In Intercultural Academic Contexts in America To- Day

Home , Arturo Alfonso Schomburg, Gregorio Cortez, Jim Acosta, Mercedes de Acosta, Oscar Zeta Acosta

n intercultural academic contexts in America to- dices, which invariably spread to the terminology used: day, from small private colleges to large universi- peaceful, righteous (English) settlers vs. bloodthirsty, Ities, a question about the origin of the dollar rapacious conquistadors (knights, soldiers, and sign—this most iconic emblem of U.S. currency—will explorers from the Spanish and Portuguese empires). likely provoke collective shrugs and head-scratching. Henry VIII married his Spanish sister-in-law “What is the meaning of an S with a bar through it, Catherine of Aragon and thought he drew the wrath and how does this symbol relate to the word dollar?” of God upon his offspring. By divorcing Catherine The answer is that the dollar sign is a symbol for the and deeply offending her nephew Charles V of Spain, Spanish peseta, one of the few legal currencies ac- Henry struck a fissure into Christendom, resulting in cepted in colonial America. Other questions along this line include: “Why is there a colonial building (the Pontalba) with a Spanish name in the French Quarter of New Orleans? Why is the shape and style of homes in the Quarter of Spanish design? Why does the Quarter have a market on one side and a Cathe- dral facing the river, a typical Spanish arrangement?” The answer to all these questions is that the so-called French Quarter was built by Spaniards. But perhaps the most important question of all is, “Why are Ameri- cans so uninformed about the Spanish heritage of the United States?” Most Americans embrace a foundational myth about Protestant English settlers fleeing religious per- secution and landing on the shores of an almost pris- tine wilderness where amiable natives shared their food and taught grateful settlers how to farm the land. Typical American history courses teach mostly about the English colonies and their expansion into (empty) territories, spurred by Manifest Destiny and “pioneer spirit.” Even in recent textbooks, where discussion of indigenous peoples and the destruction of their cultures appear, the role that Spain took in the formation of the American identity—understood as U.S. identity—is rarely and ineffectively conceded. “History is written by the victors,” said both Winston Churchill and Niccolo Macchiavelli, and it is certainly true of U.S. history taught in K-12. This imbalance is the result of a cultural myopia inherited through both language and law, which privi- leges English as a language and a people, over the Spanish language and the people who speak it, in the way the mythologies of the United States are framed. Due to the deep-seated animosity toward Spain and its religion held by the English monarchs, English-speaking colonists unquestionably adopted similar preju- King Henry VIII (Wikimedia Commons)

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centuries of war and conflict between England and Spain, not only on the Continent, but in the Colonies, a trauma that still manifests itself in an Anglocentric (even Francocentric) version of American history. The “Black Legend”—historiographical prejudice against Spanish and Catholic culture—is the result of a confluence of factors—including works by English Jesuit Thomas Gage, and the English translation of Bartolomé de Las Casas’ Short History of the Destruction of the Indies. Las Casas, in defending the bodies and souls of Natives in the Caribbean to Charles V, argued that the Natives were humans, and so deserved hu- mane treatment, but in doing so he etched a portrait of the Spanish conquerors as beasts of war in danger of mortal sin by burning and torturing Native bodies. His description, pungent in its excess, accurate or not, Pontalba Buildings, New Orleans (Paolo Zampella via Wikimedia flung fuel onto the flames of anti-Spanish sentiment Commons) in sixteenth-century England that continued into Las Casas’ work further fanned the flames of nineteenth-century United States. Republished at an Hispanophobia just as the Spanish-American war ig- opportune moment in the late nineteenth century, nited. Partnered with this political antagonism then, is an anti-Catholic bias and suspicion that the Catholic faith is promulgated by the most vicious and hedon- istic of all men. Back in New Orleans, the Pontalba building was designed by Micaela, baroness of Pontalba, daughter of Don Andrés Almonester y Roxas, a Spanish civil servant and benefactor who also restored the cabildo (Spanish for civil government building) and the St. Louis Cathe- dral in Jackson Square—all the result of Spanish city planning and engineering during the Spanish forty- year tenure of New Orleans and Louisiana. But because of the English preference for all things French, and animosity towards all things Spanish, we only stumble over Spanish traces and see mostly the French in a city designed by Spanish colonial engineers according to the traditional Spanish traza—checker- board street design—with a church at the head of the square, flanked by the cabildo and the market. Although those traces of Spanish presence in the United States were erased intentionally by our Anglo- phile forbears, we are now able to reconstruct a more accurate origin story by including more characters in the history of the formation of the American identity. Conquistadors arrived in North America with the landing of Christopher Columbus on Hispaniola in 1492, and quickly followed into Cuba, Puerto Rico, Bartolomé de las Casas (Wikimedia Commons) and elsewhere in North America before the expedi-

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Elizabeth Acevedo graduating from college and joining the 2010 Teach for America Corps. Her students, who were about 80 American poet and performer percent Latino and 20 percent Black, asked her why Acevedo is an award-winning Young Adult writer, teacher, none of the characters in the books there were re- poet-performer, and National Poetry Slam champion. quired to read looked like them or shared similar life Latino heritage: Dominican experiences. They cited this as one of the reasons they Born: New York, New York felt disincentivized to read. Moreover, even though Areas of achievement: Literature; poetry; teaching the student population was Latino and African Ameri- can, Acevedo was the first Latina teacher to impart a EARLY LIFE core subject. This led Acevedo, who identifies as Elizabeth Acevedo (Ah-ceh-VEH-doh), was born in Afro-Latina, to realize that she could write such Morningside Heights, New York City, to Dominican- books. From that, she created her first character, born parents. She was the only girl among her sib- Xiomara Batista, an Afro-Latina girl growing up in lings and her mother, a devout Catholic, reared her Harlem and torn between her family’s expectations, close to Church teachings. When she was around religious teachings, and her desire to be a Poetry Slam twelve years old, Elizabeth began to compose rap lyr- artist. ics that reflected her family life and the Afro-Carib- bean and Latino culture of her neighborhood life. LIFE’S WORK She soon moved to poetry because, she said, it gave Acevedo has long been involved in the Slam Poetry her greater expressive freedom, as it was less movement. She is a Grand Slam champion as well as a restrictive than rap. former head coach for the D.C. Youth Slam Team. Acevedo attended the Beacon School, a college-ac- She has also performed at the Aspen Institute, Madi- ademic prep school that focuses on excellence, lo- son Square Garden, Lincoln Center, the Kennedy cated in the Hell’s Kitchen area of New York City. At Center of the Performing Arts and performed in Beacon, Acevedo was recruited by English teacher Ab- Brussels, Kosovo and South Africa. She has delivered igail Lubin to join the poetry club. She competed, at fourteen of age, on her first poetry slam at the Nuyorican Poets Café. From there, she proceeded to participate in open mic events in the city, including storied venues as the Bowery Poetry Club and Urban Word NYC. Acevedo attended George Washington University where she earned a bachelor of arts degree in performing arts and earned a master of fine arts degree in creative writing at the University of Maryland. She also worked as an adjunct professor for bachelor-level creative writing courses and as an English teacher in public middle schools. A major turning point in Acevedo’s life was teaching eighth grade in Prince George’s County, after Elizabeth Acevedo (Avery Jensen via Wikimedia Commons)

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several TEDX Talks in order to speak about inequal- migrants in general. Her fiction and poetry, which ity and using poetry to confront inequality, racism mirror her own life, have received much praise from and violence against women. Acevedo’s work has been readers and writers of color, who claim that Acevedo’s featured in mainstream and online magazines, in- books make them feel seen and heard. cluding Latina, Cosmopolitan, and The Huffington Post, —Trudy Mercadal among others. She is also the author of four books. The poetry col- Further Reading lection Beastgirl and Other Origin Myths (2016), written De León, Concepción. “Caught Between Worlds? For Eliz- abeth Acevedo, It’s a Familiar Feeling.” NYTimes.com, over several years, centers on the experiences of first- May 4, 2020. generation Caribbean American women. The Poet X https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/04/books/eliza- (2018), which was a New York Times Best seller, won beth-acevedo-clap-when-you-land-poet-x.html. An au- the 2018 Boston Globe-Horn Book Award, the Walter thor profile and book review on the publication of Dean Myers Award for Outstanding Children’s Litera- Acevedo’s fourth novel, Clap When You Land. ture, the Pura Belpré Award, and the Michael L. Prinz Girgis, Hannah. “Elizabeth Acevedo’s Work Is a Welcome Award. It was also a finalist for the Kirkus Prize, and Rarity in Young-Adult Fiction.” Atlantic.com, May 21, was translated into Spanish in 2019. Her novel Clap 2019. https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/ar- When You Land (2020) is based on true events: the after- chive/2019/05/elizabeth-acevedo-future-young-adult-fiction/589318. A profile of the author and a review of her math of an American Airlines flight bound for the Do- work. minican Republic that crashed in Queens in 2011, and Public Broadcasting Service. “Brief but Spectacular: This the heavy impact this tragedy had on the local Domini- Poet Wants Brown Girls to Know They’re Worthy of Be- can community. In Clap When You Land, Acevedo re- ing the Hero.” PBS.org, March 3, 2018. turns to her poetic roots, and writes about two sisters, https://www.pbs.org/newshour/brief/243971/elizabeth- one who lives humbly in rural Dominican Republic, acevedo. A video and transcript of Acevedo reciting a and the other who lives in New York. The book has poem and explaining her views on being a writer, not been praised for its realistic depiction of the inequities seeing herself as a main character while growing up, and fragmentation of immigrant life and families. and her views on social movements such as #MeToo and #TimesUp. Acevedo’s poetry has appeared in many prestigious Urayoan, Noel. In Visible Movement: Nuyorican Poetry from publications, including Poetry and The Notre Dame Re- the Sixties to Slam. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, view,amongothers,aswellasinmanyanthologies,such 2014. An eminent history of the Afro-Caribbean perfor- as Because I Was A Girl: True Stories of Girls of All Ages mance cultures and the historic Café slam scene up to (2017), Women of Resistance: Poems for a New Feminism the early 2000’s. Provides a solid context to Acevedo’s (2018), and Woke: A Young Poet’s Call to Justice (2020). performance art. Acevedo is best known as a poetry slam performer, and her most popular spoken-word performances include “Hair,” “Bittersweet Love Poem,” and “Beloved or If You Are Murdered Tomorrow”; the latter about José Aceves the murder of African American men by police officers. Mexican-born artist She also runs workshops with incarcerated women and Aceves was a leading member of the El Paso art community teenagers in Washington, D.C. Among her many known for his public murals and colorful paintings of awards, Acevedo received the Carnegie Medal, being desert landscapes and themes from frontier history. the first writer of color to receive the award. Latino heritage: Mexican SIGNIFICANCE Born: December 22, 1909; Chihuahua, Mexico Acevedo presents perspectives seldom depicted in Died: August 13, 1968; El Paso, Texas popular American literature. Her work, as well, repre- Area of achievement: Art sents many storytelling traditions, from urban rap to Dominican lore. Her books refute many stereotypes associated with Dominicans and with Caribbean im-

