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Home , Erich Fromm, Frankfurt School, Jouissance, Louis Althusser, Otto Fenichel, Paul Federn

Annual Review of Critical 12 (2015) 45

The Freudo-Marxist Mission

Rosario Herrera Guido

The people of themselves, years after their revolt against Napoleon, shout “long live the Chains”. The very people of follow the processions of the goddess of and are not satiated watching the action of the guillotine. The People themselves? (Zambrano, 1958)

Abstract. This essay presents a balance that hopes to show that despite the impasse between dissimilar dis- courses, the Freudo-Marxist mission does allow us to salvage its philosophical and practical program so as to continue rethinking the postures that led to the difficult encounter between two : and , their theoretical principles and their political consequences. This approach demands the dis- cussion of four moments: 1) the Freudo-Marxist pronouncement; 2) Wilheim Reich’s Sex-Pol mission; 3) Gér- ard Pommier’s Freudo-Marxism; and 4) its political legacy. Keywords: , psychoanalysis, Freudo-Marxism,

Freudo-Marxism (), and the economic infrastructure, the base of the ideological superstructure (Marx). 7) Their dy- The main features that Freudians and Marxists deem namic model: the antagonistic Life Drive [Le- common are: 1) Their objectives: psychoanalysis and benstrieb] and [Todestrieb] (Freud), and historical are both demystifying critical class struggle (Marx). of the of , of its future- less illusions (Freud) or inverted visions of The dis-encounters that cause insufficiencies and () and alienation in commodities (Marx); require a profound theoretical revision are of two both propose emancipation: one of the repressed neu- types: 1) Analytical practice: the etiology of rotic (psychoanalysis), the of the exploited pro- uncovers the pathogenic action of the patriarchal fam- letariat (Marxism). 2) Their means: gaining con- ily, authoritarian pedagogical methods and conditions sciousness of contents repressed by consciousness of life, housing and unemployment, all of which de- that return in the form of symptoms (Freud), and of mand a change; but while psychoanalysis frees the the oppressive that keep the subject and allows him to work, offers but a subjected to exploitation, thus rescuing denigrating job or unemployment. To obtain prophy- the subject of alienation (Marx). 3) Their materialist laxis and a cure, the social system must be trans- method: drives are the motor of (Freud), the formed, which obliges psychoanalysis to integrate and the satisfaction of . 2) Political practice: the eman- needs that of social history (Marx). 4) Their dialec- cipation of the working class lacks a of the tics: the struggle of opposites, drive and defense mechanism through which the material conditions of (Freud), exploiters and exploited (Marx). 5) Their are converted into in the human reading of history: the destinies of the drives deter- consciousness, and an explanation of why the ex- mined by the vicissitudes of infant history that lead to ploited majorities not only accept their conditions, but the Oedipal drama (Freud), and the destinies of hu- even “kiss their chains”. If Marx had developed this manity: the modes of domination and exploitation phrase, his opus would have followed the route of (Marx). 6) Their models: topical (Unconscious-Pre- Etienne de La Boétie’s (1576) voluntary servitude; conscious-Conscious and Id, Ego and Superego) and he would have acknowledged that people “fall

