Paper
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7784/rbtur.v11i1.1221
Monasteries and tourism: interpreting sacred landscape through gastronomy
Monasterios y turismo: interpretar el paisaje sagrado a través de la gastronomía
Monastérios e turismo: interpretar a paisagem sacra através da gastronomial Silvia Aulet1 Lluís Mundet2 Dolors Vidal3
Abstract: This article analyses the role of monasteries as a sacred space and how their relationship with tourism depicts a landscape of 'good taste'. Monasteries are examples of both tangible and intangible heritage, and are highly symbolic built spaces that have often become the guardians of tradition. They are strongly embedded within a local cultural landscape, which has determined their historical evolution. Monasteries used to be self-sufficient communities that relied on the resources available in their local environment, e.g. they produced their own wine, which was essential for the celebration of the Eucharist; or they preserved food from their own produce. Gastronomy in monasteries can be a tool to improve tourists' visitor experience, in so far as it respects the values that these sacred spaces represent. This article explores the literature on monasteries as sacred spaces; the relationship between their tangible and intangible heritage attributes; and how monasteries and their heritage are linked to tourism. This is illustrated through examples from Spain.
1 Faculty of Tourism University of Girona (Catalonia). Girona, Spain. General managing of article content, literature and technical research, interpreting the results of the monitoring study and defining the conclusions. 2 Faculty of Tourism University of Girona (Catalonia).Girona, Spain. Literature and technical research for construction of the article, writing the article, reviewing and interpreting the results of the monitoring study and defining the conclusions. 3 Faculty of Tourism University of Girona (Catalonia). Girona, Spain. Managing of article content, guidance in research methodology and writing of article, interpreting the results of the monitoring study.
Paper submitted in: 21/09/2016 Paper accepted in: 21/11/2016
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Aulet, S.; Mundet, L.; Vidal, D. Monasteries and tourism: interpreting sacred landscape through gastronomy
Keywords: Monasteries. Landscape. Tourism. Gastronomy. Religious tourism.
Resumen: Este artículo analiza el papel de los monasterios como espacio sagrado y cómo su relación con el turismo perfila un paisaje de «buen gusto». Los monasterios son un ejemplo de convergencia entre patrimonio tangible y patrimonio intangible. Son espacios construidos altamente simbólicos que han actuado en muchos casos como guardianes de la tradición. Al mismo tiempo, están claramente arraigados a un territorio y un paisaje, que ha condicionado su desarrollo. Los monasterios eran unidades autosuficientes que obtenían lo que necesitaban de su entorno. Por eso, por ejemplo, elaboraban su propio vino, tan necesario para el rito litúrgico, o preparaban conservas para mantener durante más tiempo los productos frescos que cultivaban. Poner en valor los monasterios a través de la gastronomía puede ser una herramienta para mejorar la experiencia del visitante turista, en la medida que se lleve a cabo respetando los valores representados por estos espacios sagrados. Este documento explora esta relación a partir de una revisión de la literatura que ha tratado los monasterios como espacios sagrados, la relación entre el patrimonio tangible e intangible, y la vinculación de estos espacios y patrimonio con el turismo. Esta búsqueda de información se ejemplifica con algunos casos españoles.
Palabras clave: Monasterios. Paisaje. Turismo. Gastronomía. Turismo religioso.
Resumo: Este artigo analisa o papel dos monastérios como espaço sagrado e como sua relação com o turismo configura uma paisagem de “bom gosto”. Os monastérios são um exemplo de convergência entre patrimônio tangível e patrimônio intangível. São espaços construídos com alta carga simbólica e que têm atuado, em muito casos, como guardiões da tradição. Ao mesmo tempo que estão claramente enraizados em um território e em uma paisagem que têm condicionado seu desenvolvimento. Os monastérios eram auto-suficientes, obtinham o que necessitavam a partir de seu entorno. Por isso, por exemplo, elaboravam seu própio vinho, tão necessário para o ritual litúrgico; preparavam conservas para manter frescos por mais tempo os produtos que cultivavam. Fazer um juízo dos monastérios através da gastronomia pode ser uma ferramenta para melhorar a experiência do visitante turista, na medida que se respeita os valores representados por esses espaços sagrados. Este texto explora esta relação a partir de uma revisão bibliográfica acerca dos monastérios como espaço sagrado, a relação entre o patrimônio tangível e intangível, bem como o vínculo desses espaços com o patrimônio e com o turismo. A busca das informações se exemplifica com alguns estudos de caso espanhóis.
Palavras-chave: Monastérios. Paisagem. Turismo. Gastronomia. Turismo religioso.