2 Great Lives from History: Latinos Aceves, José

EARLY LIFE shown. That year, he also completed a study for a mu- José Aceves (ah-SEH-vehs) was born in Chihuahua, ral depicting stagecoach travel titled Westward Ho. Mexico, on December 22, 1901. He and his family im- Aceves’s work next was exhibited from June 6 to No- migrated to the United States in 1915 to avoid the tur- vember 29, 1936, at the Texas Centennial Exposition bulence of the Mexican Revolution. One of ten in Dallas. He painted a series of murals depicting the children, he attended public school in El Paso. There, history of Mexico, which was displayed in the show he discovered a natural talent for drawing. While windows of a central El Paso business, and two murals learning to draw and paint, he won several art prizes showing horsemen at sunset, burros, and Mexican fig- in his school; his preferred subjects were landscapes ures in a landscape of sandhills for the headquarters and themes from Western history. of the El Paso del Norte Arts and Crafts Guild To further his training, Aceves went to the home of In July, 1938, Aceves was asked by Edward Rowan, the established landscape painter Audley Dean Nicols assistant chief of the Section of Painting and Sculp- (who had come to El Paso for his health in 1919) and ture, to design a mural for the post office at Borger, asked him questions about his work. Nicols recog- Texas. Aceves’s design was accepted in August, 1938, nized Aceves’s talent and became his professional and he was given 180 days to complete the work. He mentor, informally teaching the younger artist color selected the theme of the importance of mail delivery techniques as well as the practical aspects of art. The in a small town; the resulting mural, Big City News, two often went out to the desert to paint, creating dis- completed in early 1939, depicts Borger’s early tinctive and vivid compositions. Another local artist wooden buildings and citizens’ excitement at arriving and illustrator, Tom Lea, also served as a source of mail. A second mural for the post office in Mart, critical assessment and influence on Aceves’s growth. Texas, McLennan Looking for a Home (1939), depicted By 1930, Aceves had developed his own artistic style, the arrival of the founder of the county and his family. beginning a career marked by the interweaving of Aceves’s experience with these projects helped him themes from his Hispanic heritage and images from win a mural commission from the Banco Commercial the visual language of the American West. in Chihuahua, Mexico. This mural, La nueva industria de la ganadería en el estado de Chihuahua (1940), depicts LIFE’S WORK the founding of the Chihuahua livestock industry. He In 1937, Aceves was one of a group of seven Texas also created two detailed color studies for murals de- muralists hired by the Treasury Department’s Section picting the capture and abuse of native leaders by the of Painting and Sculpture (created in October, 1934) conquistadors. to decorate public buildings with works of art empha- When World War II began, Aceves enlisted in the sizing characters and events from pioneer history. U.S. Navy and served three years, working as an illus- The program—part of President Franklin D. Roose- trator. After the war he used his G.I. Bill benefits to at- velt’s New Deal—was created by painter George tend El Paso Technical College and then the American Biddle, who believed that supporting the work of art- Academy of Art in Chicago. Upon graduation, he re- ists was just as vital to society as supporting tradesmen turned to El Paso and created a mural and ten paint- or farmers. His inspiration was a similar program im- ings for the Hotel Paso del Norte in El Paso, fulfilling a plemented successfully by the Mexican government prewar commission. Aceves died on August 13, 1968, during the 1920’s. and was buried in the Fort Bliss National Cemetery. Prior to the creation of the Section of Painting and Sculpture, Aceves had become part of a group of art- SIGNIFICANCE ists working in El Paso who were interested in promot- Aceves was one of the first Latino painters to reinter- ing the production and sale of handmade artworks pret the standard landscape form of nineteenth cen- historically associated with Mexican life on the fron- tury paintings of the American West into a direct and tier. In 1934, an exhibition of their work was held at vivid vehicle for the transmission and preservation of the Hotel Paso del Norte. One year later, the Club traditional cultures of the Southwest. The historical Femenil in El Paso held a second art exhibition, from themes of his government-commissioned murals de- November 23 to 28, 1935, in which Aceves’s work was pict important events in the daily life of the frontier

3 Acosta, Daniel Great Lives from History: Latinos

and reflect the heritage of the region. His work also Acosta spent two years in the United States Army as depicted and celebrated the Hispanic past of the a pharmacist before becoming a research assistant in Southwest. the Department of Pharmacology/Toxicology at the —Robert B. Ridinger University of Kansas in 1972. He subsequently earned his doctorate from the same program in 1974. Acosta Further Reading received a National Science Foundation Traineeship Gonzales, Manuel G. Mexicanos: A History of Mexicans in the while there as well. United States. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999. Discusses Aceves’s work in the context of Mexican LIFE’S WORK and Mexican American art and mural traditions. After finishing his training in 1974, Acosta accepted a Parisi, Philip. The Texas Post Office Murals: Art for the People. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2004. The position as assistant professor of pharmacology and only extant history of the massive artistic project carried toxicology through the College of Pharmacy at the out in Texas during the 1930’s under the aegis of the University of Texas at Austin. He completed further New Deal. Aceves’s murals in Borger and Mart are postgraduate studies through a Ford Foundation shown in full color with details on the process of their Postdoctoral Fellowship from the National Chicano creation. Council on Higher Education in 1978-1979. Acosta Price, Carol Ann. Early El Paso Artists. El Paso: Texas West- was promoted to associate professor in 1979 and full ern Press, 1983. Useful resource on the history of the professor in 1983. He remained on the university’s city’s artistic community. faculty for a total of twenty-two years. Acosta also con- See also: José Antonio Burciaga; Leo Tanguma; Jesse currently served as associate head of the department Treviño. and head of the biochemical toxicology drug dynam- ics program from 1985 to 1996. He became director of the toxicology training program in 1990. During his tenure at the school, Acosta served as the first Daniel Acosta director of a nationally ranked program of toxicology. American pharmacist and researcher In 1996, Acosta was named dean of the College of Acosta is a pharmacist who researches drug toxicity, specifi- Pharmacy at the University of Cincinnati. The ap- cally of the cardiovascular system, through cell cultures. He pointment made him the first Hispanic dean at the is the first Hispanic dean of the University of Cincinnati university and the first Hispanic dean of any national and the first Hispanic dean of any national research-focused research-focused pharmacology school. In 2000, pharmacology school. Acosta created a four-year pharmacy doctoral program and a master of science program in drug devel- Latino heritage: Mexican opment. He also has led international pharmacy Born: March 25, 1945; El Paso, Texas courses in Dubai and Abu Dhabi and was chair of Also known as: Daniel Acosta, Jr. three international panels that reviewed pharmacy Areas of achievement: Science and technology; curriculums in the United Arab Emirates. medicine; education Acosta researches drug toxicity, specifically with regard to the liver and cardiovascular systems. His lab EARLY LIFE uses cell cultures as model systems for drug toxicity in Daniel Acosta, Jr. (ah-CAHS-tah) was born in El Paso, order to reduce the need for animal testing and has Texas, on March 25, 1945. He completed his second- created in vitro cell cultures for many organs, includ- ary education at Austin High School and majored in ing the heart, kidney, liver, eyes, and skin. Acosta has pre-pharmacy at the University of Texas at El Paso published his research extensively in scientific jour- (1963-1965) before transferring to the University of nals. By 2011, he had published more than 125 Texas at Austin to complete a bachelor of science de- peer-reviewed articles and 30 book chapters and had gree in pharmacy. He graduated first in his class in edited three textbooks. Acosta also is editor of the 1968. journal Toxicology in Vitro and associate editor of the journal In Vitro Cellular and Developmental Biology.

4 Great Lives from History: Latinos Acosta, Jim

Acosta has received several awards and honors, in- Further Reading cluding the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufactur- Acosta, Daniel, ed. Cardiovascular Toxicology. 4th ed. ers of America Foundation’s Excellence of Pharmacol- Cincinnati, Ohio: University of Cincinnati, 2008. This ogy/Toxicology Award (2006) and the Society of Toxi- textbook, edited by Acosta, is highly regarded in the pharmacology world as an essential source for toxicol- cology’s Enhancement of Animal Welfare Award ogy information. (2005). He was named Colgate Palmolive Visiting Pro- ———. “An Introduction to Toxicology and Its Methodol- fessor in In Vitro Toxicology (1996-1997) and the Bur- ogies.” In An Introduction to Toxicology and Its Methodolo- roughs Welcome Toxicology Scholar (1986-1991). gies, in Computational Toxicology: Risk Assessment for Acosta has served on several professional boards and Pharmaceutical and Environmental Chemicals, edited by S. committees as well; he was named president of the In- Ekins. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons, 2006. ternational Union of Toxicology in 2010, was a mem- Acosta’s chapter serves as the background for basic un- ber of the Committee on Toxicology Testing and derstanding of the field of toxicology. Assessment of Environmental Agents for the National Flannery, Michael A., and Dennis B. Worthen. Pharmaceu- tical Education in the Queen City: 150 Years of Service Academy of Sciences (2007-2008), chaired the Federal 1850-2000. Binghamton, N.Y.: Haworth Press, 2001. Drug Administration (FDA) Scientific Advisory Board Details Acosta’s role in creating new master’s degree and for the National Center for Toxicology Research doctorate programs for pharmacy students. (2003-2007), is a past president of the Society of Toxi- Krewski, D., et al. “Toxicity Testing in the Twenty-first cology (2000-2001), and was a member of the Expert Century: A Vision and a Strategy.” Journal of Toxicology Committee on Toxicology and Biocompatibility of the and Environmental Health. Part B, Critical Reviews 13, nos. United States Pharmacopoeia (2000-2005). Acosta 2-4. (February, 2010): 51-138. Implications and recom- served as dean of the University of Cincinnati’s James mendations for the future of the toxicology field based L. Winkle College of Pharmacy from 1996 to 2011 and, on the hallmark report by the National Academy of Sciences in 2007. during his tenure, annual external grant funding in- Whitman, Sylvia. “Hazards of Cures.” The Alcalde 76, no. 4 creased from $350,000 to close to $3,500,000. Acosta (March/April, 1988): 11. Description of Acosta’s labora- was the first Hispanic president of the Society of Toxi- tory research on cell cultures in drug toxicology. cology. He also is a consultant to the Minority Biomed- ical Support Program of the National Institutes of See also: Richard Henry Carmona; Jose Alberto Health. Acosta remains active in pharmacy and Fernandez-Pol; Antonia Novello. scientific organizations, and in toxicology research. Acosta and his wife, Pat, have three daughters.

