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FINAL TAXONOMY & DESCRIPTORS FOR UK CHEMICAL ENGINEERING (JANUARY 2014) Sub-Fields Descriptor
Area-1: Engineering Science of a. Transport Transport phenomena lie at the heart of all processes, and encompass the fields of fluid mechanics, heat transfer Physical Processes Processes and mass transfer. Traditional areas of research include turbulent flows, multiphase flows, flows of complex fluids, flow induced by electric or magnetic fields, flow through porous media, transport at interfaces, tribological properties at interfaces, heat transfer (conduction, forced and natural convection, radiation) and ancillary modes (e.g. Dufour effect), and mass transfer (diffusive and convective, with various driving forces for the former, as well as the Soret ancillary mode). Current topics of interest include experimental, theoretical and computational studies of multi-scale fluid mechanics, tribological properties at different scales, heat transfer and mass transport at interfaces: at macro scales involving the interaction with turbulent fields with associated complex interfacial dynamics (wave formation, droplet entrainment, bubble entrapment), at micro scales (e.g. microfluidic and nanoscale devices, within microreactors and across membranes), the flow mechanics of complex fluids and biomolecules (e.g. DNA electrophoresis), and non-Newtonian flow properties of ‘complex fluids’ (polymers, blends, emulsions, suspensions, surfactants, etc.). A full understanding and prediction of turbulences remains one of the key challenges in the area, as does coupled modelling of multi-scale phenomena.
b. Thermodynamics Covered here are investigations of the thermophysical properties and phase behaviour of complex chemical systems. Modern approaches couple experiment with advanced molecular modelling to develop fundamental understanding and prediction of the dependence of bulk and interfacial thermophysical properties on molecular structure and interactions. Continued advances in theoretical techniques enable studies that involve the application of statistical mechanics and simulation to engineering problems associated with a broad range of applications, e.g. the separation of bulk and fine chemicals, oil/gas extraction and petrochemical refining/processing, formulations of consumer products, new solvents, crystal polymorphs, polymer blends, refrigerants, processing/formulation of pharmaceuticals and drugs, nanomaterials, foods, degradation and
stabilisation of biological systems, understanding solubility and crystallisation, CO2 capture and sequestration.
c. Rheology Covered here are studies concerned with the flow and deformation of matter under any applied force or stress. Research addresses problems associated with the flow of complex fluids, soft solids and biological fluids as well as rheological properties at/close-to interfaces. Rheological studies are important in the formulation of personal care products, processing of polymers, developments in enhanced oil recovery, quality control of food products, and the understanding structure-function relationships of soft materials used in many nanotechnological and biomedical applications (e.g. microgels) and coatings.
d. Separations Captures research focused on methods for the separation and bio-separation of molecules/mixtures/products/impurities. Approaches to separation include concentration-driven, 2
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electric/magnetic field-controlled, gravity-controlled, size-controlled, pressure-controlled, chemically assisted and temperature-related (cryogenic). Often gradients in temperature, pressure and chemical are considered together. This area also includes separation technologies used for the removal of unwanted by-products as well as air, water and soil pollutants.
e. Particle Covered here is research on the growth, formation (nucleation, growth – granulation, attrition, crystallisation), Technology processing (mixing, blending, segregation, aggregation, communition), measurement (particle size, shape, distribution), characterisation, and modeling of systems that may be dry or wet, multiphase, dense or dilute, fast or slow moving. This includes the fundamental understanding of powder flow, friction and particle/particle interaction, and multi-phase systems, where for example control of dispersed phase size, internal structure, diffusional properties are important. The production of particulate materials with controlled properties is of major interest to a wide range of industries, including chemical and process, oil extraction, food, detergent, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and the minerals and metallurgical processing and the handling of particles in gas and liquid solutions is a key technological step in chemical engineering. The area also includes aerosol systems and problems associated with the formation, growth, measurement and modelling of systems of small particles in gases. Chemical engineers play a key role in the characterization of aerosols, modelling their formation and the evolution of their size and shape.