1 INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES spaces, and monasteries in relation to landscape and tourism. This study explores the relationship The main aim of the study is to analyse how between two different, yet complementary monasteries and their gastronomy interact concepts: monasteries viewed as sacred with tourism, i.e. how tourism related to the
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traditional food produced in monasteries can routines established within the monastic help diversify the tourist product in these community transformed crops and land in places, attract more visitors, improve visitor’s function of their needs, and this partly satisfaction, and increase revenue in order to explains the development of vineyards in upkeep the place. many medieval monasteries. Today these Secondary aims are as follows: resources, both tangible (buildings) and - To explore the relationship between intangible (traditions, gastronomy etc.), are the tangible (built space) and valued by the tourism sector. intangible (traditions, customs, Cultural traditions recognize the rituals, including food) heritage sacredness of these places, and religious atributes of monasteries, thus traditions nurture and adapt them, projecting emphasizing the relationship them into the world. We refer to tangible sacred spaces as between the monasteries and their those constructed with a particular harmony local cultural landscape. and order, connecting with the - To identify the impacts of tourism on transcendental harmony and order. Those these spaces, taking into account that who wish to reach perfection inhabit them, they are not only heritage sites, but both physically and spiritually. They are also sacred places that have to be physical spaces, which the human community respected. has given a special reverence to, in order to After reviewing the academic aid communication between man and the literature on this topic, the article is divine. structured in three sections. The first defines There are many examples of hermit the concept of monastery as a sacred space, architecture around the world. In Middle based on both classical and contemporary Eastern and Western traditions, the symbolic works on the history of monasteries and of representation of the sacred space the sacred. The second identifies the materializes in different ways, one of which is opportunities and challenges of sacred the monastery. In the oriental monastery, places, particularly monasteries, when they hermit-like dimensions prevail, whereas the become tourist attractions. The third and Western monastery has coenobitic final part analyzes how gastronomy, dimensions. particularly wine production, can improve Monks or nuns inhabit monasteries, the visitor’s experience in these spaces. Some working together, sharing prayers, and day- good-practice cases of Spanish monasteries to-day life. Monasteries are usually found that are already employing this strategy are outside of cities, in places that favor a life of illustrated. prayer and reflection, although nowadays they can also be found in large urban areas 2 MONASTERIES AS HOLY PLACES (UNESCO Association for Interreligious Dialogue, 2015). Medieval monasteries would feed off Monasteries spread throughout the land surrounding them, the habits and Europe during the Middle Ages but, as
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Moreno (2011) points out, they were attached to the monastery, you could find a originally a reaction from the first hermits to palace or the abbot's residence, the town or the luxury and splendour displayed by the village walls, a nice house or even a village. Church. In fact, the word monastery comes The monastery was an ideal from Greek, and means “house of a single community with a closed system. Benedict of person”. Initially, they were inhabited by a Nursia, coenobites and the monastery single monk (or hermit), who retired to a coincided in the region of Subiaco, Italy. remote area to devote himself to prayer and Monte Cassino, in Lazio, was the first great penance. Benedictine monastery, and a model that It was Saint Pacomi (286-346) who would continue evolving until the emergence first proposed the shared hermit life, and of Cluny. organized coenobitic monasticism under his The monastery, as a receptacle and rule (Estradé, 1998). Later, Benedict of Nursia model of how to live, experienced (480-547) organized the first medieval considerable crisis in the 8th and 9th monasteries and founded the Benedictine centuries. However, around the year 1000, order (Rule of Saint Benedict), one of the the monastic model introduced after Cluny most prominent religious orders during the mushroomed in countries that are now early centuries of the Middle Ages. In fact, the France, Germany, England, Italy, and Spain. Rule of Saint Benedict served as a model for The Cistercian order moved towards cleaning other monastic rules. It is noted for its up and dismantling the non-essential balance, practicality and being based on elements of the monastery. The Civitate Dei poverty, chastity, obedience, prayer and (City of God) wanted to restore simplicity, work. going back to the essential. The medieval monastery was Today, UNESCO, through its World designed as a space to serve God and had Heritage sites, has singled out the value of several parts. The cloister was a space for monastic architecture and way of life, and has silence, distribution, water collection, and highlighted how this living habitat has been a light. Symbolically, it was the beating heart in civilizing model, in lifestyle, organization, and the body of the monastery. The function. Monasteries in Armenia, Bulgaria, chapterhouse was the quality control center Georgia, Germany, Greece, Mexico, Portugal, of the spiritual life. The church was a place of Romania, Russia, Serbia, and Spain have been cultural celebration where daily prayers took granted World Heritage status. place; it was also a center for architecture, Attention has also been drawn to symbolizing the cross, and open to the public. gastronomy as a heritage resource. The The library was a place of learning and European culinary culture, both meal wisdom, and the scriptorium was where preparation and table manners, originated in sacred texts were copied. There was a medieval monasteries and abbeys. common dormitory, a refectory, where meals Monasteries served a double function: they were served, and a cellar, where food and provided hospitality and accommodation to drinks were conserved along with medicines travellers and hospitals to tend the sick. They and other basic essentials. Sometimes, also upheld the idea of consuming minimal food
