JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 2015, 48, 1–10 NUMBER 1(SPRING)

TRAINING POUCHED TO FIND PEOPLE

KATE B. LA LONDE

WESTERN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY

AMANDA MAHONEY,TIMOTHY L. EDWARDS,CHRISTOPHE COX, AND BART WEETJENS

ANTI-PERSOONSMIJNEN ONTMIJNENDE PRODUCT ONTWIKKELING

AND

AMY DURGIN AND ALAN POLING

ANTI-PERSOONSMIJNEN ONTMIJNENDE PRODUCT ONTWIKKELING AND WESTERN MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY

Giant African pouched rats equipped with video cameras may be a tenable option for locating living humans trapped under debris from collapsed structures. In the present study, 5 pouched rats were trained to contact human targets in a simulated collapsed building and to return to the release point after hearing a signal to do so. During test sessions, each located human targets more often than it located similar-sized inanimate targets on which it had not previously been trained and spent more time within 1 m of the human target than within 1 m of the other targets. Overall, the rats found humans, plastic bags containing clothes, and plastic bags without clothes on 83%, 37%, and 11% of trials, respectively. These findings suggest that using pouched rats to search for survivors in collapsed structures merits further attention. Key words: urban search and rescue, Cricetomys gambianus, scent detection, detection animals

Acts of war and terrorism, natural disasters, years to train, are inconvenient to transport, and engineering mistakes, and inadequate mainte- are limited in their capacity to localize the source nance can cause buildings and other structures of human scent (Chiu et al., 2002; Wong & to collapse, potentially trapping people under Robinson, 2004). Moreover, because of their size, debris. Rapidly locating, extricating, and treating dogs typically cannot penetrate rubble, but are these individuals greatly increases the likelihood limited to searching for scent as they move over of their survival. Currently, organized search and and around debris (Federal Emergency Manage- rescue relies primarily on human search teams ment Agency, 2012). that use visual and auditory cues to find victims No proven technique is available for searching (Wong & Robinson, 2004). Trained dogs are through and under debris without the time- also widely used (Chiu et al., 2002; Wong & consuming process of manual or mechanical Robinson, 2004). Although useful, dogs can take rubble removal, and experts have recommended the evaluation of the use of small mammals for This study was supported by U.S. Army Research Office this purpose (Wong & Robinson, 2004). The Grant W911NF-11-1-0464. Dissertation research grants present study explored whether giant African from the Association for Behavior Analysis International provided partial support for the activities of Amanda pouched rats (Cricetomys gambianus) could be Mahoney and Amy Durgin. trained to search for people and to return to their Please address correspondence to Kate La Londe (e-mail: release point after hearing an auditory signal. [email protected]) or Alan Poling (e-mail: alan. [email protected]). Cricetomys are agile, nocturnal, burrowing ani- doi: 10.1002/jaba.181 mals native to sub-Saharan Africa that climb well;