46 Marxism & Psychology

into such complete forgetfulness of their freedom that faced in the world of psychoanalysis was not so much they can hardly be roused to the point of regaining it, due to his deformations of Freudianism, but because obeying so easily and so willingly that one is led to his political militancy led all psychoanalysts into the say, on beholding such a situation, that this people has Nazis’ talons. The psychoanalyst Marie Langer ex- not so much lost its as won its enslavement” pressed the panic that Freud himself felt, even recom- (p. 21). Or, as Lacan shows, the masses do not rebel mending that his colleagues not receive militants in against the master because they are promised enjoy- analysis, or that they prohibit them from practicing ment (). But the Marxist worker’s move- militancy. But not even Freud’s cautiousness could ment believed it needed psychoanalysis as a scien- prevent the destruction of psychoanalytical publica- tific, practical and technical auxiliary of conscious- tions, the dissolution of the Psychoanalytic Society of ness. , or his death in exile. As we see later, the Freudo-Marxist project, After the Second World War, the empire of psy- judged unviable, was aborted. The genuine, though choanalysis was installed in North America, after delirious, aspirations that sought to forge a single the- vaccinating Freudianism through the introduction of ory out of psychoanalysis and Marxism had the best the adaptation to reality and normalization focus, of historical and political intentions, but they were un- such as the psychoanalysis of Ego. Also, the Interna- aware of the inalienable foundations of the two dis- tional Psychoanalysis (IPA) extended its courses. For this reason Armando Suárez (1995) was branches the world over. Psychoanalysis thus became led to observe that: institutionalized and conquered the psychiatric order; The psychoanalytical movement, having just psychoanalysts became “mental health” workers. overcome its stage of ostracism and margin- From the culturalist current to the adaptation ap- alization from the city of science, was begin- proach, leaving aside the folds of subjectivity pro- ning to consolidate positions in Europe and duced by the unconscious, the path to the supposed the United States [but] was still too fasci- psychoanalysis of Ego and its reinforcement (Hart- nated by its discovery of itself and too jeal- mann, Kris, Loewenstein and Rappaport) established ous of its autonomy to allow confrontations the empire of the reality principle in the here, the now with a theory of society and history that al- and the with me of the Kleinian school; the annexa- ready occupied all the positions that applied tion of psychoanalysis to (Mar- psychoanalysis hoped to conquer. (p. 146). garet Mead); functionalist (Parsons); dy- Here, Suárez confirms that Freud is unfamiliar namic psychiatry (Alexander), and semiological-ju- with Marxism, though not with its utopian proposals, ridical (Thomas Szasz) – until psychoanaly- which he denounces in The Future of an Illusion sis was globalized and, in the words of Eugenio Trías (1927) and Civilization and its Discontents (1929): (2001), transformed into a “Global Casino”, having since human are exiled from by the interred the horror that fractured it in the period of of , which prohibits incest, the project of hap- German , and having castrated the letter of piness is unachievable. However, Freud (1929) opens Freud, the critique of culture, its rebellious and liber- a path towards wellbeing in culture: “The program ating nature, as well as the radical opposition of the that the pleasure principle imposes upon us, to be for power. happy, is unachievable; but it is not licit – or, better, In Argentina, under the leadership – both theo- not possible – to abandon the effort to approach, in retical and practical – of Pichon-Rivière and José some way, its fulfillment” (p. 83). Bleger, psychoanalysis took hold as in no other Latin ignored psychoanalysis. Leon American country. They realized all the deformations Trotsky tried to understand it, but only in order to and innovations imaginable: the psychoanalysis of combat with a critique of the masses, the groups, the family and , which are analyses of imaginaries that redress the leader, and the struggle Ego and the imaginary group, and that only examine between and hate that is inevitable in culture, as the dynamics of the group and not those of the subject evoked in ’s (1819) The World of the unconscious, which is not collective but ex- as Will and Representation with its porcupines that cluded from the of the subject through re- never cease to fling their quills in winter. pression in neuroses [Verdrängung], in perver- sion [Verleugnung], and expulsion and for But the greatest impediments to the Freudo- [Verwerfung]. Marxist movement were the sinister arrival of in and the annexation of National in Austria. The rabid opposition that