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in their quest for spiritual fulfillment, in and conducts. This is the holy of contrast to the Barbarian cultural model. prohibition and separation. This concept of essential food grew in parallel - The holy as something that brings us to essential architecture and monastic closer to divinity; that which can be liturgy. Food was part of a liturgical act, understood as a holy consecration. aspiring to a sacred experience. In the - The holy is the root of a spiritual life; medieval period, nuns usually ate twice a day, marked by fascination and internal except Wednesdays and Fridays, when they development, leading to fulfillment. only ate once. They fasted during Lent, the The holy is present in all religious second half of September (digiurno regularis) traditions as something that brings us closer and Advent. However, they ate larger to divinity, and is shown as its manifestation quantities and wider variety of food at (hierophany). We can conclude that the holy Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost. The is defined by its opposition to the profane monastery brought together production, a (Eliade, 1981; Durkheim, 1993), and is way of life, knowledge, food, liturgy, and ontologically different to it; there is nothing intense spiritual aspiration, and therefore human or physical about it, rather it always was the place where experience and learning manifests itself as a reality of a completely sat side by side. different order to that of natural realities. It is Thus, the monastery is not only an what Otto (1965) calls ganz andere. Holy and architectural space but also a space for profane represent two different ways of finding community life and searching for God being in the world. through certain religious practices (prayer “The holy equates to power itself, in and worship), and this is why they are, short, to reality par excellence. The holy is primarily, holy places. saturated with being. Holy power means reality, The holy is a complex concept that can perpetuity and efficiency” (Eliade, 1981, p. 20). be defined and/or studied from different The holy fact appears as a stable or perspectives. In this respect, Aulet (2012) ephemeral property of certain things (objects mentions the following: of worship), certain real human beings - The holy is all that is irrational and (priests), imagined beings (gods, spirits), marked by some form of certain animals (sacred cows), certain places transcendence. (temples, sacred places), certain periods or - The holy as a designation of divinity, times of the year (Easter, Ramadan). It is a fundamental reality, pure existence; superior quality, which opposes chaos. which in some cases means it is also In the case of monasteries, these can associated with terms related to be considered holy spaces for various clarity, light, or purity. reasons, as noted by Aulet & Hakobyan - The holy is spiritual and pure, and (2011). - Firstly, they are holy spaces because therefore separate from the profane. they share the symbolism of the In contrast to the profane, it involves center of the world: the point of delimiting inappropriate behaviors
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convergence, coordination and architecture is anything but random. ordering, balance and harmony. Each part symbolizes or shares one of - They are places where there has been the symbols representing the holy. a manifestation of the holy This is discussed at length in the (hierophany). This can occur in literature (Guénon, 1995; Burckhardt, various ways, but is often linked to 2000; Hani & Quingles, 1996; among elements of nature which are holy in others). character (water, stone, forests), as well as those natural areas 3 SACRED SPACES AND TOURISM unreachable by man and which somehow convey that feeling of The relationship between tourism and smallness of the human being, religion is getting closer, and the conceptual mentioned by Otto (1965). “All barriers are increasingly diffused. The most religions, as cultural phenomena, visible connection between tourism and have used natural symbols to come religion are the scores of sacred buildings closer to the mystery of the world” that attract tourists. This increasing interest (Duch, 1978, p. 343). is largely due to the buildings' cultural and - Finally, there is a whole range of historic value, rather than their religious architectural symbols. From an function. architectural perspective, religious After carrying out a complex study of buildings, especially temples, are the pilgrimages in Western Europe, Mary Lee and physical place where the holy space Sidney Nolan published the most acknowledged classification of religious materializes. Therefore, their tourist attractions (Nolan & Nolan, 1989).
Figure 1 - Classification of religious tourist attractions
I Pilgrimage sites
II Religious III Sites of tourist religious attractions festivals
Source: Nolan and Nolan (1989)
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As shown in Figure 1, Nolan and Nolan religious festivals, where important religious (1989) propose a classification of religious events, such as Holy Week parades and tourism resources based on three Corpus Christi, or Christmas and Easter are overlapping typologies: pilgrimage sites (I), celebrated. This group is also linked to religious tourist attractions (II), and sites of pilgrimage sites, forming group I (c): religious festivals (III). Pilgrimage sites and pilgrimage sites where important religious religious tourist attractions differ in that the events take place. first are visited by pilgrims and have little It is logical to arrive at the conclusion tourist value, while the second are visited just that a religious temple can be (or not be) a as much by tourists as they are by religious tourist attraction depending on its artistic, devotees. They are not, however, considered historic and architectural value. This is quite as pilgrimage sites, and it is in this group that clear in Europe, where there are a relatively Nolan and Nolan place monasteries and ca- large number of local and regional sites that thedrals. only attract the attention of a few tourists, In the overlap between pilgrimage given that they have relatively little artistic or sites (I) and religious tourist attractions (II) we architectural value. However, they do attract find what we will call group I (b): sites of a large number of devotees from the local or pilgrimage with a high value as tourist regional area. attractions. These sites are famous for their Therefore, despite the fact that the art, architecture and/or particular original function of the majority of sacred characteristics and tourists can easily places is linked to religion, as in the case of outnumber pilgrims here. monasteries, we can add that they also fulfill The third group (III) includes sites of another function related to tourism.
