First Generation Chinese Migrants and Their Association with the Development
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First Generation Chinese Migrants and their Association with the Development of Liverpool’s Chinatown FIRST GENERATION CHINESE MIGRANTS AND THEIR ASSOCIATION WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIVERPOOL’S CHINATOWN THESIS SUBMITTED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR IN PHILOSOPHY by SU-CHUIN SOON B.A., University of Oxford, 2001 M.A., University of Liverpool, 2008 DECEMBER 2012 Contents Pages Acknowledgements x Abstract xii List of Tables xiii List of Figures xiv List of Acronyms xv CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 17 2.1 Introduction 18 2.2 Development of Chinatowns 19 2.2.1 Defining “Chinatown” 21 2.2.3 Praxis of Ordinary Chinese in the Construction 29 and Re-Constructions of Chinatown 2.3 Unpacking Chinese Migration 32 2.3.1 Context of Migration and Coping Strategies 32 2.3.2 Information Communications Technology 36 Bridging Distances 2.4 Spectrum of First Generation Chinese Migrants 39 2.4.1 Differentiations Based on Place of Origin 41 2.4.2 Differentiations Based on Socio-Economic Profiles 42 2.4.3 Differentiations Based on Legal Status 43 2.5 The Dominant Catering Industry in Chinatown 46 2.5.1 Catering and Ethnic Enterprises 47 2.5.2 Ethnic Entrepreneurship, Racial Disadvantage and 49 Segregation 2.5.3 Challenges Confronting the Catering Industry 50 2.5.4 Internal Exploitation within the Catering Industry 52 2.5.5 A Suppressed and Persisting Industry 54 2.6 Conclusion 55 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 58 3.1 Introduction 59 3.2 Situated Knowledge and Reflexivity 60 3.3 Ethical and Risk Considerations 66 3.4 Archival Research 69 3.5 Securing a Voice 72 3.6 Primary Qualitative Research 76 3.7 Profile of Sixty-Eight Interview Respondents 82 3.7.1 Differentiations between the Occupational Groups 83 3.7.2 Differentiations within Each Group 86 3.8 Negotiating the Voices 88 3.9 Validating and Justifying the Voices 92 3.10 Conclusion 95 CHAPTER FOUR HARNESSING THE TIDES: THE INCEPTION OF 97 LIVERPOOL’S CHINATOWN TO DATE 4.1 Introduction 98 4.2 Chinese Migrants and the Seafaring Trade 99 4.3 Phase One: Constructing a Misrepresented Chinese 102 Community and Chinatown, Early 19 th Century – Early 20 th Century 4.3.1 Association of Chinese and Chinatown with Vice 104 and Moral Decadence 4.3.2 Sensationalist Journalism 104 4.3.3 Politicking amidst Economic Uncertainties 106 4.3.4 Demarcating Chinatown 107 4.4 Phase Two: Subduing a Growing Chinatown, Early 20 th 110 Century – Mid 20 th Century 4.4.1 Demolishing Chinatown and the Economic Factor 110 4.4.2 Chinese Fighting Back White Dominance 111 4.5 Phase Three: Controlling a Maturing Chinatown, Mid 114 20 th Century – Late 20 th Century 4.5.1 Immigration Policies and the Ethnic Catering 115 Industry 4.5.2 Preserving Chinese Culture and Government 117 Funding 4.5.3 Degenerating Chinatown 119 4.5.4 Chinese Disengagement 122 4.6 Phase Four: Reviving a Lacklustre Chinatown, Late 20 th 123 Century – Present 4.6.1 Host Society Riding the China Wave 123 4.6.2 Chinese Community Riding the China Wave 127 4.6.3 The Visual Reality of Contemporary Liverpool’s 128 Chinatown and Liverpool’s Geographical Position 4.7 Interviewees’ Ascriptions of Liverpool’s Chinatown 134 4.7.1 Connection of Chinatown with Chinese Food 135 4.7.2 Connection of Chinatown with Chinese 137 Associations 4.8 Conclusion 139 CHAPTER FIVE ALL WITHIN THE FOUR SEAS ARE BRETHREN?: 142 THE DECLINING CHINATOWN AND A FRAGMENTED CHINESE COMMUNITY 5.1 Introduction 143 5.2 The Chinese Associations in Liverpool 144 5.2.1 Chinese Associations’ Outreach 145 5.2.2 British-Born Chinese’s Apathy towards Chinese 147 Associations 5.3 First Generation Chinese Migrants and their 149 Involvement in Chinese Associations 5.3.1 International Students’ and Professionals’ 150 Sojourning Mindset 5.3.2 Settler Aspirers and their Disinterest in Chinese 155 Associations 5.4 Chinese Associations in meeting the needs of a 160 Fragmented Chinese Community 5.4.1 Increasing Fragmentation over time 161 5.4.2 Language Differentiations within the 163 Chinese Community 5.4.3 Socio-Economic Differentiations within the Chinese 165 Community 5.4.4 Emerging Exclusive Support System outside of 169 Liverpool’s Chinatown 5.5 Conclusion 172 CHAPTER SIX BIRDS OF A FEATHER FLOCK TOGETHER: THE 174 PERSISTING CHINATOWN AND A SEGREGATED CHINESE COMMUNITY 6.1 Introduction 175 6.2 The Persisting Chinese Catering Industry 176 6.2.1 The ‘Unchanging’ Industry 177 6.2.2 Perpetuating a Tight-Knit and Non-Progressive 180 Industry – Manpower Practices 6.2.3 Segregation of the Service and Administrative 191 Workers 6.3 Institutional Discrimination and Internal ‘Exploitation’ 