SIGNIFICANCE Jim Acosta Acosta’s research is not only scientifically significant American journalist and correspondent but also ethically important, as he continues to find Acosta is a broadcaster and political journalist as well as a methods of researching drug toxicity that do not re- foremost White House correspondent. quire the use of animals as test subjects. His ground- breaking work with cell cultures has led the field of Latino heritage: Cuban research to shift gears and follow his lead, as evi- Born: April 17, 1971; Washington, D.C. denced by the recommendations of the National Also known as: Abilio James Acosta Academy of Sciences report of 2007 on toxicity testing Areas of achievement: Journalism; radio and in the twenty-first century. He is a role model for the television Hispanic community; through several publicly and privately awarded grants Acosta had mentored mi- EARLY LIFE nority high school, undergraduate, and graduate stu- James (Jim) Acosta’s father was a Cuban immigrant dents and encouraged them to enter the fields of who arrived in the Unites States as a refugee when he medical research and pharmacology. was eleven years old and settled in Virginia. His —Janet Ober Berman; updated by Trudy Mercadal mother was of German and Czech ancestry. His parents divorced when he was five years old and he was

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raised by his mother, who worked in restaurants. His tute anchor for CBS Newspath. He became a CBS news father worked in supermarkets. Acosta is proud of his correspondent in 2003, contributing primarily to CBS origins and has stated that his family and he are not Evening News. strangers to hard work. During his time at James Madison University, Acosta attended the Annandale High School in Vir- Acosta met Sharon Mobley Stow. They got married in ginia, where he volunteered for the student-run radio 1994. In 2017, they separated after twenty-four years station. Annandale High School has long been recog- of marriage. They have three children. nized for its high level of racial and cultural diversity. In 1993, Acosta graduated summa cum laude from LIFE’S WORK James Madison University with a bachelor’s degree in At CBS news, Acosta covered the Northeastern black- mass communication and a minor in political science. out of 2003, the 2004 campaign of Democratic presi- After President Barack Obama lifted travel restric- dential candidate John Kerry, the Iraq War from tions to Cuba, Acosta traveled there to trace his fa- Baghdad, and Hurricane Katrina, among other na- ther’s roots. In 1994, after graduation, Acosta worked tionwide and international news. Acosta joined CNN with WMAL in Washington, D.C. From 1995 to 1998, in 2007 and covered the 2008 presidential campaigns he was a reporter and substitute anchor for WBIR-TV, of Democratic candidates Barack Obama and Hillary and from 1998 to 2000, a reporter for KTVT-TV. Clinton and, later, the presidential race between From 2000 to 2001, he was also reporter and substi- Barack Obama and Republican Senator John McCain. In this role, Acosta appeared repeatedly on CNN’s weekend political ticker program, Ballot Bowl. Acosta later joined CNN’s American Morning program, a morning television news program which ran from 2001 to 2011, as a correspondent. He also contrib- uted to CNN’s coverage of the 2010 midterm elections, during President Obama’s first term, in which Republicans won the majority in the House of Representatives. In 2012, Acosta was promoted to CNN national political correspondent. As such, Acosta was the network’s lead correspondent covering the 2012 political campaign of Republican candidate Mitt Romney. As national political correspondent throughout CNN’s “America’s Choice 2012” electoral coverage, he was embedded with the GOP candidate as he traveled through key electoral states and other countries such as Israel, the U.K., and Poland. Acosta was then promoted to senior White House correspondent for CNN. In a 2015 news conference televised nationwide, Acosta challenged President Obama’s strategy against the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) ter- rorist organization, famously asking the president, “Why can’t we take out those bastards?” In 2016, when the Obama administration lifted travel restrictions to Cuba, Acosta traveled to Havana to cover President Obama’s trip to that nation. In 2017, at President Donald Trump’s first news conference, Acosta tried to question him on alleged Jim Acosta (Gage Skidmore via Wikimedia Commons) Russian interference in American politics. Trump

6 Great Lives from History: Latinos Acosta, Jim

avoided the question and denounced Acosta and cluding that reporters will ask a single question and CNN as “fake news.” At another White House press then yield the floor to other journalists and that fol- conference that year, Acosta got into a heated debate low-up questions will be allowed at the discretion of with senior policy advisor Stephen Miller over the the president or other White House officials taking Trump Administration’s support for the Reforming questions. Nevertheless, the resolution of the case was American Immigration for Strong Employment seen by many as a victory for free speech. (RAISE) act of 2017. The bill did not receive a vote in Acosta wrote about the White House press confer- the Senate and a similar bill was defeated in 2018. ence incident and the following lawsuit in his 2019 In 2018, Acosta was promoted to chief White House book, The Enemy of the People: A Dangerous Time to Tell correspondent. In that role, Acosta also engaged in the Truth in America. In 2020, President Trump contin- heated arguments with Press Secretary Sarah ued to berate Acosta during press conferences per- Huckabee Sanders and President Trump during taining to alleged Russian interference in the United White House press conferences, following the mid- States political sphere and Trump’s handling of the term elections, after Acosta asked questions about COVID-19 pandemic, among other questions by Trump’s public comments regarding immigration. Acosta. Many of these confrontations between Acosta After an incident in which a White House staffer and the Trump administration’s White House offi- touched Acosta while trying to snatch his microphone cials have received ample coverage from international from him, Acosta’s press pass and U.S. Secret Service news, some of which have called Acosta “Trump’s security credentials to enter the White House—known ‘Bête Noire.’” He has also been criticized, however, as a “hard pass”—were suspended. CNN issued a for overly aggressive questioning, interrupting and statement in support of Acosta. even “mansplaining” to female White House officers. On November 2018, CNN and Acosta filed a civil In 2020, some news outlets published that CNN suit in the U.S. District Court for the District of Co- had assigned bodyguards to Jim Acosta when he cov- lumbia against President Donald Trump, White ered hostile Trump rallies during the 2018 midterm House Chief of Staff John Kelly, Press Secretary Sarah elections. Currently, Acosta has also become a circuit Huckabee Sanders, and other White House officials. speaker on the topic of freedom of the press and The CNN lawsuit was based upon the U.S. Supreme politics. Court Decision New York Times v. Sullivan (1964), which establishes the widest protections for free SIGNIFICANCE speech. There were amicus briefs filed in support of Jim Acosta’s legal brief stated his belief that the White CNN’s case from a wide array of journalist organiza- House’s suspension of his “hard pass” was meant to tions. On the other hand, the U.S. Department of Jus- send a warning to other journalists, especially White tice filed a brief stating that First Amendment rights House correspondents, to intimidate them from ask- do not restrict the president’s right to determine the ing tough questions and writing critical reportage of terms on which he does, or does not, interact with the administration. CNN stated that, while this spe- journalists. cific instance occurred to a CNN correspondent, it The case was heard by Judge Timothy Kelly, a could happen to other reporters, as President Trump Trump appointee to the District Court for the District had already threatened to do so, which would in turn of Columbia. On November 9, President Trump said create a potentially chilling effect on political news that he might revoke the press credentials of other re- coverage. The case, then, was followed with close at- porters, too. On November 16, Judge Kelly ordered tention nationwide, and the fact that Acosta contin- Acosta’s press and security credentials temporarily re- ued to ask hard-line questions at presidential press stored, due to the possibility that Acosta’s due process conferences placed him at the forefront of political rights may have been violated. The court did not ad- coverage and journalistic integrity. dress the suit’s arguments concerning the First —Trudy Mercadal Amendment. In the end, CNN dropped the lawsuit after the White House, following court orders, restored Acosta’s press credentials with conditions, in-

7 Acosta, Mercedes de Great Lives from History: Latinos

Further Reading EARLY LIFE Haslett, Cheyenne. “White House Drops Effort to Suspend Mercedes de Acosta (mur-SAY-deez dee ah-COS-tah) Press Pass for CNN’s Jim Acosta; Outlines Rules to Re- was the youngest of eight children born to a Cuban fa- porters.” ABCnews.com, November 19, 2018. ther and a Spanish mother. Acosta was proud of her https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/white-house-jim-acostas- heritage and emphasizes in her memoir that both press-pass-cnn-seeks/story?id=59291734. Acosta’s pass was temporarily restored by a federal judge’s ruling. sides of her family had Castilian lineage. Acosta’s fa- Press officials take a hard line about new rules for White ther, Ricardo, was born in Cuba after his parents mi- House reporters. grated from Spain to establish a coffee plantation in Holzer, Harold. The Presidents vs. the Press: The Endless Bat- La Jagua. According to Acosta’s dramatic account, her tle between the White House and the Media—from the Found- father led an uprising against Spanish forces in Cuba, ing Fathers to Fake News. Boston: E.P. Dutton, 2020. escaped a firing squad, and ended up in the United Holzer, an award-winning historian, covers the tension States, where he met and married Micaela Hernandez that has always existed between presidents and journal- de Alba y de Alba, who had inherited a significant ists and chronicles the conflicts that have arisen in con- family fortune. This fortune allowed the Acostas to re- temporary America, including the disputes that occurred during the Trump presidency. side in New York City’s fashionable Park Avenue Karl, Jonathan. Front Row at the Trump Show. Boston: E.P. district. Dutton, 2020. Chief White House correspondent for Acosta’s sister, Rita Lydig, was a prominent social- ABC news Jonathan Karl chronicles the rise of the ite noted for her stunning beauty and innovative fash- Trump administration and the battles, tensions, and in- teractions between the presidential administration and the reporters who cover them. It provides a background and context to the Acosta event. Niemetz, Brianm. “CNN Assigned Bodyguards to Jim Acosta When He Covered Hostile Trump Rallies.” NYDailyNews.com, August 10, 2020. https://www.nydailynews.com/snyde/ny-cnn-jim-acosta- bodyguards-reporters-hostile-trump-rallies-20200810- kikqsr7tlzfu3eiuxljw3txr4u-story.html. Acosta comments on receiving death threats from Trump supporters and that CNN had to hire bodyguards for him to cover the 2018 midterm elections.