Annual Review of 12 (2015) 47

In France, despite resistance by psychoanalysis, objective conditions were given for the socialist rev- (1965) and Michel Tort (1970) intro- olution, then there was no choice but to ponder, and duced Marxist intellectuals to Freud and Lacan, thus debate, what it was that impeded historical subjects – conceding to psychoanalysis a theoretical place by af- leaders and masses – from achieving the expected re- firming that it was “a new continent of ”. sults. And this begged the question: what is happen- In 1965, Althusser published his text Freud and La- ing to ? To which the Freudo- can in the Nouvelle Critique, wherein he argues for Marxists responded. From psychoanalysis it was pos- the scientificity of psychoanalysis, on the condition sible to elucidate the enigma of social repression and that it is read like (Althusser, 1965). construct a program that took into account conscious- ness as commanded by unconscious life in The Inter- In the French May of 1968, the watchwords of pretation of Dreams (1900), the dynamics of the Wilhelm Reich (1934) and (1955) masses hypnotized by the leader in the Psychology of began to be heard once more, like banners of social the Masses and Analysis of the Ego (1921), and the liberation. But after the May 1968, the relation be- second theme of (1923), where tween psychoanalysis and Marxism was brought back consciousness is the most superficial aspect of psy- to the discussion table by Lacanian leftists with their chic life. Here, the Freudo-Marxist movement sets out theorization of the improvisation of the masses and from a Freudian theoretical base without, of course, schizoanalysis, a proposal to blow up power with the forgetting psychoanalytic practice. machines of war that fracture the (Deleuze & Guattari, 1972, 1980). Wilhelm Reich opens his dispensary in Vienna in 1922, where he treats the sexual and psychic mis-

ery of the proletarian masses and impels a The Mission through a passionate political militancy after the bru- Mission comes from the Latin missio-onis: dispatch, tal repression of a workers’ demonstration in Vienna commission, charge; and from mittere: to send. Since (July 15 1927) that left 83 workers dead. , though resisting political militancy, is one of the 12th century it has meant delegation, crossing. I shall take all these meanings in order to reflect upon the key contacts with the School of critical the intellectual and practical movement of Freudo- philosophy, together with Theodor Adorno, and Herbert Marcuse. Marxism as an ideological pronouncement, led by a group of psychoanalysts and second-generation The theoretical and practical wager of the thinkers who carry out a program of ideas and prac- Freudo-Marxists on psychoanalysis is produced with- tices at the seat of Austro-German culture and politics out reserve. Perhaps its understanding of psychoanal- (between 1926 and 1933), and whose project is to in- ysis is superficial, regarding subjectivity and sexual tegrate the theory and practice of psychoanalysis into repression, but still it was able to extract political con- historical materialism and the workers’ movement sequences and a liberating praxis. Likewise, the psy- that emerged from it. choanalysts’ knowledge of Marxism was but superfi- Among its leading figures, cial, as they did not understand the posture of the II (1926), Erich Fromm (1932), Wilhelm Reich (1934) Socialist International, positivist, mechanistic, eco- nomicist and voluntarist. Thus, Freudo-Marxism as and (1934), as well as , An- nie Reich (Reich’s partner), Richard Sterba and program and praxis unfolded amidst incomprehen- , all stand out. A signifier generation sion by both psychoanalysts and Marxists, though that lives through the First World War, fight in it (ex- most of them suffered exile for political , not due to theoretical confusions. cept Fromm), and includes critical witnesses of the division of the workers’ movement between social The most committed of them is Reich, who is ex- democracy and the . The Freudo- pelled from the German Communist Party in 1932 Marxists sympathized with the Bolshevik revolution, and from the International Psychoanalytic Associa- knew the violence of the Nazis’ anti-Semitic move- tion of Vienna in 1934. He settles in the United States, ment and the cruel irrationality of after the where he develops the theory and the practice crash of the New York stock exchange in 1929. of , which had lost their psychoanalyti- In the wake of the defeat of the workers’ move- cal and Marxist foundations. Bernfeld and Fenichel ment that brought the Nazis to power and the triumph remain in the International Psychoanalytic Associa- of the Bolsheviks in Russia, it became historically tion of Vienna and renounce all political militancy. Fromm abandons the International Association of Vi- necessary to discuss the importance of subjectivity in revolution. If, as according to Marxist thought, the