Area-2: Engineering Science of a. Catalysis Captured here is research on the applied catalysis and (photo)catalytic processes that play a key role in many Chemical Processes chemical, fuel and energy producing processes. Often the focus is on achieving more efficient, greener and sustainable processes. Research activities cover catalyst design and development (homogeneous or heterogeneous), optimisation, formulation, and manufacture; behaviour in terms of surface science, adsorption, and kinetics; solid-state materials science; role, control and engineering of porous materials; advances in fundamental quantum mechanical theories for the modelling and design of catalytic materials; heterogenisation of homogeneous catalysts; advanced catalytic processes using novel solvents, organometallics, non-metallic, organic
and bio-catalysts; electrochemistry. Also included here are breakthroughs on the catalytic conversions of CO2 to fuels & chemicals, renewable resources to synthesis gas, liquids, or bio-based materials, as well as developments on CO hydrogenation, catalysis for fine chemical and pharmaceutical applications, flow chemistry and the environmental applications of catalysis (e.g. photo catalysis, NOx removal, oxidation of volatile organics).
b. Kinetics and This sub-Field focuses on the quantitative analysis of different chemical reactors (e.g. batch, continuous, catalytic, Reaction contaminant cleanup, and fermentation), and how the chemical kinetics, often modified by catalysis, interacts with the transport phenomena (e.g. heat, mass, momentum). The research is reliant on in-line analytical methods such 3
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Engineering as ion, gas, and liquid chromatography, optical spectroscopy, and other in-line sensors which allow reaction parameters to be monitored and analyzed in real time. A particular focus in recent years is on real-time reaction monitoring under reaction conditions using advanced instrumentation, such as NMR and X-ray techniques. Also quantum mechanical techniques are being used increasingly to predict the kinetics of reacting systems.
c. Polymerisation Covered here are studies of the phase behaviour of polymer solutions and polymer blends, polymerisation kinetics Reaction and modeling, polymer mixing (e.g. control of molecular transport mechanism for polymer mixing), as well as the Engineering control, monitoring and optimisation of the process and polymer product (properties and structure) for various applications.
d. Electrochemical Captures research activities concerned with the manipulation and optimisation of electrochemical reactions to Processes synthesise chemicals (organic, inorganic etc), electrochemical recycling and purification of chemicals/materials, metals recovery/refining/recycling and corrosion (including its prevention). Includes work on all types of novel electrochemical reactors and processes. The associated science and engineering of Fuel Cells and Batteries is covered in sub-Field 6e.
Area-3: Engineering Science of a. Biocatalysis and This sub-Field show-cases research in biocatalysis and protein engineering where the emphasis is on the Biological Processes Protein Engineering applicability of the knowledge generated for improvements to current industrial bio-conversion routes for the generation of greener technologies. Typically these bio-transformations are affected using purified enzymes or whole cell systems (the “active” ingredient is still an enzyme). Some examples of topics included here are bio- catalytic reaction engineering, energy generation systems, biosensors, artificial cells and enzymatic bioprocessing for chemical production, biodegradation, biochemical separation/purification, fuel processing, etc.
b. Cellular and This sub-Field brings together aspects of cellular and molecular biology with reaction engineering and control Metabolic theory to manipulate cellular processes to produce useful metabolites on an industrially/medically-relevant scale. Engineering Examples of cellular and metabolic engineering include Improved production of chemicals already produced by the host organism; Extended substrate range for growth and product formation; Addition of new catabolic activities for degradation of toxic chemicals; Production of chemicals new to the host organism; Modification of cell properties. 4
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c. Bioprocess Bioprocess engineering uses the capabilities of microorganisms to produce a diverse range of commercially Engineering important biologically derived products for medical, industrial and agricultural applications. Achieving the full potential of biotechnological production methods requires combining modern molecular biology, and advanced modelling with fundamental chemical engineering principles in order to design novel bioprocesses for biotechnological applications such as bio-synthesis, bio-refining, biopharmaceuticals, waste water treatment, mammalian cell cultures, microbial cell cultures, plant cells cultures, stem cell bioprocessing and tissue engineering. Typical areas of study include areas such as bioreaction kinetics, reactor selection, design, scale up, fouling and control.
