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Distribution, Utilization and Management of the Extra-Limital Common Warthog (Phacochoerus Africanus) in South Africa

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Distribution, Utilization and Management of the Extra-Limital Common Warthog (Phacochoerus Africanus) in South Africa Distribution, utilization and management of the extra-limital common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) in South Africa Monlee Swanepoel Dissertation presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Conservation Ecology and Entomology) in the Faculty of AgriSciences, Stellenbosch University Promoter: Prof Louwrens C. Hoffman Co-Promoter: Dr. Alison J. Leslie March 2016 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Declaration By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained herein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously submitted it, in its entirety or in part, for obtaining any qualification. Date: March 2016 Copyright © 2016 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved ii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Acknowledgements I wish to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to the following persons and institutions: My supervisors, Dr. Alison J. Leslie and Prof. Louwrens C. Hoffman for invaluable assistance, expertise, contribution and support and patience. The Meat Science team of Department of Animal Sciences at Stellenbosch University, including the technical and support staff for their extensive assistance, support and encouragement Academics, staff and colleagues of this institution and others for their contribution and assistance. An especial thank you to Prof. Martin Kidd, Marieta van der Rijst, Nina Muller, Erika Moelich, Lisa Uys, Gail Jordaan, Greta Geldenhuys, Michael Mlambo, Janine Booyse, Cheryl Muller, John Achilles, Dr. Sonja Matthee and Dr. Frans Radloff for their expertise and unconditional assistance. People who made the project feasible including Deon du Plessis, Frans Williams and Karel Landman, and a number of farmers who contributed to data collection and sampling efforts. The financial support from the National Research Foundation (NRF), Wildlife Ranching South Africa and HOPE project. My friends and family whom without this study would have not been possible or even phantomable, and my dog who escorted me on research excursions and patiently lay at my feet while I was writing. An especial thank you to my father who donated hours of time, assistance and patience, and gave me the courage to realize my dreams. iii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Notes This thesis is presented in the format prescribed by the Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, Stellenbosch University. The structure is in the form of one or more research chapters (papers prepared for publication) and is prefaced by an introduction chapter with the study objectives, followed by a literature review chapter and culminating with a chapter for elaborating a general discussion and conclusions. Language, style and referencing format used are in accordance with the requirements of the American Psychological Association. This thesis represents a compilation of manuscripts where each chapter is an individual entity and some repetition between chapters has, therefore, been unavoidable. Results from this dissertation that have been published in the following journals: Matthee, S., Swanepoel, M., Van der Mescht, L., Leslie, A. J. & Hoffman, L. C. (2013). Ectoparasites of a non-indigenous warthog population, Phacochoerus africanus, in the Free State Province, South Africa. African Zoology, 48, 259-265. Swanepoel, M., Leslie, A. J. & Hoffman, L. C. (2014). Carcass yield of common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus); influence of season and sex. South African Journal of Wildlife Research, 44, 179-188. Swanepoel, M., Leslie, A. J. & Hoffman, L. C. (2016). Comparative analyses of the chemical and sensory parameters and consumer preference of a semi-dried smoked meat product (cabanossi) produced with warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) and domestic pork meat. Meat Science, 114, 103–113. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2015.12.002. Swanepoel, M., Leslie, A. J., & Hoffman, L. C. (2016). Farmers’ perceptions of the extra-limital common warthog in the Northern Cape and Free State provinces, South Africa. Wildlife Society Bulletin. doi:10.1002/wsb.617. Results from this dissertation that have been presented at the following conferences: Swanepoel, M., Leslie, A. J. & Hoffman, L. C. (2011). The chemical composition of warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) meat. 7th International Wildlife Ranching Symposium, Kimberley, South Africa; 10-14 October 2011. Poster presentation. Swanepoel, M., Hoffman, L. C., Muller, M. M., & Leslie, A. J (2012). Consumer preference of cabanossi made from domestic pig (Sus scrofa) and warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) meat. South African Wildlife Management Association (SAWMA) Symposium, Bela-Bela, South Africa; 16-19 September 2012. Oral presentation. iv Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Summary In South Africa, the recognition of wildlife as a natural resource has developed into a lucrative game farming industry where wildlife has value for tourism, recreational hunting and commercial hunting, including meat production and live sales. The modern game ranching industry is largely influenced by the demand of tourists and hunters for certain species and a great diversity of species, which has resulted in South Africa having the second highest rate of ungulate introductions globally. The common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) was extra-limitally introduced to various game farms and reserves in the Eastern Cape, Northern Cape and the Free State provinces of South Africa for conservation and game farming purposes. Warthogs are not enclosed by the standard fencing used on agricultural lands and nature reserves, and have become free-roaming in the introduced habitats. The species currently inhabit both private and public lands on which major agricultural activities are practiced in South Africa and as a known agricultural pest, have become a managerial problem in traditional agricultural settings. The meat from hunted warthog carcasses is still relatively under-utilized by hunters and/or the commercial sector likely from a lack of information regarding the safety and preparation of the meat. The study found that introduced warthogs are simultaneously considered and managed as an agricultural pest and game animal by agricultural producers. This conflicting approach to management results in unethical and unsustainable control practices with undesirable outcomes for both farmers and warthogs. Since the majority of agricultural producers indicated that they would be more likely to utilize the meat if presented with information on its nutritional profile, the study proposed the production and utilization of warthog meat as fresh game meat or processed game meat products as a strategy to purposefully manage introduced warthog populations. There is a general concern that introduced warthogs could be responsible for introducing and transmitting diseases to animals and humans, and the consumption of warthog meat could cause diseases or parasitic infections in humans. The study found the first record of the tick Rhipicephalus gertrudae on warthogs in South Africa to date, while the low abundance of R. simus was attributed to the fact that the study area largely fell outside the ticks’ preferred distribution range. Overall, the parasite species richness in the host population was low. These results may suggest that introduced warthogs can alter the distribution of parasites, and/or act as host to parasites not previously associated with warthogs. However, although warthogs are able to carry and transmit diseases to animals and humans, there is a lack of documented cases of this occurring in southern Africa outside of disease-controlled areas. In addition, no warthogs culled during this study showed obvious symptoms of diseases or carriers of parasites potentially harmful for human consumption, albeit this was not explicitly investigated in this study. v Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za The yields and meat quality characteristics of warthogs, and the use of warthog meat in processed products as determined in this study provides evidence that the species can be considered and utilized as a game animal for formal meat production. The overall carcass yields of warthogs were favourable and comparable to those of other wild ungulates, indicating production of warthog meat is economically feasible. Considering the effect of intrinsic factors such as sex and age, age appeared to have a more pronounced effect on the quality characteristics of warthog meat, while adult male warthogs had heavier body weights and higher yields compared to females. The study concluded that warthog meat should be marketed and labelled as whole muscle cuts considering the differences in quality characteristics among skeletal muscles. However, differences between sex, age and among muscles are considered negligible in terms of its nutrition and healthiness as the raw and cooked meat meat is high in protein (~ 20%) and low in fat (~ 2%) with a favourable polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids ratio (PUFA:SFA) of < 0.45 and omega 6 to omega ratio 3 (ω6:ω3) ratio < 4, which is the recommended ratio for the human diet.
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