1 2 KATE B. LA LONDE et al. therefore, they should have no difficulty moving 2010; Poling, Weetjens, Cox, Beyene, & Sully, through, over, and around debris. Like dogs, they 2010), a similar training strategy was used in the have a highly sensitive sense of smell, and they present study. have been trained through operant conditioning procedures to detect land mines (e.g., Poling, METHOD Weetjens, Cox, Beyene, Bach, & Sully, 2010; Poling, Weetjens, Cox, Beyene, & Sully, 2010; Subjects, Materials, Setting Poling et al., 2011); to detect the presence of The study took place in Morogoro, , Mycobacterium , the bacillus that at the training facility of Anti-Persoonsmijnen causes tuberculosis, in human sputum (e.g., Ontmijnende Product Ontwikkeling (APOPO, Mahoney, Weetjens, et al., 2012; Poling, “Anti-Personnel Landmines Detection Product Weetjens, Cox, Mgode, et al., 2010; Weetjens Development”in English). APOPO is a Belgian et al., 2009); and to detect Salmonella bacteria in nongovernmental organization that uses the scent- horse feces (Mahoney et al., 2014). The rats are detecting ability of pouched rats for humanitarian relatively inexpensive to transport, house, and purposes (see APOPO.org for details about the maintain, are not dependent on a single human organization). Ethical clearance to conduct the handler to work well, and maintain accurate study was obtained from APOPO’s Institutional performance during long periods of repetitive Animal Care Use and Committee. Five pouched work. Moreover, they live 8 or more years in rats (Van, Graca, Torres, Chi Chi, and Ram) captivity, so trained rats can provide valuable served as subjects. The rats, which were selected service over a protracted period, and they are large for the study as newborn pups, came from enough (adults typically have a body length of 25 APOPO’s breeding colony. APOPO began its to 45 cm and weigh 1 to 2 kg) to carry appropriate colony with wild-caught rats and for over a equipment in search-and-rescue applications. As decade has been producing rats for use as we currently envision it, this equipment would research animals and operational land-mine- include a video camera to record images screened and tuberculosis-detection animals. The rats for evidence of living people as soon as a rat exited were experimentally naive and were fitted with a debris and a beeper to signal the rat to return to its subcutaneous passive integrated transponder to release point after a specified search time. A small ensure accurate identification. They were light (not used in the present study) would also be housed in pairs in cages with unlimited access carried to allow a visual-light camera to operate to water and a nest box until Stage 2 training (see and to inform survivors that the rat is a trained below) began, after which they were housed search animal, not a wild scavenger. Rats could individually so that each rat received the proper also carry a reassuring printed message to that amount of food. From the beginning of Stage 2 effect. to the end of the study, on Monday through Given their physical characteristics, and Friday rats were fed only during sessions. On assuming that they can be appropriately trained, Friday afternoon each rat was given a carefully Cricetomys may be useful for searching through weighed weekend allotment of food (e.g., rubble for living humans. In view of our success peanuts, watermelon, small fish, and bananas), in training operational land-mine detection rats and any food not eaten was removed Sunday by exposing them to a series of training stages that morning to ensure proper food deprivation for develop appropriate responding under conditions Monday’s training. During training (Stages 2 that ever more closely resemble the environment through 4) and probe sessions, 45-mg food in which the rats will work operationally (see pellets combined with smashed bananas were Poling, Weetjens, Cox, Beyene, Bach, & Sully, delivered through a large syringe to reinforce POUCHED RATS FIND PEOPLE 3 correct responses. Sufficient food was earned in forced to move over and around objects to sessions so that subjects gained weight over time traverse the room and reach targets. at approximately the same weight as control animals not involved in experiments. Depriva- Design tion of food from the end of each session, or from A discrete-trials within-subjects probe design Sunday morning, to the beginning of the next (Poling, Methot, & LeSage, 1995) was used. In experimental session was an effective establishing this design, after training Stages 1 through 4 were operation for food as a within-session reinforcer. completed and rats reliably located human targets Moreover, bananas are highly preferred food for and returned to the starting location after hearing pouched rats. an auditory signal, each rat was exposed to a Three kinds of targets were used: (a) humans, series of probe trials, each of which provided the (b) large plastic bags filled with recently worn opportunity to find one of three types of targets. clothing (jeans, shirts, and shoes), and (c) large One of the targets was a human, as in training. plastic bags filled with air. Human targets Another target, a plastic bag containing clothes consisted of 15 men and five women, ranging worn by a human with some clothing draped from 15 to 45 years of age. They were residents across the outside, was intended to provide visual of Tanzania, Kenya, the United States, and and olfactory stimuli similar to, but less salient Belgium. During training stages, human targets than, those provided by a human. The third rotated daily and within sessions. During probe target, an air-filled plastic bag, was intended to trials, both previously used and novel human differ substantially from a human. If the rats were targets were used, with the same human never actually searching for humans, not simply serving on more than one trial per rat per day. blundering into them by chance, then they The plastic bags were 30-gallon capacity and should more readily find humans than either of were changed periodically during probe trials. the two other targets and should find the bag The clothes had been worn for 1 day within containing clothes more readily than the air-filled 3 days of probe sessions by someone who was not bag. Comparison of overall detection rates within a target and were handled by nontarget humans rats and across target types provides a means of wearing latex gloves. The plastic bags were determining if this occurred. An alternative handled by humans wearing latex gloves. The arrangement, in which one of each type of target bags and clothing were not present during was presented on each trial, could have been used, training Stages 1 through 4 and were therefore but the present arrangement was selected to novel stimuli during initial probe trials. Human simplify procedures and thereby maximize targets sat in positions (e.g., crisscross or hugging intervention integrity and facilitate accurate knees) that approximated the size of the bags. data recording. Stopwatches and data sheets were used in data collection. Training Procedure Training took place in a variety of environ- Training comprised four stages. One training ments (see stages below). The probe trials were session (which took between 30 and 45 min per conducted in a room (6 m by 9 m) that simulated rat) was arranged for each rat every weekday at a collapsed building. The room contained several approximately the same time each day. layers of damaged wood, brick, and concrete as With the help of a Swedish company, APOPO well as common office and household items (e.g., devised a backpack for the rats. The backpack tables, chairs, curtains, doors, a refrigerator). held a miniature video camera and small beeper, These items were arranged so that rats could not which was activated remotely. The backpack see targets from the starting locations and were with these items affixed weighed about 75 g. 4 KATE B. LA LONDE et al.

