Negotiating Social Kenya in Policies Negotiating This book examines the nature of Kenyan state-society relations through the prisms of two social policies: free primary education and HIV/AIDS prevention and care. It asks: what roles have the enactment of social policies and aid within decision-making arenas played in the con- figuration of the contemporary Kenyan state?; and how have ethnicities and local redistribu- tion of re-sources shaped negotiations within the implementation arenas? It is argued that Ke- nya’s political competition for resources, together with donor-led reforms, eroded government social provision thereby strengthening other means of redistribution that are ethnicity-based. Mariana Cifuentes Montoya is a social researcher from Mexico. She has worked with a range of different organizations in France, Brazil, Kenya and Mexico, including research institutes, government bodies and international organizations. In 2004, she moved to Kenya to work on a participatory governance research project, funded by the Rockefeller Foundation, in a poor urban settlement of Nairobi. This experience encouraged her to undertake long-term research on the state-society relations in Kenya. In November 2007 she was admitted to the doctorate programme at the International Institute of Social Studies of Erasmus University Rotterdam. Mariana is currently living in Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea working on access to social services in different ethnic communities. She has an MPhil in Development Studies from the Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex (UK, 2000-2002) and a BA in Econo- mics from the University of The Americas (Mexico, 1994-1999). NEGOTIATING SOCIAL M POLICIES IN KENYA: ariana S. Cifuentes Montoya S. Cifuentes ariana AID, ETHNICITY AND RESOURCE STRUGGLES Mariana S. Cifuentes Montoya NEGOTIATING SOCIAL POLICIES IN KENYA: AID, ETHNICITY AND RESOURCE STRUGGLES Mariana Sofia Cifuentes Montoya This dissertation is part of the Research Programme of Ceres, Research School for Resource Studies for Development. © Mariana Sofia Cifuentes Montoya 2012 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the author. Printed in The Netherlands. ISBN 978-94-6191-243-5 Ipskamp Drukkers B.V. Josink Maatweg 43 7545 PS Enschede Tel: 0031-(0)534826262 Fax: 0031-(0)534826270 http:// www.proefschriften.net NEGOTIATING SOCIAL POLICIES IN KENYA: AID, ETHNICITY AND RESOURCE STUGGLES DE TOTSTANDKOMING VAN SOCIAAL BELEID IN KENYA: ONTWIKKELINGSHULP, ETNICITEIT EN DE STRIJD OM DE MIDDELEN Thesis to obtain the degree of Doctor from the Erasmus University Rotterdam by command of the rector magnificus Professor dr H.G. Schmidt and in accordance with the decision of the Doctorate Board The public defence shall be held on 17 August 2012 at 16.00 hrs by Mariana Sofia Cifuentes Montoya born in Puebla, Mexico Doctoral Committee Promotor Prof.dr. J.B. Björkman Other members Prof.dr. A.J. Dietz, African Studies Centre Prof.dr. M.A.R.M. Salih Prof.dr. L.J. de Haan Co-promotors Associate Professor dr.ir. J.E. Mooij Emeritus Professor dr. M. Doornbos v For Jonathan Acknowledgements Many people come to mind when I think about my last four years at ISS. I would like to thank Jan and Els van Ravens for introducing me to ISS and making my time in the Netherlands special. I thank my supervisory team, whom despite my hesitations and doubts, were able to successfully guide me through to completion. Jim Björkman has been a wonderful promotor. He read through my various manuscripts and tirelessly cor- rected them with his green pen; while also leaving interesting newspaper and magazine articles in my pigeon hole. Jos Mooij has been a great su- pervisor, with a critical mind that was always challenging my assumptions and encouraging me to think further. Martin Doornbos joined my super- visory team in mid-2010. Martin was always there when I needed him, and this was quite often, and therefore, I am greatly indebted to him for all the conversations we had. His insights, as well as his kindness, will accompany me throughout my professional career. In all, it has been a great pleasure working with Jim, Jos and Martin. During the fieldwork phase, Othieno Nyanjom, my field supervisor, provided extended support in Kenya and has now become a friend whom I call often to discuss Kenyan politics. Also, the Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis provided institutional support during my field work. In Kenya, many people made the fieldwork phase possible. I would like to thank you all, especially Danson Kibandiko who kindly offered his artwork for the cover of the thesis. I have made many special friends during my time at ISS. Both Linda McPhee and Almas Mahmud