Mercedes de Acosta American writer Although Acosta’s fame predominantly rests on her intimate relationships with some of the most celebrated women in art, film, and theater, she had literary success in her own right by publishing her controversial autobiography, Here Lies the Heart (1960).

Latino heritage: Cuban and Spanish Born: March 1, 1893; New York, New York Died: May 9, 1968; New York, New York Areas of achievement: Theater; literature; poetry; screenwriting Mercedes de Acosta (Wikimedia Commons)

8 Great Lives from History: Latinos Acosta, Mercedes de

ion sense. She had her portrait painted by several famous artists of the time, including John Singer The Controversy Surrounding Sargeant. It was Rita who introduced Acosta to the Here Lies the Heart Modernist art circles in Paris that included Igor Stra- In 1960, at the age of sixty-seven, Mercedes de Acosta vinsky, Pablo Picasso, and Sarah Bernhardt. published her autobiography, Here Lies the Heart. While During World War I, Acosta was active in the Cen- the book makes no explicit reference to lesbianism, sorship Bureau and the Red Cross. She was a commit- many of those who were intimate with Acosta (Greta ted suffragette and fought for women’s right to vote. Garbo included) never spoke to her again after its ap- She admired Isadora Duncan’s attempt to liberate pearance. Eva Le Gallienne, who was never comfortable women from restricting corsets and other constricting with her own sexual orientation, supposedly referred to styles of clothing. Until the age of seven, Acosta the book as “Here the Heart Lies” as a way to distance thought she was a boy and referred to herself as “Ra- herself from Acosta. In spite of those who protested that phael.” This sexual ambiguity would be a source of Acosta had exaggerated the nature of their relationships, continued reflection and expression throughout her much of the information Acosta revealed has been sub- life. Acosta married Army captain and artist Abram stantiated through personal correspondence and testi- Poole in 1920 but insisted on keeping her maiden mony from various insiders. While she often has been name to retain her independence. While married, depicted as a predatory lesbian, there is ample evidence Acosta had passionate affairs with women, which she that Acosta also was pursued as an object of desire. De- chronicled in her autobiography. She and Poole di- spite some inaccuracies that Robert A. Schanke noted in vorced in 1935. Although Acosta was raised in a strict his biography of Acosta, Here Lies the Heart remains an Spanish-Catholic tradition, she developed an interest important chronicle of same-sex female relationships in Eastern spirituality that lasted the rest of her life. during the era before Stonewall. It was reprinted in the Her exploration included adopting vegetarianism mid-1970’s and enjoyed great success, giving Acosta a and traveling to India to meet Ramana Maharshi, a renewed popularity, albeit more for her love affairs than revered Hindu sage to whom her autobiography is for any of her literary accomplishments. dedicated.

LIFE’S WORK prominently in the 1933 film Queen Christina). While Early in her career, Acosta fell in love with the theater writing the screenplay for a film on the life of and tried her hand as a playwright. She wrote and Rasputin, Acosta was asked by Thalberg to include a produced two plays as vehicles for her then-lover, Eva scene that had no basis in historical fact. She refused Le Gallienne. Sandro Bottocelli (1923) premiered in and was fired. None of the screenplays Acosta wrote New York and Jehanne d’Arc (1925) premiered in during her time in Hollywood were produced. Paris, because Acosta wanted the play to open in her After publishing her memoirs in 1960, Acosta sold heroine’s own country. Jacob Slovak, a play about her letters, photographs, and other ephemera to the anti-Semitism, opened in 1927 to generally favorable Rosenbach Library and Museum in Philadelphia. Her reviews. Acosta also published three collections of po- letters from Garbo came with the stipulation that they etry—Moods: Prose Poems (1920), Archways of Life not be made public until ten years after the death of (1921), and Streets and Shadows (1922)—and two nov- the last surviving correspondent. The letters were re- els, Wind Chaff (1920) and Until the Day Break (1928). leased to the public in April, 2000, ten years after However, she was unable to achieve a successful ca- Garbo’s death, and disappointed observers who had reer as a poet and novelist. Critical reception to these hoped to find among them an explicit love letter from works was generally disappointing. Garbo to Acosta. Because Acosta moved in the various Acosta had a short-lived career in Hollywood in the artistic circles of Modernist thought in the United early 1930’s under the legendary producer Irving States and Europe, her correspondents made up a Thalberg. An idea for her lover Greta Garbo to ap- veritable who’s who of art, dance, film, literary, and pear in a film wearing boy’s clothes was quickly nixed theater worlds. (although Garbo’s androgyny would be featured

9 Acosta, Oscar Zeta Great Lives from History: Latinos

Nearly destitute at the end of her life, Acosta lived ———. Women in Turmoil: Six Plays by Mercedes de Acosta. in a small two-room apartment in New York City and Carbondale: Southern Illinois University, 2003. Pub- suffered from a variety of ailments. She felt snubbed lished as a companion work to the biography, Schanke, by former lovers and friends who never forgave her a professor of theater, rescued these plays from oblivion (only two were produced). A strong autobiographical for “outing” them in her autobiography. Acosta died thread runs through this collection as the female charac- in 1968 and is buried in Trinity Cemetery with her ters grapple with unfulfilling marriages and thwarted mother and sister. desires. Vickers, Hugo. Loving Garbo: The Story of Greta Garbo, Cecil SIGNIFICANCE Beaton, and Mercedes de Acosta. New York: Random Critics agree that Acosta never fulfilled her early House, 1994. Vickers, as Cecil Beaton’s official biogra- promise as a writer. Her greatest literary success came pher and literary executor, relies on extant letters to sit- with the publication of her memoir, Here Lies the Heart uate this unlikely triumvirate of complicated and (1960), which received enthusiastic reviews although frustrating relationships. it cost her dearly in terms of her relationships. See also: Gloria Anzaldúa; Ana Castillo; Denise Chávez; Acosta’s reputation today primarily rests on the sensa- Cherríe Moraga; Sara Estela Ramírez. tionalism of the celebrity women she bedded, rather than her broader role in advancing the cause of women’s rights. Her forthrightness about her lifestyle during a time when the stigma of lesbianism was so Oscar Zeta Acosta pervasive is truly remarkable. American writer, lawyer, and activist Her striking fashion sense (she favored capes, Acosta was one of the most significant figures of the Chi- tricorn hats, and silver-buckled shoes) earned her the cano movement in the late 1960’s and early 1970’s. Along nickname “Black & White.” Acosta continues to in- with his work as a lawyer and political activist, Acosta pro- spire generations of artists and writers interested in duced two of the most important Chicano texts of the era: lesbian history. In a fitting tribute to Acosta’s aspira- The Autobiography of a Brown Buffalo (1972) and tions as a playwright and her cultural heritage, Odalys The Revolt of the Cockroach People (1973). Nanín, founder of Mujeres Advancing Culture His- tory and Art (MACHA), wrote and starred in Garbo’s Latino heritage: Mexican Cuban Lover (2001), a play chronicling Acosta’s tem- Born: April 8, 1935; El Paso, Texas pestuous relationship with the elusive Hollywood star. Disappeared: 1974; Mexico The Advocate magazine listed it among the ten best Also known as: Oscar Acosta; Brown Buffalo; plays of 2001. Buffalo Z. Brown; Zeta —Robin Imhof Areas of achievement: Literature; law; activism Further Reading EARLY LIFE Acosta, Mercedes de. Here Lies the Heart. New York: Wil- liam Morrow, 1960. Acosta’s famous and controversial Oscar Zeta Acosta (SEH-tah ah-COHS-tah) was born memoir. on April 8, 1935, in El Paso, Texas. His parents, Cohen, Lisa. “Fame Fatale.” Out 8, no. 4 (October, 1999): Manuel Mercado Acosta and Juana Fierro Acosta, 76. Lively account of Acosta’s life and loves from a ho- were born in Mexico and moved to El Paso before mosexual perspective. their son was born. In 1940, the Acosta family moved Schanke, Robert A. “That Furious Lesbian”: The Story of to Riverbank, a small town near Modesto in the Cen- Mercedes de Acosta. Carbondale: Southern Illinois Univer- tral Valley of California, where the family earned a liv- sity Press, 2003. Schanke’s scholarship calls into ques- ing by harvesting peaches. Acosta’s father, originally tion some of the claims made by Acosta in her from the Mexican state of Durango, earned his U.S. autobiography but nevertheless provides ample evidence that Acosta was much more than a mere seducer citizenship as a result of serving in the Navy during of famous women. World War II. Acosta describes Riverbank as a town with strict social divisions between Mexicans and

10 Chronological List of Entries

All persons appearing are the subjects of articles in Great Lives from History: Latinos. Arrange- ment is chronological on the basis of birth dates. Subjects of multiperson essays are listed separately.