Empty backpacks (without the beeper and however, they did not typically approach humans camera) were put on the rats at 5 weeks of age in training areas or elsewhere. while they were hand fed preferred foods (e.g., Stage 2: The beep. We anticipated that if a rat peanuts and small portions of banana) and was used operationally (i.e., in an actual search allowed to walk around a room. After Stage 2 application), then a beep or other sound would be training (see below) began, the beeper and used to signal it to return to the starting location camera were put inside the backpack. The beeper after a specified time had passed. The purpose of produced a tone at a rate of one beep per second Stage 2 was to establish a beep as a discriminative and was remotely operated by the trainer when stimulus for approaching a person who delivered desired. The camera was not operated in this food. Initially, the person was near the rat and study, which was intended to evaluate the rats’ easy to detect via olfactory and visual cues. Later, performances and not that of the recording the distance was increased. Training initially took device. The rats sniffed and occasionally bit the place on top of a rectangular table (0.5 m by 2 m) backpacks when first exposed to them but and then on the ground. In each trial, a trainer appeared to adapt readily to their presence. released the rat from one corner of the table. After a few days of exposure, the rats’ mobility While the rat was walking on the table, the trainer and general deportment were, in the opinion of periodically activated the beep and, if the rat the training supervisor, not obviously affected by approached the trainer, delivered a “mouthful” (as the backpacks and the items they contained. judged by the trainer) of food (smashed banana The training supervisor has been employed by combined with mashed food pellets) to the rat. APOPO for more than 10 years (since the After the rat reliably (i.e., on 90% or more of organization’s founding in Tanzania) and, like the trials) approached the trainer in the presence of trainers who worked with him on this project, the beep, a human target sat in a chair at the table. had earned an internal organizational certificate Another trainer released the rat on the other side in animal training. The certification was based on of the table (i.e., from a distance of approximately successful completion of a course delivered by a 0.5 m). The rat was allowed to move about the prominent ethologist. The course covered char- table until it approached and put both forepaws acteristics of pouched rats, rudiments of operant on the target person, at which time he or she and classical conditioning, scent detection by presented food to the rat. When the rat reliably animals, and specific techniques used at APOPO. approached the target on three consecutive trials Trainers who participated had demonstrated (as judged by the trainer), the target moved previous mastery of standard operating proce- progressively further (in increments of 0.25 to dures for the present project, as determined by a 0.5 m) from the point at which the rat was senior behavior analyst, and high levels of released until he or she was at the end of the table, treatment integrity in previous scent-detection diagonally opposite the release point and about research. All training staff demonstrated compe- 2 m from it. tency in English and fluency in KiSwahili. After the rat reliably moved diagonally across Stage 1: Socialization. From 3 to 6 weeks of the table and contacted a person, the procedure age, the rats were handled twice per day by was altered so that the rat received food when it trainers who exposed the rats to a wide range of put both forepaws on the target human and also objects, sights, sounds, and smells and hand fed when it returned to its starting location. Under them bananas and peanuts. By the end of this this condition, when the target person took the time the rats did not bite or attempt to escape syringe out of the rat’s mouth, the beep was when handled and usually did not emit startle activated and the trainer delivered a mouthful of responses when they encountered novel stimuli; food when the rat returned to the starting POUCHED RATS FIND PEOPLE 5 location, at which time the beep was silenced. could be contacted and were placed in randomly Early on, every return to the starting location selected locations that varied from trial to trial. In led immediately to food delivery. Later, a variable- this and all subsequent stages, at the start of each ratio 2 schedule was put in place for both trial the rat was placed at the edge of the room in a contacting the target human and for returning randomly selected location. The trainer stayed at to the starting location. Here, on average, every this location, where food was presented at the end second correct response led to food delivery, of each successfully completed trial. Intermittent although the specific number of responses required reinforcement was also provided for placing two varied from one to four on each occasion. This forepaws on the human target. After a rat found procedure was repeated for a total of 15 trials per the human on 13 or more of 15 trials and rat each day. returned to the starting point within 2 min for 3 After the rat reliably (i.e., on at least 80% consecutive training days, it advanced to Stage 4. of trials) contacted the target and returned across Stage 3 required an average of 12 sessions (range, the greatest distance allowed by the size of the 11 to 14) across rats. table, training moved to an enclosed area on Stage 4: Large obstacle course. This stage was the ground, where the distance was gradually identical to Stage 3 except the enclosed area was increased to 15 m. The rats were given 2 min to larger (6 m by 9 m) and more materials were contact the human target and another 2 min to added (e.g., a broken refrigerator, a stove, wooden return to the starting location after the onset of doors). A clear area around the outside of the the beep. These temporal values (and subsequent piled materials allowed rats to start trials from ones) were determined empirically to be attain- various locations and targets to be placed where able, but not easy, criteria. If