Table 1 - Classification of religious heritage in tourism Movable Heritage Immovable Heritage Religious function Liturgical objects used in Sacred spaces and sites in use Mass (property of religious communities) Tourism/cultural Liturgical objects in disuse, Sacred spaces in disuse - function displayed in museums monuments (not usually belonging to religious communities) Ancillary buildings belonging to religious communities Source: Aulet (2012)
There is a fundamental distinction two functions: the first is its original purpose, between movable and immovable religious as a building in which believers can worship; heritage. Movable sacred objects are the second is its historical, cultural and significant for tourist-visitors, but essentially artistic value, which both religious and non- for their historic and cultural value, and any religious tourists can admire, just as they religious value is given little importance. In would a museum. This second function is contrast, immovable religious heritage has pagan, and practically eclipses its religious
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function, given that any religious function is tourists, and occurs outside tourist restricted to a very specific segment of the areas. tourism demand. Sacred buildings that have 2. Organized authentic situations. As a special interest from this perspective have described by MacCannell, where the practically lost their religious function. tourist establishment stages the Within this second function, we can scene for the tourist, but the tourist also find a group of religious items, which does not know this and thinks it is includes numerous religious buildings, which real and authentic. The organization are also used by believers. These buildings presents its artefacts as real and are used to offer tourist services (regardless deliberately keeps the tourist of the motivation) and include monasteries, convents, seminaries, religious schools, etc. unaware of the fact that it is staged. Broadly speaking, there are two Cohen calls this "a concealed tourist possible positions that a visitor can take when space". in the presence of a sacred monument: to 3. Non-authentic situations. In this worship, in the original, religious sense of the situation, the staging is objectively word, or worship of the physical monument real, but previous experiences, as a representation of the collective memory where situations that appeared to of the community. Managers of the most be authentic were not, have taught visited religious buildings (including the tourist that they were monasteries where there are religious deliberately deceived. They are communities) have an increasing therefore doubtful of the understanding that the needs and authenticity and think they are being expectations of tourists are different from manipulated, but in fact, this is not those of pilgrims. the case. MacCannell (1976) defines the conti- 4. Artificial situations. In this situation, nuity of the roles of pilgrim and tourist by introducing the concept of authenticity, the hosts organize the staging, and which is the modern equivalent of the the tourist is fully aware of this. traditional sacred experience. MacCannell Cohen calls this "an open tourist affirms that the tourist is looking for space". A good example is a tourist authentic experiences, and therefore defines space where specially designed the tourist as a secular pilgrim who wants to villages depict traditional lifestyles give meaning to their life through of the past - representing experiences they can have away from home. communities which have According to Cohen (1979, p. 27-28), disappeared or been changed. we can distinguish four types of tourist Another example is representations situations: of traditional dances and rituals, 1. Authentic situations. This is a real which are put on expressly for situation, recognized as such by tourists in places and at times which
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are most certainly not the original the cultural traits that characterize them. ones. Tourism implies consumption, and places A non-authentic attitude towards a have to adapt to tourism through place is essentially not giving the place intermediaries, interpretation, meaning. This implies not being aware of the representation, and transformation. Tourist deep and symbolic meaning of the place and spaces have to be both symbolically not appreciating its identity. This non- recognizable and maintain the balance authentic attitude is transmitted through a between safety and comfort, and unknown number of processes, or means, which and surprising. This is why it requires directly or indirectly favour the anonymity of appropriate forms and contents (Anton the place, and which, supposedly, weakens Clavé, Gonzàlez Reverté, & Fernández its identity (Cresswell, 2005). Tabales, 2009). This discourse coincides with the tourism discourse on authenticity in religious The religious understanding of a place places. "Tourists, every bit as much as creates spaces different to those from devotees, have a keen interest in an tourism perspective. This duplicity offers an authentic experience of the place"(Bremer, abundance of opportunities to converge and 2006, p. 32). overlap: what is sacred for devotees and the When tourism and sacred spaces aesthetic and commodified for tourists. come together, it is important that these places do not lose their identity and reason to Tourism development also creates new be. tensions, between the use of sites as The cathedral as heritage tourism tourist destinations and the maintenance attraction is also sacred space, of “sacralised” notions of place. There is a identified as such by the majority of its serious risk that some monasteries may visitors even if they do not know the find themselves “invaded” by increasing correct means of behaviour and are numbers of tourists. Songtseling, for unable to articulate the significance of example, receives a large number of tour its seeming immutability as a groups every year and the sale of tickets component of their experience. It to tourists is currently a key income becomes important that the cathedral source for the monastery, as well as a appears to be untouched by the source of revenue for the country's modern world, even if in practical terms government. Economic concerns have led this is romantic, but impossible, as the to a situation where tour groups and their building has been continually modified guides are admitted to the monastery since its construction. The tourist, from morning to evening, regardless of however, sees it as a space to be what rituals are being performed. The preserved rather than used, to be gazed presence of tour groups and their guides upon but not changed (Shackley, 2002, wandering around the premises may p. 350). sometimes be distributing. The monastery has issued complaints to the local government about this, but the Introducing tourism to these spaces problem is currently far from being can generate changes in their spatial and solved (Kolås, 2004, p. 274-274). environmental reality, and leave a mark on