d. Systems, This sub-Field comprises the overlapping fields of systems biology, computational biology, and synthetic biology. Computational, and The emphasis here (as compared to sub-Field 3b) - is on research that takes a systems level approach to the Synthetic Biology analysis of biological responses and the development of cellular systems with improved synthetic capabilities, e.g. Integration of modelling, analysis, and design of genetic and metabolic processes; elucidating the structure of signal transduction pathways; creation of novel biological entities and technologies through the assembly of disparate “parts” from multiple sources. Also included here is the application of systems biology theory and techniques to aid the design of synthetic biological systems. Furthermore efforts that apply synthetic biology research as new tools to expand systems-level understanding or as new concepts in systems biology are of interest.
Area-4: Materials a. Polymers Included in this sub-Field is the science and engineering of polymers and formulated polymer systems. This research field draws strongly on chemical engineering because of the key roles of kinetics, catalysis, reaction engineering, thermodynamics, domain size in blends, and transport phenomena in polymer processes, and polymer product quality. They are versatile and diverse materials that are often critical to the manufacture of an Research on biomaterials and enormous range of products, e.g. semiconductor chips, medical and pharmaceutical products, food packaging, materials for cell and tissue structural materials, materials for automobiles and airplanes, adhesives, paints, many other types of protective and engineering is covered in Area- functional coatings, membrane separations, and numerous consumer and household items. Many of these 5 polymers are derived from fossil fuel sources such as petroleum, natural gas, and coal. The chemical engineering community is actively working towards reducing this reliance by researching sustainable alternative “bio-based”
polymers that are produced from renewable raw materials such as agricultural and forest crops, and more recently
to the use of CO2 from CCS. These resulting “greener” plastics are not only more sustainable but are also more biodegradable—breaking down faster in landfills and producing only carbon dioxide, water, and nontoxic biomass—compared with traditional, hydrocarbon-based plastics.
b. Inorganic and This sub-Field covers research on inorganic, ceramic and inorganic-organic hybrid materials for a variety of 5
Sub-Fields Descriptor ceramic materials technological applications, e.g. nanotechnology, semiconductors, electronic materials, phosphors, magnetic materials, as well as catalytic and environmental applications. Research challenges associated with the design, synthesis, fabrication, processing, modelling of materials formation processes, as well as the characterisation and performance of meso- and micro-structured materials are addressed by combining chemistry, mechanical engineering with core chemical engineering investigations of transport phenomena, thermodynamics, reaction kinetics, and materials science. c. Composites Composites are heterogeneous materials which generally consist of two or more constituent materials combined together, usually this is a matrix plus other material(s), e.g. ceramic-matrix, metal-matrix, polymer-matrix. Within the matrix of some composites a reinforcing material might also be embedded to impart particular properties for high performance applications, for example where both high strength and light weight are important for the application (e.g. auto and aero industry), or where high-temperature resilience is needed for the application. Chemical engineers work with material scientists to probe the microstructure and understand the factors (e.g. domain size) that control it as the materials properties are strongly dependent on this microstructure. Chemical engineers are increasingly operating at the molecular and micro-scale in order to understand and control the crucial phenomena shaping a product’s performance and the processes for making it. d. Nanostructured Captured here is chemical engineering research focused on nanostructured materials, which are defined as any materials material that has a feature of interest in at least one dimension smaller than 100 nanometres. Some examples include colloidal nanoparticles, nanoporous solids, quantum dots, nanocapsules, and nanocrystalline materials (e.g. metals, ceramics, nanocomposites) – all of which have structural elements modulated in some way at the nanoscale. Potential end uses for these nanostructured materials are very broad and include electronics, sensors, transportation, energy, consumer products, catalysis, and