a rat both contacted desired. In this stage, rats were given 3 min to find the target and returned to the starting location the human target and another 3 min to return to correctly on 13 or more of 15 trials (i.e., on at the starting location to account for the increased least 87% of them) for three consecutive training complexity and size of the area. If either activity sessions (i.e., 3 days), then a generalization probe took longer, an error was recorded and that trial was arranged. This probe was conducted using ended. This stage continued until a rat responded the terminal procedure described above, except in correctly on at least 8 of 10 trials (80%) for 3 a novel environment with human targets not consecutive days. A more robust criterion (at least previously used. If a rat found the human targets 90%), which is closer to the criterion used in on at least 13 of the 15 generalization trials, it Stages 2 and 3 (87%), was considered but rejected advanced to Stage 3. Stage 2 required an average because it was not reached within 4 weeks, and of 19 sessions to complete, with a range of 18 to the obtained performance level was deemed 20 sessions across rats. sufficient to provide evidence that the desired Stage 3: Small obstacle course. This stage was responses (i.e., finding humans and returning on identical to Stage 2 except items such as building command) could be engendered through operant materials and furniture were arranged in an area conditioning procedures. After all the rats met the (5 m by 5 m). Human targets, who were quiet 80% accuracy requirement, which took an throughout the experiment, hid behind, beneath, average of 21 sessions (range, 20 to 21), and on top of these materials, requiring the rats to experimental probe trials were conducted with walk through and climb over obstacles to contact three target types to ascertain whether or not the them. The arrangement of the obstacles changed rats were actively searching for stimuli associated every few days, and new materials were added with humans. throughout this stage. Targets assumed a variety Probe trials. The probe trials were conducted of positions so that different parts of the body in the same room as Stage 4 training, and similar 6 KATE B. LA LONDE et al. obstacles were used. Eight probe sessions were outside the 1-m circle), and (c) the amount of arranged for each rat. Extinction was in effect for time spent within the circle (i.e., time spent contacting targets in probe sessions, and Stage 4 within approximately 0.25 m of the target). A training sessions were interspersed between probe third observer monitored trainers to assess sessions. The training sessions were arranged to treatment integrity. For 30% of trials, selected ensure that performance would not deteriorate at random, this person recorded whether (a) the due to extinction, which rapidly weakens mine- starting location was correct, (b) the rat was given detection responding (Mahoney, Durgin, et al., 3 min to search, (c) the rat was captured and 2012). During each probe session, six trials were removed if it did not find the target within 3 min, conducted for each rat: two with a human target, (d) the beep was appropriately sounded, (e) the two with a plastic bag containing clothes, and two rat was given 3 min to return to the starting point, with a plastic bag filled with air. Target locations and (f) the rat received food at the end of a correct and starting locations for the rats were selected at trial. random with the provision that, across rats, the Interobserver agreement for the percentage of same location relative to the same starting point trials with correct responding (i.e., both contact was used equally often for each type of target. within 3 min and return within 3 min) was Chalk was used to draw a circle 1 m in 100%. Interobserver agreement for total time diameter within which targets were placed. spent within approximately 0.25 m of the target Given the size of targets, this circle was was 91% (range, 71% to 100%). The treatment approximately 0.25 m from any target placed integrity evaluation revealed no procedural at its center. This allowed us to record the errors. amount of time spent within 0.25 m of the targets. The decision to define proximity as being RESULTS within 0.25 m of a target was both arbitrary and conservative. During experimental probe trials, Figure 1 shows the percentage of trials in human targets did not deliver food or interact which rats located the three types of targets with the rats in any way, but trainers delivered a within the allotted time. Figure 2 depicts the mouthful of food to any rat that found any target amount of time the rats spent within approxi- (i.e., the rat’s forepaws made contact with the mately 0.25 m of each type of target after it was target) within 3 min and returned within 3 min contacted. Each rat located the human target to the starting location (food was not provided at most often and the empty bag least often. When any of the targets). each kind of target was located within 3 min, the rat rarely failed to return to the start location Interobserver Agreement and Treatment Integrity within 3 min of the onset of the beep. This One observer watched the rats from a occurred on 1, 1, and 0 occasions with human viewpoint above the targets. To allow interob- targets, bags with clothes, and empty bags, server agreement to be determined, on 30% of respectively. Overall, for trials that involved the probe trials (selected at random), a second humans, bags with clothes, and bags without observer watched the rats from another view- clothes, the rats found the target within 3min on point. On each trial, each observer recorded (a) 83%, 37%, and 11% of trials, respectively. Each whether the rat placed both forepaws on the rat spent most time within 0.25 m of the human target within 3 min of release, (b) whether the rat target and least time within 0.25 m of the empty returned to the starting point within 3 min of the bag. For trials on which the rats located the onset of the beep (which was remotely sounded as human, the bag with clothes, and the bag soon as the rat contacted the target and moved without clothes, they spent an average of 44.9 s, POUCHED RATS FIND PEOPLE 7

