INDUSTRIAL VOYAGERS: A CASE STUDY OF APPALACHIAN MIGRATION TO AKRON, OHIO 1900-1940 DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Susan Allyn Johnson, B.A., M.A. * * * * * The Ohio State University 2006 Dissertation Committee: Professor Warren Van Tine, Adviser Approved by Professor David Stebenne Professor Mansel Blackford ______________________________ Adviser Graduate Program in History ABSTRACT Between 1910 and 1960, nearly nine million southerners left the South for other regions of the country. The vast majority of the historical scholarship on this “Great Migration” has focused on the out-migration of African Americans from the South. “Industrial Voyagers: A Case Study of Appalachian Migration to Akron, Ohio, 1900-1940,” examines the migration of an often overlooked element of this migration—Southern Appalachians who moved to the industrial centers of the Midwest. Akron is a significant case study for this process. Migration to Akron began in the early twentieth century as the emergence of the rubber industry attracted thousands of newcomers who sought jobs in the city’s expanding factories. The duration of this in-migration presents the opportunity to examine this movement as it evolved and changed over decades. This study focuses on the regional economic disparities that encouraged out-migration from Appalachia; the ways migration streams became established between Appalachia and Akron; the experiences and reception of newcomers; and the evolving relationship between southerners and the labor movement in Akron. The southerners who arrived in Akron during this period were encouraged to move by Akron manufacturers who suffered recurring periods of labor shortages. ii Unfortunately, when recessions hit the industry, the city would find itself with thousands of unemployed rubber workers. During such hard times southerners had to decide whether to return home or try to make ends meet in the city. Furthermore, local residents had mixed attitudes toward these newcomers whom they sometimes blamed for a host of problems. In particular, labor organizations in the city blamed the new arrivals for driving down wages and inhibiting unionization efforts. It took several decades for this wave of newcomers to establish roots in the city. By the 1920s, this process was underway. More newcomers became homeowners and considered Akron their permanent home. Many new churches were established, as were other organizations such as the West Virginia Society. By the 1930s, newcomers had achieved greater acceptance and expressed a deeper interest in the future of the city. Southerners took leading roles in the creation of the United Rubber Workers of America and participated in local politics. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my thanks to the members of my committee—Warren Van Tine, David Stebenne, and Mansel Blackford—for their encouragement and patience with this project. I also would like to thank John Miller of the University of Akron Archives for his assistance. In addition, the staff and students at Berea College were both helpful and friendly, thank you. iv VITA 1993 ............................................................. B.A., History and Sociology, Northwestern University 1993-1994 ..........................................................................University Fellow, Ohio State University 1994...........................................................................................M.A., History, Ohio State University 1994-1998 ....................................................... Graduate Teaching Associate, Ohio State University 1998-1999 ............................................................ Ohio Bicentennial Scholar, Ohio State University 2000-2004 ........................................Graduate Teaching Associate, Lecturer, Ohio State University 2002-2003 ........................................................................... Lecturer, Ohio State University-Newark 2004 .................................................................................Lecturer, Ohio State University-Mansfield 2004- .....................................................Research Assistant, History of the Ohio General Assembly 2005- .............................................................Content Editor, Glencoe Social Studies, McGraw-Hill PUBLICATIONS Research Publications “Epilogue: Leaving West Virginia.” In Transnational West Virginia: Ethnic Work Communities and Economic Change, 1840-1940, ed. Ronald L. Lewis. Morgantown: West Virginia University Press, 2003. v “How the ‘Rubber City’ Became the ‘Capital of West Virginia.’” Journal of Appalachian Studies 6 (Spring/Fall 2000). FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: History Area of Emphasis: U.S. History Since 1877 Minor Fields: U.S. History to 1877 Latin American History vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...........................................................................................iv VITA............................................................................................................................v LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................ix LIST OF MAPS ...........................................................................................................x CHAPTER 1: AKRON AND THE GREAT MIGRATION .........................................1 The Great Migration in Historical Perspective.......................................................5 Why Study the “Great Migration”? .......................................................................9 CHAPTER 2: “DOWN HOME”................................................................................ 20 A Brief History of the Southern Appalachian Region.......................................... 21 Out-Migration from the Southern Appalachian Region ....................................... 33 CHAPTER 3: CITY OF OPPORTUNITY................................................................. 53 Expanding City and Industry............................................................................... 56 Early Recruits and High Mobility ....................................................................... 64 Economic Factors Influencing Decision of Early Migrants.................................. 73 Southern Migrants 1900-1914............................................................................. 76 CHAPTER 4: STANDING ROOM ONLY................................................................ 83 World War I Opens the Floodgates ..................................................................... 85 “This House is Rented”....................................................................................... 90 City of Problems............................................................................................... 103 CHAPTER 5: THE TURBULENT TWENTIES...................................................... 115 Are They Needed? ............................................................................................ 116 Are They Welcome? ......................................................................................... 131 vii CHAPTER 6: SOUTHERN MIGRANTS IN THE GREAT DEPRESSION ............ 139 Urban to Rural Migration in the Great Depression ............................................ 150 Southern Newcomers and the Rise of Organized Labor in Akron...................... 155 CHAPTER 7: BLACK AND WHITE MIGRANTS: RACE RELATIONS IN AKRON ........................................................................................................... 171 Migrants and the Rise of the Klan in the Rubber City........................................ 184 CHAPTER 8: SETTING DOWN ROOTS............................................................... 195 The West Virginia Society ................................................................................ 196 Religious Influences of Southern Migrants........................................................ 199 Migration and the Popularization of “Hillbilly” Music ...................................... 210 Housing and Political Involvement ................................................................... 216 CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION................................................................................. 228 APPENDIX A: AKRON HEADS OF HOUSEHOLD BY PLACE OF BIRTH, 1920 ................................................................................................................. 234 APPENDIX B: AKRON MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT, 1911-1939..................... 237 WORKS CITED....................................................................................................... 239 viii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Estimated Net Population Change Resulting from Interstate Migration of Native-Born Citizens, 1910-1960.................................................................... 34 Table 2: Population Change Through Interstate Migration of Native-born Citizens in the State of West Virginia ................................................................. 35 Table 3: Net Migration from Southern Appalachian Counties.................................... 47 Table 4: Rubber Manufacturing in Akron, 1909-1919................................................ 59 Table 5: Akron’s Population Growth: 1880-1920.....................................................