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https://kinseyinstitute.org/collections/archival/ccies.php RAYMOND J. NOONAN, PH.D., CCIES WEBSITE EDITOR

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AsO so ci ate Ed i tors: Af rica: Beldina Opiyo-Omolo, B.Sc. Eur ope: Jakob Pastoetter, Ph.D. South America : Luciane Raibin, M.S. In for ma tion Re sources: Tim othy Perper, Ph.D. & Mar tha Cornog, M.A., M.S.

OFore word by: ROBER T T. FRANCOEUR, Ph.D., A.C.S.

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OIn tro duc tion by: IRA L. REISS, Ph.D. • THE • CONTINUUM Complete International ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SEXUALITY

Updated, with More Countries 2004

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The Con tin uum com plete in ter na tion al en cy clo pe dia of sex u al ity / ed ited by Robert T. Francoeur ; Ray mond J. Noonan ; asso ci ate edi tors, Mar tha Cornog . . . [et al.]. p. cm. A com pletely up dated one-vol ume edi tion of the 4-vol ume In ter na tion al en cy clo pe dia of sex u al ity (pub lished 1997-2001), cov er ing more than 60 countri es and places, 15 not previ ously include d. In cludes bib lio graph i cal ref er ences. ISBN 0-8264-1488-5 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Sex—En cyclo pe dias. 2. Sex cus toms—En cy clo pe dias. I. Title: Com plete in ter na tion al en cy clo pe dia of sex u al ity. II. Francoeur, Robert T. III. Noonan, Raym ond J. IV. Cornog, Martha. V. Inter nati onal en cy clo pe dia of sex u al ity. HQ21.I68 2003 306.7´03—dc21 2003006391 v

CROATIA...... 241 Aleksandar Štulhofer, Ph.D., Vlasta Hiršl-Heæej, M.D., M.A., Željko Mrkšiæ, Aleksandra Koraæ, Ph.D., Petra Contents Hoblaj, Ivanka Ivkanec, Maja Mamula, M.A., Hrvoje Tiljak, M.D., Ph.D., Gordana Buljan-Flander, Ph.D., HOW TO USE THIS ENCYCLOPEDIA ....viii Sanja Sagasta, Gordan Bosanac, Ana Karloviæ, and Jadranka Mimica; Updates by the Authors FOREWORD ...... ix Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D., A.C.S. CUBA...... 259 Mariela Castro Espín, B.Ed., M.Sc., and María PREFACE ...... xi Dolores Córdova Llorca, Ph.D., main authors and Timothy Perper, Ph.D. coordinators, with Alicia Gónzalez Hernández, Ph.D., Beatriz Castellanos Simons, Ph.D., Natividad AN INTRODUCTION TO THE MANY Guerrero Borrego, Ph.D., Gloria Ma. A. Torres Cueto, MEANINGS OF SEXOLOGICAL Ph.D., Eddy Abreu Guerra, Ph.D., Beatriz Torres KNOWLEDGE...... xiii Rodríguez, Ph.D., Caridad T. García Álvarez, M.Sc., Ira L. Reiss, Ph.D. Ada Alfonso Rodríguez, M.D., M.Sc., Maricel Rebollar Sánchez, M.Sc., Oscar Díaz Noriega, M.D., M.Sc., ARGENTINA...... 1 Jorge Renato Ibarra Guitart, Ph.D., Sonia Jiménez Sophia Kamenetzky, M.D.; Updates by S. Kamenetzky Berrios, Daimelis Monzón Wat, Jorge Peláez AUSTRALIA...... 27 Mendoza, M.D., Mayra Rodríguez Lauzerique, M.Sc., Ofelia Bravo Fernández, M.Sc., Lauren Bardisa Rosemary Coates, Ph.D.; Updates by R. Coates and Escurra, M.D., Miguel Sosa Marín, M.D., Rosaida Anthony Willmett, Ph.D. Ochoa Soto, M.D., and Leonardo Chacón Asusta AUSTRIA ...... 42 Dr. Rotraud A. Perner, L.L.D.; Translated and CYPRUS...... 279 Part 1: Greek Cyprus: George J. Georgiou, Ph.D., Redacted by Linda Kneucker; Updates by Linda with Alecos Modinos, B.Arch., A.R.I.B.A., Nathaniel Kneucker, Raoul Kneucker, and Martin Voracek, Papageorgiou, Laura Papantoniou, M.Sc., M.D., and Ph.D., M.Sc. Nicos Peristianis, Ph.D. (Hons.); Updates by G. J. BAHRAIN ...... 59 Georgiou and L. Papantoniou; Part 2: Turkish Cyprus: Julanne McCarthy, M.A., M.S.N.; Updates by Kemal Bolayýr, M.D., and Serin Kelâmi, B.Sc. (Hons.) the Editors CZECH REPUBLIC ...... 320 BOTSWANA ...... 89 Jaroslav Zvìøina, M.D.; Rewritten and updated by Godisang Mookodi, Oleosi Ntshebe, and the Author Ian Taylor, Ph.D. DENMARK ...... 329 BRAZIL...... 98 Christian Graugaard, M.D., Ph.D., with Lene Sérgio Luiz Gonçalves de Freitas, M.D., with Elí Falgaard Eplov, M.D., Ph.D., Annamaria Giraldi, Fernandes de Oliveira and Lourenço Stélio Rega, M.D., Ph.D., Ellids Kristensen, M.D., Else Munck, M.Th.; Updates and comments by Raymond J. M.D., Bo Møhl, clinical psychologist, Annette Noonan, Ph.D., and Dra. Sandra Almeida, and Fuglsang Owens, M.D., Ph.D., Hanne Risør, M.D., Luciane Raibin, M.S. and Gerd Winther, clinical sexologist BULGARIA...... 114 EGYPT ...... 345 Michail Alexandrov Okoliyski, Ph.D., and Petko Bahira Sherif, Ph.D.; Updates by B. Sherif and Velichkov, M.D. Hussein Ghanem, M.D. CANADA...... 126 ESTONIA ...... 359 Michael Barrett, Ph.D, Alan King, Ed.D., Joseph Elina Haavio-Mannila, Ph.D., Kai Haldre, M.D., Lévy, Ph.D., Eleanor Maticka-Tyndale, Ph.D., and Osmo Kontula, Ph.D. Alexander McKay, Ph.D., and Julie Fraser, Ph.D.; Rewritten and updated by the Authors FINLAND...... 381 Osmo Kontula, D.Soc.Sci., Ph.D., and Elina Haavio- CHINA...... 182 Mannila, Ph.D.; Updates by O. Kontula and E. Fang-fu Ruan, M.D., Ph.D., and M. P. Lau, M.D.; Haavio-Mannila Updates by F. Ruan and Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D.; Comments by M. P. Lau FRANCE...... 412 Michel Meignant, Ph.D., chapter coordinator, with COLOMBIA...... 210 Pierre Dalens, M.D., Charles Gellman, M.D., Robert José Manuel Gonzáles, M.A., Rubén Ardila, Ph.D., Gellman, M.D., Claire Gellman-Barroux, Ph.D., Pedro Guerrero, M.D., Gloria Penagos, M.D., and Serge Ginger, Laurent Malterre, and France Bernardo Useche, Ph.D.; Translated by Claudia Paramelle; Translated by Genevieve Parent, M.A.; Rockmaker, M.S.W., and Luciane Raibin, M.S.; Redacted by Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D.; Comment Updates by the Editors; Comment by Luciane by Timothy Perper, Ph.D.; Updates by the Editors Raibin, M.S. FRENCH POLYNESIA ...... 431 COSTA RICA...... 227 Anne Bolin, Ph.D.; Updates by A. Bolin and Anna Arroba, M.A. the Editors vi Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sexuality

GERMANY ...... 450 NEPAL...... 714 Rudiger Lautmann, Ph.D., and Kurt Starke, Ph.D.; Elizabeth Schroeder, M.S.W. Updates by Jakob Pastoetter, Ph.D., and Hartmut A. G. Bosinski, Dr.med.habil., and the Editor NETHERLANDS...... 725 Jelto J. Drenth, Ph.D., and A. Koos Slob, Ph.D.; GHANA ...... 467 Updates by the Editors Augustine Ankomah, Ph.D.; Updates by Beldina Opiyo-Omolo, B.Sc. NIGERIA...... 752 Uwem Edimo Esiet, M.B., B.S., M.P.H., M.I.L.D., GREECE ...... 479 chapter coordinator, with Christine Olunfinke Adebajo, Dimosthenis Agrafiotis, Ph.D., Elli Ioannidi, Ph.D., Ph.D., R.N., H.D.H.A., Mairo Victoria Bello, Rakiya and Panagiota Mandi, M.Sc.; Rewritten and updated Booth, M.B.B.S., F.W.A.C.P., Imo I. Esiet, B.Sc, LL.B., in December 2002 by the Authors B.L., Nike Esiet, B.Sc., M.P.H. (Harvard), Foyin Oyebola, B.Sc., M.A., and Bilkisu Yusuf, B.Sc., M.A., HONG KONG...... 489 M.N.I.; Updates by Beldina Opiyo-Omolo, B.Sc. Emil Man-lun Ng, M.D., and Joyce L. C. Ma, Ph.D.; Updates by M. P. Lau, M.D., and Robert T. NORWAY ...... 781 Francoeur, Ph.D. Elsa Almås, Cand. Psychol., and Esben Esther Pirelli Benestad, M.D.; Updates by E. Almås and E. E. ICELAND...... 503 Pirelli Benestad Sóley S. Bender, R.N., B.S.N., M.S., Coordinator, with Sigrún Júliíusdóttir, Ph.D., Thorvaldur Kristinsson, OUTER SPACE and ANTARCTICA...... 795 Haraldur Briem, M.D., and Gudrún Jónsdóttir, Ph.D.; Raymond J. Noonan, Ph.D.; Updates and new Updates by the Editors material by R. J. Noonan INDIA ...... 516 PAPUA NEW GUINEA...... 813 Jayaji Krishna Nath, M.D., and Vishwarath R. Nayar; Shirley Oliver-Miller; Comments by Edgar Updates by Karen Pechilis-Prentiss, Ph.D., Aparna Gregerson, Ph.D. Kadari, B.A., M.B.A., and Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D. PHILIPPINES...... 824 INDONESIA...... 533 Jose Florante J. Leyson, M.D.; Updates by Wimpie I. Pangkahila, M.D., Ph.D. (Part 1); Ramsey J. F. J. Leyson Elkholy, Ph.D. (cand.) (Part 2); Updates by Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D. POLAND ...... 846 Anna Sierzpowska-Ketner, M.D., Ph.D.; Updates by IRAN...... 554 the Editors Paula E. Drew, Ph.D.; Updates and comments by Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D.; Comments by F. A. PORTUGAL...... 856 Sadeghpour Nuno Nodin, M.A., with Sara Moreira, and Ana Margarida Ourô, M.A.; Updates by N. Nodin IRELAND...... 569 Thomas Phelim Kelly, M.B.; Updates by Harry A. PUERTO RICO ...... 877 Walsh, Ed.D., and the Editors Luis Montesinos, Ph.D., and Juan Preciado, Ph.D.; Redacted and updated by Felix M. Velázquez-Soto, M.A., ISRAEL ...... 581 and Glorivee Rosario-Pérez, Ph.D., and Carmen Rios Ronny A. Shtarkshall, Ph.D., and Minah Zemach, Ph.D.; Updates by R. A. Shtarkshall and M. Zemach RUSSIA...... 888 Igor S. Kon, Ph.D.; Updates by I. S. Kon ITALY ...... 620 Bruno P. F. Wanrooij, Ph.D.; Updates by SOUTH AFRICA...... 909 B. P. F. Wanrooij Lionel John Nicholas, Ph.D., and Priscilla Sandra Daniels, M.S. (Part 1); Mervyn Bernard Hurwitz, M.D. JAPAN ...... 636 (Part 2); Updates by L. J. Nicholas, Ph.D. Yoshiro Hatano, Ph.D., and Tsuguo Shimazaki; Updates and comments by Yoshimi Kaji, M.A., SOUTH KOREA ...... 933 Timothy Perper, Ph.D., and Martha Cornog, M.S., Hyung-Ki Choi, M.D., Ph.D., and Huso Yi, Ph.D. (cand.), M.A., and Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D. with Ji-Kan Ryu, M.D., Koon Ho Rha, M.D., and Woong Hee Lee, M.D.; Redacted with additional information KENYA ...... 679 and updated as of March 2003 by Huso Yi, Ph.D. (cand.), Norbert Brockman, Ph.D.; Updates by Paul Mwangi with additional information by Yung-Chung Kim, Kariuki and Beldina Opiyo-Omolo, B.Sc. Ki-Nam Chin, Pilwha Chang, Whasoon Byun, and Jungim Hwang MEXICO ...... 692 Eusebio Rubio, Ph.D.; Updates by the Editors SPAIN ...... 960 Jose Antonio Nieto, Ph.D. (coordinator), with Jose MOROCCO ...... 703 Antonio Carrobles, Ph.D., Manuel Delgado Ruiz, Ph.D., Nadia Kadiri, M.D., and Abderrazak Moussaïd, M.D., Felix Lopez Sanchez, Ph.D., Virginia Maquieira D’Angelo, with Abdelkrim Tirraf, M.D., and Abdallah Jadid, M.D.; Ph.L.D., Josep-Vicent Marques, Ph.D., Bernardo Moreno Translated by Raymond J. Noonan, Ph.D., and Dra. Jimenez, Ph.D., Raquel Osborne Verdugo, Ph.D., Carmela Sandra Almeida; Comments by Elaine Hatfield, Ph.D., Sanz Rueda, Ph.D., and Carmelo Vazquez Valverde, Ph.D.; and Richard Rapson, Ph.D.; Updates by the Editors Translated by Laura Berman, Ph.D., and Jose Nanin, Contents vii

M.A.; Updates by Laura Berman, Ph.D., Jose Nanin, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA...... 1127 M.A., and the Editors David L. Weis, Ph.D., and Patricia Barthalow Koch, Ph.D., editors and contributors, with other SRI LANKA ...... 972 contributions by Diane Baker, M.A.; Ph.D.; Sandy Victor C. de Munck, Ph.D.; Comments by Patricia Bargainnier, Ed.D.; Sarah C. Conklin, Ph.D.; Martha Weerakoon, Ph.D. Cornog, M.A., M.S.; Richard Cross, M.D.; Marilyn SWEDEN...... 984 Fithian, Ph.D.; Jeannie Forrest, M.A.; Andrew D. Jan E. Trost, Ph.D., with Mai-Briht Bergstrom-Walan, Forsythe, M.S.; Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D., A.C.S.; Ph.D.; Updates by the Editors Barbara Garris, M.A.; Patricia Goodson, Ph.D.; William E. Hartmann, Ph.D.; Robert O. Hawkins, Jr., SWITZERLAND ...... 995 Ph.D.; Linda L. Hendrixson, Ph.D.; Barrie J. Highby, Prof. Johannes Bitzer, M.D., Ph.D., Judith Adler, Ph.D., Ph.D.; Ariadne (Ari) Kane, Ed.D.; Sharon E. King, Prof. Dr. Udo Rauschfleisch Ph.D., Sibil Tschudin, M.S.Ed.; Robert Morgan Lawrence, D.C.; Brenda M.D., Elizabeth Zemp, M.D., and Ulrike Kosta Love; Charlene L. Muehlenhard, Ph.D.; Raymond J. Noonan, Ph.D.; Miguel A. Pérez, Ph.D.; Timothy TANZANIA ...... 1009 Perper, Ph.D.; Helda L. Pinzón-Pérez, Ph.D.; Carol Philip Setel, Eleuther Mwageni, Namsifu Mndeme, and Queen, Ph.D.; Herbert P. Samuels, Ph.D.; Julian Yusuf Hemed; Additional comments by Beldina Opiyo- Slowinski, Psy.D.; William Stackhouse, Ph.D.; William Omolo, B.Sc. R. Stayton, Th.D.; and Mitchell S. Tepper, M.P.H. Updates coordinated by Raymond J. Noonan, Ph.D., THAILAND...... 1021 and Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D., with comments and Kittiwut Jod Taywaditep, Ph.D., Eli Coleman, Ph.D., updates by Mark O. Bigler, Ph.D., Walter Bockting, and Pacharin Dumronggittigule, M.Sc.; Updates by Ph.D., Peggy Clarke, M.P.H., Sarah C. Conklin, Ph.D., K. J. Taywaditep, Ryan Bishop, Ph.D., and Lillian S. Al Cooper, Ph.D., Martha Cornog, M.A., M.S., Susan Robinson, Ph.D. Dudley, Ph.D., Warren Farrell, Ph.D., James R. TURKEY ...... 1054 Fleckenstein, Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D., Patricia Hamdullah Aydýn, M.D., and Zeynep Gülçat, Ph.D.; Goodson, Ph.D., Erica Goodstone, Ph.D., Karen Allyn Rewritten and updated in 2003 by H. Aydýn and Gordon, M.P.H., Ph.D. (cand.), Eric Griffin-Shelley, Z. Gülçat Ph.D., Robert W. Hatfield, Ph.D., Loraine Hutchins, Ph.D., Michael Hyde, M.F.A., Ph.D. (cand.), Ariadne UKRAINE ...... 1072 (Ari) Kane, Ed.D., Patricia Barthalow Koch, Ph.D., Tamara V. Hovorun, Ph.D., and Borys M. Vornyk, John Money, Ph.D., Charlene L. Muehlenhard, Ph.D., Ph.D. (Medicine); Rewritten and updated in 2003 Raymond J. Noonan, Ph.D., Miguel A. Pérez, Ph.D., by T. V. Hovorun and B. M. Vornyk Helda L. Pinzón-Pérez, Ph.D., William Prendergast, Ph.D., Ruth Rubenstein, Ph.D., Herbert P. Samuels, UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN Ph.D., William Taverner, M.A., David L. Weis, Ph.D., AND NORTHERN IRELAND ...... 1093 C. Christine Wheeler, Ph.D., and Walter Williams, Ph.D. Kevan R. Wylie, M.B., Ch.B., M.Med.Sc., M.R.C.Psych., D.S.M., chapter coordinator and contributor, with VIETNAM...... 1337 Anthony Bains, B.A., Tina Ball, Ph.D., Patricia Jakob Pastoetter, Ph.D.; Updates by J. Pastoetter Barnes, M.A., CQSW, BASMT (Accred.), Rohan Collier, Ph.D., Jane Craig, M.B., MRCP (UK), Linda LAST-MINUTE DEVELOPMENTS...... 1363 Added by the Editors after the manuscript had been typeset Delaney, L.L.B., M.Jur., Julia Field, B.A., Danya Glaser, MBBS, D.Ch., FRCPsych., Peter Greenhouse, GLOBAL TRENDS: SOME FINAL M.A., MRCOG, MFFP, Mary Griffin, M.B., M.Sc., IMPRESSIONS...... 1373 MFFP, Margot Huish, B.A., BASMT (Accred.), Anne Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D., and Raymond J. Noonan, Ph.D. M. Johnson, M.A., M.Sc., M.D., MRCGP, FFPAM, George Kinghorn, M.D., FRCP, Helen Mott, B.A. CONTRIBUTORS and (Hons.), Paula Nicolson, Ph.D., Jane Read, B.A. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... 1377 (Hons.), UKCP, Fran Reader, FRCOG, MFFP, BASMT (Accred.), Gwyneth Sampson, DPM, MRCPsych., AN INTERNATIONAL DIRECTORY OF Peter Selman, DPSA, Ph.D., José von Bühler, R.M.N., SEXOLOGICAL ORGANIZATIONS, Dip.H.S., Jane Wadsworth, B.Sc., M.Sc., Kaye ASSOCIATIONS, AND INSTITUTES...... 1394 Wellings, M.A., M.Sc., and Stephen Whittle, Ph.D.; Compiled by Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D. Extensive updates and some sections rewritten by the original authors as noted in the text INDEX ...... 1405