48 Marxism & Psychology

enna and proposes a humanist psychoanalysis, with- coincidence between Reich’s personal crisis and a so- out metapsychology, but with a humanist Marxism cial crisis. Sex-Pol is a signifier that brings together bereft of class struggle and economic , a progressive pragmatic activities, adopted later by all religiosity without , based on the concept of so- democratic , which have striven to foster cial character and committed to human values. De- them from the 1960s to today. Progressive organiza- spite these variants, schools multiplied, at the cost of tions succeeded in including Reich’s program in Eu- forgetting the letter of Marx and Freud (Suárez, 1995, ropean Constitutions and now in some Latin Ameri- pp. 142-166). can ones. The Sex-Pol mission is more than a bundle of practical sexual measures; it is a signifier that pro-

vokes rebellion. Wilhelm Reich Reich’s mission – according to Laurent – re- Reich represents not only the possibility of a dialogue minds the psychoanalytic community and the world between psychoanalysis and Marxism, but also a pro- of phallic enjoyment [jouissance], the subject’s entry gram for a common praxis. Upon leaving the ranks of into the symbolic order, into the enjoyment of lan- the socialists to join the Austrian Communist Party as guage and the phallic function: the phallus, signifier a protest against the socialists’ absence from the ruth- of enjoyment and the desire for the Other. Reich lessly repressed 1927 march in Vienna, Reich organ- wishes to make the phallus exist as a signifier des- izes his psychoanalytic practice with a view towards tined to designate all the effects of the signified as one the demands of the impoverished masses: abortion whole. For this reason he is expelled from every psy- and contraception, though this leads to constant har- choanalytic brotherhood in 1934. In response, one assment. After his trip to the USSR, financed by the starry night in 1941, in the city of Main in the United German Communist Party, he founds the Socialist States, Reich hallucinates a blue light, the of Association for Sex Hygiene and Sexological Re- which extends over the entire world, and in which he search. The fame of his Sex-Pol mission attracted perceives the orgone, not a concept, but a point of 200,000 militants to his dispensaries. The theory and contact with reality, a possible relation with the sci- praxis most widely discussed was The Sexual Strug- entists of his time, a signifier that forms a social bond gle of Youth (1932), though his key thoughts on the to subject itself to culture and shirk psychosis. Be- relations between psychoanalysis and Marxism are cause – and here I follow Freud – that which is ex- contained in his and Psycho- pelled from discourse [Verwerfung] returns in the analysis (1934), where he attempts to integrate a “to- real, as in the case of Schreber, like a blue light hallu- tal knowledge” of through cinated on the horizon. Marxism (with its social perspective) and psychoa-

nalysis (that attends individual phenomena). The Recognition of a Radical Absence of Man’s The conceptual errors of Freudo-Marxism and Reich’s psychosis revealed the deficiencies of the en- counter between these two discourses with respect to Freudo-Marxism… an impossible project? I share its practice. With Reich’s expulsion from both the with Gérard Pommier (1987) the lucid thoughts that and the International Asso- he expresses in his book Freud Apolitical?, especially ciation of Psychoanalysis, the bridge between Marx- the thesis that Marx and Freud have only one point in ism and psychoanalysis suffers a mortal wound. But common, one that refers to an anthropological aspect added to that were the fractures within Marxism and that underlies their discourse: the recognition of a rad- psychoanalysis themselves: “Marxist” currents that ical absence in man’s essence; is absent, not deformed Marx, and the many schools of “psychoa- only because the human cub becomes a being, but be- nalysis” that forgot the letter of Freud. Thus, Freudo- cause its being is represented by a signifier that rep- Marxism is burdened with conflicts over interpreta- resents it before another signifier. tions and practices. In this regard, it is worth recalling the pertinent However, Eric Laurent (1986) does to clarification that Jacques Lacan presents to philoso- Reich by updating his Sex-Pol mission in the French phy students at the Sorbonne in Paris, namely that the psychoanalytic journal Ornicar? The name Reich of study of psychoanalysis is not man, for it is sounds like an empire and represents the technique of not an anthropology; but, rather, something that man bio-energy that is adopted by the rebellious genera- lacks: the enjoyment lost upon being dragged out of tion of the 1960s. The Sex-Pol mission is not born as nature by language through the fundamental law of a theoretical and conceptual development, but of the culture: the prohibition of incest; a lack that cements