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For this very reason, several countries visits, stays, and even the sale of products have adopted policies to avoid tourism. For that they have traditionally produced. example, the Kingdom of Bhutan, in the Himalayas, has prohibited foreigners from 4 THE LANDSCAPE OF MONASTERIES, THE entering certain places in order to preserve LANDSCAPE OF GOOD TASTE its culture. This country has decided that the income generated by tourism does not Tourists with differing motivations compensate the problems it creates, which and needs can be challenging at times, when has included the theft of relics, desecration, it comes to managing the religious, cultural, and tourism aspects of a monastery. Our the looting of monasteries, and the focus shifts to the value of the monastic corruption of the local population (Hough, heritage, and to those interested in art, 1990). culture, and gastronomy. Even though devotees and tourists Monasteries can be seen as an occupy the same place at the same time, their exponent of the concept of holy space, and practices are different realities. In this way, are closely related to the landscape where sacred spaces maintain what Bremen (2006) they are located. They are an example of how calls simultaneity of space. An individual's tangible and intangible heritage are experience can be a cross between religion interrelated: buildings respond to specific and tourism, when tourists participate in needs related to the daily routine of the religious activities and when the practices of community (including religious needs) but religious followers become an attraction for with symbolic meanings. According to the tourists. Shackley (2001), holy spaces are linked to The types of tourism linked to sacred different religious traditions, but they all spaces and religion represent, from a tourism share some of the characteristics mentioned point of view, a search for the authentic and above. At the same time, they are spaces containing a set of values (related to worship, a sacred experience. We are dealing with a nature, culture, and architecture, among tourism with spiritual connotations, which others) that make them highly attractive. In alleviates the volatility and apparent most cases, in the eyes of tourists, they meaninglessness of everyday life (Gil de generate a flow of visitors alongside the Arriba, 2006). faithful and devotees who come to these When we talk about sacred spaces places for religious reasons. and tourism, different typologies coexist. Not The 1982 World Conference on only religious tourism exists in sacred spaces, Cultural Policies, organized in Mexico by but also cultural, spiritual, or even food UNESCO, defined the cultural heritage of a tourism. people as that which. Today religious communities are aware that tourism is a source of income that Includes the works of its artists, architects, musicians, writers and helps finance the community, and some have scientists and also the work of incorporated it into their daily practice with anonymous artists, expressions of the
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people's spirituality, and the body of they can even be considered part of what values which give meaning to life. It UNESCO calls the cultural landscape. includes both tangible and intangible During the Middle Ages monasteries works through which the creativity of that people finds expression: languages, came to be considered not only as centers of rites, beliefs, historic places and spirituality and a source of culture, but also as monuments, literature, works of art, organizers of the country. The close archives and libraries (UNESCO, 1982). relationship that existed between the monastic communities and feudal authorities We understand tangible religious is a clear reflection of this. Monasteries heritage to consist of both tangible and played an important role in the economy of intangible elements. This tangible heritage the surrounding areas, often owning represents, in some way, the holy space. It farmland and herds of cattle, which the also includes tangible heritage objects, such monks themselves looked after (remember as paintings, altarpieces, decoration, and the main premise of the Rule of Saint items of liturgy considered works of art. Thus, Benedict, “ora et labora”), while also we can understand that tangible heritage providing employment for local peasants. represents an interest in art, architecture, In the relationship between tangible and history in general; and we can link it to and intangible heritage and landscape, motivations that are largely, but not gastronomy is a clear example of how these exclusively, secular (we can call this cultural relate to one another. According to the tourism, for example). Institute of Catalan Studies, “gastronomy is In this regard, the majority of European the knowledge of everything related to monasteries were built in the Middle Ages, cooking, processing, and preparing dishes, becoming magnificent representations of the art of tasting and appreciating food and different artistic styles (such as the beverages”. Montecinos (2012) adds that Romanesque and Gothic). “gastronomy is the reasonable art of On the other hand, intangible producing, creating, transforming, develop- religious heritage is made up of the rituals, ping, preserving and safeguarding activities, worship, and events that take place in these consuming healthily and sustainably, enjo- holy spaces. We could say that this type of ying natural, cultural, intangible, and mixed heritage is a clear manifestation of sacred World Gastronomic Heritage, and all in time, meaning people's devotion towards a respect of the human food system”. particular element, and the rituals of We therefore find that gastronomy integration that occur in these places. constitutes the relationship between food Therefore, we could associate these and culture, and takes in all of the culinary elements with more strictly religious processes and traditions of each region. We motivations. have seen the definition of intangible We could even go a little further. heritage and its relationship with Bearing in mind that, as already monasteries; this is also evident in the case of mentioned, these monasteries also have a gastronomy. As an example, we can cite the close relationship with elements related to inclusion of French cuisine on UNESCO’s list nature and the territories surrounding them,
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of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity buildings such as mills, workshops and (2010), followed by the Mediterranean diet stables. The winery was a very important and traditional Mexican cuisine. There are building, and monasteries played a crucial several monastic texts on food, rations, role in preserving the culture of wine. In fact, expenses, etc. written by monks and nuns, with the risk of this culture disappearing indicating ingredients, dishes suitable for following the Islamic invasion, monasteries days of the year and religious festivals. The were responsible for continuing to plant earliest of these preserved manuscripts date vines and produce wine for liturgical reasons. back to the fourteenth century. Farms related to the monasteries kept The importance of the culinary legacy livestock in a planned, rational, and of monasteries is further endorsed by the independent way. The farm was no more facilities themselves. The architectural design than one day away from the monastery, so especially that of Benedictine monasteries, Mass could be attended on Sundays, and was was clearly in response to culinary needs. Life normally worked by converts (those who in