For update s, corrections, and links to many of the sites refer ence d in these chapter s, visit The Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sex u al ity on the Web at http://www.SexQuest.com/ccies/. Read ers of CCIES are invit ed to subm it im portant news items or reports of findings of new sex re search be- ing done in any of the countri es covered here, or any other country in the world. We will try to keep the SexQuest CCIES website update d with your help. Send items in Engli sh if pos sible, with appro pri ate cita - tions, to Ray mond J. Noonan, Ph.D., CCIES Edi tor , Health and Physi cal Edu ca ti on Depart ment, Fashion Insti tute of Technol ogy , 27th Street and 7th Ave nue, New York, NY 10001 USA, or by email to rjnoonan@ SexQuest.com. Spe cial Pricing Just for Us ers of CCIES at The Kinsey In sti tute Website! The Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sex u al ity (Noonan & Francoeur, 2004)

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The 1,436-page, 1.5 mil lion-word, sin gle-vol ume Con tin uum Com plete In ter - na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sex u al ity, ed ited by Robert T. Francoeur, Ph.D., and Ray mond J. Noonan, Ph.D., with con tri bu tions from 280 scholars on seven con ti - nents, con tains 60 coun tries and 2 ex treme en vi ron ments: • The 31 coun tries pub lished in vol umes 1–3 (1997), updated & re vised: Argentina, Austra lia, Bahrain, Brazil, Can ada, China, Fin land, French Poly ne - sia, Ger many, Ghana, Greece, India, Indo ne sia, Iran, Ireland, Is rael, Japan, Kenya, Mex ico, Neth er lands, Po land, Puerto Rico, Rus sia, South Af rica, Spain, Sweden, Thai land, Ukraine, United King dom, and United States • Plus the 17 coun tries and places pub lished in vol ume 4 (2001), up dated & revised: Aus tria, Co lom bia, Croatia, Cy prus, Egypt, Ice land, In do ne sia, It aly, Morocco, Ni ge ria, Outer Space, Pa pua New Guinea, Phil ip pines, Por tu gal, South Korea, Tur key, and Viet nam • Plus 14 new coun tries and places: Bot swana, Bul garia, Co sta Rica, Cuba, Den - mark, Esto nia, France, Hong Kong, Nepal, Nor way, Outer Space/Antarctica, Sri Lanka, Switzer land, and Tanza nia Come see our other titles at: http://www.continuumbooks.com. Special pric ing avail able only with this page. Print it out and take it to your school or lo cal li brary and en cour age them to add CCIES to their col lec tion. OR DER FORM

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(NY residents please add 8.375% sales tax; PA residents please add 6% sales tax) Sales Tax TOTAL CU59 795 ConSexualityOuterPerspectivetin Space:uum Com Demplete ographics Inter na andtion al a BriEnefcy clo Historicalpe dia of Outer Space and Antarctica Sexuality Factors in Extreme Environments