were wonderful teachers whom both be- came good friends. Sandy Kamerling and Dieneke van der Waal made the butterfly bar an island of camaraderie within the academic rigour of ISS. Ank van den Berg and Susan Spaa made miracles happen in order for me to get the required visa on time. Renée de Louw always had her door open for me. I met Wicky Meynen, a wonderful woman and friend, Acknowledgements vii thanks to ISS. Paula Bownas provided advice about many different mat- ters, especially at times of need. She has become a dear friend and I am very sad to say good bye to her. Joy Misa is a special member of my ISS family. She is a great artist who has inspired me with her creativity and beautiful voice. I will always remember her performances. I would also like to thank John Sinjorgo, Robin Koers and Sylvia Cat- termole at ISS for their invaluable support during my time at ISS. ILIAD staff was always ready to help. Also, the long opening hours of the li- brary make the life of an obsessed-reading PhD student much easier. I would like to thank my fellow PhD students, especially Akimi, Donald, Pedro, Deniz, Leonardo, Gloria, Bilisuma, Shyamika, Suzanne, Ricardo, Atshuchi, Kai, Rafaela, Tamara, Stephania, Alberto, Renate and Reko among many other more, who have made my time at ISS so spe- cial. Either laughing or complaining together at lunch in the cafeteria will always make me smile. Among the PhD students there are two women whom became very close friends, and I am in indebted to them both. Shuchi Karim fed me with many stories from Bangladesh as well as with her aromatic curries. I have learnt a great deal from her and feel very proud of calling her my friend. Similarly Ariane Corradi added many pos- itive things to my life. She inspired me with her hard work as well as making me appreciate the beauty of Dutch beer. I owe her good memo- ries despite my constant stress of deadlines. These friendships have greatly enriched my life and I am very grateful for them. I would like to express special thanks to my parents, two sisters and my grandparents who encouraged me to study and to believe in myself. Their support motivated me to keep going despite the unconventional choices I have made. I am thankful for their unconditional love. Finally, I am indebted to my husband Jonathan Caseley. He has always given good advice, read through innumerable documents and given his point of view. Throughout these last years we have come closer together showing me how lucky I am to share my life with him. Contents Acknowledgements vi List of Tables, Figures, Maps and Appendices xii Acronyms xiv Abstract xviii Samenvatting xx 1 AID, REDISTRIBUTION AND ETHNICITY: KENYA’S SOCIAL POLICIES 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Ethnicity, aid and the African state: A review of the literature 3 1.2.1 Ethnicity 3 1.2.2 The Western aid system 8 1.3 Analytical framework: Negotiating social policies 14 1.3.1 Negotiating the Kenyan state 14 1.3.2 Social policies as political arenas 15 1.3.3 Resource struggles: Redistribution, corruption and patrimonialism 16 1.4 Research questions and central thesis statement 17 1.5 Methodology and data collection 17 1.5.1 District selection: Bringing together ethnicity and resource allocation 18 1.5.2 Credibility and limitations of data collection 23 1.5.3 Position of the researcher 23 1.6 Organization of the Thesis 25 Notes 28 2 KENYA’S POLITICAL SYSTEM 31 2.1 Introduction 31 viii Contents ix 2.2 The winners of the post-independence period 32 2.3 President Kenyatta: The triumph of nationalism and Kikuyu hegemony 36 2.4 President Moi: Centralizing power through use of ethnic violence 41 2.5 President Kibaki’s governments: From change to continuity 46 2.6 Conclusion 50 Notes 52 3 TWO SIDES OF A PUBLIC POLICY INNOVATION: THE KENYA EDUCATION REFORM 54 3.1 Introduction 54 3.2 Primary education as a political project 55 3.3 Free Primary Education: President Kibaki’s first political decision 57 3.4 The first side of the innovation process: Donors’ coordinated involvement in the education sector 60 3.5 The second side of the innovation process: Corruption in the education sector 66 3.6 Linking corruption with ethnically-biased redistribution of education resources 70 3.7 Conclusion 72 Notes 73 4 ETHNICITY AS A DETERMINANT FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF FPE 75 4.1 Introduction 75 4.2 The FPE reform: the school perspective 77 4.3 Data collection 79 4.4 Wealth differences: Comparing Maragua and Rachuonyo districts 81 4.5 Maragua district: The withdrawal of well-off students from public schools 82 4.5.1 Conflict between Kikuyu parents and teachers 88 4.5.2 Decentralization of resources and school robberies 89 4.6 Rachuonyo district: