletic performance (Kremer and Moran, 2008). As the history of this discipline is well documented (see 1.1), it is sufficient to note here that empirical research on mental aspects of athletic performance is at least as old as psychology itself. Unfortunately, despite this research tradition of over a century (Green and Benjamin, 2009), the field of sport psychology is difficult to define precisely. This impreci- sion is due, in part, to the ‘twin-track’ nature of the discipline. To sources and resources explain, sport psychology is not only a growing field of mainstream 1.4: organisations, psychology but is also a key component of the sport sciences. Not surprisingly, therefore, sport psychology organisations may be found both in psychology and in sport science. Against this background, here is an alphabetical list of the main contemporary sport psychology organisations and their respective mission statements, along with key publication resources for members (where such information is available).

AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA)

APA Division 47 (Exercise and Sport Psychology, founded in 1986) seeks to further the clinical, educational and scientific foundations of exercise 19 and sport psychology. Applied service interests include: promoting best practices in mental training techniques; ethical considerations in sport psychology service provision; practitioner self-care; and clinical issues. Areas of scientific inquiry include: motivation to persist and achieve; psychological considerations in sport injury and rehabilitation; counselling

01-Kremer-4218-CH-01.indd 19 09/06/2011 4:02:45 PM 01-Kremer-4218-CH-01.indd 20 20 introducing sport psychology x x x x x x x three timesayear(Spring, Fall andSummer)convention. x x an interestinthefieldofsportpsychology. Inparticular, SPIGaimsto: establish strongercommunicationlinksbetweensportscientistswith progression ofevidence-basedpractice, supportinnovative researchand Psychology InterestGroup(SPIG)whoseobjectiveistopromotethe BASES offeranumberofinterestgroups, oneofwhichistheSport of psychologicalservicetoconsumers. Among itsresourcesare: share information-relatedtheorydevelopment, researchandtheprovision and sportsciencesaswellpsychology. AASP providesopportunitiesto It isaninterdisciplinaryorganisation, drawing fromthe fieldsofexercise cal principlesthathave beensupportedbyresearchinsportandexercise. sport andexercisepsychology. Itadvocatestheapplicationofpsychologi- AASP (foundedin1986)aimstopromotethescienceandpractice of resources areanofficialnewsletter( performance enhancementandself-regulationtechniques. Among its self-perceptions relatedtoachieving; expertiseinsport; youthsport; and techniques withathletes; assessingtalent; exercise adherenceandwell-being; BRITISH ASSOCIATION OFSPORT ANDEXERCISESCIENCES(BASES) Position Statements practitioners asa meansoffurtheringknowledgeinourfield; provide anopportunityforcollaboration betweenresearcherand Member Directory practice whenworking withathletes; provide aforumformemberstodevelopanddiscuss theoriesofbest AASP Newsletter sport performance; in theUKwithacommoninterestpsychological aspectsof establish anetworkofsportpsychologyresearchers andpractitioners Journal ofSportPsychologyin Action to bothresearchandappliedpractice; promote sportpsychologyasafieldwithinscienceinrelation Journal of Applied SportPsychology ASSOCIATION FORAPPLIEDSPORT PSYCHOLOGY(AASP) Div47 News ) whichispublished 09/06/2011 4:02:45PM x establish effective working relationships with key organisations and associations such as the British Psychological Society (BPS) and the Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP); x contribute to continuing professional development of members.