Raymond J. Noonan, Ph.D.* Updates and new material by R. J. Noonan

In ter na tional Space Sta tion (NASA/JSC 2003) Contents An Introduction to Life in Extreme Environments 795 son 2000; Dudley-Rowley, Whit ney, Bishop, Caldwell, & Outer Space 796 Nolan 2001). Sex u al ity in ex treme en vi ron ments is of ten a Demographics and a Brief Historical Perspective 796 sec ond thought—or later, if it is even thought about at all— 1. Basic Sexological Premises 798 2. Religious, Ethnic, and Gender Factors Affecting for good rea son: These en vi ron ments are such that they re - Sexuality 799 quire meet ing the most ba sic of hu man needs in terms of im- 3. Knowledge and Education about Sexuality 799 me di ate sur vival. In Maslow’s (1970) mo ti va tional hi er ar - 4. Autoerotic Behaviors and Patterns 799 chy of needs, this would in clude the low est lev els of sur vival 5. Interpersonal Heterosexual Behaviors 799 and safety. Sexu al ity is at a higher level on the scale, and en- 6. Homoerotic, Homosexual, and Bisexual Behaviors 800 tails needs that, of neces sity , would come later once the oth- 7. Gender Diversity and Transgender Issues 800 ers have been ad e quately met. For ad di tional anal y sis of this 8. Significant Unconventional Sexual Behaviors 800 9. Contraception, Abortion, and Population Planning 801 the sis, see Noonan (1998a). In addi tion to this are the cor po - 10. Sexually Transmitted Diseases and HIV/AIDS 802 rate or state-sponsored inter ests in these endeav ors (because 11. Sexual Dysfunctions, Counseling, and Therapies 802 of the costs and the tech nol ogies in volved), which typi cally 12. Sex Research and Advanced Professional Education 803 ig nore or dis cour age sex-related behaviors because they are Conclusion 803 conceptualized as potentially (or likely to be) disruptive. References and Suggested Readings 803 Ex treme en vi ron ments are not lim ited to space and the Antarctica 805 polar re gions of Earth. Stud ies—par tic ularly those in the Demographics and a Brief Historical Perspective 805 psychosocial realm—focus on those fac tors that push the en - 1. Basic Sexological Premises 806 ve lope of hu man survival and per for mance, be cause of en vi - 2. Religious, Ethnic, and Gender Factors ron men tal-sys tem ex tremes in the phys i cal, psy cho log i cal, Affecting Sexuality 807 3. Knowledge and Education about Sexuality 807 and so cial spheres. They have high bar ri ers and sharp bound - 4. Autoerotic Behaviors and Patterns 807 aries that limit both life and ef fective perfor mance under 5. Interpersonal Heterosexual Behaviors 808 nor mal cir cum stances, many of which re quire tech no log i cal 6. Homoerotic, Homosexual, and Bisexual Behaviors 809 ad vances and in ten sive train ing for ad ap ta tion suc cess. In 7. Gender Diversity and Transgender Issues 809 ad di tion to Antarctica and the space envi ron ment, ex treme 8. Significant Unconventional Sexual Behaviors 809 en vi ron ments in clude arc tic and other iso lated en vi ron - 9. Contraception, Abortion, and Population Planning 810 ments, un der sea op er a tions and deep-ocean submarining, 10. Sexually Transmitted Diseases and HIV/AIDS 810 high-per for mance and gen eral avi a tion, the armed ser vices 11. Sexual Dysfunctions, Counseling, and Therapies 810 12. Sex Research and Advanced Professional Education 811 and spe cial forces, cav ing, moun tain eer ing, and vul can ol - References and Suggested Readings 811 ogy, and min ing and haz ard ous-substance work, as well as med i cal, emer gency, po lice, and fire fighting sce nar ios in An Introduction to Life in nat u ral and man-made di sas ters. Es sen tially, ex treme en vi- Extreme Environments ron ments are those in which hu mans, ei ther in di vid ually or in groups, have to per form under highly stressed, com plex, Antarctica and outer space are consid ered two of the and chal leng ing con di tions. The dif fer ence be tween space most extreme en vi ron ments with which hu man be ings have and Ant arc tic en vi ron ments, however , is much less than the to contend. Because of certain sim ilar i ties, these two are dif fer ence be tween those two and most of the other earthly well-suited to be ing ad dressed in one chap ter be cause of pursuits listed above, and will be detailed more fully later in their com mon el e ments, which al low one—Antarctica—to this chapter . Of par ticu lar im portance to the success or fail- be a re search en vi ron ment studied to find so lu tions to po ten - ure of a par tic ular space mis sion or polar ex pe di tion that tial prob lems in the other—space hab i tats. In fact, nu merous makes the con sid er ation of sex u al ity fac tors nec es sary, is the au thors con tinue to con sider them to gether in the hu man fac - fact that these environments entail day-to-day living and tors realm (e.g., Harri son, Clearwater, & McKay 1991; working, and thus increase the likelihood that sexuality fac - Stuster 1996; Palinkas, Gunderson, Hol land, Miller, & John - tors could have a determinative impact. Suf fice it to say that the physi cal enviroment of space has sev eral im por tant char ac ter is tics that Antarctica does not *Com mu ni ca tions: Ray mond J. Noonan, Ph.D., Health and Physi - cal Ed u ca tion De part ment, Fash ion In sti tute of Tech nol ogy of the have: microgravity, high elec tro mag netic and par ti cle ra di a- State Uni ver sity of New York, 27th Street and 7th Av enue, New tion lev els, high vac uum condi tions, lack of ox y gen, and ex - York, NY 10001 USA; 212-217-7460; [email protected]. tremes in tem per a ture and pres sure. Al though it has ex tended In addi tion to updates , this chapter now includes a new section on pe ri ods of ex treme cold and lack of hu midity , Antarctica is life in ex treme en vi ron ments and a new sec tion on Antarctica. pro tected by the Earth’s mass, which provides a mag netic 796 Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sexuality field, called the magneto spher e, that deflects most of the needed to power a jet en gine. Thus, humans would require charged parti cles that are carried by the solar wind, which physi cal pro tec tion much sooner than they would need a give rise to the Van Allen ra di a tion belts sur round ing the rocket en gine, which does not re quire at mospheric ox y gen globe as well as the po lar au ro ras. In both en vi ron ments, it is to fly. In ad di tion, at var i ous points in space, we would be nec es sary to con struct eco log i cally more-or-less closed, self- faced with the po tential ef fects of microgravity, several sustain ing habi tats for protec tion, and it is dif ficult if not im - types of ra di a tion, ex tremes in tem per a ture and pres sure, a possible to effect a quick rescue in the case of an emergency. near-com plete vacuum , and the im pact of mete or ites. There - Psychosocial factors are the key items of inter est, how - fore, for men and women to live and work ef fec tively and ever, in terms of scien tific research relat ing the two envi - safely in var i ous space en vi ron ments, en gi neers ei ther have ron ments. These in clude: iso la tion, re mote ness, haz ard ous - or will de sign ve hi cles and hab i tats, in clud ing space suits, ness, and ex tremely con fin ing quar ters—and the re sult ing with counter mea sures to pro tect spacefarers from some of high lev els of emo tional and physi cal stress that ac company these ex treme con di tions. Oth ers are per va sive, how ever, them, in clud ing de creased mo tor func tion, fa tigue, and un - like ra di a tion, which could have se ri ous con se quences out - pre dict able and po ten tially life-threat en ing oc cur rences. It side of the pro tec tion of the Earth’s magneto sphere, in which is here that sex u al ity fac tors could have an impact, po ten - lie the Van Allan radiation belts, and microgravity, which tially both positive and negative, that need to be considered. will likely have an impact on sexuality factors. The So ci ety for Human Perfor mance in Ex treme En vi - Perhaps the most criti cal aspect of space with which we ron ments (http://www.hpee.org/) is the or ga ni za tion for have to con tend, how ever, is a psychosocial envi ron ment pro fes sionals in volved in these fields. The Soci ety pub - that is “char ac ter ized by iso la tion (a sep a ra tion from the lishes Hu man Per for mance in Ex treme En vi ron ments, a nor mal or daily phys i cal and so cial en vi ron ment), con fine - jour nal de voted to fos ter ing knowl edge of and im prov ing ment (re striction within a highly limited and sharply de mar- the lev els of hu man per for mance in these environments. cated phys i cal and so cial en vi ron ment), de pri va tion, and risk” (Connors, Har ri son, & Akins 1985, 7). In fact, they OUTER SPACE said that in space, “. . . the physi cal en vi ron ment, when not ter ri fy ing, is likely to be bland” (p. 9). Pesavento (2000), in a Demographics and a Brief very re cent study of the psy cho log i cal and so cial ef fects of iso la tion in space and dur ing space-sim u la tion an a log stud- Historical Perspective ies on Earth, said that these may be the ulti mate barri ers to A. Demographics ex tended hu man space flight. He noted those fac tors that At this point in his tory, only a few hun dred men and have yet to be re solved, in clud ing: “de pres sion-like symp- women from more than 25 coun tries have trav eled and lived toms on orbit [(which Rus sian space phy sicians have named for some peri od of time in space.* With the advent of the new “neuresthenia”)]; less-than-en cour ag ing so cial in ter ac tions millen nium, and de spite the cat a strophic loss of the Space with mixed-gen der and mixed-for eign-na tional group ings; Shuttle Co lumbia on Feb ru ary 1, 2003, the per manent hu - sen sory de pri va tion; as well as the emo tional and sexual man presence in space has become firmly en trenched, with affects of close confinement on crew members” (p. 1; see the sixth crew of three be gin ning its stay on the new In ter na - also Cabbage 2001). tion al Space Sta tion (ISS) in Novem ber 2002. The largest Yet, many as tro nauts have also de scribed the pro found co op er a tive sci en tific pro gram in his tory, the ISS was de vel - sense of spir i tual and philo sophi cal aware ness they gained oped jointly by the United States, Rus sia, Can ada, Ja pan, be ing in space and view ing the awe-inspir ing pan ora mas, and Brazil, and the par tic i pat ing na tions of the Eu ro pean es pe cially look ing back at the Earth (White 1987). Some Space Agency (ESA): Belgium , Denmark , France, Ger- have noted the ab sence of geo graph ical bound aries, other many, Italy , Nether lands, Norway , Spain, Sweden, Switzer - than land and sea, and the mean ing they as cribe to it in terms land, and the United King dom (NASA 2003). Be cause of of the ab sence of po lit i cal bound aries and the unity of hu - this vir tu ally unprec e dented mix ing of cul tures in a peace - manity . Almos t certainly , our collec tive sense of the fragil - time en deavor, we must ex pect that par tici pants ’ cultural ity of Earth’s en vi ron ment has come from some of the back grounds will have an impact on gen der in ter ac tions and widely published photographs taken in space. any sex ual re la tion ships that will in ev i ta bly de velop in space For the fore see able fu ture, how ever, the lab o ra tory for en vi ron ments. Cer tainly, our com mon bi o log i cal na ture will this grand hu man ex per i ment will be the In ter na tion al have a dif ferent set of challenges in the sexological realm Space Station (ISS), the largest and most com plex sci entific that will have to be met as well. Ev idence for this comes from endeavor ever attempt ed on an inter na tion al scale, which recent studies by Italian research ers that found that levels of be gan as sembly in or bit in late 1998 and had its first sus- the sex hor mone tes tos ter one are tem po rarily de creased in tained trio of in hab it ants in No vember 2000. When fin - male astronauts by exposure to space, along with a concur - ished, the ISS will have a mass of over 1 mil lion pounds rent decrease in sexual drive or libido (Strollo et al. 1998). (454,000 kg), mea suring about 360 feet (110 m) across and The “ter ri tory” of outer space, the study of which broadly 290 feet (88.5 m) long, with al most an acre (4,000 m2) of so- comprises the do main of cos mology and as tron omy, is open lar panels for electri cal power. Fly ing at an alti tude of 250 to in ter pre ta tion. As Fazio (1997) has noted, where space be - stat ute mile s (400 km) with an in cli na tion of 51.6º, at which gins de pends on the physi cal prop er ties of the area in ques - it can be reached by all of the inter na tion al partners, the ISS tion, spe cif i cally the prob lems that need to be re solved to al - will be able to ob serve 85% of the globe, cov er ing 95% of low humans to travel and live there. For ex ample, ex treme the Earth’s popu la tion. It will be the site of a wide range of cold oc curs, and suf fi cient air to breathe is lost, at con sider - scientific endeavors and research (NASA 1999). ably lower al ti tudes ris ing from Earth than the ox y gen B. A Brief Historical Perspective *Citi zens from the follow ing countri es have flown in space: Af - The real iza tion of the fantasy of space travel is a dis - ghan i stan, Aus tria, Bel gium, Bul garia, Can ada, Cuba, Czecho slo va- tinctly 20th-cen tury phe nom e non, hav ing its an te ced ents in kia, France, Ger many, Great Britain, Hun gary, India, Is rael, Italy, the age-old fan tasy of hu man flight dat ing at least from the Japan, Mex ico, Mon go lia, Neth er lands, Po land, Ro ma nia, Rus sia, an cient Greek story of Daedalus and Icarus. Combin ing the Saudi Ara bia, Syria, Ukraine, USA, and Vietnam. hu man need for ex plo ra tion and dis cov ery with the po lit i cal Outer Space: Demographics and a Brief Historical Perspective 797 re al i ties of striv ing for na tion al is tic pres tige and mil i tary ad- Santy (1994) ex pressed her be lief that a con trib ut ing van tage, and now, with the pos sibil ity of vast eco nomic re - factor to women’s finally be ing selected as as tronauts, al- turns, the space flight rev olu tion be gan dur ing World War II though less ob vi ous, was the fact that the first pri vate toi let with the devel op ment of the first V-2 ballis tic rockets used had re cently been de signed for use on the space shuttle: by Ger many against Great Britain. One of the fas cinat ing stories sur round ing the end of the war in volves the race, won The issue of privacy , linked as it was to sex ual ity and per- by the Ameri cans, with the then-So viet mili tary to cap ture sonal hygiene, had been a big factor in NASA’s re luc tance these rockets after the fall of Nazi Germany , which, in 1946 to in clude women as astro nauts, and the de vel opment of and 1947, were used by the U.S. to carry its first bi olog i cal the pri vate toi let—prob a bly more than any other rea son— pay loads into space (Bushnell 1958). It was the V-2 rocket encour aged NASA to believe that fem ales could finally that made hu man space flight a the o ret i cal pos si bil ity, and (and without em bar rass ment to the agency) be inte grated this, in turn, both stim ulated an inter est in subor bital test into Shut tle mis sions in a way impos si ble dur ing the ear - flights and spurred the de vel opment of space bi ol ogy, as lier missions. In Gemin i and Apollo mis sions, the space - well as space medi cine, which was first discuss ed by lead ers craft required that crew mem bers live side by side without at the U.S. Air Force School of Avi a tion Med i cine in 1948 even the most mini mal capa bil ity of provid ing privacy for (Nico gossian, Pool, & Uri 1994). Thus be gan the per va sive - personal activities. (p. 51) ness of a mili tary cul ture, with its sim ilar i ties yet dis tinct dis- In 1978, the first group of as tro nauts to in clude women simi lar i ties with the wider culture of which it is a part, which and male minor i ties was chosen. It was consid ered a water - once dominated but still persists in national space programs. shed event, sig nal ing a change in the way in which fu ture Test flights by the U.S. con tin ued, in clud ing two pri - as tro nauts would be re cruited and se lected (Atkinson & mates in V-2 rock ets prior to 1950, var i ous an i mals in rock - Shafritz 1985). In fact, it was prob a bly our first ex pe ri ence ets un til 1952 and high-al ti tude bal loons from 1950 through with what would later be called the “de vel opment of space 1954, and two men in bal loons in the summer of 1957. Simi - cul tures” (cf. Har ris 1996), given that ra cial and eth nic mi - lar bal lis tic rocket flights by the So viet Un ion from 1949 nor i ties have dis tinct cul tural at ti tudes and be hav iors, and through 1957 used dogs as subjects. The Space Age proper many regard males and females as having dif ferent cultures is said to have be gun with the launch ing by the So viet Un ion as well (Francoeur 1997, 1998). Cul tural fac tors later be - in Octo ber 1957 of Sputnik-1, the first arti fi cial satel lite to came im por tant in the Space Shut tle Pro gram, which first or bit the Earth. This was fol lowed a month later by Sputnik- flew in April 1981, and in the Shut tle-Mir Program, includ - 2 car ry ing a dog named Laika, the first an i mal in or bit. The ing Shan non Lu cid’s cur rent-Amer i can-re cord 188-day U.S. re sponded with the Feb ru ary 1958 launch of Ex plorer stay on Mir, which re sulted in un prec e dented co op er a tion 1, which de tected what would be named the Van Allen ra di - and trust be tween the U.S. and Rus sian space pro grams. a tion belts. Subse quently, both the U.S. and the So viet Un - The Shuttle- Mir Program , in which several Ameri cans flew ion launched a number of an i mal flights, us ing mice, rats, on Mir be tween 1995 and 1998, was de signed in part to monkey s, dogs, or other small an i mals, sometimes to test elicit some of the pos sible psy cho log i cal, psychosocial, and sys tems that would later con tain hu mans. In April 1961, the hu man per for mance as pects of multi cul tural crews in prep - Soviet cos monaut Yuri Gagarin be came the first man to or - a ra tion for the In ter na tion al Space Sta tion (Morphew & bit the Earth, with Gherman Titov be ing the sec ond in Au - MacLaren 1997). All of these expe ri ences led to the present gust 1961. Fol lowing two manned sub or bital flights by the ISS, first known as Al pha, with its his tor i cal an te ced ents in U.S., John Glenn was the first Ameri can to reach or bital the early space stations of the U.S. (Sky lab) and USSR flight in Mercury’ s Friend ship 7 in Feb ru ary 1962. In June (Salyut) in the 1970s. 1963, Soviet cosmonaut Valentina Teresh kova became the At the pres ent time, inter na tion al trea ties govern the use first woman in space. of space, includ ing the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, the Li a - It would be al most two decades later, Au gust 1982, be - bil ity Conven tion of 1973, the Moon Agree ment of 1979 fore the sec ond woman, cosmo naut Svetlana Savitskaya, (which was never signed by the U.S. or Rus sia), and oth ers, would fly; she would later be the first woman to con duct an under the aus pices of the United Na tions Commit tee on the EVA (extravehicular ac tiv ity) in July 1984. Al though it is Peaceful Use of Outer Space. Also, other agree ments have widely ac cepted today that women will always be a part of been entered into in the telecom mu ni ca tions realm (Harris the Ameri can space program , it was over 20 years, almos t to 1996). In ad di tion, in the United States, Con gress and the the day from Tereshkova’s historic flight, be fore the first Pres i dent de ter mine space pol icy. Fed eral agen cies also af - Ameri can woman, Sally Ride, would fly on the space shut - fect space activ i ties, includ ing NASA (the National Aero- tle in June 1983, and Oc to ber 1984 for the first EVA by an nau tics and Space Ad min is tra tion), the Fed eral Com mu ni- Ameri can woman, Kathryn Sullivan (Cassutt 1993; Nico - ca tions Commis sion, and the De part ments of State, De - gossian et al. 1994). Al though it is in ter est ing to note that fense, Trans por ta tion, Com merce, and Ener gy, as well as the Tereshkova’s flight was con sidered by many at the time to mil i tary, as noted ear lier. Sim i lar na tional or ga ni za tions be a Cold War pub li c-re la tions ploy by the So viet Un ion func tion in other countries. The Space-World Bar As soci a - (Santy 1994), the United States had tested women as po ten - tion (Smith 1997) is working fur ther to de velop a pro to type tial astro nauts as early as 1960 (Atkinson & Shafritz 1985; Lu nar Eco nomic De vel op ment Au thor ity that would co or di - McCullough 1973), al though this fact is not widely re called nate the plan ning of more ex ten sive uses of space re sources, today . When news of it reached the press, it was treated with not the least of which are the mineral resour ces expected to skep ti cism and flip pancy. In fact, these women had been be mined and the microgravity environment expected to sys temat i cally barred from the space pro gram, even though make possible new manufacturing opportunities. it was thought by some in the sci en tific commu nity that Space tourism , in fact, is ex pected to be a very impor tant, women might be better suited, both physi cally and psy cho - al though ini tially ex pen sive venue in which or di nary cit i - log i cally, for the se vere re quire ments of those pi o neer ing zens will be able to visit space habi tats for their vaca tions. space flights (Levin 1989). These events il lustrate an ex am- Just as air travel has be come common today with its mass- ple of the colli sion of preju dice (sexism) with scien tific market availabil ity and the concur rent affordability re sult- knowledge that occurs all too often with sex-related issues ing from it, a few entre pre neurs are already cre ating private (see Noonan 1998a). compa nies to of fer the service. One expected attrac tion is 798 Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sexuality what a for mer U.S. con gressman called wide spread pub li c li brary in Wash ing ton, D.C.—lit tle re search has been done at ten tion to: the honey moon in space (Gingrich 1995). Such by NASA, whose typ i cal re sponse has been that sex is not ideas, of course, echoed sim ilar predic tions by sci ence fic- yet an is sue (Date 1992; Vaughan 1992). It is my con ten tion tion writ ers, such as the space vi sionary , Ar thur C. Clarke that much of this of fi cial re sponse to sex ual ex pres sion and (1986), but this was the first time that such an in her ently sex- to sexual research by the U.S. space es tablish ment has been bound human ac tiv ity was in cluded in a polit i cal vision for guided by at ti tudes dis torted by a con cep tu al iza tion of hu - Outerfuture AmericansSpace: Basic (if notSex fologicalor the bulk Pr emof iseshumanity). man sexu al ity as a ca pacity to be feared, avoided, sensa - tionalized, problemat ized, or trivialized un less con sidered 1. Basic Sexological Premises within the tra di tional bound aries of Amer i can sex ual pro - A/B. Character of Gender Roles, and pri ety. Sim i lar neg a tive views of hu man sex u al ity have failed to al le vi ate many of the per ceived prob lems of peo ple Sociolegal Status of Males and Females on Earth—and, in fact, have cre ated many more problems Early in the space pro grams of both the United States and because of igno rance and irra tio nal fear (see Francoeur & Russia, men were vir tu ally the only ones re cruited for space Perper 1997; Weis 1997). Amer i cans, af ter all, whether ed - missions. Al though this has been at trib uted to the fact that u cated sci en tists or the gen er ally sci en tif i cally ig no rant the Eisen hower Admin is tra tion in the U.S. directed that mil- general publi c, are Ameri cans first. As such, we have been itary test pi lots be the first to attempt these early mis sions be- pro foundly in flu enced by cul tural val ues pub licly ac cepted cause of their skills in test ing new air craft de signs, and the and pro mulgated by those who de fine so ci ety’s norms, even in her ent dan ger they en tailed, women had been con sidered if those norms have of ten been pri vately ignored by signifi - as early as 1960 (see Section B, A Brief Histor i cal Perspec - cant numbers of people, including, often enough, the very tive, above). At pres ent, women have been an in te gral part of leaders who promote them. the var i ous space pro grams, in clud ing com mand ing the In 1998, the first compre hen sive anal y sis of human sex- space shut tle, al though there is still not a gen der-bal ance in u al ity fac tors in re la tion to ex tended space flight, A Philo- the ranks of as tro nauts. In ad di tion, some au thors have noted sophi cal In quiry into the Role of Sexol o gy in Space Life Sci - that sex ist atti tudes have been a part of the ex peri ence of ences Re search and Hu man Fac tors Con sid er ations for some women, as well as at titudes that some women still have Extended Space flight (Noonan 1998a), was pub lished, in to prove them selves because they are women (Casper & which the au thor ex plored the issues and con straints sur - Moore 1995; Connors et al. 1985). The is sue with re gard to round ing the study of sex in space and con jec tured about the the de vel opment of the toi let, noted above, serves as an ex - po ten tial im pact of our sex ual na ture on mission suc cess or am ple of the con straints sur round ing the bi o log i cal as pects fail ure. It sug gested new ter mi nol ogy, the hu man sex u al ity of our dif fer ing anat omies, and psy chological differences com plex, as a use ful con struct in which to con sider the var i - have been cited as well (see Noonan 1998a). ous sexu al ity fac tors in which human beings interact in and C. General Concepts of Sexuality and Love with their various environments. Conjecture on the Influence of Spaceflight on The com plex ity of hu man sex u al ity, hu man sex ual re la - tion ships, and sex ual re sponses suggests the ad van tages of Sexological Issues adopt ing a com plex systems ap proach, one that draws on Levin (1989), a Brit ish con sult ant on re pro duc tive and chaos and com plex ity the o ries, in fu ture re search on sex ual sex ual phys i ol ogy, has writ ten the most ex ten sive re view of phe nom ena and the in ter ac tions of its var i ous com po nents the pos sible ef fects of space travel on these human sys tems. con ceived as sys tems (Noonan 1998ab). Re search on hu - In sur vey ing the re search lit er a ture, he wrote: man sexu al ity in space, it would seem, could def i nitely Despite th[e] large num ber of peo ple who have been ex - bene fit from the sys tems perspec tive, much as it was essen - posed to space flight with all its at tendant hazards, our tial in de vel op ing our space pro grams. It also seems worth - knowledge about the ef fects of space travel on the hu man while and rea sonable to consid er the space en vi ron ment to re pro duc tive sys tem, and hu man sex u al ity, is sparse, bor- be a culture in itself, a “microsociety in a miniworld,” as der ing on the non -e xis tent. Some of the most el e mentary Connors et al. (1985, 2) de scribed it, al though it is also in - ques tions seem not to have been in ves ti gated, indeed in flu enced by the out side cul tures that spon sor it, much as some re spects not even to have been asked. For exam ple, any or ga ni za tion or work place de vel ops an in dig e nous cul - it ap pears that no programme to eval uate the ef fect of ture, and the cul tures of birth and sub se quent or i gin of the space travel on hum an sperm ato zoa was ever initi ated de- in di vid ual crew members. In time, of course, any group will spite the obvi ous haz ard of ex po sure of as tro nauts to ra di - de velop its own culture and norms that may be independent ation, stress and G forces. Even if asked, answers have not and/or an intricate mix of the others. yet appeared in the open literature. (p. 378) [Up date 2003: Stuster (1996, 180-181) dis cussed the re - luc tance of NASA to deal with sex ual be hav ior mainly be - With re gard to the lack of re search on the be hav ioral as pects cause of con cerns about me dia re ac tions, and noted histor i - of hu man sex u al ity, Levin pro vided ad di tional insight: cal paral lels with some earlier explor ers (restricted to com - In some re spects this near-com plete avoidance of what is mand ing of fi cers and ex pe di tion lead ers when it oc curred) a sensi tive area of hum an behav iour repre sents a signif i - who took wives or mistresses with them on long voy ages. cant failure to inves ti gate fully the pos sible reasons for the He cited Kanas and Federson (1971), who “tongue in known stresses of living in iso lated, con fined en vi ron - cheek” dis cussed “Ten sion Re duc tion” as so ci ated with a ments. It is re mark able that there is no study as to whether multiyear mission to Mars: hu man sex ual ac tiv ity, or its loss [italics added], can influ - ence the adverse ef fects of such envi ronm ents e.g. bore - The ques tion of di rect sex ual re lease on a long-du ra tion dom, list less ness, sleep dis tur bances, fa tigue, im paired space mis sion must be con sid ered. Prac ti cal con sid er- cogni tion , irri ta bil ity , hostil ity , depres sio n and deteriora- ations (such as weight and expense) preclude men taking tion of personality. (p. 382) their wives on the first space flights. It is possi ble that a woman, qual i fied from a sci en tific view point, might be Despite these concerns ex pressed within the space sci- per suaded to donate her time and en er gies for the sake of ence liter a ture—and readily avail able in their headquar ters im prov ing crew mo rale; how ever, such a sit u a tion might Outer Space: Basic Sexological Premises 799