the monastery was structured around the professed to the order but had not joined, or church and the cloister, the most important were unable to). One of the important places around which the other areas were functions of the farm was to meet the needs built. of the community regarding food, and it grew The cloister tended to be square or all types of crops, in addition to producing trapezoid in shape, each of its sides covered wine and savory meats. The most common by a gallery with an archway. At the centre of crops were cereals (wheat, barley, and oats), this space, there was usually a small garden olives, grapes, vegetables, fruit, and herbs for or a vegetable plot (where they planted cooking. Livestock was important and herbs). Frugal meals were served in the included pigs, sheep, and goats. Poultry, if refectory, usually around noon. While the there was any, was reserved for special monks ate, one of them read the Scriptures occasions. Firewood was also gathered from from a pulpit. “Reading will always accom- the forest. Each monastery enjoyed complete pany the meals of the brothers. Let there be economic independence, although they did complete silence, and no voice other than exchange plants, seeds, and mushrooms, that of the person reading may be heard. among other things, with one another. Everything needed to eat and drink is to be Thus, the culinary tradition of served by the brothers to one another, in monasteries stems from a combination of order that no one need ask for anything. If observing the monastic rule and eating the anything is required, this is to be done by products that were most accessible. The making a sign rather than speech” (Rule of monks’ diet was made up of vegetables, fruit, Saint Benedict, Chapter 38; Just, 2007). eggs, fresh and salted fish and cheese. At The kitchen was next to the refectory, ceremonies, they were allowed biscuits and and close to that, the store and warehouse. nougat. Fish was much more frequent than Land surrounded this ensemble (the amount meat or meat products. Although monastic of land was in accordance with the rule prohibited red meat, it said nothing monastery’s importance), as well as other about poultry. “Therefore let two cooked
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dishes suffice for all the brethren; and if any different wine-producing regions, and also fruit or fresh vegetables are available, let a help forge a European cultural identity. It also third dish be added. Let a good pound weight conveys loyalty to origins and learning to of bread suffice for the day, whether there be enjoy local products related to the land. As only one meal or both dinner and supper. Josep Roca, the sommelier at Celler de Can Except the sick who are very weak, let all Roca, has pointed out, behind every wine abstain entirely from eating the flesh of four- there is a philosophy that speaks of the land footed animals.” (Rule of Saint Benedict, and of the people who produced it. Chapter 39; Just, 2007). Winemaking came from the ancient There was also a tradition for nuns to Greek and Roman civilizations, crossing the make jam and sweets, normally to use up any Mediterranean to Spain, and has been part of surplus fruit and vegetables, or as gifts for Spanish history, heritage and cuisine ever benefactors and relatives. Today, many of since. these products are still the main source of The Spanish landscape cannot be explained funding for those monasteries endeavoring without wine, or monasteries. Despite the to attract commerce. fact that numerous monasteries in the Monasteries have also traditionally Middle Ages produced wine, today there are played an important role in the production of practically none. Many have handed their wine in Spain and many other parts of vineyards, and even their name, over to wine Europe. With the fall of the Roman Empire, businesses, but the monks no longer work the Christian monasteries became wine centres land or make wine. However, various throughout the Middle Ages. Wine was also a monasteries have taken advantage of the fact key item in the liturgy, in addition to being a that it has become a tourist attraction, and commodity that could be exchanged. have organized visits to the vineyards, or Wine and vineyards form part of the prompted by tourist organizations, offer cultural heritage of a region. They are tourist packages that include visits to essential to the understanding of the monasteries and their wineries. economic, social, and cultural evolution of
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Map 1 - Monasteries listed in this paper
Source: The authors
One of the last monasteries still century building, which can accommodate up producing its own wine today is the Cistercian to 15 guests. Visitors are welcome to partake abbey of Santa Maria de la Oliva, in in prayers if they wish, and spiritual Carcastillo, Navarra, in the north of Spain. The accompaniment is offered on request. monks here make wine from 20 hectares of Monestir de San Pedro de Cardeña de vineyards, and have upheld the craft for 900 Burgos (Castilla y León) is another monastery years. The winery can hold up to 400,000 that makes wine. This Trappist abbey makes litres, and today around 150,000 liters of Valdevegón wines, following traditional wine is produced every year. The commercial artisanship. The wine is stored in the 11th name of the wine is that of the abbey century Romanesque cellars, where the "Monasterio de La Oliva", and belongs to the naturally stable temperature and humidity Navarra Denominació d’Origen (DO), a ages red wines such as Ribera de Duero or regulatory classification system for Spanish Rioja. This monastery also offers visits and wines and foods according to Agricultural lodgings with the community, as well as European Rules (Turismo de Navarra, n.d.). producing beer, chocolate, and sweets, which The monastery and winery is open to can also be bought online (Monasterio de San visitors, and being a Cistercian monastery, it Pedro de Cardeña, n.d.). offers lodgings to those who are looking for a Scala Dei is one example of a few days’ silent retreat, peace, prayer, and monastery that made its own wine in the refection. The rooms are in a restored 18th past, but the production has now been taken
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over by a wine business. This Carthusian Logroño, or Bodega Finca Valpiedra in monastery was founded at the end of the Fuenmayor (Rutas del Vino Rioja, 2014). 