194 6.3.1 The Catering Industry as a Choice Employment 200 Industry 6.3.2 Justifying the ‘Exploitation’ 203 6.4 Segregation of the Professionals and Students 205 6.4.1 Demand for Chinese Food – the Epitome of 205 Cultural Familiarity 6.4.2 Racial Discrimination Triggering Segregation 209 6.4.3 Cultural Differences Causing In-Grouping 213 6.4.4 Structural Factors Inhibiting Integration with Host 216 Society 6.5 Conclusion 219 CHAPTER SEVEN FEELING AT HOME AWAY FROM HOME: THE NON- 221 FLOURISHING CHINATOWN AND AN INCREASINGLY FRAGMENTED AND SEGREGATED CHINESE COMMUNITY 7.1 Introduction 222 7.2 Shifting Relevance of Chinatown 222 7.2.1 Reduced Reliance on Chinatown for Homesickness 224 Relief 7.3 Fragmentation of the Chinese Community within 227 Liverpool Accentuated by Information Technology 7.4 Transnational Coping Strategies and Segregation 231 7.4.1 Keeping in touch with Home Countries via 232 Information Communications Technology 7.4.2 Reverse Remittances 239 7.4.3 Air Travels and Familial Cultural Preservation 241 Strategies 7.5 Conclusion 247 CHAPTER EIGHT CONCLUSION 250 APPENDICES 260 REFERENCE 283 Acknowledgements This thesis would not have materialised if not for Dr Sam Scott. Although the research has taken a drastic change from its inception, his original research conceptualisation and invaluable advice and guidance in the early part of my Ph.D. study were instrumental in shaping my research interests. I would also like to express my sincere appreciation to Professor Louise Ackers, Dr Sarah Starkweather and Dr Andrew Davies who were readily willing to take over supervision in my writing up phase and who had provided excellent reviews and comments that challenged me intellectually. Although Dr Andrew Davies supervised my thesis for only the final three months prior to submission, his timely advice is greatly appreciated. Special mention also goes to Dr Johanna Waters and Dr Richard Powell who were also my supervisors during the course of my study during the literature review and fieldwork stages and who had generously given me their time and thoughts. I also want to thank my examiners, Prof Ian Cook and Dr Bethan Evans, for their comments to my thesis. I am also appreciative of Mr Tinho Da Cruz who tutored me intensively in the use of the ArcGIS Software as well as Mr Martin Wolf and the staff at the Liverpool Record Office who were always prompt and helpful when I was navigating the archival materials. The participants at conferences and seminars at which I shared my research have contributed towards helping me focus and refine my work along the way. I am thankful for their forthcoming feedback and comments. I am also profoundly grateful to the many individuals who have provided precious information and help and whose names I cannot mention. From research participants to new-found friends, I am deeply thankful for their patience, trust in and frankness with me. I would also like to express my heart-felt appreciation to the x University of Liverpool for their generous financial support without which I would not have been able to embark on further education. My friends in University – within and without the department – have also been most helpful. Apart from serving as breaks from the rigour of research, the teas and lunches with them were beneficial platforms for providing moral support to one another. Thank you especially to Ms Lindsey Metcalf, a dear friend who has been most supportive throughout my Ph.D. journey, even when we were not in the same country in the final phase of our academic pursuits. And also to Ms Jarinya Saiyut, my roommate in Roxby Building, for her immense and timely help when I needed it. I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to my parents (Mr Soon Eng Ann and Mdm Tan Back Lang), two sisters (Ms Soon Su-Yee and Ms Soon Shurong), Mr Collin Tan and Mr Wong Singwei in Singapore. Without their unwavering encouragement and assurance, I would not have been able to complete my research. I am indebted to them for their support, particularly in helping with childcare and with my pregnancy mid-way through my Ph.D. programme. Deepest thanks to my husband, Mr Han Fuguang, who has been a strong pillar of support in various aspects of my life so that I can embark on and complete my research journey. For my daughter, Soon-Ya, who was born in November 2010, with great love, this piece of work is dedicated to you. xi Abstract My research aims to provide an in-depth understanding of first generation Chinese migrants and their changing connection to Liverpool’s Chinatown. Liverpool’s Chinatown is used as an angle from which I study the Chinese community, a holistic appreciation of the evolution of Liverpool’s Chinatown is first warranted. There are therefore two components to my research.