cre ate in ter per son al ten sions far more dy namic than the as well as the poten tial nega tive ones. There may also be sexual ten sions it would release. Other means of sexual prob lems in fail ing to com muni cate the find ings—and their re lease (mas tur ba tion, homo sex u ali ty) would be dis cour - impor tance—to the space commu nity , Con gress, and the aged be cause of the con fined quar ters and the lack of pri - Ameri can pub li c as a whole, once they have been stud ied. vacy on such a mis sion. Thus, it ap pears that methods in - The sexual myths of indi vid u als at all levels of the sci en- volv ing sub li mation are more practical than these more tific, ad min is tra tive, and other parts of space or ga ni za tions direct alternatives. (p. 38) and their contrac tors or subcon trac tors are also likely to have a neg a tive im pact, as the myths be come the guid ing [Stuster (1996) also noted how women contrib uted a sta - prin ci ples that are in cor po rated in the or ga ni za tional phi - bi liz ing in flu ence to the iso lated Ant arc tic re search sta tions loso phy . Per haps an other ben e fit of the space pro gram (the when they were first in tro duced to the con ti nent and be - so-called spin off ef fect) could be the fur ther ing of sex ual came a reg ular part of ex pe di tions. In con trast to the men’s knowl edge by com bin ing sex u al ity ed u ca tion and space pre vious boister ous and disrup tive behavior, he wrote: ed uca tion. Young peo ple are very in ter ested in both, and Win ter-over crews now tend to be less dis rup tive and each subject could be used to impart knowledge about the more concerned about their be hav ior or, more accu rately, Outerother, particularSpace: Alyutoerotic in the realm Behav ofiors science. and Patterns how women in their groups per ceive their be hav ior. More impor tant, the groups are be lieved to be more produc tive 4. Autoerotic Behaviors and Patterns now than they were in the male-only days of Antarctica. A/B. Children and Adolescents, and Adults Several expe ri enced Antarc tic manag ers confirm this ob- Today , mastur ba tion is be lieved to be a gen er ally healthy servation. (p. 178) and nor mal part of the ex pe ri ences of hu man be ings [Thus, it appears that this behav ior is simi lar to ordi nary through out their lifecycle. Nev erthe less, we are still influ - Amer i can life. (End of up date by R. J. Noonan)] enced by some of the be liefs of the 19th cen tury, that mas - On the In ter na tion al Space Sta tion or fu ture space habi - tur ba tion (and ejacu la tion in gen eral) de pletes cer tain per - tats, it is likely that conflicts will oc cur when the status of sonal mental and ener gy re serves, such as when coaches women and men are in her ently unequal, or if there is a per - sometimes suggest that nei ther be en gaged in prior to com- cep tion of sex ual de pri va tion among some members of a pet ing. Money (1985a) has shown that this now-dis cred ited crew when oth ers are in a sexual rela tion ship there, as has oc- de gen er acy the ory of mas tur ba tion, which some peo ple curred in Ant arctica analogs (see Noonan 1998a). An an ec - thought could be coun ter acted by proper fit ness and nu tri - dotal story tells of a Mus lim passen ger on an in ter na tion al tion, prompted prom i nent health pro ponents, such as John space flight who had to take di rec tions from a woman. When- Harvey Kellogg and Sylvester Gra ham, to de velop foods ever she ad dressed him, he ig nored her, be cause his cul tural they be lieved would extin guish sex ual ap pe tite and mastur - her i tage, in flu enced by his re li gious be liefs, pro hib ited such ba tion. Today , two of these foods re main as soci ated with contact between men and women. As a result, direc tions their creators, Kellogg’s corn flakes and graham crackers, needed to be given by the woman to a male col league who re spec tively, al though their origi nal pur pose is long for got - OuterAfthenfecting repea Space: tedSexuality themReligious, to the manEthnic, who and then Gender carried Factors them out. ten. Nev er the less, some re li gious tra di tions con tinue to op - pose mastur ba tion as moral de gen er acy. Both of these tra di - 2. Religious, Ethnic, and Gender tions—the med i cal and the re li gious—are likely to be im - Factors Affecting Sexuality por tant in the con text of space, be cause they have and will pre vent the study of mastur ba tion as a sex ual ac tiv ity that A/B. Source and Character of Religious Values, will likely be prac ticed in space, in the unlikely event that it and Character of Ethnic Values has not been al ready. Among other things, it can help to The ex pe ri ences of U.S. as tro nauts on Mir are well- coun ter act bore dom and stress, and the en vi ron ment is ame - known ex amples of some of the prob lems en coun tered by in - na ble to it, in that suf fi cient pri vacy can be found in which to ter na tion al crews of dif fer ent eth nici ties. Pesavento (2000) prac tice it. Pesavento’s (2000) re cent study noted that in the and Har ris (1996) high light the po ten tial im pact that cul tural early 1970s, a phy sician sug gested that mastur ba tion would dif fer ences have had or might have on fu ture missions. Of be an ef fec tive coun ter mea sure to main tain pros tate health par tic u lar im por tance with re spect to cul tural and re li gious and avoid uri nary tract infec tions for as tro nauts on Sky lab, factors would likely be the compat i bil ity of crewmembers’ the lon gest mission of which lasted 84 days. Chil dren and worldviews, as Francoeur and Perper (1997) have elu ci - ad o les cents will, of course, prac tice mas tur ba tion when dated. The ex ample pre vi ously noted of the Mus lim crew - they be come a part of settlements in space in the distant fu- member’s inabil ity to inter act with women as a partial result ture, just as they will have hetero- and homosexual experi - of his re li gious be liefs about innate differ ences be tween the Outerences, Space:as they Idonterpersonal on Earth in Heterosexualvarious societie Behaviors today. s sexes would also be rel e vant here. Of equal or greater im por - tance might be the or gani za tional (i.e., NASA’s) stance and 5. Interpersonal Heterosexual Behaviors corpo rate-cul tural beliefs about sex ual issues that are trans- mit ted to crew mem bers (prob a bly re in forc ing sim i lar be liefs A/B/C. Children, Adolescents, and Adults in the as tro nauts), al though such be liefs may have the same Hetero sex u al be hav ior en com passes a wide va ri ety of ques tion able effec tive ness long-term as similar ones do gen - pos si bil i ties: in spe cific ac tiv i ties, such as kiss ing, oral and OuterSexualityerally inSpace: the U.S. Knowledge and in other and societies Education today about. anal in ter course, and vag i nal-penile in ter course, for ex am - ple, and in the va ri ety of ways in which they can be done. A 3. Knowledge and Education device has been patented, the “Belt to Para dise,” to enable sex ual in ter course in microgravity (McCullough 1992). In about Sexuality ad di tion, there are nu merous fan tasy be hav iors that can be A/B. Government Policies and Programs, and acted out with a part ner or imag ined alone. Any of these Informal Sources of Sexual Knowledge heterosex u al activ i ties are very likely to occur in space at The im pact on ex tended space flight is likely to oc cur as some point in the fu ture, if some have not oc curred al ready. a re sult of poli cies that re sist the study of both the po ten tial Pesavento (2000) has dis cussed some of the ru mored pair - pos i tive as pects in her ent in the hu man sex u al ity com plex ings that have oc curred, al though ev ery one of fi cially de nies 800 Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sexuality that any thing hap pened. How ever, it seems likely that sex ual 6. Homoerotic, Homosexual, and inter cours e and oral sex have already oc curred in space. It is Bisexual Behaviors likely be cause, in our cul ture, sex is per va sive, gen der aware ness is ubiq ui tous, and the astro nauts are mostly A/B. Children and Adolescents, and Adults young, healthy peo ple. How ever, given the cur rent po lit i cal Connors et al. (1985) consid ered the pos sibil ity of cli mate, it is not possi ble nor ex pe di ent to prove that sex ual homo sex u al re la tion ships in space, al though they con sid - be hav ior has oc curred be cause of the po ten tial harm to the ered hetero sex u al re la tion ships to be the more re al is tic as tro nauts in volved, as well as to the space pro gram as a problem. At this time, it appears that homosex u al ac tivi ties whole. Spec ula tion at this time may be the best ap proach un - in their varied forms are sig nifi cantly less likely to have oc- til the next sex-pos i tive cul tural phase, which, if Reiss curred in space, even if there are gay as tronauts, simply be - (1990) is cor rect in his char ac ter iza tion of sex ual rev o lu tions cause the major ity of their colleagues are likely to be hetero- as being cy clical, will proba bly oc cur early in this century, sex ual; in addi tion, the pro cess of coming out (mak ing their that allows and em phasizes healthy sexual experience as the homosex uali ty known to oth ers) would very likely be the predominant social norm (see also Noonan 1996, 1998b). end of their ca reer. However , homosex ual sex may have oc - Given our ex pe ri ence on Earth, it is also very likely that curred, be cause in di vid uals are of ten able to find each other at least a few as tro nauts have en ter tained the no tion of be ing by con scious and un con scious subcultural cues. Then, al - the first to “do it” in space—un known to the world, but still a lowing for the ac ci dents of time and sched ul ing, po ten tial shared, cher ished, in ti mate se cret. In ad di tion, there has long homosex ual part ners may have been assigned to the same been ev i dence that higher levels of in tel li gence and over all flight, guar an tee ing train ing to gether for the mission and al - ed u ca tion—char ac ter is tics se lected-for in as tro nauts—in- lowing them to be to gether in space for sex to oc cur. Again, crease the like li hood that cer tain sex ual be hav iors will be it would not be po lit i cally ex pe di ent to prove that homosex - ex pe ri enced (Hunt 1974). At this point in the space pro gram, ual activ i ties have occurred for the same reasons noted the as tro nauts are a large-enough pop ula tion so that in di vid - above for hetero sex uals, but in this in stance, there would uals would likely be able find ap pro pri ate part ners. Pri vacy also be the po ten tially greater harm that might come to a gay and space in which any sexual activ ity can oc cur, albeit as tro naut if his (or her) sex ual ori en ta tion were un in ten tion - scarce, can be made available with appro pri ate planning. ally made pub li c (al though los ing one’s career would likely Sexual in ter course can also be done rather quickly, if need hold true for heterosexuals as well, if the activity occurred be, with very satisfactory results. outside the accepted bounds of marriage). Our ex pe ri ence on Earth with some of the hetero sex ual The num ber of women who are as tro nauts would make sub cul tures, such as mul ti ple sex ual part ner ships, also would les bi ans even less likely to be rep re sented in the as tro naut imply that, al though they have been some times problem atic corps than gay men, and thus would make it less likely that when flaunted in an at mosphere of sex ual de pri va tion for les bian sex ual ac tiv ity has oc curred. Nev er the less, both les- other crew mem bers in the anal o gous Ant arc tic set tings (see bi ans and gay men are rep re sented in other as pects of the also Stuster 1996), in the more-nor mal con di tions of typi cal space pro gram. The like li hood of bi sex u als who might be ur ban, sub ur ban, and some times ru ral set tings, ex tra mar i tal as tro nauts is more dif fi cult to assess, be cause many bi sex u - af fairs, mul ti ple re la tion ships, and even group sex, have the als typ ically do not iden tify them selves as a distinct subcul - poten tial to coex ist with the more tradi tional express ed ture, but tend to shift be tween hetero sex u al or homo sex u al norms of hetero sex u al mo nog a mous mar riage (Libby & af fil i a tions. Bi sex u als, fe male and male, who are at tracted Whitehurst 1977). When these al ter na tive re la tion ship pat - equally to females and males are less com mon than those terns are success ful (i.e., functional), it is usually be cause the who tend to fo cus on one sex or the other. With re gard to cou ple and the subcultural net work in which it func tions have multi ple pair ings, my comments with ref er ence to hetero - adopted it, and group norms have evolved that de fine their sex ual as tro nauts would also likely ap ply, al though in the ex pres sion, of ten in con trast to how they per ceive the out side case of gay as tro nauts, more or less their whole sexual world’s views of their sub cul ture’s be hav ior. In space, be - persona would need to be kept secret in the present social cause there will be lim ited pop ula tions for the fore see able fu - OuterIssuesclimate. Space: Gender Diversity and Transgender ture, both with and with out a bal anced gen der mix, the var i - ous diverse alter na tive sexual lifestyle pat terns might be an 7. Gender Diversity and av e nue of in quiry to min i mize po ten tial prob lems. Again, Transgender Issues given the current polit i cal and social cli mate in the country , it At pres ent, this issue prob a bly has no rel e vance in the may be neces sary to keep it an in ternal group secret. Never- OuterBehaviorsspace proSpace: grams. Significant Unconventional Sexual theless, a television news magazine reported the possibility that group sex had oc curred in space (Anderson 1992). 8. Significant Unconventional [Up date 2003: The first wed ding took place in space on Sexual Behaviors Au gust 10 be tween In ter na tion al Space Sta tion com mander, Yuri Malenchenko, a Rus sian cos monaut, and Rus sian-born A. Coercive Sex Ekaterina Dmitriev, an Ameri can citi zen, in Texas. A quirk in Sexual Harassment and Rape Texas law allows a person to get a mar riage license and to get Sexual harass ment has been cited as a signif i cant prob - married by proxy if one of the par ties is not in the state. lem in the mil i tary, and, al though it is of ten used now as a Malenchenko was present via a video downlink, with a means of extor tion or harass ment itself, trivializing its ac - lifesize cut out of him also used in the cer e mony in a Johnson tual victims as well as ob scuring its real meanings and inci - Space Cen ter meet ing room. Nei ther the Rus sian space dence in general, there is little infor ma tion as to whether it agency nor NASA was en thu sias tic about the mar riage, how - has been a prob lem in the train ing or other pro fes sional or ever—Russia because, as a colo nel in the air force, he needs social set tings in volv ing the as tro nauts; it could be a prob - prior clear ance for chang ing his fam ily sta tus, and NASA be - lem in a space setting where sig nifi cant levels of stress cause of the use of ISS resour ces. They will need to remarr y might pre cip i tate that or other an ti so cial be hav ior. The when they re turn to Moscow , be cause the mar riage is not rec - same might be said for rape, al though it is less com mon than ognized as valid by the Rus sians. (Boyle 2003; Stew art sex ual ha rassment. Clearly, we have not yet found the so lu - OuterBehaviors2003). Space:(End of Homup dateoerotic, by R. J.Homos Noonanexual,)] and Bisexual tions to these problems in many of Earth’s cultures. Outer Space: Significant Unconventional Sexual Behaviors 801