BRITISH PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY (BPS)

The BPS Division of Sport and Exercise Psychology (DSEP, established in 2004) represents the interests of psychologists working in sport and exercise settings and aims to further the development of sport and exercise psychology. It draws its membership from a broad range of psychologists including those working in academic settings and professional practice. The Division was formed in 2004 in response to the increase in academic status and public recognition of sport and exercise psychology and ensures that members who practise and offer services within sport and exercise psychology are qualified and trained according to the Charter, Statutes and Rules of The British Psychological Society. Among its resources are:

x DESP journal – Sport and Exercise Psychology Review. x How to become a Chartered Sport and Exercise Psychologist – For sources and resources students of psychology, there are four steps to becoming a 1.4: organisations, Chartered Sport and Exercise Psychologist. First, one has to obtain a BPS-accredited undergraduate qualification in Psychology (i.e. by having a recognised undergraduate degree or a recognised graduate conversion course in this subject). Second, one has to obtain a BPS- accredited master’s degree in Sport and Exercise Psychology (or pass the Society’s Stage 1 qualification. Third, one must obtain either the BPS’s own Stage 2 Qualification in Sport and Exercise Psychology or a Society-accredited Stage 2 Qualification in Sport and Exercise Psychology. Fourth, one can apply for Registration as a Chartered Sport and Exercise Psychologist.

EUROPEAN NETWORK OF YOUNG SPECIALISTS IN SPORT 21 PSYCHOLOGY (ENYSSP)

ENYSSP is an international organisation concerned with the promotion and dissemination of knowledge in the field of sport and exercise psychology in the areas of research, education and applied work.

01-Kremer-4218-CH-01.indd 21 09/06/2011 4:02:45 PM 01-Kremer-4218-CH-01.indd 22 22 introducing sport psychology SPORTPSY canbefoundathttp://listserv.temple.edu/. called SPORTPSY thatisdevotedtosport andexercisepsychology. using theInternet, youcansubscribetoanelectronicbulletinboard If youwouldliketolearnmoreaboutsport and exercisepsychology x x x ioural sciencesandrelatedprofessions. The Societyaimsto: NASPSPA isamultidisciplinaryassociationofscholars fromthebehav- x x x aspects ofsportpsychology. The Societyaimsto: chology. Itsmembersarethosewhoseresearchinterestsfocus onsome ing research, practice, anddevelopmentinthedisciplineofsportpsy- ISSP (foundedin1965)isaworldwideorganisationdevotedtopromot- educational andprofessionalworkinsportpsychology. and asmallnumberofindividualmembers. Itaimstopromotescientific, FEPSAC consistsof24group FÉDÉRATION EUROPÉENNEDEPSYCHOLOGIEDES SPORTS ETDES sport, motordevelopment, andmotorlearningcontrol. improve thequalityofresearchandteachinginpsychology facilitate thedisseminationofinformation; individuals areengagedinsportandphysicalactivity; develop andadvance thescientificstudyofhumanbehaviour when psychology. improve thequalityofresearchandprofessionalpractice in sport and aquadrennial World Congress; facilitate thesharingofknowledgethroughanewsletter, meetings physical activity, andhealthsettings; encourage andpromotethestudyofhumanbehaviour withinsport, ACTIVITÉS CORPORELLES(FEPSAC;EUROPEANFEDERATION OF NORTH AMERICANSOCIETYFORPSYCHOLOGYOFSPORT AND INTERNATIONAL SOCIETYOFSPORT PSYCHOLOGY(ISSP) LISTSERV INFORMATION PHYSICAL ACTIVITY(NASPSPA) SPORT PSYCHOLOGY) PSYCHOLOGY) members (associationsof (ABULLETINBOARDONSPORT sport psychol 09/06/2011 4:02:45PM ogy) The purpose of this list is to post issues, questions and findings concerning research in sport and exercise psychology as well as related professional practice issues in this field. To join SPORTPSY, go to http://listserv.temple.edu/archives/sportpsy. html and select ‘Join or leave the list’ which will take you to a secure page or send a message to [email protected] with nothing in the subject heading and only the following in the text: SUB SPORTPSY [your name].

REFERENCES

Green, C.D. and Benjamin, L.T., Jr. (2009) Psychology Gets in the Game: Sport, Mind and Behaviour, 1880–1960. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. Kremer, J. and Moran, A. (2008) Pure Sport: Practical Sport Psychology. Hove: Routledge. sources and resources 1.4: organisations,

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