1700-1849 Aurelio Herrera (June 17, 1876) Cleofas Martinez Jaramillo (December 6, 1878) Alexander Hamilton (January 11, 1755) Luisa Capetillo (October 28, 1879) Joseph Marion Hernández (May 26, 1788) Leo Carrillo (August 6, 1880) Antonio José Martínez (January 7, 1793) Sara Estela Ramírez (1881) José Antonio Navarro (February 27, 1795) William Carlos Williams (September 17, 1883) Gertrudis Barceló (c. 1800) José Méndez (March 19, 1887) Pío Pico (May 5, 1801) Harold Medina (February 16, 1888) David G. Farragut (July 5, 1801) Fernando E. Rodríguez Vargas (February 24, 1888) Juan Seguin (October 27, 1806) Dennis Chavez (April 8, 1888) Juan Bautista Alvarado (February 14, 1809) José Raúl Capablanca (November 19, 1888) Vicente Martinez Ybor (September 7, 1818) Evaristo Ribera Chevremont (February 16, 1890) Román Baldorioty de Castro (February 28, 1822) Pedro Albizu Campos (September 12, 1891 or June 29, 1893) Santos Benavides (November 1, 1823) Mabel Alvarez (November 28, 1891) Juan Cortina (May 16, 1824) Rafael Hernández (October 24, 1892) José Policarpo Rodríguez (January 26, 1829) Mercedes de Acosta (March 1, 1893) Joaquín Murieta (1830) Luis R. Esteves (April 30, 1893) Esteban Ochoa (March 17, 1831) Pedro del Valle (August 28, 1893) Francisco Oller (June 17, 1833) Fabiola Cabeza de Baca Gilbert (May 16, 1894) Ignacio Manuel Altamirano (November 13, 1834) Erasmo Vando (June 2, 1896) Tomás Estrada Palma (July 9, 1835) Juano Hernández (July 19, 1896) Tiburcio Vásquez (August 11, 1835) Carlos E. Castañeda (November 11, 1896) Eugenio María de Hostos (January 11, 1839) Felisa Rincón de Gautier (January 9, 1897) Loreta Janeta Velázquez (June 26, 1842) Luis Muñoz Marín (February 18, 1898) Lola Rodríguez de Tió (September 14, 1843) Alonso Perales (October 17, 1898) Ramón Novarro (February 6, 1899) Lydia Cabrera (May 20, 1899) 1850-1899

José Martí (January 28, 1853) 1900-1909 José Celso Barbosa (July 27, 1857) Luis Muñoz Rivera (July 17, 1859) Juan Tizol (January 22, 1900) Miguel Antonio Otero (October 17, 1859) Jesús Colón (January 20, 1901) Octaviano Larrazolo (December 7, 1859) Nicolás Guillén (July 10, 1902) Sandy Nava (April 12, 1860) Ángel Ramos (October 3, 1902) George Santayana (December 16, 1863) Jesús María Sanromá (November 7, 1902) Elfego Baca (February 10, 1865) Pura Belpré (February 2, 1903) José de Diego (April 16, 1866) Claudio Arrau (February 6, 1903) Aristídes Agramonte (June 3, 1868) Beatriz Noloesca (August 20, 1903) Julio Arce (January 9, 1870) Luis A. Ferré (February 17, 1904) Teresa Urrea (October 15, 1873) Clemente Soto Vélez (January 4, 1905) Arturo Alfonso Schomburg (January 24, 1874) Dolores del Río (August 3, 1905) Ricardo Flores Magón (September 16, 1874) Ernesto Galarza (August 15, 1905) Gregorio Cortez (June 22, 1875) Severo Ochoa (September 24, 1905) Gilbert Roland (December 11, 1905)

1115 Mediagraphy

This section includes films and television shows that portray Latino characters and stories. They are listed in alphabetical order under each category.

Films because it documents the last act of protest of Chávez, who was the leader of the Farmworkers Union Movement. Title: American Me The Chalice of Courage Date: 1992 Title: Director: Edward James Olmos Date: 1915 Summary: Fictionalized account of the Mexican Mafia in Director: Rollin S. Sturgeon the California prison system from the 1950s through the Summary: This feature-length silent film features Myrtle 1980s. Starring Olmos. Gonzalez, regarded as the first Latina actor in Hollywood. Chasing Papi Title: ...And the Earth Did Not Swallow Him Title: Date: 1995 Date: 2003 Director: Severo Pérez Director: Linda Mendoza Summary: Based on Tomás Rivera’s 1971 novel...Yno Summary: Womanizer Thomas Fuentes (Eduardo se lo tragó la tierra, this film depicts a migrant Mexican Verástegui) discovers his three Latina girlfriends are plot- American family. Starring Jose Alcala. ting revenge. Chop Shop Title: Blood In, Blood Out Title: Date: 1993 Date: 2007 Director: Taylor Hackford Director: Ramin Bahrani Summary: This film about poet Jimmy Santiago Baca de- Summary: This film is about Alejandro, a Latino orphan picts Chicano prison gangs in Los Angeles. Starring Jesse who lives with his sister in a junkyard on the fringes of Borrego and Benjamin Bratt. New York. Starring Alejandro Polanco. The Cisco Kid and the Lady Title: Born in East L.A. Title: Date: 1987 Date: 1939 Director: Cheech Marín Director: Herbert I. Leeds Summary: A Mexican American (Marín) is mistakenly de- Summary: Cisco (César Romero) rescues a child whose fa- ported to Mexico. ther has been killed by bandits. La ciudad (The City) Title: Cartel Land Title: Date: 2015 Date: 1998 Director: Matthew Heineman Director: David Riker Summary: A documentary focusing on the war on drugs Summary: Chronicles the lives of four Hispanic immi- and vigilante groups fighting drug cartels on both sides of grants living in New York City. Starring Anthony Rivera, the border. The film was nominated for an Academy Miguel Maldonado, and Joseph Rigano. Award for Best Documentary Film. Title: Coco Title: Cesar’s Last Fast Date: 2017 Date: 2014 Directors: Lee Unkrich and Adrian Molina Directors: Richard Ray Pérez and Lorena Parlee Summary: A computer-animated film produced by Pixar, Summary: The documentary is a slice of history: César the story follows a young pre-teen, Miguel, who is trans- Chávez’s famous hunger strike of 1988, which he staged to ported to the Land of the Dead. The film highlights the draw attention to the effects of unregulated pesticide use traditional Mexican Day of the Dead, and premiered at on farm workers and their families. The film is important the 2017 Morelia Film Festival. The colorful film won several awards and nominations, including two Academy

1121 Literary Works

The works listed below are categorized by genre and offer students and teachers alike some of the best resources for the study of literature by Latinos.

Essays and Nonfiction Cabrera, Lydia. El monte, 1968. Seminal work on the various forms of African religious belief and practice that persist Acosta, Mercedes de. Here Lies the Heart, 1960. Acosta’s con- among members of the Afro-Cuban community. troversial personal memoir which describes her passions ———. Yemayá y Ochún, 1974. An extremely significant so- and loves as an avowed lesbian. ciological study of two African goddesses, their cults in Ada, Alma Flor. Under the Royal Palms: A Childhood in Cuba, Cuba, and their influence on later devotion to the Virgin 1998. Stories from Ada’s experiences of growing up in Mary on the island. Camagüey, Cuba. Castañeda, Carlos. Journey to Ixtlán, 1972. Discussion of the Alegría, Fernando. Una especie de memoria, 1983. Recollec- way to truly “see” and appreciate the spiritual reality of tions of Alegría’s love of his native Chile through the the world. years of his childhood and youth and of the political up- ———. A Separate Reality, 1971. Continued spiritual discus- heaval that was raging in Chile at this time. sions with Don Juan Matus, as well as later reflections. Allende, Isabel. Paula, 1994 (English translation, 1995). A ———. The Teachings of Don Juan: A Yaqui Way of Knowledge, memoir and account of the sudden illness and death of 1968. The author’s experiences with Don Juan Matus, a Paula, Allende’s twenty-eight-year-old daughter. Yaqui Indian magic man, and the spiritual insights he ———. My Invented Country: A Nostalgic Journey Through gained through their conversations together. Chile. Harper, 2020. A memoir about her homeland, Cisneros, Sandra. A House of My Own: Stories from My Life, and her experience of nostalgia and exile. It speaks par- 2016. Cisneros’ award-winning memoir, shares essays ticularly to immigrants and the shared experience of and anecdotes of her life and the events that have trans- nostalgia for the home country. formed her. Anzaldúa, Gloria. This Bridge Called My Back, 1981. Colón, Jesús. A Puerto-Rican in New York, and Other Sketches, Anzaldúa wrote some of the forewords to this important 1961. Personal observations of Colón, a Puerto Rican, critical collection of essays about women- especially im- upon his arrival in New York in the first decades of the migrants-and their challenges in everyday life. twentieth century. Arenas, Reinaldo. Antes que anochezca, 1992 (Before Night Cotera, Martha P. The Chicana Feminist, 1977. A study of the Falls, 1993). Arenas’s autobiography. Chicana women’s movement that includes a historical Baca, Jimmy Santiago. A Place to Stand, 2001. Baca reflects survey and essays that discuss feminist political on his time in prison, his religious conversion, and his involvement. rehabilitation through education and writing. ———. Diosa y Hembra: The History and Heritage of Chicanas Baldorioty de Castro, Román. Memoria presentada a la in the U.S., 1976. One of the first works written by a Comisión Provincial de Puerto Rico, 1868. Baldorioty’s re- Chicana to call attention to the problem of machismo port to the Secretariat of Fairs and Expositions regard- and to celebrate the life and work of Chicanas. ing his representation of Puerto Rico at the Paris Cruz, Nicky. Run, Baby, Run, 1968. A memoir of Cruz’s Universal Exposition of 1867. struggles as a young Latino on the streets of New York, Behar, Ruth. .An Island Called Home: Returning to Jewish who fights against the lure of drugs and crime. Cuba, 2007. Behar examines what it meant to be Jewish ———. Soul Obsession, 2005. Account of Cruz’s religious in Cuba before Fidel Castro. She discusses her experi- conversion and the role of God in his personal transfor- ence of the Jewish community both in her native Cuba mation. and in Miami and New York after Castro’s rise to power. ———. The Devil Has No Mother: Why He Is Worse Than You Braschi, Giannina. Empire of Dreams, 1994. The writer ex- Think-But God Is Greater (2017). Autobiographical re- plores the contours of everyday life and views them count of Cruz on his experiences in evangelical ministry. through the lens of a complex modernity, exploring cul- Espada, Martín. Zapata’s Disciple, 1998. Essays with a strong turally sensitive issues, such as sexuality, alterity, and social-justice bent that explore some of the portrayals of gender roles. Latinos in American culture and urge a change of think-

1129 Organizations and Societies

Includes U.S.-based nonpolitical, nonsectarian organizations. Entries are arranged into three catego- ries: educational and cultural organizations, civic and social associations, and metasites for all types of Hispanic or Latino nationality groups. Entries within each category are arranged alphabetically.