Cas per and Moore (1995), not ing the in stances of fric - In ad di tion, they may have value in places where there is tion in the an a log and space envi ron ments that have oc - cur rently a dis pro por tion ate ra tio of women to men. The is - curred as a result of the psychosocial stresses covered ear- sue of sex ual ha rassment would also be a fac tor when lier, at one point high lighted the possi ble sex ual vi o lence women are also mem bers of the crew, because many courts that might occur because of these stresses. Ap parently re - have adopted the standard that such mate rial sexualizes a ject ing the ev i dence that shows that mixed-sex groups func - work place because some women (and some men) are of - tion more ef fec tively in many ways than sin gle-sex groups fended by it. Al though it is unlikely that it in fact does typ i - (Bishop 1996ab; Pierce 1991; Stuster 1996), they wrote: cally sex u al ize an en vi ron ment, this po si tion fails to take into ac count the sex u ally ori ented ma te ri als mar keted to These accounts raise com pel ling questions about the lim- gay males or les bi ans, nor the femi nist-pro duced cor pus of its of the “com ple mentary sexes” model proposed by lit er a ture and films for women. As a re sult, the ban on such NASA as lead ing to more har moni ous and pro duc tive mate ri als as an expres sion of sexual harassment is typically work. Psy cho log i cal dis tur bances raise the spec ter of sex- applied only to materials oriented to heterosexual males. ual vi o lence, ra cial vi o lence, and other se ri ous in ter per - Re cently, Pesavento (2000) re vealed that por nographic son al con flicts re sult ing from stress in duced by long mis - films were avail able to cos monauts on the space station Mir, sions. It is somewhat dis turb ing to us that sex ual be hav ior which Rus sian space psy chol o gists rec om mended view ing in space is as sumed to be “total con sent ing adult free- only in the later stages of an indi vid ual cos monaut’ s flight. choice sex.” Given con tempo rary gendered power dy - He also described the sur prise that Ameri can astro naut Nor- namics, this seems naively ideal is tic. Yet, an inter est ing man Thagard had when he found that these soft-core French re search question is pre sented by the possi ble ef fects of and Italian erotic videos were there. Pesavento also de- weightless ness on expres sions of sexual and other types scribed plans for a movie to be made on Mir, in which sex ual of vio lence. For exam ple, how would physi cal/bodily de- ac tiv ity would be filmed, for which the Rus sian Space teri o ra tion affect an indi vid u al’s capa bil ity to overpo wer, Agency had al ready been paid mil lions of dol lars for train - force, and/or in jure an other as tro naut? What does force ing the actors for their time in space. However , the film mak- look like in a 0-grav ity context? Despite these con cerns, ers were not able to raise the ad di tional mil lions needed to is sues of sexual vi olence are rarely raised with respect to save the Mir from its planned de orbit ing, which occurred at long-term travel, and when we mentioned this possibility the end of March 2001. to informants they seemed vaguely puzzled. (p. 325) D. Paraphilias Co er cive sex ual be hav iors and bla tant sex ual ha rass ment The paraphilias are those be hav iors that are de pend ent on are not likely to be a prob lem in space, ex cept in the event of atyp i cal or so cially un ac cept able things for sex ual arousal, a com plete break down of the microsociety within the space such as in an i mate ob jects or parts of the body or events that cul ture. As Pierce (1991) noted, such microaggressions are are linked erotosexually to a per son’s child hood. They are usually more ver bal and do not re sult in ex plo sive vi o lence. thought to arise out of a traumatic or simi lar event that af fects Rather, Cas per and Moore frame out comes of sexual ex - psy cho sex ual de vel op ment at crit i cal pe ri ods dur ing a pres sion as likely to be neg a tive, re flect ing the pre vail ing child’s life. Never the less, one may specu late that a gener ally antisexualism of our cul ture, and is a clear exam ple of the sex ually re pres sive en vi ron ment would, at the same time, fa - con cerns noted by Money (1995b) re gard ing the effects of cil itate the expres sion of paraphilias. In rela tion to space - the pseudoscience of victimology today. flight, there fore, it would be in cumbent upon space offi cials Nev er the less, Pesavento (2000) noted that an at tempted to cre ate and main tain a sex u ally pos i tive en vi ron ment to sex ual as sault did oc cur in a more-than-six-month-long OuterPlanningavoid theSpace: probl Contraception,ems associated withAbortion, paraphilic and bePopulationhaviors. sim u lated Mir mission module at the In sti tute for Bio medi - cal Prob lems in Moscow . Al co hol was involved, as it oc - 9. Contraception, Abortion, and curred dur ing a New Year’s cele bration. Still, it is impor tant Population Planning to empha size that possi bil ity does not equal like li hood. [Up date 2003: Dudley-Rowley and her col leagues (2001/ A/B. Contraception and Abortion 2002) con tinue to look at crew and mis sion char ac ter istics Ef fec tive con tra cep tion is es sen tial for long-term space that might affect de vi ance, con flict, and dsyfunction in ex - travel for hetero sex ual cou ples, and efforts need to be un - treme en vi ron ments. (End of up date by R. J. Noonan)] der taken to de velop safe and ef fec tive con tra cep tive tech- niques, both for use on Earth and in space. Preg nancy is cur - B. Prostitution rently a con tra in di ca tion for space flight be cause we do not Pros titu tion will likely find its way to space settle ments know what ef fect the space en vi ron ment would have on a once com mer cial ex change be comes es tab lished there, but fe tus con ceived on Earth. Abor tion would prob a bly be re - it will not likely be an issue in any scenario until some time quired in the event of failed con tra cep tion while in space, later in this century . It may well be a part of the ex pected be cause of mixed re sults found with the de vel opment of fer - sex-tour ism indus try that is ex pected to oc cur in the not- til ized eggs of var i ous an i mals, al though the morn ing-af ter too-dis tant future. pill could be available as an alter na tive of first choice. Be- cause abortion at the earli est stages is rela tively simple to C. Pornography and Erotica perform , the neces sary equipment for a menstrual extrac - It seems reason able to expect that there would be a place tion or for a later suc tion cu ret tage should be avail able in the for por nographic and erotic ma te ri als dur ing a long flight. med i cal sta tion, as well as ap pro pri ate preg nancy-test ing Bluth (1985) has noted that at some Ant arc tic re search sta - kits. Re turn ing to Earth would simply not be an op tion, at tions, “the men liked to watch por no graphic films and it’s least for the fore see able fu ture, given that we do not know best if a woman is not of fended by por nogra phy” (p. 143). whether hu man de vel op ment in utero is possible, nor what This brings up ques tions of a sexological na ture that may would occur later in life if a birth did occur after conception have rele vance to ex tended spaceflight. If sexu ally ori ented in space. mate ri als have the ability to re lieve stress under extremely In an series of arti cles dealing with the ef fects of space try ing con di tions, then they should be stud ied to de ter mine on humans posted at one time on NASA’s website, Jenks if, in fact, they do. They also may serv e as a morale booster. (1996) noted that “NASA has not stud ied the sub ject of hu - 802 Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sexuality man repro duc tion in space.” It was the first sentence of an somewhat, and the pro cess of deconditioning be gins (un - arti cle misti tled “Sex in Space,” which went on to briefly less ex er cise is used to com pen sate for the loss by forc ing dis cuss de vel op men tal bi ol ogy and plant and an i mal re pro - the heart to pump harder). A simi lar con di tion oc curs with duc tion. How ever, it did, per haps, un in ten tion ally serv e to overall body mus cle tone, es pecially the large, weight-bear- highlight the pronatalist bias that persists in many soci et ies’ ing, anti-grav ity mus cles that allow us to walk erect and con cep tion of the pri mary pur pose of sex u al ity, that is, its main tain an up right pos ture. There fore, we can prob a bly procreational as pects. The more-common (and proba bly ex pect a change in our per cep tion of the various physiologi - more im por tant at the in di vid ual level) rec re ational and cal phases of the sexual response cycle. relational as pects of sex ual be hav ior, on the other hand, Anec dotal sto ries con firm that erec tions can and do were simply ig nored, likely be cause of the erotic com po - take place in space, althoug h a charac ter iza tion of the qual- nents that tend to fuel them (Noonan, 1998a). ity of these erec tions has not been done. In for mation about whether women have expe ri enced clitoral erections and C. Population Programs vag i nal lu bri ca tion has not been forth com ing, al though the Popu la tion plan ning will be come an is sue when set tle - homol o gous na ture of this as pect of the sex ual re sponse cy - ments are needed to be de signed for lu nar, Mar tian, or other cle would sup port the con clu sion that they have. NASA outposts , and in that case, it is likely to be at the level of en- could be easily moni tor ing this while the as tro nauts slept. gi neer ing the so cial en vi ron ment around the pro fes sional One may con jecture that both female and male as tronauts, ex per tise needed for the var i ous parts of the mission (Harris when they are not asleep, would per ceive a dif ference in OuterAIDS1996). Space: Sexually Transmitted Diseases and HIV/ their gen i tal re sponses from their normal preflight ex pe ri - ences. Us ing Masters and John son’s (1966) four-phase 10. Sexually Transmitted Diseases model of the hu man sexual re sponse cy cle, each phase and HIV/AIDS might be af fected in the fol lowing ways. During the ex cite - ment or arousal phase, penile erec tions in men may not feel The typi cal Earth-bound STDs with which we have to as physi cally strong, par ticu larly as the time in space gets con tend may pres ent ad di tional prob lems in space. This is lon ger and the body con tin ues to adapt to weight lessness because there is evi dence that the immun e sys tem is compro - by deconditioning. The increase in respi ra tion—the heavy mised by space flight, al though Sherr and Sonnenfeld (1997) breath ing or hy per ven ti la tion, along with the in crease in wrote that some results are dif ficult to inter pret. How ever, if blood pres sure and heartrate ex pe ri enced dur ing arousal this is found to be true, they thought it could se verely limit through the pla teau phase to or gasm—may also take more long-term hu man space flight. Cer tainly, ad di tional stud ies ef fort and feel more tir ing as time pro gresses for the same are needed to clarify this possi bil ity , as well as to continue to reason. In women, clitoral erections and vaginal lubrica - learn more about our immune sys tems to be able to meet tion are likely to be similarly perceived. these challenges. There might also be the possi bil ity that other dis ease or gan isms could mutate and be come new Both vag i nal lu bri ca tion in women and the erec tion of STDs. The same is true for HIV/AIDS as well. In ad di tion, the cli to ris and its homologue in men, the pe nis, are essen - there is the possi bil ity that studies that gain a better under - tially vasocongestive in char ac ter. Vasocongestion forces stand ing of the hu man immune sys tem in space may have di - the lu bri cat ing flu ids through the pores of the walls of the rect appli ca tion for deal ing with HIV/AIDS. It is also pos si- va gina. This re sponse var ies with age, de creas ing as women ble, given that drugs are expected to be man ufac tured in get older. This is likely to have an impact on as tro nauts who space because crystals form more purely in microgravity, even tu ally travel to Mars, be cause older in di vid u als are that space science could assist in eradi cat ing AIDS, as well now thought to be among the prime can di dates for such a OuterTherapias the STDsSpace:es and Sexual other Dysfunctions,diseases and conditions. Counseling, and trip be cause of the higher ex po sure risk to ra di a tion in in ter - plane tary flights. The main idea is that because the radi a tion ef fects are usually mani fested many years later, it would be 11. Sexual Dysfunctions, Counseling, more likely that the as tro nauts would ap proach the nat u ral and Therapies end of their live s be fore the ra di a tion ef fects would be come Sex ual re sponse can be viewed phys i o log i cally as es - evi dent. In addi tion, it is likely that the older astro nauts sen tially a se ries of car dio vas cu lar and mus cu lar events re- would be well past the stage of start ing fam i lies than youn - sult ing in a buildup of vasocongestion and myotonia to a ger ones would, given the im pact of the possible and psychophysiological peak and re lease known as cli max or probable effects of radiation on gamete production. or gasm—coupled with a buildup and re lease of mus cu lar The myotonia, the in crease in mus cle tension also char - ten sion. In the hu man sexual re sponse cy cle, as sexual stim - acter is tic of the sexual excite ment and plateau phases, is ula tion pro gresses, blood engorges the vas cu lar tis sues of likely to be ex pe ri enced by the as tro nauts as be ing less in - the cli to ris, pe nis, and other parts of the body in the pro cess tense dur ing space flight than they nor mally ex pe ri ence on called vasocongestion, while the buildup of muscle tension Earth, par tic u larly in the vol untary muscle groups over (myotonia) oc curs. This is usu ally ac compa nied by an in - which we have conscious control. This ef fect may increase crease in res pi ra tion and met a bolic ac tiv ity. Or gasm re- as the time in space increases because of the progres sive leases and is typi cally con sidered the climax of this vaso- deconditioning of the muscles. Sex ual ac tiv ity, thus, might congestion and myotonic buildup of sexual ten sion, in a be an ideal part of an exer cise pro gram that peo ple would par ox ys mal, rhyth mic, re flex ive dis charge of en ergy, typ i - very likely want to do reg ularly to maintain overall body cally resulting in a feeling of relaxation throughout much of and sexual fitness. the body. All of the effects on the hu man sexual re sponse cy cle Among the most vis i ble phys i o log i cal ef fects of space - just de scribed pro vide pos sible mech a nisms for a break - flight are the shifts in body flu ids, most im portantly the down at some point in the cy cle. Thus, there is the distinct blood, which rises from the lower extrem i ties to settle into pos si bil ity that any of the sex ual dys func tions ex pe ri enced the chest cavity and head. In time, the cardio vas cu lar sys- by men and women on Earth may in crease or be ag gra vated tem accli mates itself to the new envi ron ment. At the same in the space en vi ron ment. But, just as Masters and John son time, with less blood volume and no lon ger the need to (1966) in di cated with re spect to hu man sexual func tion ing pump blood against grav ity, the heart muscles be gin to re lax on Earth, the range of nor mal func tion ing in space will need Outer Space: Sexual Dysfunctions, Counseling, and Therapies 803 to be clari fied before mecha nism s and ameliorative actions grams for space life sci en tists should in cor porate sexo - for sex ual dysfunc tions can be de scribed. Coun sel ing prac - logical in for ma tion into their cur ric ula, and sexol o gists tices will also need to take into ac count the unique psycho - have the ex per tise necessary to provide knowledgeable social en viron ment and the total space ex peri ence to be ef - input at all levels of the educational spectrum, including fec tive. In ad di tion, coun ter mea sures found to treat space - Outeradvanced Space: medic Conclusional training for physicians. re lated sex ual dysfunction should have application to the same problems on Earth. Conclusion Re cently pub lished data sup port the spec u la tion that It should be clear that the in te gra tion of var i ous human there would likely be some ef fect on sex ual func tion ing, and mis sion com po nents work syn er gis ti cally to pro vide al though deconditioning was not the fo cus of the study. the con text in which space mis sions will func tion and how Strollo et al. (1998) mea sured hor mone secre tion in four they might be af fected by the hu man sexu al ity complex. At male as tro nauts pre-, in-, and postflight to test their hy - the same time, it is not yet as clear that humans on Earth will poth e sis that stress-in duced hor mone changes might im - soon come to terms with their own sexualities, as Perry pair go nadal func tion by re duc ing testicular an dro gen (es - (1990) has noted, and this should be a cause for con cern. pe cially tes tos ter one) se cre tion. In ad di tion to its many De spite this tru ism and the dem on strated ev i dence that var i - roles in the dif fer en ti a tion of the fe tus and the de vel op - ous space life sci en tists and oth ers have pro jected that sex u - ment of the second ary sex charac ter is tics at pu berty in al ity fac tors are likely to have an impact on fu ture long-term males, tes toster one stim ulates the sex drive (libido) in both space mis sions, the inter sec tion between the two scien tific sexes. Strollo et al. found that “[s]exual drive was re duced special ties whose do mains encom pass either the space life inflight and postflight as com pared with preflight (p < sci ences or sex ual ity and gen der has scarcely be gun to be 0.05)” (p. 135), which cor re lated with a de crease in tes tos- in ves ti gated. This should serve as a call to ac tion to pre pare ter one lev els in the men. In addi tion, they noted that there ade quately for meet ing the challenges ex pressed here. One were no en do crine signs of acute stress, in that the lev els of fo cus of in ter ven tion will need to be di rected to ward the adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) and cortisol (CS), al though manag ers and mission plan ners; the other fo cus will need to high from the preflight an tic i pa tion that astro nauts typ i - be on the indi vid ual crewmem bers, as well as their fam ilies cally feel, did not change inflight, although in tersti tial- and in ti mate part ners. My ear lier work (Noonan 1998a) cell-stim ulat ing (i.e., luteinizing) hormone (LH) levels might well serv e as a ra tio nale and an out line for ac tion for un ex pect edly in creased. LH stim u lates the se cre tion of the man ag ers and planners in the space endeavor. Certainly, testos ter one in the testes. The research ers also found that wherever humanity goes, our sexuality will surely follow. tes tos ter one lev els re cov ered dra mat i cally one day fol low - To me, possi bly the most impor tant con clu sion to come ing the as tro nauts’ re en try from space. Thus, they noted, out of my study was embod ied in the new ter minol ogy I “For the first time, space life sciences research has shown coined, the hu man sex u al ity com plex, that con cep tu al ized re vers ible pri mary hypoandro genism in man during ex po - the var i ous fac tors of hu man sex u al ity to be com po nents of sure to microgravity” (p. 136). Nev er the less, al though tes - a unified system, one that has charac ter is tics as cribed to toster one levels recov ered quickly (as measured in the sa - cha otic, com plex sys tems. Such a con cep tu al iza tion, I be- liva), they noted that 15 days af ter re en try, other mea sure - lieve, will allow scien tists in both the sex ual and space life ments suggested that more than two weeks were re quired sciences, as well as policymakers in the publi c domain, to for com plete recov ery at the cel lular level. The timeframe better un der stand and ad dress both the po ten tial prob lems for li bido re cov ery, how ever, was not re vealed in the ar ti - of sex and the role that healthy sex ual ex pres sion has in so- cle, or even whether it did re cover. The au thors stated that ciety and in space. Once we are ef fectively able to do that, further research was needed to clarify whether fluid shifts the con sid er ation of the hu man sex u al ity com plex in the or altered androgen distribution in the body because of closed eco log i cal en vi ron ments of space will appear more OuterProfessionalmicrogravity Space: EducationwasSex responsibleResearch and for Advancedthe results. Outerjustified, Space: and so Ref a spaceerences sexology and Suggested might well Readin be established.gs

12. Sex Research and Advanced References and Suggested Readings Professional Education An derson, G. 1992 (May 15). Is NASA secretly exper i ment ing with sex in space? Now it can be told (Geraldo Rivera tele- In the space arena, the time will eventu ally come when vision program) [Of ficial transcript] . Livingston, NJ: Bur- sexological con cerns are rec og nized as le git i mate top ics for relle’s In for ma tion Services. re search in sup port of ex tended space flight mis sions. Ad- Atkinson, Jr., J. D., & J. M. Shafritz. 1985. The real stuff: A his- minis tra tors at the top lev els of man age ment and those with tory of NASA’s astr o naut recruit ment program . New York: influ ence within the space life sciences of national and in- Praeger Pub lish ers. terna tion al space agen cies, such as NASA, the Rus sian Bishop, S. L. 1996a (May). Psychosocial issues in spaceflight . Space Agency, and the Eu ropean Space Agency, need to en- In: R. J. Noonan (Chair), Space Life Sciences Sympo sium. cour age and sup port rel e vant bio med i cal, psychosocial, Sym po sium con ducted at the 15th In ter na tion al Space De - and hu man fac tors pro fes sion als within their or ga ni za tions velop ment Confer ence (ISDC), May 24, 1996, New York, to re ceive advanced sexological train ing. These pro fes sion- NY. als should be urged to make con tact with col leagues in Bishop, S. L. 1996b (No vember 15). Psychosocial issues of sexol ogy to find out the ad vances and con cerns within this mixed-gender crews in space. In: R. J. Noonan (Chair), Women and men in space: Impli ca tions for the space and disci pline that might have rel e vance to their space flight re - sex ual sci ences. Sym po sium conducted at the 39th annual sponsi bil i ties, as well as to of fer their knowl edge from the meeting of the Soci ety for the Sci entifi c Study of Sexu al ity space pro gram that might be rel e vant to the work of sexol o - (SSSS), No vember 15, 1996, Houston, TX. gists. The Soci ety for the Sci entific Study of Sexu al ity Bluth, B. J. 1985. Space sta tion/Ant arc tic analogs (ITT, Antarc - (SSSS), with its inter na tion al member ship, would be the tic Services Contrac tor Reports NAG 2-255 and NAGW- pro fes sional or ga ni za tion of sexol o gists whose ex per tise in 659). Reston, VA: Space Station Program Of fice, NASA. sex re search, coun sel ing and ther apy, and ed u ca tion would Boyle, A. 2003 (July 18). Space wed ding faces compli ca tions. pro vide the best in ter dis ci plin ary sup port that would ben e - MSNBC News: Technol ogy and Science . Avail able: http:// fit the work of space life sci en tists. In ad di tion, train ing pro - www.msnbc.com/news/940767.asp?0bl=-0&cp1=1. 804 Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sexuality

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Strollo, F., G. Riondino, B. Harris, G. Strollo, E. Casarosa, N. Mangrossa, C. Ferretti, & M. Luisi. 1998 (Febru ary). The ef fect of microgravity on testicular andro gen secre tion. Avi - a tion, Space, and En vi ron men tal Med i cine, 69(2), 133-136. Stuster, J. 1996. Bold endeav ors: Lessons from po lar and space ex plo ra tion. Annapolis, MD: Na val Insti tute Press. Thagard, N. 1997 (June). Ad ditional com ments from Norm Thagard. Sidebar to: Astro naut draws atten tion to psychol - ogy, com mu ni ca tion (pp. 42-47). Hu man Per for mance in Ex treme En vi ron ments, 2(1), 47. Vaughan, D. 1992 (De cember). Sex in space: The final frontier . Pent house Fo rum, pp. 48-53. Weis, D. L. (1997). Ad oles cent sexu al ity [The United States of America] . In: R. T. Francoeur, ed., In ter na tion al en cy clo pe- dia of sex u al ity (Vol. 3, pp. 1479-1498). New York: Contin - uum. [The updated version also appears in this volume.] White, F. 1987. The overview effect: Space explo ra tion and hu- ConSexualityAntarctica:Perspectivemantin uum evo lu DCom tionem. ographicsplete Boston: In ter Hought na andtion aon Brial Mif Enefflin cy Historical cloCo.pe dia of

ANTARCTICA Demographics and a Brief Historical Perspective The con ti nent of Antarctica at the south ern pole of the (CIA 2002) globe en compasses 10% of the world’s land mass, about the size of the United States and Mex ico com bined. Cov er ing 5.4 lia were the larg est in terms of number of peo ple in 2002 million square miles (14 million km2), it is the fifth-largest (ac cord ing to the CIA data). Al though a nov elty in the be - con ti nent, with only 108,000 square mile s (280,000 km2) gin ning, women are now an integral part of life there. ice-free. It is the coldest place on Earth with tem pera tures Once the ar du ous task of reach ing the con ti nent was ac - rang ing from about –25° C to –80° C (–13° F to –112° F), complished for the first time, scien tific discov ery be came with the low est re corded tem per a ture of –89° C (–129° F). It the ma jor fo cus. Of ten-in tro spec tive ac counts writ ten in di - holds 90% of the world’s ice and 70% of its fresh water . It is a a ries by the early ex plor ers pro vide valu able knowl edge land mass with an av er age ice thick ness of 1.24 mile s (2 km) about their psy cho log i cal ex pe ri ences and so cial in ter ac - and can be as thick as 2.97 mile s (4.776 km). For about six tions. These intro spec tive re ports gave way af ter World months of the year, there is no sunlight at the pole. Most ac - War II to for mal be hav ioral stud ies. Dur ing the win ter sea - tiv ity there oc curs dur ing the brief Ant arc tic summer from son be tween Feb ru ary and No vember , the sta tions are Novem ber to early Febru ary, al though summer storms with closed to out side travel. Cornelius (1991) de scribed the iso- temper a tures as low as –60° C (–76° F) and bliz zard con di - la tion, which can vary, de pend ing on the sta tion and its dis - tions can oc cur. Chile, Ar gen tina, Aus tra lia, and South Af- tance from the pole, from about seven to nine months: rica are the coun tries clos est to the conti nent, which is sur- The iso lation is alm ost com plete: no mail, no visi tors, no rounded by the South ern Ocean, which meets the South At - leav ing, and no fresh sup plies. Outside con tact is pri marily lan tic, the South Pa cific, and the In dian Oceans (Cornelius by the high-fre quency radio and sometimes by a satel lite 1991; Tay lor 1991; John Splettstoesser, polar consultant, link. The first-ever midwin ter airdrop at [Amundsen-Scott] personal communication, April 25, 2003). South Pole [Sta tion] was ac complished with a C-141B In July 2002, Antarctica had an esti mated win ter pop u - (refuelable ver sion) in June of 1981 and has been done al - la tion of 964, about one quar ter of the sum mer popu la tion of most every year since. (p. 10) 3,687. No other de mographic data are avail able, other than the num ber of in di vid u als rep re sent ing each coun try that is The air drop brings mail, fresh fruit and veg e ta bles, mov ies, a party to the Antarc tic Treaty; these data are avail able in and other items. Cornelius ex pressed his view that this The World Fact book 2002 (CIA 2002). somewhat di minished the totalness of the iso la tion. He also B. A Brief Psychohistorical Perspective noted that the ra dios and other transmis sions were some- times unavail able be cause of so lar storms. Today , the There is no in dig e nous human presence. However , both Internet and email pro vide better com mu ni ca tions ca pa bil - men and a few women have been part of the pi oneer ing ex - i ties than ever ex isted be fore, al though they too can be spo - ploratory ef forts over the years since inter est in Antarctica radic. In 1999, the first mid winter res cue from the United be gan in 1892. Since the 1957 In ter na tion al Geo phys i cal States’ Amundsen-Scott South Pole Sta tion was at tempted Year (IGY), there has been a con tin uous human presence on that suc ceeded in the emer gency evac ua tion of Dr. Jerri the con ti nent, which no coun try owns and which has been Niel sen (2001), who di ag nosed and treated her own breast set aside for scien tific and peaceful uses by treaty. As such, can cer be fore be ing air lifted out, which made headlines ap prox i mately 27 na tions* have re search pro grams in Ant- around the world. arctica, ei ther in the summer or year-round, of which those of the United States, Chile, Ar gen tina, Rus sia, and Aus tra - Antarctica is often described as an extreme en viron - ment, and hu man per for mance in ex treme en vi ron ments is just one ma jor fo cus of re search be ing ex plored there to day. *The na tions with re search teams in Antarctica at vari ous times in - Pierce (1991) wrote that Antarctica was an envi ron ment clude: Ar gen tina, Aus tralia, Bel gium, Brazil, Bul garia, Chile, China, (like space) in which peo ple would ex pe ri ence the stressful Fin land, France, Ger many, In dia, It aly, Ja pan, Neth er lands, New ef fects of pro longed iso la tion, con fine ment, un cer tainty, Zea land, Norway , Peru, Poland, Russia, South Afric a, South Korea , and haz ard. In ad di tion, he de scribed other sources of stress Spain, Sweden, Ukraine, United Kingdom , USA, and Uruguay. and the potential results: 806 Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sexuality