12th century in Tarragona (Catalonia), in the Another example of a tourism product east of Spain. Like other monastic is Spanish Paradores, a hotel chain conceived communities, it acquired the land around the in 1910 by the Spanish government with the monastery, and planted vines to produce intention of improving Spain's image abroad. wine. It was abandoned in the 19th century, Following on from this, Alfonso XIII of Spain as were other monasteries, due to the undertook selecting the spot for the first ecclesiastical confiscations of Mendizábal, Parador in Sierra de Gredos, between Madrid and fell into the hands of five families who and Ávila, in 1926. After the Parador was founded a private society. The society opened in 1928, the Committee for promoted the cultivation of vines for wine, Paradores was formed, and began to look for and was one of the advocates of DO Priorat. unique buildings with a long cultural history This is how Cellars d'Scala Dei began, and for future hotels. One of the aims of the today it still produces wine under the name project was to preserve the country's of the monastery. heritage, and this is why many of them are Despite the wine being well known, castles or monasteries. Apart from the monastery fell into serious disrepair. accommodation, they offer other tourism Finally in 1991, it was handed over to the products such as visits to monasteries and Catalan government, who have since wine routes. There are three distinct wine restored the building and opened it to visitors routes: Rioja and Navarra; Ribera del Duero; (Cellers d’Scala Dei, n.d.). and the wines of Rueda and Toro (Paradores Numerous monasteries have been de Turismo de España SA, n.d.). incorporated into wine routes, the most The Tourist board in Galicia offers iconic of which is, perhaps, La Rioja. La Rioja several products, for example the Ribera is the oldest DO in Spain, and its long tradition Sacra tourist train. This is a train ride which of producing high quality wines has won it a combines a visit to a winery with an place amongst the most renowned in the interpretation center and a visit to the world. Today, its wines are recognized for monastery of Santo Estevo de Ribas de Sil their exceptionally high quality and (Avista Ribeira Sacra, 2011). authenticity. It is evident that there are a considerable Rioja was one of the first DO's to number of tourism initiatives linking wine to adopt the concept of wine tourism, and to be monasteries. There are, also, other initiatives incorporated into Spanish Wine Routes. One to the valorization of monasteries, and many of the tourism products it offers is a of them now offer visitors accommodation, combined visit to the monastery and cellars, guided tours and a shop to buy their produce. where a full day visit (from 10.00 a.m. to 3.00 One such example is “Spiritual p.m.) costs 14 euros, and includes wine Mallorca”, which offers a joint ticket to tasting. Proposed visits include the San Millán various monasteries on the island. Mallorca is de la Cogolla monasteries at Suso and Yuso well known for its sun and beach tourism, but (World Heritage Sites), Bodegas Ontañón de Spiritual Mallorca presents a different
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Mallorca; a Mallorca full of heritage, culture, products such as sweets or chocolate were emotions and soul. “Our privileged setting exchanged for goods or given as presents to and climate have turned our island into a visiting pilgrims. first-class tourism destination, but Mallorca Cocoa came to Europe via Spain, and was offers so much more than just our beloved introduced almost simultaneously with other sun and magnificent beaches. This place, at exotic drinks such as coffee and tea. Bufias the crossroads of the Mediterranean, has an (2015) relates the story of Cortès being extraordinary history, world renowned presented with a golden goblet of liquid figures, and a wealth of natural and cultural cocoa by the Indians because his physical heritage...” The joint ticket includes six features resembled those of their god. religious sites on the island (Lluc Sanctury, The next country to adopt chocolate Cura Sanctuary, La Porciúncula, Real after Spain was Italy. Some Italian regions Monastery, Saint Francis Convent and Sant were under Spanish rule and brought Juníper Serra Museum/home). Apart from chocolate from the Iberian Peninsula, the visit, it also offers discounts, guided tours, thereby beginning its tour of Europe. venues for events, and also acts as a Although the drink had a strong, bitter taste, promotional platform and source of tourist it was imported to the Peninsula, as it was information (Lucus Gestió d’Espais i Natura, easy to transport in grain form (it could not n.d.). be cultivated in Europe). It was brought to The 12th century Monastery of Europe from Spain through the monasteries Avellanes is an example of a monastery well and royal courts. France was the third prepared for visitors. Apart from European country to embrace chocolate, and accommodation, it has developed a whole it rapidly spread through the French range of tourism products to attract tourists aristocracy. and now promotes local products such as It was Cortès who brought cocoa to wine and olive oil. Once a seminary, today the the Peninsula, giving Friar Jeroni d’Aguilar a abbey is used for tourism, offering monastic sack of cocoa beans to take to the port of accommodation (37 rooms), a restaurant Barcelona, together with the recipe for (open daily offering local food), Montsec chocolate. From there the cocoa travelled to Conference Centre (with various meeting the abbot of Pedra monastery in Aragon. rooms), a Spiritual Center, a shop (selling Bufías (2015) explains that it was in this local products), summer camp monastery that the first chocolate was made accommodation, and a library and archive in 1534, thus linking the chocolate-making center. This is in addition to various other tradition to the Cistercian order, particularly activities such as guided tours, exhibitions, its reformist branch, the Trappist. concerts etc. (Monestir de les Avellanes, The production and consumption of n.d.). chocolate in monasteries is well documented Regarding local products, monasteries throughout history. Seventeenth-century not only produced wine, but also other chocolate, being liquid, did not violate the products such as olive oil. The oil was used in rules of ecclesiastical fasting: Liquidum non liturgy, in medicines and lighting. Other frangit jejunum, and this meant it could be
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drunk without sinning. After its spread management and tourism promotion. “Many throughout Europe, theological doubts arose people travel to a widening variety of sacred in Catholic countries (Spain, Italy, and France) sites not only for religious or spiritual as to whether consuming chocolate broke the purposes or to have an experience with the rule of fasting. The issue began in the early sacred in the traditional sense, but also sixteenth century in Spain, and the debate because they are marked and marketed as gradually grew until it reached a papal level, heritage or cultural attractions to be consu- and the Pope being asked for a resolution on med” (Olsen, 2006, p. 5). the matter. Even though pilgrimage sites have At Pedra monastery in Aragon, in always been linked to commercial activities addition to guided tours, visitors can also see involving transport, accommodation, food an exhibition on the history of chocolate and the sale of religious items, what is new is (Monasterio de Piedra, n.d.). In parallel to that the site is now selling itself as a tourism this, the tourism authorities in the city of destination, with heritage being the main Zaragoza have created a tourist product tourist attraction. based on chocolate, called Chocopass. The Monasteries can pass, thus, from the pass can be used to sample five different religious tourist to the food tourist, or the chocolate specialties from more than 20 spiritual tourist. However, the cultural and outlets, plus a tasting session at Pedra heritage resources alone cannot be monastery (Ayuntamiento de Zaragoza, n.d.). converted into cultural tourism, and therefore, tourist services need to be 5 REFLECTIONS / CONCLUSIONS provided. Sacred spaces inspire reverence and penitence. In contrast, the