medicine. e. Food The focus of this sub-Field is on the application of chemical engineering to the food industry. It covers the design of modern food processes that are hygienic, safe, produce little or no waste, have minimal environmental impact and are attractive from the consumer’s perspective. Also included here are research contributions to food processing, e.g. formulation, microstructure, nutritional attributes etc. Often the work is multi-disciplinary and draws in the expertise of food scientists, food engineers, chemical engineers, mechanical engineers, systems engineers, microbiologists and others. f. Molecular and This sub-Field captures studies on the structure, properties and fabrication of large molecules (mainly organic Interfacial Science molecules/polymers but also biological materials), molecular aggregates and how they interface between different and Engineering phases and/or materials. A characteristic of this subfield is the importance of the molecule itself: from its chemical composition and 6
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conformation to the way in which, using methods of spontaneous and directed assembly, a mixture of molecules can be made to self-assemble into controlled structures with defined properties, e.g. a two-dimensional film, or single three-dimensional nanostructure, or a topologically complex larger structure. This subfield extends to include investigations of film formation, manufacture, control and metrology. Molecular and interfacial science and engineering represents one of the primary ways that chemical engineers interact with the enormous challenges and opportunities presented by nanotechnology as applied to a diverse range applications that include purification, filtration, molecular recognition and sensors, drug delivery vehicles, molecular electronic devices, personal care formulations and structured materials.
Area-5: Biomedical Products a. Drug targeting This sub-Field covers the design and deployment of novel drug delivery vehicles and processes for small molecule, and Biomaterials and delivery peptide, gene, oligonucleotide, and protein delivery. Chemical engineering makes important contributions to systems understanding issues associated with the thermodynamic stability of the delivery system, transport processes in drug carriers and tissues; carrier/tissue and carrier/cell interactions; advanced methods of analysis of cellular behaviour; drug and protein absorption (transport) mechanisms (topical/invasive delivery); new drug release/activation strategies, modelling, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics.
b. Biomaterials Biomaterials are substances (synthetic and natural; solid and sometimes liquid) that have been engineered to interact either directly or as part of a complex system with living systems, in order to direct the course of a therapeutic or diagnostic procedure (e.g. artificial organs, and reconstructive medicine, e.g. contact and intraocular lenses, artificial joints, assist devices, heart muscles, liver tissues etc). Illustrative examples of biomaterials include polymers, proteins, glasses, cements, composites and hybrids; only rarely are biomaterials used alone, mostly they are integrated into devices or implants. Thus, the subject cannot be explored without also considering the biological response to the biomedical devices. This sub-Field captures the contribution of chemical engineers to addressing research issues focused on the design and production of better biomaterials with improved properties, biomaterials with versatile functions, biomaterial manufacture at a lower cost, improved methods for evaluating biocompatibility, and understanding of the material/tissue interactions.
c. Materials for cell Tissue engineering is a sub-Field concerned with combining cells (including stem cells) with scaffold materials to and tissue generate functional tissue constructs that have the potential to compensate for body functions that have been lost engineering or impaired as a result of ageing, disease or accident, e.g. bone, cartilage, blood vessels, skin, muscle etc. Tissue engineering is a multi-disciplinary field that requires the expertise of chemical engineers to understand and manipulate the complex relationship between cells and scaffold materials. In particular they drive forward the 7
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field by playing a key role in the study of transport phenomena; the development of novel degradable materials; the employment of controlled release, and system design using kinetic parameter knowledge. They are also needed to also solve problems in manufacturing process: e.g. bioreactor design and operation, scale-up, separation, purification and preservation of the engineered tissue products.