Educational and Hispanic Association of Colleges and Universities Cultural Organizations (HACU), National Headquarters 8415 Datapoint Drive, Suite 400 American Association of Teachers of Spanish and San Antonio, TX 78229 Portuguese (AATSP), National Office Phone: (210) 692-3805 900 Ladd Road Fax: (210) 692-0823 Walled Lake, MI 48390 [email protected] Phone: (205) 506-0600 https://www.hacu.net/hacu/default.asp Fax: (205) 855-0600 HACU fulfills its mission by promoting the develop- [email protected] ment of member colleges and universities; improving ac- http://www.aatsp.org cess to and the quality of postsecondary educational AATSP promotes the study and teaching of the Spanish opportunities for Hispanic students; and meeting the and Portuguese languages and their corresponding His- needs of business, industry, and government through the panic, Luso-Brazilian, and other related literatures and development and sharing of resources, information, and cultures at all levels of education. AATSP encourages, sup- expertise. ports, and directs programs and research projects involv- ing the exchange of pedagogical and scholarly Hispanic Educational Technology Services (HETS) information. Through extensive collaboration with educa- Phone: (787) 250-1912, ext. 2372 (Yubelkys Montalvo, ex- tors, professionals, and institutions in other countries, ecutive director) AATSP contributes to a better and deeper understanding [email protected] between the United States and the Spanish-and http://www.hets.org Portuguese-speaking nations of the world. HETS is the first bilingual consortium dedicated to serving the higher education needs of the fast-growing The ASPIRA Association, National Office Hispanic communities. HETS provides its members with 1444 I Street, NW, Suite 800 the opportunity to participate in collaborative projects; to Washington, DC 20005 network with a culturally diverse community; to benefit Phone: (202) 759-5182 from services specifically tailored for students, faculty [email protected] members, academic leaders, and professionals; to access http://www.aspira.org useful online educational resources; to participate in spe- The ASPIRA Association promotes the empowerment of cial interest workshops and training sessions; and to the Puerto Rican and Latino communities by developing obtain input from experts in technology and online and nurturing the leadership, intellectual, and cultural po- education. tential of its youth so they may contribute their skills and dedication to the fullest development of Puerto Rican and Hispanic Scholarship Fund (HSF) Latino communities everywhere. 55 2nd Street, Suite 1500 San Francisco, CA 94105 Genealogical Society of Hispanic America (GSHA) Phone: (877) HSF-INFO P.O. Box 3534 [email protected] Pueblo, CO 81005-3040 http://www.hsf.net [email protected] HSF’s mission is to strengthen America by advancing https://www.gshaa.org the college education of Hispanic Americans. The fund The group offers a roster of Hispanic genealogy groups delivers a range of programs to Hispanic families and stu- and historical societies, as well as research help and dents through community outreach and education, resources.

1143 Research Centers and Libraries

These are U.S.-based libraries and research centers, including individual programs and consortia that have been designated a National Resource Center for Latin American Studies by the U.S. De- partment of Education’s International Education Programs Service. Internet sites providing access to extensive lists or detailed reference materials are provided under the headings “Metasites” and “Further Reading.”

Libraries and Research Centers Center for Latin American Studies (CLAS), University of California, Berkeley Center for Latin American Studies (CLAS), Ohio State 2334 Bowditch Street #2312 University Berkeley, CA 94720 309 Oxley Hall Phone: (510) 642-2088 1712 Neil Avenue Fax: (510) 642-3260 Columbus, OH 43210 [email protected] Phone: (614) 688-4285; 688-3963 http://clas.berkeley.edu Fax: (614) 292-4273 CLAS at UC Berkeley is a National Resource Center [email protected] dedicated to promoting research and community aware- http://clas.osu.edu ness about issues affecting Latin America. CLAS at Ohio State University has a primary mission of serving, facilitating, and stimulating the intellectual needs Center for Latin American Studies, University of Florida of the faculty and students involved in Latin American 319 Grinter Hall studies in order to foster cutting-edge instruction and re- PO Box 115530 search on Latin American languages, cultures, societies, Gainesville, FL 32611 histories, politics, economics, and the arts. Phone: (352) 392-0375 Fax: (352) 392-7682 Center for Latin American Studies (CLAS), Stanford [email protected] University http://www.latam.ufl.edu Bolivar House 582 Alvarado Row The center’s mission is to advance knowledge about Stanford, CA 94305 Latin America and the Caribbean and its peoples through- Phone: (650) 723-4444 out the hemisphere, as well as to enhance the scope and Fax: (650) 723-9822 quality of research, teaching, and outreach in Latin Ameri- [email protected] can, Caribbean, and Latino studies at the University of https://clas.stanford.edu Florida. The mission of the CLAS is to support research and teaching by the faculty and students of Stanford University Center for Latin American Studies, University of Kansas in all fields of study. 1440 Jayhawk Boulevard Suite 320 Center for Latin American Studies (CLAS), University of Lawrence, KS 66045-7574 Arizona Phone: (785) 864-4213 Marshall Building Suite 280 Fax: (785) 864-3800 University of Arizona Tucson, Arizona 85721-0158 [email protected] Phone: (520) 626-7242 https://latamst.ku.edu Fax: (520) 626-7248 The Center of Latin American Studies supports the [email protected] publication of the Latin American Theatre Review, a jour- https://las.arizona.edu nal dedicated to the scholarly study of dramatic perfor- CLAS at the University of Arizona hosts an out- stand- mance in Latin America. An annual newsletter, the Kansas ing faculty with particular strengths in Mexico, Brazil, en- Latin Americanist, highlights recent campus activities and vironmental studies, border studies, indigenous studies, faculty and student research on Latin America and also and women’s studies.

1147 Bibliography

This bibliography offers resources about Latinos, beginning with general reference and then arranged alphabetically by areas of achievement.

General Reference Johnson, E. Patrick; Rivera, Ramón H. Blacktino Queer Per- formance. Durham: Duke University Press, 2016. Benson, Sonia G., ed. Reference Library of Hispanic America. López Pulido, Alberto; Reyes, Rigoberto. San Diego 4 vols. Farmington Hills, Mich.: Gale Group, 2003. Lowriders: A History of Cars and Cruising. History Press, Bergad, Laird W., and Herbert S. Klein. Hispanics in the 2017. United States: A Demographic, Social, and Economic His- Noel, Urayoan. In Visible Movement: Nuyorican Poetry from tory, 1980-2005. New York: Cambridge University the Sixties to Slam. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, Press, 2010. 2014. Graham, Joe S., comp. Hispanic-American Material Culture: Rivera-Severa, Ramón H. Performing Queer Latinidad: An Annotated Directory of Collections, Sites, Archives, and Dance, Sexuality, Politics. Ann Arbor: University of Festivals in the United States. New York: Greenwood Michigan Press, 2014. Press, 1989. Otfinoski, Steven. Latinos in the Arts. New York: Facts On Kanellos, Nicolas. Handbook of Hispanic Cultures in the File, 2007. United States. 4 vols. Houston.: Arte Público Press, Vigil, Angel. Una Linda Raza: Cultural and Artistic Traditions 1993-1994. of the Hispanic Southwest. Golden, Colo.: Fulcrum, 1998. Oboler, Suzanne, and Deena J. González, eds. 4 vols. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Latinos and Latinas in the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. Art Stavans, Ilan, and Harold Augenbraum, eds. 4 vols. Encyclope- dia Latina: History, Culture, and Society in the United States. Briggs, Charles. The Wood Carvers of Córdova, New Mexico: Danbury, Conn.: Grolier Academic Reference, 2005. Social Dimensions of an Artistic “Revival.” Knoxville: Uni- Tienda, Marta, and Faith Mitchell, eds. Hispanics and the versity of Tennessee Press, 1980. Future of America: Panel on Hispanics in the United States Cockcroft, James D., and Jane Canning. Latino Visions: [and] Committee on Population, Division of Behavioral Contemporary Chicano, Puerto Rican, and Cuban American and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, D.C.: Artists. New York: Franklin Watts, 2000. National Academies Press, 2006. Gómez-Quintero, Raysa E. Amador, and Mireya Pérez Bustillo. The Female Body: Perspectives of Latin American Artists. Foreword by Elena Poniatowska. Westport, Art and Creative Expression Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002. Herrera, Olga U. Toward the Preservation of a Heritage: Cantu, Norma; Hurtado, Aída (eds). meXicana Fashions: Latin American and Latino Art in the Midwestern United Politics, Self-Adornment, and Identity Construction, Austin: States. Notre Dame, Ind.: Institute for Latino Studies, University of Texas Press, 2020. 2008. Dávila, Arlene. Latinx Art: Artists, Markets and Politics. Dur- Keller, Gary D., et al. 2 vols. Contemporary Chicana and Chi- ham: Duke University Press, 2020. cano Art: Artists, Works, Culture, and Education. Tempe, Ferrer, Elizabeth. Latinx Photography in the United States: A Ariz.: Bilingual Press/Editorial Bilingue, 2002. Visual History. Seattle: University of Washington Press, Riggs, Thomas, ed. St. James Guide to Hispanic Artists: Pro- 2020. files of Latino and Latin American Artists. Detroit: St. Foster, David William. Picturing the Barrio: Ten Chicano James Press, 2002. Photographers. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Sullivan, Edward J. The Language of Objects in the Art of the Press, 2017. Americas. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, González, Jennifer A.; Chavoya, Ondine C.; Noriega, 2007. Chon; Romo, Terezita. Chicano and Chicana Art: A Criti- cal Anthology. Duke University Press, 2019.