profane is As we have seen, the relationship ordinary, mundane and without any religious between heritage (both tangible and meaning. Therefore, managers have to think intangible), territory, and gastronomy carefully about what type of service and constitutes an opportunity for regions to infrastructure they want to offer, so as not to develop tourism around monasteries and to cause a clash of interests. gain extra income to help with the upkeep of Attention should be paid to what these infrastructures. some authors call commodification, and be Thus, cultural tourism and careful that over commercialization of gastronomic tourism can bring significant products associated with sacred places benefits to regions where it is implemented, (legends, special characteristics, and religious if properly planned. It can benefit small food practices) does not lead to trivialization. producers and artisans, and lead to the As exposed in this paper, there is a recovery (or prevent the loss of) ancient long list of the diverse formulas adopted by crafts, traditions, recipes and products. In this monastic communities to manage and sense, the tendency to award new value to promote monasteries. Examples include local produce throughout a district is key. accommodation (as much for leisure as a We can see that the diversity of spiritual retreat), visiting the architecture or visitors in these places hampers their exploring the links with cultural heritage
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(events, museums, archives etc.), combining accordance with the requirements of the visit with visits to other places or linking worship. them to other agro alimentary activities. All of this conditions the visitor The key element is the experience the experience. The nature of the experience in a visitor has of the visit. A word often used in sacred place is highly complex, above all this context is 'hosting' or taking people in, because it is intangible and includes elements which is considered an obligation for the of nostalgia, closeness to God, atmosphere, majority of monastic communities. When we the spiritual merit of the visit; all elements talk about hosting, however, we have to that have no economic value. differentiate between the infrastructure and According to Sigala and Leslie (2005) human resources (reception staff or personal the visitor experience depends on the reception). Carreras Pera (1995) defines personal meaning these spaces have (also 'reception' as "infrastructure + maintenance conditioned by the previous images formed + information = hosting". about the place) as well as events that take Infrastructure is the basic level of place and how these are developed. Many hosting, and covers the superficial and sacred places have a high number of repeat material aspects. The word 'infrastructure' visitors. The same visitor, however, will not suggests a set of basic elements that allow a feel like returning if their experience was not system to work. Monasteries have to be entirely positive (too many visitors, entrance inviting, whatever their history, style, artistic fee, lack of welcome, lack of cleanliness etc.) wealth, simplicity, or geographical Satisfaction is an emotional, holistic response environment, etc. Each one has to affirm its to a situation that is responding to own originality, personality, and function. expectations. Knowing what visitors want is The balance between simplicity, and a certain of the utmost importance. This area, level of comfort, is not easy. Another aspect, however, lacks data. which is just as important, is personal We have already seen that visitors to hosting. We have to distinguish between two sacred places can be divided into those who different words: receive and host. Host is a have religious motivations and those who are stronger, warmer term than receive, as it motivated by tourism (of various kinds: supposes a personal, interior attitude. A heritage, monumental, cultural). In both welcoming attitude shows willingness to cases, however, the main interest is centered share, whereas someone who receives can be on the visitor's experience, and how the visit either passive or interested. Receiving does converges with the spiritual message of the not require commitment, while hosting place; a concept Shackley (2001) calls 'spirit always implies obligation. of place'. A visit to a sacred place means A welcome in artistic or historic places meeting something numinous, one of the cannot be limited to just accurate historical challenges of the management is to maintain or artistic information, but has to reveal an this feeling, this spirit, despite the influx of identity and a religious purpose. At the same visitors. The key is to make tourists feel time, it must try not to interrupt religious insignificant, excited and involved in "the celebrations and program tourist visits in spirit of the place", to enjoy an environment
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offering the opportunity to have an Anton Clavé, S., Gonzàlez Reverté, F. y experience outside their normal routine. The Fernández Tabales, A. (2009). Introducció a lower the number of visitors, the easier is to l’espai turístic. Barcelona: UOC Universitat manage the impact they have, to maintain Oberta de Catalunya. the 'spirit of place', and to guarantee spiritual quality. Therefore, controlling the number of Aulet, S. (2012). Competitivitat del turisme religiós en el marc contemporani. Els espais visitors is very important in sacred places that sagrats i el turisme. Universitat de Girona. attract a large number of visitors. Aulet, S. y Hakobyan, K. (2011). Turismo Another concept affecting the visitor religioso y espacios sagrados: una propuesta experience is that of authenticity. “The para los santuarios de Catalunya. RITUR- search for authenticity has become one of Revista Iberoamericana de …, 1(1), 63–82. the key themes in the academic literature of tourism. MacCannell (1976), who initiated Avista Ribeira Sacra. (2011). Ribeira Sacra - this discussion, emphasized the central role Tren turistico y Viticultura en los Cañones del that tourist settings play in the search for Sil. Consultado en authenticity. He noted that pilgrims’ desire to http://www.abasacra.com/ be in a place associated with religious meanings was comparable to the attraction Ayuntamiento de Zaragoza. (n.d.). Zaragoza Turismo. Chocopass. Consultado en of tourists to places embedded with social, http://www.zaragoza.es/ciudad/turismo/es/ historical or cultural significance” (Belhassen, servicios/zaragoza-cards/choco-pass.htm Caton, & Stewart, 2008, p. 668).
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Turismo de Navarra. (n.d.). Monasterio de La Dolors Vidal Oliva Carcastillo Turismo Navarra. Consultado en
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PhD in Cultural Tourism, Director of the Chair religious tourism and history of tourism. She in Gastronomy, Culture and Tourism of the is a member of the Atlas-euro.org group and UdG. Expert in the value of tangible and the UNITWIN network Culture, tourisme et intangible heritage for tourism. She is a developement, coordinated by the University member of the Multidisciplinary Research of Paris-1 Pantheon Sorbonne. E-mail: Laboratory in Tourism research group, [email protected] developing work relating to cities of art,
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