In hab it ants in both places are subject to impor tant psy - char ac ter ized by iso la tion, con fine ment, de pri va tion, and chosocial stresses that af fect the success of the expe di tion. risk, as noted ear lier. In ad di tion to space-based ex pe ri ence These in clude lack of pri vacy, bore dom, inabil ity to es - (Boe ing Aero space Com pany/Na tional Be hav ior Sys tems cape, forced so cial iza tion, anx i ety, and nos tal gia. While 1983a; Bluth & Helppie 1986/1987), space sci en tists rely op er at ing un der these bur dens, each in di vid ual must com- on in for mation learned about hu man be hav ior in so-called ply with a welter of regu la tions, form al and in form al. an a log en vi ron ments found here on Earth. An a log en vi ron - Some of these are im posed by outside author i ties, some by ments are those that scien tists believe closely ap proxi mate the per son’s cul ture, and oth ers by de vel op ing tra di tions some of the key con di tions found in space, such as the re - within the group. Sen si tiv ity to ob li ga tions and reg u la - search stations in Antarctica, which are also remote and tions is compounded in stress ful envi ron ments because of haz ard ous. Stud ies in clude those in Antarctica (Bluth 1985; the height ened impor tance of vig i lance and leader-fol - Har ri son, Clearwater, & McKay 1991a) and un der wa ter lower re lations. Constantly , the individual must assess hab i tats such as long-range nuclear sub marines (Boe ing and evaluate each crewmember’s entitlements. Aero space Com pany/Na tional Be hav ior Sys tems 1983b). Under these con di tions, or ders from the outside world, The de scrip tions of Ant arctica by Cornelius (1991) and dif fer ences in life style, dif fer ing pref er ences for such Tay lor (1991) high light why it is con sidered the best Earth things as music, and conflicts over the use of an exer cise an a log for stud ies of the psychosocial pro cesses that will fa cil ity can de velop com pli ance fric tions. This psycho - oc cur dur ing long-term space mis sions. Based on such an a - social travail can yield of fend ing slights, or microaggres - log stud ies, ex tended space missions, like Ant arc tic ex pe di - sions, rather than full-blown ex plo sions or so cial turbu - tions, are ex pected to fol low what might seem to be a quite- lence. (p. 126) ob vi ous pat tern, i.e., they have a be gin ning, a mid dle, and an end, each with vary ing du ra tions. Yet, each has spe cific Pierce (1991) also listed a num ber of other pos sible char ac ter is tics with dis tinct psy cho log i cal ram i fi ca tions for phys i o log i cal and psychosocial dis tur bances that could re - the par tic i pants, re gard less of the full length of the en tire sult in some peo ple at some point dur ing their stay. These in - mission. Of primary importance are the coping mechanisms cluded: sleep dis tur bances, anx i ety, in creased territori ality, that the individuals use to deal with the stresses at hand de creased per for mance, re duced mo ti va tion, im paired men- Antarctica:(Palinkas 1989, Basic 1991, Sex 1992;ological Palinkas Prem ises& Browner 1995). tal ef fi ciency, with drawal, and oc ca sion ally, aug mented sug gest ibil ity and bi o log i cal dysrhythmia. How ever, he 1. Basic Sexological Premises noted, un like the space en vi ron ment in which space mo tion sick ness has been a re cur ring prob lem, no po lar-pe cu liar ill - A. Character of Gender Roles nesses or de range ments have yet been found. The reader is For most of the 20th cen tury, the pri mary or ga ni za tion referred to Harri son, Clearwater, and McKay (1991abc) for that sup ported ex plor atory and sci en tific ex pe di tions to a compre hen sive review of other Antarctica research that is Antarctica for the United States was the U.S. Navy, al - be ing ap plied to space hab it abil ity issues (see also the Outer though ci vil ians con ducted vir tu ally all of the ex plo ra tion Space section of this chapter). and sci ence af ter the 1957 IGY (John Splettstoesser, po lar In terms of pos si ble ram i fi ca tions for the hu man sex u al - con sult ant, per sonal com mu ni ca tion, April 25, 2003). As ity complex (Noonan 1998ab) in extreme en vi ron ments, it such, the old mil i tary’s at ti tudes to ward women were de cid - is inter est ing to compare the occur rence of these microag- edly exclusionary—and all-male cultures were the norm. gressions with simi lar mi nor prob lems that many cou ples As women began to in trude in this all-male world, at ti tudes liv ing in more-nor mal sit u a tions ex pe ri ence af ter liv ing to - slowly changed, al though then-cur rent bi ases were te na - gether or be ing pri marily fo cused on each other over ex - cious. Today , pri vate con trac tors con duct most of the Amer - tended pe ri ods of time. These microaggres sions are usu ally ican research in Antarctica, under the aus pices of the Na- ex pressed as ver bal, of ten sub tle com ments, which can be tional Sci ence Foun da tion (NSF), and women are a reg u lar per ceived as insults that some times build up to what of ten part of the pro grams. Kanas (1992) has noted that dur ing ap pear to be ma jor ar gu ments over minor issues. The ap par - long-term Ant arc tic ex pe di tions, sta tus lev el ing oc curs, in ently al most-univer sal oc cur rence of this fric tion on some which lead er ship di verges into do mains of ex per tise, such level in al most every group in the close quar ters of the Ant - as emotional sup port functions, out of which con flicts may arctic stations (in the ap parent absence, at least presum ably arise (of which some may be gender-based). in most cases, of any sex ual in ter ac tion) might pro vide us Sim i larly, other na tions’ ex pe di tions orig i nally con sisted with some insight into the phe nome non, both on Earth as it ex clu sively of men. Con di tions were con sidered so se vere so commonly oc curs with in ti mate cou ples and small work - that only men were thought to be able to with stand the rig ors groups, and its po ten tial oc cur rence in space. In ad di tion, it of Antarc tic life. Finally , after a num ber of women—always might be worth look ing to the re sults of re search that seeks vastly out numbered by men—joined ex pe di tions over many to dis cern the mecha nism s for its occur rence and the ef forts years, in 1984, an ex pe di tion con sisting solely of women that are be ing sought to pre vent it, and ap ply them to ev ery - was sponsored by Ger many. Since then, women have be gun day life on Earth. In those groups that had both men and to ap proach, but have not yet fully achieved, par ity with men women, cer tain fric tions surround ing the ac tual or pre - in terms of their num ber and job func tions. Today , it ap pears sumed heterosexual activity of others have been high - that women make up about 25% to 40% of most ex pe di tions, lighted by a few reports, which I will review shortly. with a higher per cent age of women in the sum mer than who Never the less, as with any fron tier, national prestige fac- winter over, although some still consist of all men. tors en tered into some of the very early at tempts to be the Robin Burns (2001) pro vides impor tant in sights into this first to reach the “white conti nent,” sim ilar in many respects history through the live s of women, mostly Aus tra lian, who to that which moti vated the ex plo ra tions that found the New have lived and worked in Antarctica, pro vid ing at the same World centu ries earlier . Pierce (1991) noted that commerce, time impor tant in sights into var i ous aspects of the char ac ter science, defense, and poli tics are the factors that are of stra- of gen der roles there. A summer expeditioner her self, she in - te gic im por tance today for both Antarctica and space ex plo - ter viewed 130 women who spent some time there. Al though ra tion, of which Antarctica is con sidered an an a log for sci - the time frames of the ex pe di tions of most of the women were en tific re search pur poses, be cause both en vi ron ments are the 1980s and 1990s, some trav eled there in the 1960s and Antarctica: Basic Sexological Premises 807