Area-6: Energy a. Fossil energy Increasing oil and gas prices and the possible future large scale sequestration of CO2 has renewed interest in this extraction and sub-Field which focuses on enhanced fossil fuel recovery, shale, tar sands and heavy oils, liquefied natural gas processing (LNG), coal gasification, and coal liquefaction. These widely used fuel sources drawn on the core skills of chemical engineers such as multiphase flow and phase equilibria in porous media, the use of thermodynamic principles in controlling the release of fuel from novel fuel storage materials (e.g. hydrates and hydrate-like). They are also at the forefront of developing the engineering tools and techniques in refining needed to improve the conservation of energy and reduce the routine production of pollutants using both combustion process modification and/or exhaust treatment. Emission of pollutants such as CO2, SO2, NOx, and particulate matter contributes to health problems, urban smog, acid rain, and global climate change. It is highly unlikely that we will stop using fossil fuels in the short-to-medium term, and therefore chemical engineers will be needed to drive forwarded the radical changes that are envisaged in the methods of production of coal, oil and gas over the next few decades as these energy sources continue to supply a large fraction of the world’s growing energy needs throughout this century.
b. Fossil fuel Fossil fuels are used to generate electricity, produce various fuels for transportation and for industrial and utilisation residential purposes, and be converted to intermediate chemical products and feedstocks. They remain the main source energy, chemicals and materials today, and this sub-Field captures the chemical engineering contribution to addressing technological challenges focused on achieving efficient, clean, safe combustion and utilisation of fossil fuels.
c. Carbon capture, This is a sub-Field that captures the chemical engineering contribution to the development of processes for storage and removing waste carbon dioxide from large point sources, transporting it to a storage site and disposing of it in a utilisation manner that prevents it from getting into the atmosphere. This field encompasses both a sequestration strand and utilisation strand. The former involves sub-surface storage in geological formations, but might also include the
storage of CO2 in depleted gas and oil reservoirs and saline aquifers. Examples of research that would be included are studies on the transport, thermodynamics and phase equilibria of fluids in porous and fractured sedimentary
rocks, reactive flow simulations, and the use of nano-porous materials for CO2 adsorption and membrane processes. The latter strand covers the contribution of chemical engineers on chemical processes for the direct 8
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removal of CO2 from gas streams (including the atmosphere) using selective chemical sorbents. The CO2 is then released as a concentrated stream for reuse, while the sorbent is regenerated. Also Included here is the
contribution of chemical engineers to chemical strategies for the direct removal of CO2 from the atmosphere using selective chemical sorbents. The CO2 is then released as a concentrated stream for disposal or reuse, while the sorbent is regenerated and the CO2 depleted air is returned to the atmosphere.
Power plants and other facilities with high CO2 emissions move towards the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions through the installation of CO2 capture units. This will involve the design of solvents for the optimal economic capture of CO2 and the minimal regeneration cost of the solvent. As this happens increasing amounts of CO2 will become available as a resource for conversion to valuable products, such as fuels, chemicals, or plastics.
Using/reusing CO2 can significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere. Therefore included here are developments with chemical transformations using the CO2 resource and developing technologies that can beneficially use CO2 to produce valuable products, particularly products that tie up the carbon indefinitely d. Renewable In order to reduce society’s current dependence on fossil fuels, the chemical engineering community has Energy increasingly focused on the challenge of devising methods for utilising renewable energy sources such as biomass, and solar energy as a source of energy. The term biomass refers to agricultural products such as plant material, fast-growing trees and grasses, and agricultural crops. Successfully developing and demonstrating cost-effective technologies to convert this renewable biomass into electricity, and transportation fuels is critically reliant on chemical engineering in much the same way that development of fossil fuels was. For example, reactor engineering for the conversion of biomass to combustible gases, biocrude or biodiesel and the process design