Figure 1. The percentage of probe trials during which rats successfully contacted each type of target.

16.9 s, and 14.5 s within approximately 0.25 m substantially more often than either of the other of the targets, respectively. two target types suggests that stimuli specifically associated with humans were established as discriminative stimuli for approach and contact DISCUSSION responses. The finding that the bag containing These data show that Cricetomys can be trained clothes was contacted more often than the empty through operant conditioning to locate humans bag further supports this suggestion, because it is and return to their release point on command. reasonable to assume that it exuded olfactory The fact that the rats located human targets stimuli and had some visual characteristics similar

Figure 2. The mean (þSEM) amount of time (in seconds) rats spent within approximately 0.25 m of each target type after it was contacted. 8 KATE B. LA LONDE et al. to those of actual humans. Because such stimuli & Sully, 2010; Poling, Weetjens, Cox, Beyene, & were good predictors of food, they also could have Sully, 2010; Poling, Weetjens, Cox, Mgode, et al., served as conditioned reinforcers. Consistent 2010; Poling et al., 2011; Mahoney, Weetjens, with this analysis, the rats spent substantial time et al., 2012; Mahoney et al., 2014; Weetjens in the proximity of living humans (i.e., within et al., 2009); therefore, it is not surprising that about 0.25 m), considerable but less time in the they were successfully trained to find humans in proximity of clothes worn by humans (from the present study. The interesting finding is that which human odors emanated), and little time two repertoires, searching for humans and near empty bags. returning on command, were easily established. Although proximity is not a direct measure of These repertoires are necessary if the rats are to reinforcing value, researchers who use the be used to search for survivors in collapsed conditioned place preference assay to evaluate structures. the abuse liability of drugs contend that spending Of course, training and testing in the present time in a location where a particular drug state study occurred under relatively simple experi- was experienced is clear evidence that the drug mental conditions. Even under these conditions, that produced that state serves as a positive each rat failed to find some human targets. reinforcer, and considerable evidence supports Therefore, if the rats are used operationally, this contention (e.g., Prus, James, & Rosecrans, multiple rats would need to search an area, as 2009; Tzschentke, 1998). Moreover, prior usually occurs in detection (see Poling, research indicates that unconstrained animals Weetjens, Cox, Beyene, Bach, & Sully, 2010). It will work to remain in close proximity if those is worth noting, however, that no attempt was stimuli serve as positive reinforcers (e.g., Gaioni, made to reach the highest possible level of Hoffman, DePaulo, & Stratton, 1978; Hoffman accuracy in Stage 4 training, which ended when a & Ratner, 1973; Hoffman, Stratton, & Newby, modest performance criterion (80% or above 1969). This type of relation is clearly shown in accuracy for three consecutive sessions) was met. filial imprinting, which refers to a phenomenon With further and perhaps somewhat different in which young nidifugous birds, such as training, greater individual-rat accuracy is likely ducklings and turkey chicks, follow and remain to occur. close to the first moving object (stimulus) they If pouched rats are to be useful for locating see, which is typically their mother in the natural survivors of actual collapsed structures, they will environment. After, but not before, the object have to perform well under far more challenging moves past the young birds, that stimulus serves circumstances than those arranged in the present as an effective positive reinforcer (Gaioni et al., study. Such structures are likely to be much larger 1978; Hoffman & Ratner, 1973; Hoffman et al., than our testing area and also will provide many 1969). Of course, the behavioral mechanisms olfactory (and