1155 Website Directory

Online resources for further study of Latinos are listed below.

American Women’s History: A Research Guide: The Christian Science Monitor: Latino Politicians Gain Hispanic American Women Clout in U.S. https://capone.mtsu.edu/kmiddlet/history/women/wh-his- http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0519/p01s01-uspo.html panic.html This article takes an in-depth look at Latinos’ involve- American Women’s History is created by Ken Middle- ment in politics and the unique experiences of Hispanic ton of the Middle Tennessee State University Library. The politicians. page devoted to Hispanic American Women links users to information about the lives and accomplishments of these Digital History: Chronology of Mexican American women, including oral histories and old photographs. History https://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/era.cfm?eraID=5&smtID=3 Association for Library Service to Children: Welcome to Provides a time line marking important events from the Pura Belpré Award Home Page 1527 to 1994. http://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/alsc/awardsgrants/bookm edia/belpremedal/index.cfm The Economist: Latinos and American Politics: Power The Pura Belpré Award is the focus of this Web site, in Numbers and Latino authors and illustrators who received this pres- http://www.economist.com/node/15213228 tigious award, such as Pam Muñoz Ryan and Eric Contains an enlightening article about Latinos’ engage- Velasquez, are featured. ment in politics.

Brookings Institute: The Nation is Diversifying Even Educating Change: Latina Activism and the Struggle for Faster than Predicted, According to New Census Data Educational Equity https://www.brookings.edu/research/new-cen- https://www.brown.edu/Research/Coachella/ sus-data-shows-the-nation-is-diversify- Maintained by Brown University, this site provides in- ing-even-faster-than-predicted/ formation on the Chicano movement and the educational A 2020 report published by the Brookings Institution injustices faced by Mexican children in California. Particu- that examines the last decade and finds that ethnic and ra- larly insightful are the historic photographs and video in- cial minorities account for all of the U.S.’s population terviews of women who strove to improve the educational growth. It offers useful charts and tables. situation of Mexican students.

California Cultures: Everyday Life: Hispanic Americans ESPN: Take Notice of Latinas as Leaders in the Sports https://calisphere.org/exhibitions/62/hispanic-americans- World everyday-life/ http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/hispanicheritage2007/col- This section of Calisphere, a digital library maintained umns/story?id=3039570 by the University of California, features historic photo- An article describing the feats of various Latina athletes. graphs depicting the lives of Hispanic Americans from the 1940’s through the 1970’s. Users can click the smaller im- Fact Monster: Famous Firsts by Hispanic Americans ages to view enlarged photographs. http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0933896.html A visually appealing Web page with information on His- California State University Northridge Oviatt Library: panic Americans who were pioneers in government, litera- Latino Cultural Heritage Digital Archives ture, film, military, sports, and other areas. https://digital-library.csun.edu/latino-archives Using this Web site, viewers can access information Fact Monster: Notable Hispanic-American Scientists about Latino history, such as digitized documents and http://www.factmonster.com/spot/hhmbio4.html photographs. Aimed at younger viewers, this site informs users about prominent Hispanic American scientists, such as Severo Ochoa, Mario Molina, and Luis Walter Alvarez. The page’s links lead to more details about each scientist.

1165 Areas of Achievement Index

Acting Pérez, Rosie, 798 Fariña, Mimi, 379 Alba, Jessica, 20 Quinn, Anthony, 831 Flores Magón, Ricardo, 404 Alonso, María Conchita, 41 Rodriguez, Gina, 886 Galarza, Ernesto, 420 Aragon, Art, 79 Rodríguez, Paul, 893 Garcia, Gus C., 427 Arnaz, Desi, 87 Roland, Gilbert, 906 García, Héctor, 430 Bach, Catherine, 110 Romero, César, 907 Garza de Cortés, Oralia , 442 Blades, Rubén, 153 Saenz, Eddie, 928 Garza, Carmen Lomas, 440 Bratt, Benjamin, 162 Saldana, Zoë, 935 Gonzáles, Corky, 463 Calderón, Tego, 181 San Juan, Olga, 941 Gutiérrez, José Ángel, 484 Cardi B, 197 Sheen, Charlie, 981 Gutiérrez, Luis, 486 Carey, Mariah, 206 Sheen, Martin, 983 Hayek, Salma, 495 Carrillo, Leo, 214 Smits, Jimmy, 986 Hernández, Antonia, 500 Colón, Miriam, 283 Trejo, Danny, 1025 Hidalgo, Hilda, 516 Cristal, Linda, 304 Valderrama, Wilmer, 1039 Hostos, Eugenio María de, 526 Diaz, Cameron, 337 Velez, Lupe, 1068 Huerta, Dolores, 528 Elizondo, Hector, 354 Verdugo, Elena, 1070 Juliá, Raúl, 553 Estevez, Emilio, 371 Vergara, Sofía, 1072 Lebrón, Lolita, 579 Ferrer, José, 398 Welch, Raquel, 1095 Lobo, Rebecca, 587 Ferrer, Mel, 400 Zapata, Carmen, 1110 Martí, José, 633 Ferrera, America, 402 Martínez, Elizabeth, 642 Fusco, Coco, 415 Activism Martínez, Vilma Socorro, 653 Garcia, Andy, 424 Acosta, Oscar Zeta, 10 Mas Canosa, Jorge, 659 García Bernal, Gael, 438 Acuña, Rodolfo F., 14 Melville, Margarita Bradford, 667 Gavin, John, 443 Alfaro, Luis, 31 Monsivaís, Carolina, 694 Gomez, Selena, 455 Alurista, 48 Montalbán, Ricardo, 695 Hayek, Salma, 495 Avila, Joaquín G., 100 Montoya, José, 701 Hayworth, Rita, 497 Baca, Jimmy Santiago, 106 Morales, Esai, 713 Hernández, Juano, 503 Baez, Joan, 115 Muñoz Rivera, Luis, 734 Ivy Queen, 538 Baldorioty de Castro, Román, 121 Olmos, Edward James, 769 Juliá, Raúl, 553 Belpré, Pura, 133 Orendain, Antonio, 774 Jurado, Katy, 556 Bratt, Benjamin, 162 Perales, Alonso, 795 Kapp, Joe, 563 Burciaga, José Antonio, 170 Pérez, Rosie, 798 Lamas, Fernando, 570 Cantú, Mario, 185 Rivas-Rodriguez, Maggie, 862 Leguizamo, John, 581 Cantú, Norma V., 189 Rivera, Tomás, 873 Longoria, Eva, 589 Capetillo, Luisa, 193 Rodriguez, Richard, 897 Lopez, George, 591 Carew, Rod, 203 Rodríguez de Tió, Lola, 903 Lopez, Jennifer, 593 Casal, Lourdes, 217 Rodríguez, Luis J., 889 López, Trini, 602 Chávez, César, 250 Rodríguez, Paul, 893 Maluma, 620 Chávez, Helen Fabela, 259 Salinas, Raúl R., 937 Marín, Cheech, 629 Collazo, Oscar, 277 Samora, Julian, 939 Miranda, Carmen, 681 Colmenares, Margarita, 279 Sánchez, George I., 945 Montalbán, Ricardo, 695 Colón, Jesús, 280 Santana, Carlos, 958 Moore, Indya, 705 Corpi, Lucha, 295 Sarria, José, 969 Morales, Esai, 713 Cortina, Juan, 299 Sheen, Martin, 983 Moreno, Rita, 724 Cotera, Martha P., 302 Smits, Jimmy, 986 Novarro, Ramón, 750 de Hoyos, Angela, 320 Soto Vélez, Clemente, 999 Olmos, Edward James, 769 Delgado, Jane L., 328 Tanguma, Leo, 1007 Ontiveros, Lupe, 772 Dorfman, Ariel, 346 Tarango, Yolanda, 1009 Peña, Elizabeth, 791 Espada, Martín, 365 Thomas, Piri, 1017

1169 Birthplace Index

Argentina Bogotá Machado, Eduardo, 616 Leguizamo, John, 581 Martí, José, 633 Bahía Blanca Martínez-Cañas, María, 655 Ginóbili, Manu, 448 Medellín Mendieta, Ana, 671 Maluma, 620 Buenos Aires Montes de Oca Lopez, Diana, 698 Bernardez, Teresa, 147 Palmeiro, Rafael, 785 Costa Rica Catalano, Eduardo, 235 Ros-Lehtinen, Ileana, 918 Cristal, Linda, 304 San José Secada, Jon, 975 Díaz, Gwendolyn, 339 Bruce-Novoa, Juan, 165 Suárez, Virgil, 1002 Dorfman, Ariel, 346 Chang-Díaz, Franklin Ramón, 247 Velázquez, Loreta Janeta, 1065 Fernandez-Pol, Jose Alberto, 393 Vallbona, Rima de, 1055 Marianao Gramática, Martín, 476 Tiant, Luis, 1018 Kalnay, Eugenia, 559 Cuba Lamas, Fernando, 570 Matanzas Porter, Liliana, 820 Aguas Claras Valero, Roberto, 1053 Schifrin, Lalo, 971 Arenas, Reinaldo, 84 Pinar del Rio Mar del Plata Bayamo Oliva, Tony, 766 Piazzolla, Ástor, 804 Estrada Palma, Tomás, 375 Puerto Príncipe (now Camagüey) San Carlos de Bolivar Bejucal Agramonte, Aristídes, 18 Sabatini, David Domingo, 927 Garcia, Andy, 424 Sagua La Grande Tucumán Camagüey Martínez, Mel, 643 Pelli, Cesar, 789 Ada, Alma Flor, 16 Boza, Juan, 158 Santiago Padrón, Eduardo, 783 Bolivia Guillén, Nicolás, 480 Santiago de Cuba La Paz Cienfuegos Arnaz, Desi, 87 Escalante, Jaime, 359 Alonso, María Conchita, 41 Díaz, Henry F., 340 Cárdenas Mas Canosa, Jorge, 659 British West Indies Méndez, José, 669 Nevis El Perico Dominican Republic Hamilton, Alexander, 493 Minoso, Minnie, 679 Bajos de Haina Alou, Felipe, 43 Chile Havana Alvarez, Ralph, 63 Baní Chillán Behar, Ruth, 131 Tejada, Miguel, 1013 Arrau, Claudio, 90 Bolet, Jorge, 155 Cabrera, Lydia, 177 Barahona Santiago Canseco, José, 183 Montez, María, 699 Alegría, Fernando, 29 Capablanca, José Raúl, 190 Spies, Claudio, 1000 Consuelo Casal, Lourdes, 217 Sosa, Sammy, 991 Cruz, Celia, 306 Colombia D’Rivera, Paquito, 350 Laguna Verde Barranquilla Delgado, Jane L., 328 Marichal, Juan, 626 Estefan, Gloria, 367 Ocampo, Adriana C., 757 Manoguayabo Vergara, Sofía, 1072 Fornes, Maria Irene, 410 García, Cristina, 426 Martinez, Pedro, 648 Labat, Tony, 569