associated with biomass conversion/bio-refining. Also included here is the contribution of chemical engineering to the development of solar (PV and thermal), wind and geothermal as energy sources. For example, the successful manufacture of efficient silicon solar cells will require many of the same chemical engineering techniques used during semiconductor manufacturing, e.g. crystal growth techniques, plasma spraying processes, and methods for diffusing or implanting critical functional elements into the photovoltaic cells. Recent developments on the conversion of either solar-thermal or waste heat energy into electricity are also captured within this sub-Field. e. Fuel Cells and Hydrogen is potentially a cleaner alternative to fossil fuels, and large amounts are produced commercially by steam Energy Storage, reforming of gas or by gasification of biomass. This sub-Field covers the contribution of chemical engineers to including Hydrogen addressing the research challenges associated with hydrogen generation, storage, and use. Improvements to hydrogen production processes are desirable for providing cost-effective and sustainable hydrogen for fuel-cell systems. Examples of the type of research included here are developments on catalytic reforming (partial oxidation, and steam, dry, and auto-thermal reforming) of various fuels; novel non-catalytic reforming 9
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technologies; hydrogen production from coal, biomass and water; reactor design for fuel processors; the water-gas shift reaction; preferential oxidation; methanation reactions; fuel desulfurization and systems analysis; advanced processes for water splitting such as thermochemical cycles. Furthermore developments in hydrogen separation and purification technologies are required, as well as hydrogen storage materials for on-board and off-board applications. In addition chemical engineers are well placed to analyse the hazards and risks associated with hydrogen production and distribution systems. The exploitation of hydrogen in fuel cells and batteries requires chemical engineers to develop safe and technically feasible systems for electricity generation. The intermittent nature of wind, marine (wave/tidal) and solar energy sources requires the development of electrochemical energy storage devices such as batteries and ultracapacitors as well as large-scale energy storage installations. All of which require contributions from chemical engineering.
f. Nuclear Power The sub-Field captures chemical engineering research focused on addressing the challenges faced by the current Engineering (fission and future nuclear power sector, e.g. nuclear power engineering, corrosion issues, fuel reprocessing and plant & fusion) decommissioning. Included here is the application of chemical engineering in new and creative ways to the design, development, monitoring, and operation of nuclear fission reactors in the safest, most efficient manner possible. Other contributions might be to future energy solutions through development and implementation of nuclear fusion systems, development of new fusion/fission reactor- and storage-containment materials, research on safe disposal concepts for radioactive waste, metrology (e.g. for nuclear build matrices, i.e. consensus versus ideal standards) and on methods for reduction of radiation releases from industrial facilities.
Area-7: Process Systems a. Process Included in this subarea are developments in the methodologies, tools, and techniques to aid engineers in the Development and development and synthesis, development, and design of new manufacturing systems (e.g. single plants, supply chains). Research Engineering, including sensors design should focus on integrating multiple unit operations for the systematic and integrated handling of raw material pre-treatments, reactor configurations, product separations, and energy management systems which is at the heart of rational process system development. This is likely to involve early collaboration of synthetic chemists, physical scientists and chemical engineers; essential for the early evaluation of alternative synthetic routes and the selection of the most promising processing schemes from an economic and environmental point of view. Research on novel manufacturing concepts also falls under this heading as does molecular systems engineering which
extends the boundary of process and product design to include molecular-level understanding into the design and development decisions. 10
Sub-Fields Descriptor b. Dynamics, Covered here is research that focuses on achieving operational excellence and covers process control; optimization control, and of various aspects of operational performance (online optimization of steady-state and transitional operations, operational including start-up and shutdown, performance for continuously operated plants, trajectory optimization for batch optimisation plants); planning, scheduling, and supply-chain management as well as dynamic simulation and optimization. c. Safety and Captured here is research into the identification and mitigation of hazards associated with the operation of operability of manufacturing facilities, as well as all practical engineering considerations associated with safe, smooth, flexible, chemical plants resilient, and robust operability of such facilities. d. Computational Mathematical and computational modelling is an underpinning technology supporting research in many areas of tools, Numerical chemical engineering. This subarea captures research on developing the numerical methods and computational Methods and tools for the modelling, and simulation of process systems, as well as algorithm development for dealing with large information scale problems, coarse-graining, and other common calculations such as phase and chemical equilibrium. Also technology covered here is informatics and knowledge extraction from operating data, large-scale information processing for enhanced performance, security, and environmental impact. Chemical engineers make important contributions to the fundamentals of computation through the development of concepts, methods and algorithms