other) stimuli that might interfere that cause an animal to remain in a context in with performance. For example, dust and smoke which a reinforcing drug had been previously might blunt olfaction, temperature extremes administered, or to respond to produce access to a might interfere with all operant behavior, and stimulus on which it has imprinted, may differ food in all likelihood would simply be consumed, from those responsible for our rats staying longer at the expense of search responding. Further near humans than near plastic bags with clothes research is needed to determine how to engender or air-filled bags. appropriate performance in the face of such Pouched rats can be trained to detect the scent powerful distracters. Rats may, for example, need of land mines, human tuberculosis, and Salmo- to wear muzzles to prevent them from consuming nella (e.g., Poling, Weetjens, Cox, Beyene, Bach, any food they find and be specifically taught to POUCHED RATS FIND PEOPLE 9 continue searching despite the presence of food or Gaioni, S. J., Hoffman, H. S., DePaulo, P., & Stratton, V. N. other salient stimuli, such as recently worn (1978). Imprinting in older ducklings: Some tests of a reinforcement model. Animal Learning & Behavior, 6, clothing. The present data provide proof of 19–26. doi: 10.3758/BF03211997 principle with respect to the possibility of using Hoffman, H. S., & Ratner, A. M. (1973). A reinforcement Cricetomys as search animals, but a great deal of model of imprinting: Implications for socialization in – behavioral research will be required to produce monkeys and men. Psychological Review, 80, 527 544. doi: 10.1037/h0035533 operational search rats. Hoffman, H. S., Stratton, J. W., & Newby, V. (1969). The If appropriate behaviors can be generated, control of feeding behavior by an imprinted stimulus. research also will be necessary to evaluate the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 12, 847–860. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1969.12-847 feasibility of using particular recording devices to Mahoney, A., Durgin, A., Poling, A., Weetjens, B., Cox, C., document the presence of living humans and, Tewelde, T., & Gilbert, T. (2012). Mine detection rats: ideally, their location in the collapsed structure. Effects of repeated extinction on detection accuracy. Journal of ERW and Mine Action, 16,61–65. Rats in the present study carried miniature video Mahoney, A., Edwards, T. L., La Londe, K., Beyene, N., cameras that we are considering as recording Cox, C., Weetjens, B. J., & Poling, A. (2014). Pouched devices, but no attempt was made to evaluate the rats’ (Cricetomys gambianus) detection of Salmonella in adequacy of those cameras, which were not horse feces. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 9, 124–126. doi: 10.1016/j. activated during the study. It is not clear at this jveb.2014.02.001 time whether Cricetomys will eventually prove to Mahoney, A., Weetjens, B. J., Cox, C., Beyene, N., Reither, … ’ be useful in finding survivors in collapsed K., Makingi, G., Poling, A. (2012). Pouched rats detection of tuberculosis in human sputum: Compari- structures, but the lack of viable alternatives son to culturing and polymerase chain reaction. and the data of the present study suggest that the Tuberculosis Research and Treatment, 2012,1–5. doi: possibility merits further attention. Trained 10.1155/2012/716989 Poling, A., Methot, L. L., & LeSage, M. G. (1995). pouched rats are friendly and attractive animals, Fundamentals of behavior analytic research. New York but they are rats nonetheless, and some people NY: Plenum Press. may question the social validity of using them for Poling, A., Weetjens, B. J., Cox, C., Beyene, N., Bach, H., & search and rescue. Given that rapidly finding a Sully, A. (2010). Teaching giant African pouched rats to find landmines: Operant conditioning with real trapped person is of life-or-death significance, the consequences. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 3,19–25. issue strikes us as of no great importance; who Poling, A., Weetjens, B. 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