Annual Review of Critical Psychology 12 (2015) 49

the division of the subject between its being and the makes all union between the subject, as a be- signifier that represents it, such that he becomes sub- ing of desire, and any of its imaginary identi- ject to language and of language. , mean- fications, principally the social one, unrecov- while, the essence of man is reduced to the set of his erable. (Pommier, 1987, pp. 182-183). social relations. Suffice to recall that in Marx’ 6th The- It is not possible to posit a direct articulation be- sis on Feuerbach the human essence is not an abstrac- tween Freud and Marx, for what exists is an abyss, an tion that is inseparable from singular individuals, for impasse, between the individual and the social. Given its reality is the set of social relations. that the subject fails in its search for the plenitude of Unlike Marx, in the field of psychoanalysis, and its being, it throws itself into recovering it in the especially since the teachings of Lacan, what we find group, in a search for relation and for belonging, is the absence of being, the absence in being of the where specular alienation becomes inevitable: Ego is subject [manque à être, says Lacan] as a result of the similarity, made in the image and resemblance of the effects of language; of the symbolic structure that other. Thus it is inevitable, since in its multiple iden- makes family history. Absence of Being not only be- tifications Ego is asymptotic (as cause once we became beings of Being hardly any- points out), that what is produced is an insurmounta- thing remains of us as subjects, but because when ble failure that impedes the subject from identifying someone asks, who am I?, there is no possible answer, itself fully with the image that Society offers it. given that language backs up against the limit of what Both the class-free state of socialism and the free is sayable: being. It is because of this that the end of enterprise of capitalism subscribe to the assumption an analysis has as its ethical imperative to make this that, thanks to the of these systems, men and being that is lacking. women can put an end to servitude. This species of Although the lack of human essence in Marx’s Utopia is sustained in a that, par- case is rather evident, in the sense that he only defines adoxically, seems to accentuate and aggravate the in- alienation in relation to the group, it would seem that terdependence of men and women. the lack of being in Marx only concerns Ego, or the Undoubtedly, the passionate struggle for free- individual, conceived as product and effect of social dom responds to the existence of previous oppression, life. It deals with the dispersion of human essence, whose existence in capitalism, , slavery and though it is not abolished completely. There is a dis- even socialism, it would be folly to deny. But it is also placement of human essence in the set of social rela- important to point out that oppression becomes less tions, but this does not impede the establishment of a evident once direct, individual coercion ceases. How- kind of fixing of being. Human essence is not the final ever, it is equally undeniable that there exists a mode explanation of things; it is a historical product. For of industrial slavery that exerts a merciless oppression Marx, the being of man is relative, though it endures upon an entire . as economic activity. Marx sets aside the optical problem, leaving it at the mercy of relations with Following Gérard Pommier, it is important to re- one’s peers and the relations of production. call some of Marx’ theses; such as the one that holds that social classes are defined as a function of the Something distinct occurs in the case of Freud, ownership of the means of production. Their for- for whom the subject of the unconscious depends on mation responds to a certain mode of production in a the symbolic system. And this is because the order of given period of history. Social classes confront one language is incomplete, for no being can define itself another directly, transversally, or covertly at certain on such an inconsistent basis. It is to this radical in- historical moments, to put an end to the exploitation completeness of language that the historical future re- of man by man and to free men and women from all sponds; the unyielding search for social identity and oppression and servitude. the class struggle itself; the reason why Gérard Pom- mier points out that Marxism explains effects, not Psychoanalysis is also expected to provide liber- causes. And this is why the encounter between the ation from the symptoms and suffering that are pro- theses of Marx and Freud comes to be so extremely duced. To obtain this, analysis leads to the alleviation forced: of repression. This is precisely where Freudianism and Marxism touch to constitute a grand impasse, There exists no direct articulation between Freudo-Marxism, one of the most ambitious attempts: Freudianism and Marxism. What we are deal- the confluence of two dissimilar, even antagonistic, ing with, between the individual and the so- discourses. For the aim is to establish a parallel be- cial, [is] a relation of failure: since enjoyment tween social repression and sexual repression. Up to has failed, a tentative recovery in the group is produced, class struggle. There is a fissure that a short time ago, it was said that Marx and Freud