1970s, with a few go ing there even in 1959. Thus, Burns con fus ing nu dity with in vit ing sex ual ac tiv ity. How ever, in gives us a sense of the changes that have oc curred as re ported both of these cases, there is appar ently no overtly sexual by these women, as she high lights the his tory of women on significance involved. the con ti nent. She also provides a look at the hard ships faced Given the re al i ties of sex ual ity to day and the wide spread by women and the im pact of the ex tended sep a ra tion from per cep tion that be ing as so ci ated with it some how com pro- their fam i lies, which prob a bly apply to others as well. She mises one’s profes sional stand ing and cred i bil ity, it is nec - writes: essary to look at ways in which research ers can release the results of any sex-related research that might be done. Gen- Even with mod ern com mu ni ca tions be tween Antarctica der-re lated re search does not carry the ad di tional bur den and Austra lia, twelve to fif teen months is a long time for that specif i cally sex-related research does, and is thus being couples to be sepa rated. New rela tion ships can form that released and results presented at confer ences of ten today are dif ficult to ex plain, and each may find it hard to un der - (e.g., Gen der on Ice: Proceed ings of a Con fer ence on stand the expe ri ences of the other; for ex am ple, the in ten - Women in Antarctica, Edwards & Gra ham 1994; “Gender - sity of life in Antarctica, or the new-found inde pend ence Based Dif fer ences in the Car dio vas cu lar Re sponse to of the part ner left at home. (p. 18) Stand ing,” Gotshall, Tsai, & Frey 1991). This may be partly She also dis cussed the dif fi cul ties in keeping up with youn - because gen der has become neutered, in ef fect allow ing it to ger chil dren’s de vel opment, al though the use of the Internet be “uncon tam i nated” by sex, (i.e., the “clean” part above now en ables closer contact and the ex change of photos. the belt vs. the “dirty” part be low), as hy poth e sized by John Burns’s subjects tend to say that, al though things have Money (1995). In fact, to day, it is com mon to use sex and changed for women, in many ways the tra di tional roles of gen der as if they were synon y mous, when sex is ac tu ally the men and women are still in ef fect, with some men still view - bi o log i cal (ge netic, hor monal, and morphological) basis of ing Antarctica as the “last frontier . . . where men go to prove gender, and gender is the cultural manifestation of sex. they’re men” (p. 25). Yet Burns also sees Antarctica as ben- With respect to gender factors, it is clear that, gener ally , e fi cial in break ing down some women’s ste reo types of men. women tend to change the en vi ron ment in posi tive ways, In some ways, there seems to be some hope of mov ing to - be cause men ap pear to be have dif fer ently than they do in Antarctica:Afwardfecting an in terSexuality Reli de pengious, dence Et behnic, tween and men Gen andder women. Factors all-male groups (Bishop 1996; Stuster 1996). Nev er the less, Pesavento (2000) has noted that less-than-encour ag ing so- cial in ter ac tions can oc cur in mixed-gen der group ings. (See 2. Religious, Ethnic, and Gender Antarctica:Sec tion 5, In Knowledge ter per son al Heteroand Education sex u al Behaviors, about Sexuality below.) Factors Affecting Sexuality Al though Antarctica has a mul ti na tional ap pear ance, it 3. Knowledge and Education is re ally largely a col lec tion of na tional “neigh bor hoods,” about Sexuality each sta tion be ing staffed and run by its sponsor ing coun try. Antarctica is by and large an all-adult world, and chil dren As such, re li gious, eth nic, and other cul tural fac tors tend to and ad oles cents are not part of most ex pe di tions. Thus, sex re flect, in vary ing de grees, the compo si tion of the re spec - ed uca tion is not and prob a bly will not be rel e vant in Amer i - tive coun tries. One could an tic i pate, then, that these cul tural can or most other stations in Antarctica for the foresee able factors oper ate in a sim ilar man ner to the way they do on fu ture. Chile and Ar gen tina, how ever, do have fami lies, in - their native soil, and, thus, their im pact on sexu al ity factors clud ing chil dren, liv ing there year-round, with schools and might be assum ed to op erate in large meas ure the same way. other small-town facil ities (John Splettstoesser, polar con- Research has yet to be carried out to deter mine whether the sult ant, per sonal com muni ca tion, April 25, 2003). The chil - phys i cal and psychosocial en vi ron ments pe cu liar to Ant - dren are taught by teachers who come from their respec tive arctica miti gate their impact on people’ s sexu al ity in any coun tries, al though it is not known what kind of sex edu ca - signif i cant way. As noted earlier in the Outer Space section tion might be taught. It is thought that the settle ments were of this chapter , idio syn cratic local cultures at the var ious es tab lished to sup port ter ri to rial claims by these two coun - stations are likely to develop as well, which will likely have tries should the Ant arc tic Treaty be dis solved, al though none an important impact as well. A good example follows: of the claims of the seven coun tries who make such claims Cornelius (1991) de scribed the use of a rit ual ized nu dity Antarctica:are currently A recognizeutoeroticd Behavby anyiors others. and Patterns activ ity that was conducted every year at one Antarc tic sta- tion, usu ally just past the mid point of win ter. The 300 De - gree Club is a South Pole Sta tion cus tom, whose name came 4. Autoerotic Behaviors and Patterns from the fact that the temper a ture in midwin ter (in Septem - No studies have been found that dis cuss masturbatory ber) drops be low –100° F (–73° C) and there is a sauna that be hav ior in Antarctica. It can be pre sumed, however , that it is set to 200° F (93° C) for the event. The crew would sit in is and has been prac ticed there, not only be cause of our hu - the sauna wear ing noth ing but foot wear and build up a pro - man na ture, but be cause, in the past, it would have been ex - fuse sweat. They would then dash out into the cold to the pected if no (hetero sexu al) partners were available in all- marked site of the geo graphic South Pole (about 325 feet, or male crews (al though it is nor mal be hav ior in in di vid uals in 100 meters), pose for a quick pic ture, then dash back. The cou ples in or di nary en vi ron ments as well). It can also be ex - trick is not to fall, as the ice would burn like dry ice; the pected in high-risk en vi ron ments, in which it can function quick freez ing of the sweat ac tu ally pro tects the body. as a stress-reducer. Cornelius did not de tail whether or how this was done when There is some anec dotal evi dence, how ever: In all-male women were part of the crew. However , a 1996 Dis cov ery groups, mastur ba tion was of ten the sub ject of a lot of jokes. Chan nel doc u men tary re ported a sim i lar cus tom at an other At some Austra lian stations, stories were told of Wednes- Antarc tic station in which the members, male and female, day nights be ing “wank night,” al though they may have af ter leav ing the sauna took a quick dip in the wa ter in a hole been made in jest (Desmond Lugg, former head of po lar that was cut in the ice, be fore run ning back in side. This was med i cine, Aus tra lian Ant arc tic Di vi sion, per sonal com mu- de scribed as a rite of pas sage that sig ni fied a ma jor turn ing ni ca tion May 9, 2003). Dr. Lugg also re lated the story of point of the ex pe di tion. This is also rel e vant to this dis cus - how, when he gave the same pre pa ra tory lec ture to new sion be cause of the common idea that many peo ple have of expeditioners prior to go ing to Antarctica (af ter hav ing 808 Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sexuality been ad monished by some women that they get the same in - Earth-based stud ies, mixed-sex groups ap peared to per form Antarctica:for mation as I thenterpersonal men), one Heterosexual woman said, “WBehaviore wanks too.” workgroup tasks better than all-male groups. She also re - ported that in mil i tary mixed-sex in ter ac tions, ag gres sive be - 5. Interpersonal Heterosexual Behaviors havior appeared to be less ened, dis ciplin ary cases were fewer, and the prob lems with sexual li ai sons and preg nan - In ti mate re la tion ships do develop, some quite open and cies antic i pated by critics failed to mate ri al ize. She also said some quite secret. I might expect that the open or secret na- that the ad di tion of women tended to nor malize group func - ture might par al lel the ex pe ri ence of peo ple in or di nary tion ing, in that the pres ence of women seemed to en able or workplaces or small towns, where group norms estab lish its en cour age the men to engage in a greater range of ex pres sion ac cept abil ity and the pos i tive, neg a tive, or neu tral im pact and co oper a tive be hav ior than in all-male crews. Women on the in di vid u als in volved in and around them. There are and men on ex tended space flights are likely to ex pe ri ence no data available on the incidence or prevalence. simi lar pres sures and ben e fits, even though the crew sizes for In an Amer i can Ant arc tic an a log study com mis sioned the foresee able future will remain smaller than on most Ant- by NASA for the Space Sta tion Pro gram (Bluth 1985), sev - arc tic sta tions to day. Law (1994) an tic i pated that many of eral as pects of hetero sex u al in ter ac tion were noted un der a the prob lems would not be solved un til a more even bal ance subhead ing called “Sex Roles.” Among the is sues dis- of women and men is achieved. Lugg noted that women’s cussed were the ben e fits and draw backs of hav ing mar ried entry into Antarctica after the transi tion from all-male to couples in the crew and the ef fects of frater ni za tion, as well mixed-sex ex pe di tions caused dis rup tions at times, but that it as of men’s at ti tudes to ward women. Some findings were de pended on the lead er ship and other fac tors (per sonal com - that frat er ni za tion did oc cur at sta tions and that it “did not muni ca tion May 9, 2003). All this suggests that sex ual ity seem to be a problem as much when a woman remained factors will still likely be stresses that will need to be ad- with one per son and did not flaunt or change re la tion ships” dressed in both Antarctic and space environments. (p. 141). The comments of one man in di cated that those Care ful plan ning of liv ing quar ters with the assump tion men who did not have a part ner felt up set and re sented those that sex is likely to take place is just one aspect that needs to crew mem bers who were in dis creet about sex ual re la tions. be con sid ered. In de scrib ing the dif fer ing char ac ter is tics of Many of the women who wintered-over said they be came the Palmer Station, which is lo cated near the coastline and the vic tims of gossip. The men also had a va ri ety of other at - so en joys slightly less harsh con di tions than the South Pole ti tudes to ward the women, some posi tive and some neg a - Sta tion, which is located deeper in the in te rior on the high tive. One finding rec ommended that women need to be able ice pla teau, Cornelius (1991) noted in passing that the de - to deal with male sexual attention. sign of that sta tion was poorer than that of the South Pole Stuster (1996) ech oed these ob ser va tions and pro vided Station. In describ ing the crew’s private quarters at Palmer, ad di tional in for ma tion about mixed-sex pair ings: he wrote that, as a re sult of the sta tion’s poor de sign, which Pro mis cu ity has had a rare but oc ca sion ally dis rup tive ef - caused ad di tional prob lems and stress, the acoustic pri vacy fect at Antarc tic sta tions. Win ter-over per sonnel have re- left much to be desired: “One can hear the crewmem ber in ported that if a woman chooses to have a re la tion ship dur - the next room breath ing, mak ing love, or listen ing to his ing her stay in Antarctica, it is usually with one man. Se- music” (p. 14). In a fol low-up ar ti cle by ABCNews.com nior person nel are typi cally selected over junior staff, and (2001) dis cussing Dr. Jerri Neilsen’s outcome of her breast clean-cut Navy men tend to be fa vored over the ci vil ian can cer and her planned re turn to Antarctica to work as a con struc tion work ers, which can con trib ute to fric tion be - doc tor on a cruise ship, she was quoted as say ing that there tween mili tary and civil ian mem bers of a rem ote-duty were little of either sex or romance for sim ilar reasons . crew. In most cases, the other men tend to respect the deci - Thus, some accep tance that sexual activ ity will take place, sion once a woman makes a choice or makes clear her un- and a lit tle fore sight and plan ning, can help to alleviate availabil ity . Persist en t, unwa nted atten tion has occurred , some future problems with respect to sexuality factors. however , with nega tive conse quences to indi vid ual adjust - Nev er the less, Burns (2001) has writ ten that sex ual re la - ment and group soli dar ity . Partic u larly disrup tive prob- tion ships do happen in Antarctica. She noted that one third lems develop when a woman and the station leader are in - of the women she in ter viewed had been in Antarctica at the volved in a rela tion ship. In these cir cum stances, oth ers in same time as their cur rent part ner, althoug h fewer than half the group tend to claim that the leader has an unfair advan - of these had started the re la tion ship there. She noted that tage. (pp. 178-179) women entered sex ual re la tion ships for two rea sons: One was to share the special expe ri ence of being in Antarctica Stuster went on to sug gest that lead ers of space mis sions with an in ti mate part ner; the other rea son was to handle the should avoid such in volve ments, but added that “it might be var i ous pressures that had to be addressed. unwise for mission manag ers to dic tate how crew per sonnel In ad di tion, Burns (2001) de scribed the psychosocial as- con duct this as pect of their per sonal live s” (p. 179). pects of re la tion ships, such as deal ing with male com pe ti tion Bluth (1985) also iden ti fied the “Ant arc tic Queen Syn - and the sex ual ac tiv i ties of women who are known to be mar - drome,” in which “every woman is beau ti ful,” which ried, and the impact these can have on the men who might re - “[s]ome women take ad van tage of . . . and play man against sent the fact that women have a choice of partners, whereas man” (p. 142). The Antarc tic Queen “flirts with all the they do not. With re spect to the married woman, it may males, . . . al ways asks for favors [and] atten tion, . . . [and], arouse fears about what their wives at home may be do ing. It “[i]f they need help . . . honey up to one of the guys, [which] ap pears that many of these dy namics, which are not un com- causes prob lems be tween peo ple and groups” (p. 142). mon outside of Antarctica, may be height ened in the ex treme Clearly, many of the sit ua tions noted can oc cur in non-iso - en vi ron ment there. These dy namics might be use ful for lated envi ron ments as well; however , in the latter situ a tions, space mis sion plan ners in their Mars mis sion plan ning, for there are alter na tives outside the group that can miti gate the exam ple, as the trip is expected to take maybe three years frustra tion and problems that can occur. with far fewer people, which could ex acer bate these ef fects Nev er the less, the ben e fits of both men and women work- further . It will be im portant to ascer tain the dif ferences be- ing to gether ap pear to out weigh the dis ad van tages, as noted tween the two en vi ron ments, however , as well as the psycho - by Bishop (1996) and Stuster (1996). Bishop noted that in social rela tion ship variables that are dif ferent to more accu - Antarctica: Interpersonal Heterosexual Behaviors 809 rately gauge what can be done to min i mize any poten tially sex ual be hav ior was impor tant and could have a “con sider - Antarctica:Behaviorsnegative impact Hom andoerotic, to maximize Homos theexual, positive and Bisexualpotential. able ef fect in mod er at ing un de sir able be hav iour” (p. 72). Puskeppeleit (1994), the leader of the first-ever all-fe male 6. Homoerotic, Homosexual, and ex pe di tion to Antarctica that was sent by the Ger man Polar Bisexual Behaviors In sti tute, also speak ing at the women-in-Antarctica con fer - ence, did not ad dress the pos sibil ity that homo sex ual be hav - A. Adults ior was an is sue at all for the women. She did note, however , It is un likely that there have been no gay Antarc tic par tic - that all of the women “would have pre ferred a mixed over - i pants, and Burns (2001) has noted that “dif fer ences in eth - wintering team” (p. 80), which the Institute would not allow. nicity , class and sexual prefer ence, as well as gen der, are all Even to day, po ten tial prob lems could emerge with crew - rea sons for not be long ing” for women “to the male hi er ar - members who discov ered that one of their team was homo- chy” (p. 87). Thus, we might as sume that this might ap ply to sex ual or bi sex ual—just as they have when cer tain be hav - gay men as well. In my early re search on this topic (Noonan Antarctica:iors have been Gender per ceived Diver assity inap and pro T priransgender ately heterosexual Issues . 1998a), I came across Lugg (1991), who, writ ing of Austra - lian ex pe di tions, wrote that de scrip tions of “groups who 7. Gender Diversity and lisped or used ‘quaint’ lan guage” (p. 32) are part of the folk - Transgender Issues lore of the Aus tra lian ex pe ri ence. I took this as a pos sible ref - erence to the use of stereo typ ical Ameri can gay-male behav - Although intersexual is sues may be come an is sue in iors, which are of ten used for ei ther rid i cule or self-par ody, Antarctica in the fu ture, it ap pears not to be so now, al - al though they are not typi cally used in ev ery day life by gay though it is known that men, as in some other all-male an a - men. In a sub se quent con ver sa tion, Dr. Lugg noted that it log en vi ron ments, sometimes dress up and act as women for really was not related to gay cari ca tures, but rather that the par ody and en ter tain ment. The ex pla na tion seems to be that lan guage in the group mimicked the lisp ing of jokes that cir - it oc curred when there were no women who were part of the culated one year at one Austra lian station, as well as the ex pe di tions, and the men missed the company of women quaint language (i.e., old Brit ish-style ac cents and such) of and sought to “nor mal ize” the so cial envi ron ment. Burns old movies, which they would watch with out the sound and (2001, 83-84, 91) noted, how ever, that “cross-dress ing, the men would pro vide the di a logue im i tat ing the ac tors. ‘girlie’ posters and mag a zines, reg u lar blue movie nights Thus, this is a good ex ample of how dif fer ent cul tural be hav - and ‘page three girls’ in the daily sta tion news bul le tins iors and their mean ings can lead to misun der stand ings. He have been part of the tra di tion” at Austra lian sta tions, “and noted fur ther, with re spect to the lisp ing, that the lan guage of Antarctica:Behaviorsall have beco Significantme contentious Unconventional in recent years.” Sexual the men had changed—they had de vel oped their own lan - guage (in flec tions, mean ings, and vo cab u lary) be cause of 8. Significant Unconventional the iso la tion and their re sponse to the en vi ron ment. For the Sexual Behaviors same rea son, dogs at the sta tion would sometimes be per son- A. Sexual Harassment, Rape, and Prostitution i fied and be come quiet part ners in con ver sa tions. A par al lel Per sonal ac counts of those who were in Antarctica when can be seen in less-iso lated workgroups, and especially in in - women first ar rived sug gest that mild forms of what has ti mate cou ples, where private languages often develop be - come to be known as sex ual ha rassment, i.e., con stant at ten - cause of their insular nature. tion and ca jol ing for dates and such, ap pear to have taken Law (1994), a leader of 28 all-male Antarc tic expe di - place. As noted by Stuster (1996) in Sec tion 5, In ter per sonal tions for Austra lia from 1947 to 1966 that es tab lished that Hetero sex u al Be hav iors, ap par ently more-re cent per sist ent, coun try’s three Ant arc tic sta tions, speak ing at an Aus tra lian un wanted sex ual at ten tion has oc curred, with neg a tive con - in ter na tion al con fer ence on women in Antarctica, said: se quences to in di vid ual ad just ment and group sol i dar ity. No So far as I know there was no overt homosex uali ty at our re ports of real (quid-pro-quo) sex ual ha rassment, as op posed sta tions. We of course, went to some pains to avoid homo- to the cur rent so cial con struc tion of “sex ual ha rassment,” or sexu als in the se lec tion process. I heard that one man, a bi- rape were found. Prostitution does not seem to occur. sex ual ex-na val rat ing, did some so lic it ing early on, but there were no takers, so that sort of fizzled out. Whether B. Pornography and Erotica there was any co vert homosex uali ty I would not know, but Cornelius (1991) noted that the ways in which the crew it would have been very dif ficult at a sta tion to have kept deco rated com mon areas, such as with a large mu ral of a secret such a li ai son, and I was never inform ed by any of fore st, prob a bly helped to re lieve stress during the pe ri od our men that anyone knew of anything of that sort hap pen - of isola tion. This is likely to be true for the indi vid ual ing. (p. 72) crewmem ber’s small private quarters as well, in which he noted the “[m]any na ture scenes and post ers of the op po - Despite these com ments, he appeared not to be neces sar ily site sex” (p. 13). Law (1994) fur ther noted that the Aus tra - op posed to homo sex u al be hav ior, how ever, as he qual i fied lians were al ways aston ished at the number of nude pho to s his statement: on the walls of the Ameri can sta tions. The role of the use of sex u ally ori ented ma te ri als in the lei sure ac tiv i ties of the In that regard, however , I must point out that if we are to crew is, how ever, an is sue that was not ad dressed in any of ad vance ar gu ments jus ti fy ing hetero sex u al be hav iour at the an a log stud ies, ex cept that of Bluth (1985), who noted ANARE [Aus tra lian Na tional Ant arc tic Re search Ex pe- that at some of the sta tions, “the men liked to watch por no - di tions] Sta tions now that women are ad mitted as expe - graphic films and it’s best if a woman is not offended by ditioners, then for the same rea sons we shall have to ac- pornography” (p. 143). cept pos si ble homo sex u al be hav iour and mod ify our se - lec tion processes accordingly. (p. 72) Also, sto ries are told of how, along with Rus sian fur hats, Amer i can Play boy maga zines, when they were banned in He added, “It is im por tant to stress the need for dis cre tion in many coun tries, would be come a valu able lo cal cur rency in both hetero sex u al and homo sex u al be hav iour at sta tions. trade. In fact, Play boy center folds became part of the his- Overt be hav iour is ob jec tion able for a num ber of rea sons.” tory of one sta tion in the 1950s, where they were used to He went on to say that the role of the leader in the event of cover a ceil ing, nick named the “Sistine Ceiling.” 810 Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sexuality