to handle complex process systems problems. Other important areas of computing, such as decision support and the organization, retrieval, and interpretation of large complex datasets, are also included in this subarea. e. Sensors (chemical This sub-field covers the chemical engineering contribution to the development of the next generation & biochemical) of (bio)chemical sensors. These sensors find application in environmental monitoring, forensics, healthcare security, process control and industry. Environmental monitoring plays a major role in assessment and the minimization of harm that chemical processing does to our environment, and to human health. This includes sensors for determination of short and long term chemical exposure, and contamination levels of air and water streams. Sensors in process streams as part of industrial safety and environmentally conscious designs are a focus. Investigation of surface chemistry and catalysis in relation to sensor sensitivity and selectivity are included here, as are issues to do with sensor fouling. Captured here is the chemical engineering contribution to the detection, design, development and evaluation of novel devices for preclinical and clinical applications. These biosensors provide unique ways to investigate and monitor the health of a living body; from determining the presence or concentrations of molecules, compounds, or living microbes to signalling when a cellular event takes place. Biosensors can provide researchers and medical personnel with critical information through various laboratory, clinical, home care, and point-of-care applications. 11
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Biosensors also have increasingly applications in the environmental area such as in pollution and toxin sensing and for detecting pathogens. There is also an emerging area for biotechnology where metabolite sensors are being designed.
Area-8: Sustainable chemical a. Social and cultural Consequence of the Brundtland definition of sustainability as a means of meeting human and societal needs. The engineering domain concepts of human capital, social capital. Methods of investigating socio-cultural impacts such as public and Covers the analysis, design deliberative consultation, stakeholder analysis, field surveys. Role of NGOs. The application of ethical systems to engineering problems - professional standards, conflicts of interest, whistle-blowing, public accountability, cultural and implementation of systems, processes and norms. The extension of LCA and similar accounting methodologies to include human and social impacts. Equity products that are financially issues: intergenerational equity, demographic and geographical equity, offshoring and consequences for pollution viable, where maximum use is and international regulation, resource ownership. Specific considerations for chemical engineering of meeting made of renewable or human needs through engineered systems, processes and products: for example tissue engineering and its ethical replaceable resources and considerations; the global human impacts of very-large scale mineral extraction; issues of product and process where there is no production safety and risk and human health impacts. of waste which systematically b. Environmental Role of national and international legislative frameworks in regulating chemical and process engineering activities degrades the environment, domain in the environment. Environmental impact assessment. Development and application of accounting methodologies and which meet the needs of for environmental impacts: life cycle assessment, carbon foot-printing. Modelling and possibility of re-engineering the user and wider society in a of earth systems – the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, the climate (geo-engineering). socio-culturally acceptable manner). Chemical engineering research that deals with identifying and solving a broad range of complex environmental pollution problems, including the removal of air and water pollutants as well as soil remediation. Research on sources of pollutants, their transport and transformation in the environment, impact on health, the natural environment and materials. Process design, modelling and optimisation for reducing environmental impacts and improving productivity, including resource and waste minimisation. c. Economic domain Environmental economics and the concept of externalities (positive, negative, other). Carbon pricing and consequences of decarbonisation for energy, water, chemicals and other process industries. The economic valuation of ecosystem services. Economics versus regulation as drivers of change.
d. General and Generalised and specific definitions of sustainability and the distinction between “strong” and “weak” integrating concepts sustainability. Techniques for the holistic assessment of sustainability of systems, processes and products, such as triple bottom-line accounting, the generation and use of indicator sets, composite indicators and sustainability indexing. Techniques for improving sustainability of process systems like water and energy pinch analysis, exergy and other thermodynamic systems analysis. Green Chemistry and other technologies for the manufacture of more 12
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sustainable products. Development and use of decision support methods such as system dynamics modelling, multi-criteria decision analysis, fore- and back-casting, scenario modelling. Concept of security applied to water and energy and other key resources.