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joined hands in defining history: the history of class ever gestating something unexpected. A subject radi- struggle and the history of sexual repression. How- cally opposed to society and even to culture itself, for ever, the prohibition of incest, the foundational law of it is the irreducible, that which introduces discontinu- culture, has no parallel in social repression, because ity and in what is homogeneous, uniform, the prohibition of incest is not enunciated. Sex-Pol is and stable in every society. denouncement and a program of political militancy in A subject that is not pure negativity, pure differ- the of Reich and his theory of orgone to lib- ence, but a plus, an excess that creates something new erate sexual repression; however, it suffers limitations in the bosom of the society conceived as Unity, tear- both theoretical and practical. The objective of social ing it apart with its invention. Something that goes repression is to preserve, ruthlessly, the political beyond the , the field of conservation and power of the State. A repression achieved in many dominion, and that Freud calls the unconscious; the ways: with bread and the circus, soccer, spectacles, desire that goes beyond necessity, an anti-economic bribes, abandonment of symbolic obligations, or the point of view, an excess of the drives; a beyond the cowardice of the masses… homeostatic equilibrium, a Beyond the pleasure prin- For psychoanalysis, sexual repression is not a di- ciple. A subject that surpasses life, through an excess rect, immediate effect, nor one that can be localized of potency, that by limiting itself identifies itself with in social subjection, because for psychoanalysis re- the Other. A subject that, in order to realize itself, pression is not produced by any injunction. When par- must make a new being. A subject that does not rest, ents anticipate all their child’s needs and , be- that does not subject itself to the being of any State, lieving that they have satisfied all their demands, they as Eugenio Trías points out, because it is restlessness deny him all that which is beyond the demands, be- until death, as ’s philosophy of ex- cause they cannot – and do not – want to recognize cess teaches. that the child’s desire is sexual. This is why repres-

sion is imposed, though no prohibition exists. For psychoanalysis, repression is not the effect of the in- Conclusion junction. Thus, political power is not linked to psy- It is possible to recognize Freudo-Marxism in the pro- choanalytic repression. grams of the proletarian movement, for it promises No revolution has succeeded in eliminating re- economic, political and sexual equilibrium: the full pression, and none ever will. Political liberation does realization of the subject, through which society as a not mean emancipating oneself from a mode of pro- whole must achieve the same objective. The Freudo- duction or from the reigning tyrant but, rather, from Marxist mission reaches an impasse due to the fact the Master and the power structure. For this reason, that it demands the sacrifice of this subject (for the political liberation is utopian, in that it seeks to good of the community), conceived as alienated in achieve something beyond eliminating repression, for bourgeois , and the repression of its it demands the fall of the unifying symbol of the so- drives. This means sacrificing the luxury of living dif- cial group that makes the social bond, the chief (who ferently, for the good of a State that claims to be and can be deposed, even assassinated, but only to be re- not to exist, for a society where no subject has any placed by another to preserve social cohesion). As reason to differ and oppose but only to renounce all Pommier (1987) affirms, “though economic libera- difference. If what is demanded is the sacrifice of this tion is historically viable, political liberation is, in singularity that is the subject, which is subject to lan- contrast [and] in this sense, absolutely utopian” (p. guage, it is because the great value of this subjectivity 185). Perhaps this is why Trotsky proposed, in addi- is recognized. If it is asked to sacrifice itself – as Ma- tion to the economic revolution, the political one, the ría Zambrano (1958) holds – it is because this subjec- permanent revolution to impede Stalin’s dictatorship. tivity is capable of sacrifice. That which is unaccepta- A project that evokes a phrase from Milan Kundera’s ble in political parties, psychoanalytic associations, (1981) novel, The Book of Laughter and Forgetting: universities, factories, schools, concentration camps, “the struggle of man against power is the struggle of forced labor camps, and prisons is suppressed. Zam- memory against forgetting”. brano’s radical position is shared by psychoanalysis, so that the subject may distance itself from the spec- The subject produces an impasse in Freudo- ular alienation that the enjoyment of group demands. Marxism, a stalemate, a difficulty apparently insur- The place of the subject is society, but with the free- mountable; for the subject cannot be reduced to a the- dom to enter its interior space, which allows it to dis- ory, a social system, a political project, since it is for- sent and risk changing that with which it does not agree.