Anec dotal reports say that when women first became part Var i ous ep i de mi o log i cal data on STDs in Ant arctica also of the ex pe di tions, they tended to ignore the por nographic suggest that STDs may not be an is sue, al though STDs have pictures or pinups (typ ically less sexu ally explicit), although been taken to Antarctica in a num ber of na tional expe di tions, they were even tu ally taken down from common areas. Pri - but were not passed on to others within the group (Desmond vate areas were consid ered private, and so these images usu- Lugg, per sonal com muni ca tion May 9, 2003). This sug gests ally stayed. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, when an ti-por - that those who had them got them ear lier, per haps in one of nogra phy femi nists came in and sex ual ha rassment laws be - the South Amer i can en try points or their home lands. Screen - came com mon, they caused much ac ri mony and angst at the ing spe cif i cally for STDs is not done. HIV screen ing is done sta tions, as pinups and other mate ri als had to be re moved. through walk-in blood banks, and is pro vided as an an cil lary For ex ample, an up roar in the Aus tra lian press oc curred over find ing. Be cause of the pos sibil ity of an HIV-in fected per son one ex plo sive ep i sode when a fe male leader banned the pri - con vert ing to full-blown AIDS, that per son would proba bly Antarctica:Planningvate post ing Contraception,of this type of material Abortion, in one’ ands Populationpersonal area. not be al lowed to go to Ant arctica, be cause of the lack of medi cal sup port to treat it. It is unknown what would hap pen 9. Contraception, Abortion, and with someone who got an HIV-positive test result once there. Population Planning Some studies suggest, fur ther, that the po lar en vi ron ment does de press the hu man immune re sponse in oth er wise A. Contraception and Abortion healthy in di vid u als, al though spe cific en vi ron men tal fac tors In a re port pre pared by George Wash ing ton Uni ver sity have not been iden ti fied that con trib ute. I would con jec ture and An a lytic Ser vices Inc. (GWU/ANSER 1994a) on po ten - that stress is a likely can didate, and it would be inter est ing to tially dif fi cult and sen si tive events, in clud ing preg nancy, compare the re sults of any studies on stress-hor mone lev els that might oc cur in space pre pared for the Na tional Aero nau - with Strollo, et al.’s (1998) study of male as tro nauts, which tics and Space Ad min is tra tion (NASA), the GWU/ANSER showed de creases in li bido and tes toster one lev els while in (1994b) team re viewed the Aus tra lian and U.S. Antarc tic space, which re turned to nor mal postflight. No sim i lar ef - an a log en vi ron ments, and found the fol low ing re lated in for - fects—or re ports of sex ual dysfunc tion spe cific to the polar mation. Both countries’ sta tions have re ported that preg nan - region—have been reported in Antarctic settings. cies have oc curred dur ing ex pe di tions. The pol icy they fol - Dr. Nancy Chin, a med i cal an thro pol ogist from the Uni - lowed was that the woman be evacu ated at the earli est pos si- ver sity of Roch es ter School of Med i cine who is study ing so- ble time. “It is inter est ing to note,” accord ing to these cial inter ac tions in Antarctica, has noted that many summer au thors, “that the fa ther is not also sent home. The im pli ca - partic i pants clearly have an away-from-home atti tude about tion of this policy is not that sexual rela tions result ing in be ing in Antarctica, and be ing there for sex ual ex plo ra tion is preg nancy are con demned but that the preg nant woman rep - part of the Antarc tic expe ri ence. How ever, she noted that re sents a med i cal li a bil ity un suited for an ex treme, iso lated sexual dis eases are not screened out at the U.S. stations prior en vi ron ment” (p. 30). They noted that an in cu ba tor was to ar rival, and so, con trary to some myths, Antarctica is not available at the Austra lian station in case the baby was born the saf est place in the world to have sex. For the most part, the be fore evac ua tion was pos sible, and that abor tions will not same risks they faced at home were possi ble in Antarctica as be perform ed there because of legal lia bil ity con cerns, even Antarctica:Therapiwell (personales Sexual communication Dysfunctions, August Counseling, 12, 2003). and though abor tion is le gal in Aus tra lia. How ever, they noted, preg nan cies do not of ten oc cur in Antarctica, “[p]erhaps be - cause birth control is readily available at all of the stations 11. Sexual Dysfunctions, Counseling, stud ied” (p. 30). The pos si bil ity that hetero sex u al re la tion - and Therapies ships did not oc cur was dis counted with the state ment: “As Cornelius (1991) high lighted some of the ma jor psy - one [Austra lian] female crew mem ber reported , ‘Just about chosocial factors that con tribute to stress in Antarctica: every woman ends up in a relationship’” (p. 40). CNN.com (2001) re ported that New Zea land’s Scott For ex ample, ab sent are win dows, pri vacy, liv ing green Base, located on the Ross Ice Shelf, installed their first two things and an i mals, the sun, thick moist air to breathe, con dom ma chines in an tic i pa tion of the in flux of vis i tors in freedom to travel, or freedom to leave a rum or-infeste d, August 2001 in prep a ra tion for the warmer spring sea son in iso lated hu man outpost. The “ru mor mill” can be quite po - Oc to ber. The sup plier was quoted as say ing, “It’s pretty tent. Cliques can develop and be quite cruel and stressful much a lit tle vil lage down there where ev ery one knows ev - to an in di vid ual with a dif ferent back ground than the rest ery one, so if they can walk into a loo and buy a con dom, it’s of the crew. Cliques can also be quite insen si tive to their a lot easier than go ing to the lo cal shop and buy ing them, own kind. Lack of acous tic pri vacy in the small “pri vate” when ev ery one knows what’s going on.” It was expected to rooms can also lead to stress. Pri vacy becom es a cher - serv e about 400 peo ple, as well as about 1,200 Amer i cans at ished commod ity . Time away from the group alone is very Antarctica:AIDStheir nearby SMcMurdoexually T Base.ransmitted Diseases and HIV/ impor tant for “charging one’s bat ter ies.” Lack of a partner of the oppo site sex can also lead to stress. Mar ried couples 10. Sexually Transmitted Diseases who have wintered tend to handle the iso la tion much and HIV/AIDS better. Constant low light levels can cause stress, too. It was observed that much higher light lev els in side the It ap pears that most if not all coun tries do some screen - dome at South Pole Sta tion dur ing the iso la tion pe ri od ing for var i ous dis eases and con di tions, and, if one is found seemed to increase the mo rale of the crew. The higher with a con di tion, he or she is not al lowed to go to Antarctica, light levels tend to decrease stress. (p. 10) so many dis eases ap par ently do not ap pear there. Nev er the - less, as noted above, con doms are now be ing sold in vend - Thus, we can see that the level of stress, which is a ma jor ing machines at New Zealand’ s Scott Base, which are also factor in dis rupt ing in ter per son al cou ple re la tion ships and ex pected to serv e the needs of the U.S.’s McMurdo Base small-group in ter ac tions, can be quite high. In ad di tion, nearby. UNAIDS.org (2002) does not list Antarctica among stress is a major fac tor in many sex ual dysfunc tions. There - its list of countries for which it of fers an epi de mi o log i cal as- fore, we can expect that althoug h stress can af fect overall sessment, so HIV/AIDS does not appear to have reached sexual perfor mance and rela tion ships , at the same time some that continent. undelineated as pect of the mar i tal re la tion ship (per haps sex) Antarctica: Sexual Dysfunctions, Counseling, and Therapies 811 tends to miti gate against the ef fects of stress for some mar- to Antarctica. Available: http://more.abcnews.go.com/ ried cou ples. It has been noted that most of the Ameri can sec tions/primetime/2020/primetime_niel sen_010719_ work be ing done in Antarctica is be ing con ducted by pri vate fea ture.html. con trac tors, who often send married couples to Antarctica. Bishop, S. L. 1996 (No vember 15). Psychosocial issues of In Antarctica, the value of off-duty lei sure activ i ties has mixed-gender crews in space. In: R. J. Noonan (Chair), been doc umented (Kelly & Kanas 1994). Such ac tiv i ties can Women and men in space: Impli ca tions for the space and pro vide the crew with a wel come re spite from the mo not ony sex ual sci ences. Sym po sium conducted at the 39th annual and stress of the long win ter. Cornelius (1991) noted that, al - meeting of the Soci ety for the Sci entifi c Study of Sexu al ity (SSSS), No vember 15, 1996, Houston, TX. though they de pend on the in di vid ual, they can in clude: con - Bluth, B. J. 1985. Space sta tion/Ant arc tic analogs (ITT, Antarc - ver sa tion, watch ing mov ies and vid eos, lis ten ing to mu sic, tic Services Contrac tor Reports NAG 2-255 and NAGW- short ex cur sions outside, look ing out the win dows if there 659). Reston, VA: Space Station Program Of fice, NASA. are any, or do ing group pro jects (e.g., build ing a ja cuzzi at Bluth, B. J., & M. Helppie, 1986/1987. So viet space stations as South Pole Sta tion). He noted that they also try to find an ex - analogs (2nd ed. with MIR update). Reston, VA: Space Sta- cuse for a party, not only the stand ard birth days and hol i days, tion Program Of fice, NASA. (Origi nal work published but also to cel e brate mid winter (which sig ni fies roughly the 1986) half way point of the expe di tion) and the sunset and sun rise Boe ing Aero space Com pany/Na tional Be hav ior Sys tems, (there is only one sun set, cor re sponding roughly with our 1983a. Space statio n habit abil ity report (NASW-3680/ ver nal equi nox, and one sun rise, at about our au tumnal equi - CC0081). Reston, VA: Space Station Program Of fice, nox, in the interior parts of the continent each year). NASA. Still, an ec dotal sto ries have been told that sug gest that Boe ing Aero space Com pany/Na tional Be hav ior Sys tems, some marriages have failed as a result of the Antarc tic expe - 1983b. Space sta tion/Nu clear sub ma rine analogs (U.S. Na- ri ence. Stuster (1996) con firmed this when he wrote: val sub ma rine in ter view re port/Space sta tion crew sys tem inter face study). Reston, VA: Space Station Program Of - It is true that extremely disrup tive and even dan ger ous re - fice, NASA. la tion ships have de vel oped among mixed-gen der crews at Burns, R. 2001. Just tell them I survived! Women in Antarctica. both large and small Antarc tic sta tions. Many rela tion - Crows Nest, NSW, Austr ali a: Allen & Unwin. ships, in clud ing long-stand ing marriages, have dis solved CIA. 2002 (Jan u ary). The world factbook 2002. Wash ing ton, while one or both parties were on the ice; other situ a tions DC: Cen tral In tel li gence Agency. Avail able: http://www have been so bizarre that it is re markable that the indi vid - .cia.gov/cia/pub li ca tions/fact book/index.html. uals were ca pa ble of cop ing with the experience. (p. 179) CNN.com. 2001 (Au gust 2). Sex in Antarctica no longer on ice. Avail able: http://www.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/ He suggested that careful crew selec tion (as opposed to auspac/08/02/ant arc tic.sex/. screening) was im portant, as well as special training about Cornelius, P. E. 1991. Life in Antarctica. In: A. A. Har rison, the many poten tial problems as soci ated with life in isola - Y. A. Clearwater, & C. P. McKay, eds., From Antarctica to tion and con fine ment, which would al low most of the con - outer space: Life in isola tion and confine ment (pp. 9-14). cerns about mixed-sex crews to dissipate. New York: Springer-Verlag. Lugg has noted that mar riages have been per formed in Ed wards, K. & Gra ham, R. (1994). Gen der on ice: Proceed - Antarctica, and he also noted that some married cou ples have ings of a confer ence on women in Antarctica, held in Hobart, Tasma nia, un der the auspices of the Austra lian sep a rated dur ing their stay in Antarctica (per sonal com muni - Ant arc tic Foun da tion, 19-21 Au gust 1993. Can berra: Aus- ca tion May 9, 2003). He noted an ec dotal sto ries that re veal tra lian Gov ern ment Publishing Service. that oc ca sionally expeditioners may be come in volved with a Gotshall, R. W., P.-F. Tsai, & M. A. B. Frey. 1991. Gender - new part ner from the group, which can add ad di tional stress based dif fer ences in the car dio vas cu lar re sponse to stand- to an al ready-stress ful sit u a tion af fect ing es tab lished re la- ing. Avi a tion, Space, and En vi ron men tal Med i cine, 62, 855- tion ships. To day, peo ple have psy cho log i cal sup port ser - 859. vices avail able by sat el lite phone, and doc tors and many sec - GWU/ANSER. 1994a. Policy issues in space analogs [Final tion leaders can also coun sel those who win ter over. Of ten, as report of the June 1992 Workshop]. Washing ton, DC: Space well, the par tic i pants them selves can give use ful support to Pol icy In sti tute, George Wash ing ton Uni ver sity, and Ar - Antarctica:Educationthose within Stheex grResearchoup who andmight Advanced need it. Professional lington, VA: An alytic Services Inc. GWU/ANSER. 1994b. Policy issues in space analogs: Pre- 12. Sex Research and Advanced pared for the GWU/ANSER Workshop 16-17 March 1994. Washing ton, DC: Space Policy Insti tute, George Washing - Professional Education ton Univer sity , and Arlington, VA: An alytic Services Inc. It appears that no specif i cally fo cused sex research has Harri son, A. A., Y. A. Clearwater, & C. P. McKay, eds. 1991a. been done in Antarctica. However , as can be noted from the From Antarctica to outer space: Life in isola tion and con- pre vious sec tions, re search has been done for NASA that fine ment. New York: Springer-Verlag. has looked at the in ter per son al re la tion ships that oc cur in Harri son, A. A., Y. A. Clearwater, & C. P. McKay, eds. 1991b. re search sta tions there to help sug gest what im pact the Intro duc tion. In: A. A. Harri son, Y. A. Clearwater, & C. P. psychosocial en vi ron ment, in terms of iso la tion, con fine - McKay, eds., From Antarctica to outer space: Life in isola - ment, de pri va tion, and risk, might have on ex tended space - tion and confine ment (pp. 1-5). New York: Springer-Verlag. flights. In ad di tion, per sonal ac counts of expeditioners have Harri son, A. A., Y. A. Clearwater, & C. P. McKay, eds. 1991c. drawn some at ten tion to sex u al ity fac tors. To gether, both Con clu sion: Rec om men da tions for fu ture re search. In: A. can be gin to sug gest av e nues of sex re search that might be A. Harri son, Y. A. Clearwater, & C. P. McKay, eds., From done in both en vi ron ments, which, as I have ar gued else - Antarctica to outer space: Life in isola tion and confine ment where (Noonan 1998a), can be used to improve the sexual (pp. 395-401). New York: Springer-Verlag. Antarctica:lives of every Refone.erences and Suggested Readings Kanas, N. 1992. In ter per son al is sues af fect ing in ter na tion al crews on long dura tion space missions . Pa per presented at the World Space Congress, 43rd Congress of the Inter na - References and Suggested Readings tion al Astronautical Fed er a tion (IAF), Wash ing ton, DC, ABCNews.com. 2001 (July 19/31). PrimeTime: Survival at Au gust 28-Septem ber 5, 1992. (IAF paper IAF/IAA-92- South Pole: Doctor rescued for cancer treatment to return 0243). 812 Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sexuality

Kelly, A. D., & N. Kanas. 1994. Leisure time activ i ties in space: Palinkas, L. A. 1992. Go ing to extremes: The cultural context A survey of astro nauts and cosmo nauts. Acta Astronautica, of stress, illness and coping in Antarctica. So cial Sci ence 32(6), 451-457. and Med i cine, 35(5), 651-664. Law, P. 1994. The all male expe di tions 1947-66. In: K. Ed wards Palinkas, L. A., & D. Browner. 1995. Ef fects of pro longed isola - & R. Gra ham, Gen der on ice: Pro ceedings of a Confer ence tion in extreme envi ron ments on stress, coping, and depres - on Women in Antarctica, held in Hobart, Tasma nia, under sion. Jour nal of Ap plied So cial Psy chol ogy, 25(7), 557-576. the auspices of the Austra lian Antarctic Founda tion, 19-21 Pesavento, P. 2000. From Aelita to the Inter na ti onal Space Sta- Au gust 1993 (pp. 67-73). Canberra: Austra lian Govern - tion: The psy cho log i cal and so cial ef fects of iso la tion on ment Publishing Service. Earth and in space. Quest: The History of Spaceflight Quar - Lugg, D. J. 1991. Cur rent inter na tion al human factors research terly [Univer sity of North Dakota], 8:2:4-23. in Antarctica. In: A. A. Harri son, Y. A. Clearwater , & C. P. Pierce, C. M. 1991. Theo ret i cal approaches to adap ta tion to McKay, eds., From Antarctica to outer space: Life in isola - Antarctica and space. In: A. A. Har rison, Y. A. Clearwater, tion and confine ment (pp. 31-42). New York: Springer- & C. P. McKay, eds., From Antarctica to outer space: Life in Verlag. iso la tion and con fine ment (pp. 125-133). New York: Springer- Money, J. 1995. Gendermaps: So cial constructionism, femi - Verlag. nism, and sexosophical history . New York: Contin uum. Puskeppeleit, M. 1994. The all-female expe di tion: A personal Nielsen, J. 2001. Ice bound: A doctor ’s incr edi ble battle for sur- perspec tive. In: K. Edwards & R. Gra ham, Gen der on ice: vival at the South Pole. New York: Miramax Hyperion Pro ceedings of a Confer ence on Women in Antarctica, held Books. in Hobart, Tasma nia, under the auspices of the Austra lian Noonan, R. J. 1998a. A philosoph i cal inquiry into the role of Ant arctic Founda tion, 19-21 August 1993 (pp. 75-81). Can- sexolo gy in space life sciences resear ch and human factors berra: Aus tra lian Gov ern ment Publishing Service. con sid er ations for ex tended space flight. Doc toral disserta- Strollo, F., G. Riondino, B. Harris, G. Strollo, E. Casarosa, N. tion, New York Univer sity (UMI publi ca tion number Mangrossa, C. Ferretti, & M. Luisi. 1998 (Febru ary). The 9832759). In for ma tion at http://www.SexQuest.com/ ef fect of microgravity on testicular andro gen secre tion. Avi - SexualHealth/rjnoonan-diss-ab stract.html. a tion, Space, and En vi ron men tal Med i cine, 69(2), 133-136. Noonan, R. J. 1998b. The psy chology of sex: A mirror from the Stuster, J. 1996. Bold endeav ors: Lessons from po lar and space Internet. 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McKay, eds., From va, Swit zerland: Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/ Antarctica to outer space: Life in isola tion and confine ment AIDS (UNAIDS/WHO). Availabl e: http://www.unaids.org/ (pp. 239-251). New York: Springer-Verlag. hivaidsinfo/sta tis tics/fact_sheets/in dex_en.htm. Critical Acclaim for The Continuum Complete International Encyclopedia of Sexuality 1. The In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sex u al ity, Vols. 1-3 (Francoeur, 1997) The World As so ci a tion of Sexol o gy, an in ter na tion al so ci ety of lead ing schol ars and eighty pro fes sional or ga ni za tions de voted to the study of hu man sexual be hav ior, has en dorsed The In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sex u al ity as an im por tant and unique con tri bu tion to our un der stand ing and ap pre ci a tion of the rich va ri ety of hu man sex ual at ti tudes, values, and behavior in cultures around the world. Re cip i ent of the “1997 Ci ta tion of Ex cel lence for an out stand ing ref er ence in the field of sexol o gy,” awarded by the Ameri can Foun da tion for Gen der and Gen i tal Med i cine and Sci ence at the Thir teenth World Con gress of Sexol o gy, Valencia, Spain. Rec om mended by Li brary Jour nal (Oc to ber 1, 1997) to pub li c and ac a demic li brar i ans look ing to up date their col lec tions in the area of sex u al ity: “An ex traor di nary, highly valu able syn the sis of in for ma tion not avail able else where. Here are in-depth re ports on sex-re lated prac tices and cul ture in 32 coun tries on six con ti nents, con trib uted by 135 sexol o gists worldwide. . . . For all academic and larger public collections.” Picked by Choice (As so ci a tion of Col lege & Re search Li brar ies/Amer i can Li brary As so ci a tion) as Best Ref er ence Work and Outstand ing Ac a demic Book for 1997: “Al though this en cy clo pe dia is meant as a means of un der stand ing hu man sexu al ity, it can also be used as a lens with which to view hu man cul ture in many of its other man i fes ta tions. . . . Con sid er ing cov er age, or ga ni za tion, and au thor ity, the com par a tively low price is also no ta ble. Rec om mended for refer ence collec tions in universities, special collections, and public libraries.” “Most impres sive, pro vid ing a wealth of good, solid in for mation that may be used by a wide va ri ety of pro fes sionals and stu dents seek ing in for mation on cross-cul tural pat terns of sex ual be hav ior . . . an in valu able, unique schol arly work that no li brary should be with out.”—Con tem po rary Psy chol ogy “. . . en ables us to make transcultural com par i sons of sexual at ti tudes and be hav iours in a way no other mod ern book does. . . . Clin ics and train ing or ga ni za tions would do well to ac quire cop ies for their li brar ies. . . . In di vid ual ther a pists and re search ers who like to have their own col lec tion of key publi ca tions should cer tainly con sider it.”—Sex ual and Mar i tal Ther apy (U.K.) “. . . schol arly, straight for ward, and tightly-or ga nized for mat in for mation about sex ual be liefs and be hav iors as they are cur rently prac ticed in 32 coun tries around the world. . . . The list of contri butors . . . is a vir tual who’s who of schol ars in sexual science.”— Choice “. . . one of the most ambi tious cross-cul tural sex sur veys ever un der taken. Some 135 sexol o gists worldwide de scribe sex-re lated prac tices and cul tures in 32 dif fer ent coun tries. . . . Best Ref er ence Sources of 1997.”—Li brary Jour nal “What sep a rates this en cy clo pe dia from past in ter na tion al sex u al ity books is its dis tinct dis sim i lar ity to a ‘guide book to the sex ual hotspots of the world.’ . . . An im pres sive and im por tant con tri bution to our un der stand ing of sex ual ity in a global so ci ety. . . . fills a big gap in peo ple’s knowl edge about sex ual at ti tudes and be hav iors.”—Sex u al ity In for mation and Ed u ca tion Council of the United States (SIECUS) “Truly impor tant books on hu man sexu al ity can be counted on, per haps, just one hand. The In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sex u al ity de serves spe cial at ten tion as an im pres sive ac com plish ment.”—Jour nal of Mar riage and the Fam ily “. . . a land mark ef fort to cross-ref er ence vast amounts of infor mation about hu man sexual be hav iors, cus toms, and cul tural at ti tudes ex ist ing in the world. Never be fore has such a com pre hen sive un der tak ing been even re motely avail able to re search ers, schol ars, ed u ca tors, and cli ni cians ac tive in the field of hu man sex u al ity.”—San dra Cole, Pro fes sor of Phys i cal Med i cine and Re ha bil i ta tion, University of Michigan Medical Center 2. The In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sex u al ity, Vol. 4 (Francoeur & Noonan, 2001) “. . . a mas ter piece of or ga ni za tion. The feat of suc cess fully compil ing so much infor mation about so many coun tries into such a co her ent and read able for mat de fies sig nif i cant neg a tive crit i cism.”—Sex u al ity and Cul ture, Paul Fedoroff, M.D., Co-Di rec tor, Sex ual Be hav iors Clinic Fo ren sic Program, The Royal Ottawa Hospital, Ottawa, Canada 3. The Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sex u al ity (Francoeur & Noonan, 2004) “. . . [a] trea sure trove. . . . This unique compi la tion of spe cial ized knowl edge is rec ommended for re search col lec tions in the social sciences . . . as well as a second ary source for cross-cultural research.”— Li brary Jour nal, March 15, 2004, p. 64 “. . . a book that is truly historic, and in many ways compa ra ble to the great sexological sur veys of Havelock Ellis and Al fred Kinsey. . . . Many works of unde ni able im por tance are in tended to speak about hu man sexu al ity. But in this en cy clo pe dia we hear the voices of a mul ti tude of na tions and cul tures. With cov er age of more than a quar ter of the coun tries in the world, . . . not only will the Con tin uum Com plete In ter na tion al En cy clo pe dia of Sex u al ity remain a stand ard ref er ence work for years to come, but it has raised the bar of sexological schol ar ship to a rig or ous new level.”—John Heidenry, ed i tor, The Week, and au thor of What Wild Ec stasy: The Rise and Fall of the Sex ual Revolution For more review excerpts, go to www.SexQuest.com/ccies/.