1179 Latino Heritage Index and Maps

Argentinean Colombian and Puerto Rican Palmeiro, Rafael, 785 Catalano, Eduardo, 235 Leguizamo, John, 581 Peña, Elizabeth, 791 Cristal, Linda, 304 Pitbull, 814 Díaz, Gwendolyn, 339 Costa Rican Rabassa, Gregory, 835 Fernandez-Pol, Jose Alberto, 393 Chang-Díaz, Franklin Ramón, 247 Rodriguez, Narciso, 891 Ginóbili, Manu, 448 Vallbona, Rima de, 1055 Romero, César, 907 Gramática, Martín, 476 Romero, George, 910 Kalnay, Eugenia, 559 Cuban Ros-Lehtinen, Ileana, 918 Pelli, Cesar, 789 Acosta, Jim, 5 Rubio, Marco, 924 Piazzolla, Ástor, 804 Ada, Alma Flor, 16 Secada, Jon, 975 Porter, Liliana, 820 Agramonte, Aristídes, 18 Suárez, Virgil, 1002 Sabatini, David Domingo, 927 Alonso, María Conchita, 41 Tiant, Luis, 1018 Schifrin, Lalo, 971 Alvarez, Ralph, 63 Valdes-Rodriguez, Alisa, 1040 Taurasi, Diana, 1011 Arenas, Reinaldo, 84 Valero, Roberto, 1053 Arnaz, Desi, 87 Vila, Bob, 1075 Argentinean and Spanish Bolet, Jorge, 155 Bernardez, Teresa, 147 Boza, Juan, 158 Cuban and Puerto Rican Bujones, Fernando, 169 Dawson, Rosario, 316 Bolivian Cabrera, Lydia, 177 Escalante, Jaime, 359 Canseco, José, 183 Cuban and Spanish Welch, Raquel, 1095 Cruz, Celia, 306 Acosta, Mercedes de, 8 Delgado, Jane L., 328 Behar, Ruth, 131 Cape Verdean Diaz, Cameron, 337 Capablanca, José Raúl, 190 Gonsalves, Paul, 459 Díaz, Henry F., 340 Casal, Lourdes, 217 Gonzalez, Tony, 474 D’Rivera, Paquito, 350 Velázquez, Loreta Janeta, 1065 Estefan, Gloria, 367 Yglesias, Jose, 1104 Caribbean Estrada Palma, Tomás, 375 Hamilton, Alexander, 493 Ferrer, Mel, 400 Cuban, Guatemalan, and Spanish Fornes, Maria Irene, 410 García, Cristina, 426 Central American Indigenous Fusco, Coco, 415 Freedman-Gurspan, Raffi, 413 Garcia, Andy, 424 Dominican Guillén, Nicolás, 480 Acevedo, Elizabeth, 1 Central American and Cuban Hijuelos, Oscar, 518 Alou, Felipe, 43 Isaac, Oscar, 534 Labat, Tony, 569 Alvarez, Julia, 55 Lobo, Rebecca, 587 Andújar, Joaquín, 71 Chilean Cedeño, César, 240 Alegría, Fernando, 29 Machado, Carmen María, 615 Machado, Eduardo, 616 de la Renta, Oscar, 326 Allende, Isabel, 34 Díaz, Junot, 342 Arrau, Claudio, 90 Martí, José, 633 Martínez, Mel, 643 Fernandez, Tony, 391 Dorfman, Ariel, 346 Franco, Julio, 411 Spies, Claudio, 1000 Martínez-Cañas, María, 655 Mas Canosa, Jorge, 659 Guerrero, Pedro, 478 Marichal, Juan, 626 Colombian Méndez, José, 669 Martinez, Pedro, 648 Maluma, 620 Mendieta, Ana, 671 Montez, María, 699 Ocampo, Adriana C., 757 Minoso, Minnie, 679 Ortiz, David, 777 Vergara, Sofía, 1072 Montes de Oca Lopez, Diana, 698 Morton, Carlos, 727 Perez, Tom, 800 Colombian and Nicaraguan O’Brien, Soledad, 755 Pujols, Albert, 828 Sarria, José, 969 Oliva, Tony, 766 Ramirez, Manny, 837 Padrón, Eduardo, 783 Rodriguez, Alex, 879

1187 Subject Index

A Jurado, Katy, 556 Belpre, Pura, 133 “A que no te atreves,” 1073 Kapp, Joe, 563 Bratt, Benjamin, 162 a.k.a. Pablo, 894 Lamas, Fernando, 570 Burciaga, José Antonio, 170 Abrams, J.J., 684 Leguizamo, John, 581 Cantu, Mario, 185 “Abusadora,” 1100 Longoria, Eva, 589 Cantu, Norma V., 189 Academy Awards Lopez, George, 591 Capetillo, Luisa, 193 and Anthony Quinn, 832 Lopez, Jennifer, 593 Cardenas, Jose A., 194 and José Ferrer, 399 Lopez, Trini, 602 Casal, Lourdes, 217 and Rita Moreno, 725 Maluma, 620 Chavez, Cesar 579, 250 Aceves, José, 2 Marin, Cheech, 629 Chavez, Helen Fabela, 259 Acosta, Abilio James, 5 Miranda, Carmen, 681 Collazo, Oscar, 277 Acosta, Daniel, 4 Montalban, Ricardo, 695 Colmenares, Margarita, 279 Acosta, Jim, 5 Montez, María, 699 Colon, Jesus, 280 Acosta, Mercedes de, 8 Moore, Indya, 705 Corpi, Lucha, 295 Acosta, Oscar Zeta, 10 Morales, Esai, 713 Cortina, Juan, 299 Acosta, Willie, 677 Moreno, Rita c, 724 Cotera, Martha P., 302 Acosta-Belén, Edna, 13 Novarro, Ramón 79, 750 de Hoyos, Angela, 320 acquired immunodeficiency syndrome Olmos, Edward James, 769 Delgado, Jane L., 328 (AIDS), 316, 576 Ontiveros, Lupe, 772 Dorfman, Ariel, 346 acting Pena, Elizabeth, 791 Espada, Martín, 365 Alba, Jessica, 20 Perez, Rosie, 798 Farina, Mimi, 379 Alonso, Maria Conchita, 41 Quinn, Anthony, 831 Flores Magon, Ricardo, 404 Aragon, Art, 79 Rodriguez, Gina, 886 Galarza, Ernesto, 420 Arnaz, Desi, 87 Rodriguez, Paul, 893 Garcia, Gus C., 427 Bach, Catherine, 110 Roland, Gilbert, 906 Garcia, Hector, 430 Blades, Rubén, 153 Romero, Cesar, 907 Garza de Cortes, Oralia, 442 Bratt, Benjamin, 162 Saenz, Eddie, 928 Garza, Carmen Lomas, 440 Calderón, Tego, 181 Saldana, Zoë, 935 Gomez Pompa, Arturo, 457 Cardi B, 197 San Juan, Olga, 941 Gonzales, Corky, 463 Carey, Mariah, 206 Sheen, Charlie, 981 Gutierrez, Jose Angel, 484 Carrillo, Leo, 214 Sheen, Martin, 983 Gutierrez, Luis, 486 Colon, Miriam, 283 Smits, Jimmy, 986 Hayek, Selma, 495 Cristal, Linda, 304 Trejo, Danny, 1025 Hernandez, Antonia, 500 del Rio, Dolores, 330 Valderrama, Wilmer, 1039 Hidalgo, Hilda, 516 Diaz, Cameron, 337 Velez, Lupe, 1068 Hostos, Eugenio María de, 526 Elizondo, Hector, 354 Verdugo, Elena, 1070 Huerta, Dolores, 528 Estevez, Emilio, 371 Vergara, Sofía, 1072 Ivy Queen, 538 Ferrer, José, 398 Welch, Raquel, 1095 Lebron, Lolita, 579 Ferrer, Mel, 400 Zapata, Carmen, 1110 Lobo, Rebecca, 587 Ferrera, America, 402 activism, 1077 Marti, Jose c, 633 Fusco, Coco, 415 Acosta, Oscar Zeta, 10 Martinez, Elizabeth, 642 García Bernal, Gael, 438 Acuna, Rodolfo, 14 Martinez, Vilma Socorro, 653 Garcia, Andy, 424 Alfaro, Luis, 31 Mas Canosa, Jorge, 659 Gavin, John, 443 Alurista, 48 Melville, Margarita Bradford, 667 Gomez, Selena, 455 Avila, Joaquín G., 100 Monsivais, Carolina, 694 Hayek, Salma, 495 Baca, Jimmy Santiago, 106 Montalban, Ricardo, 695 Hayworth, Rita, 497 Baez, Joan, 115 Montoya, José, 701 Hernandez, Juano, 503 Bag, Alice, 118 Moore, Indya, 705 Julia, Raul, 553 Baldorioty de Castro, Román, 121 Morales, Esai, 713

1197