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The subject is unpredictable, it does not pertain Freud, S. (1923). El yo y el ello. Obras Completas. to the future (which is predictable), but to the future Buenos Aires: Amorrortu, 1979. that is insinuated with a new light. Its time is the fu- Freud, S. (1927). El porvenir de una ilusión. Obras ture because it is the space of freedom. This subject Completas. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu, 1979. distances itself from the group and retreats into its in- terior solitude, to the space that creates difference and Freud, S. (1929). El malestar en la cultura. Obras the time of freedom, though it is impossible for it not Completas. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu, 1979. to enter into conflict with society, which lives in the Fromm, E. (1932). Méthode et tâche d'une psychoso- past. The subject goes beyond her, with her customs ciologie analytique. Hermès 5-6, 1989, 301-313. and traditions. The drama of the subject is that it must confront the past through a society that does not pass, Deleuze, G., & Guattari, F. (1972). El Anti Edipo: ca- but that sustains itself through its rites and fears, its pitalismo y esquizofrenia. Paidós Ibérica, 2004. way of being and enduring, of returning and embrac- Deleuze, G., & Guattari, F. (1980). Mil mesetas. Bar- ing its ancient masters. celona: Pre-textos, 2004 However, thanks to the thought and practice of Kundera, M. (1981). The book of laughter and forget- Freudo-Marxism, there emerge social demands and ting. New York: Penguin. struggles that gestate reforms that socially humanize capitalism. These changes make possible diverse in- La Boétie, E. (1576). Discours de la servitude volon- quiries into subjective life, that before this movement taire. Paris: Mille et une nuits, 1995. were excluded from social and political discourse. Laurent, E. (1986). Mission Sexpol. Ornicar? 35, Freudo-Marxism, with its program of sexual and po- 125-132. litical liberation, is in the constitutions of all modern states and is gradually making inroads into those of Marcuse, H. (1955). Eros y civilización. Barcelona: Latin American countries as well. Ariel, 1984. Pommier, G. (1987). Freud ¿apolítico? Buenos Ai- res: Nueva Visión. References Reich, W. (1934). Materialismo dialéctico y psicoa- Althusser, L. (1965). Écrits sur la psychanalyse: nálisis. México: Siglo XXI, 1989. Freud et Lacan. Paris: Stock, 1993. Schopenhauer, A. (1819). The world as will and rep- Bernfeld, S. (1926). Socialismo y psicoanálisis. In resentation. New York: Courier Dover Publica- Marxismo, psicoanálisis y sexpol. Buenos Aires: tions, 2012. Granica, 1972. Suárez, A. (1995). Freudomarxismo: pasado and pre- Fenichel, O. (1934). Sobre el psicoanálisis como em- sente. In Armando Suárez (Comp.), Razón,lo- brión de una futura psicología dialéctico-mate- cura and sociedad. Mexico: Siglo XXI, 1995. rialista In Marxismo, psicoanálisis y sexpol. Buenos Aires: Granica, 1972. Tort, M. (1970). La psychanalyse dans le matéria- lisme historique. Nouvelle revue de psycha- Freud, S. (1900). La interpretación de los sueños. nalyse 1, 146-166. Obras completas. Buenos Aires: Amorrortu, 1979. Trías, E. (2001). Ciudad sobre ciudad. Madrid: Des- tino. Freud, S. (1921). Psicología de las masas y análisis del yo. Obras Completas. Buenos Aires: Amor- Zambrano, M. (1958). Persona y democracia: la his- rortu, 1979. toria sacrificial. Madrid: Anthropos, 1988.