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A Comparative Analysis of Turkish and Russian Soft Power

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A Comparative Analysis of Turkish and Russian Soft Power BUILDING A SPHERE OF INFLUENCE IN THEIR BACKYARD: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TURKISH AND RUSSIAN SOFT POWER A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES OF MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY BY ELEONORA TAFURO AMBROSETTI IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS OCTOBER 2018 Approval of the Graduate School of Social Sciences Prof. Dr. Tülin GENÇÖZ Director I certify that this thesis satisfies all the requirements as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Prof. Dr. Özlem TÜR Head of Department This is to certify that we have read this thesis and that in our opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Assoc. Prof. Dr. BaĢak KALE Supervisor Examining Committee Members Assoc. Prof. Dr. Özlem KAYGUSUZ (Ankara Uni., UI) Assoc. Prof. Dr. BaĢak KALE (METU, IR) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Galip YALMAN (METU, ADM) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Pınar BEDĠRHANOĞLU (METU, IR) Assist. Prof. Dr. Seçkin KÖSTEM (Bilkent Uni., IR) PLAGIARISM I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not original to this work. Name, Last name: Eleonora Tafuro Ambrosetti Signature: iii ABSTRACT BUILDING A SPHERE OF INFLUENCE IN THEIR BACKYARD: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TURKEY‘S AND RUSSIA‘S SOFT POWER Eleonora Tafuro Ambrosetti Ph.D., Department of International Relations Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. BaĢak Kale Lack October 2018, 230 pages This thesis analyses how Russia and Turkey under the governments of Vladimir Putin (2000 to date) and Tayyip Erdoğan (2003 to date) respectively, understand and implement the concept of soft power to construct/re-affirm their zones of influence in their shared neighbourhoods with the EU. Building on existing literature, this thesis argues that, in its original formulation, the concept of soft power has liberal biases that complicate its application to non- or partially liberal states, such as Russia and Turkey. A different definition rooted in some concepts by the political theorist Antonio Gramsci – especially, ‗hegemony‘ and ‗common sense‘ is proposed. This revised definition is operationalised through soft power narratives and applied it through the empirical analysis of two case studies – Armenia for Russia and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) for Turkey. This thesis, thus, carries out: I) a comparative analysis of the commonalities and differences between Turkish and Russian understandings and use of soft power, and II) an empirical assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of these narratives in the two specific case studies. This thesis aims to contribute to the soft power literature through a theoretical reflection about the concept and its empirical application in the case of Turkey and Russia. Keywords: Soft Power, Identity, Turkey, Russia, Foreign Policy iv ÖZ ARKA BAHÇEDE BĠR NÜFUZ ALANI ĠNġA ETMEK: TÜRK VE RUS YUMUġAK GÜCÜNÜN KARġILAġTIRILMALI BĠR ANALĠZĠ Eleonora Tafuro Ambrosetti Doktora, Uluslararası ĠliĢkiler Bölümü Tez Yöneticisi: Doç. Dr. BaĢak Kale Lack October 2018, 230 sayfa Bu tez Vladimir Putin (2000‘den günümüze) ve Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (2003‘ten günümüze) yönetimindeki sırasıyla Rusya ve Türkiye hükümetlerinin AB ile paylaĢtıkları komĢu bölgelerinde ―yumuĢak güç‖ kavramını kendi nüfuz alanlarını inĢa etmek/yeniden tayin etmek için nasıl anlayıp uyguladıklarını analiz eder. Mevcut literatüre dayanarak bu tez, özgün formülasyonunda ―yumuĢak güç‖ kavramının Rusya ve Türkiye gibi liberal olmayan ya da kısmen liberal olan devletlere uygulamasını karmaĢıklaĢtıran liberal önyargılara sahip olduğunu savunmaktadır. Siyaset kuramcısı Antonio Gramsci tarafından geliĢtirilen – özellikle ―hegemonya‖ ve ―ortak akıl‖ gibi – bazı kavramlarda kökleĢmiĢ farklı bir tanım önerilmektedir. Bu gözden geçirilmiĢ tanım, ―yumuĢak güç‖ anlatılarıyla iĢlevselleĢtirilmektedir ve iki vaka çalıĢmasının ampirik analizi yoluyla uygulanmaktadır – Rusya için Ermenistan ve Türkiye için Kuzey Kıbrıs Türk Cumhuriyeti (KKTC). Bu tez, dolayısıyla: I) Türkiye‘nin ve Rusya‘nın ―yumuĢak güç‖ü anlamaları ve uygulamaları arasındaki ortaklıklar ve farklılıkların karĢılaĢtırmalı bir analizini ve II) iki belirli vaka çalıĢmasında bu anlatıların güçlü ve zayıf yönlerinin ampirik bir değerlendirmesini yapmaktadır. Bu tez, ―yumuĢak güç‖ literatürüne, kavram hakkında ve onun Türkiye ve Rusya vakalarına apirik olarak uygulamasına teorik bir bakıĢ açısı yoluyla katkıda bulunmayı amaçlamaktadır. Anahtar Kelimeler: YumuĢak Güç, Kimlik, Türkiye, Rusya, DıĢ Politika v DEDICATION To my family, especially to my niece Carla, who was born roughly at the same time as this thesis. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My deepest gratitude goes to my supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. BaĢak Kale, not only for her guidance, advice, criticism, and support throughout this research but also for giving me the chance to embark on a life-changing journey through the Power and Region in a Multipolar Order (PRIMO) project, to which this research is ascribed. I thank METU‘s Department of International Relations and especially the former Chair Prof. Dr. Hüseyin Bağcı for providing me with a stimulating and supportive environment. I also thank everyone at the JMCE Centre for European Studies at METU, who made my stay in Turkey incredibly enriching, in particular, Prof. Dr. Atila Eralp, Assoc. Prof. Dr. BaĢak Alpan, Assist. Prof. Dr. Zerrin Torun, Assist. Prof. Asuman Göksel, and my dear colleagues and friends Ece, Nurdan, Özlem, BaĢak. My sincere thanks to the members of my PhD committee, who supported me and helped improve my thesis dramatically: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Pınar Bedirhanoğlu, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Özgehan ġenyuva, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Galip Yalman, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Özlem Kaygusuz (Ankara University), and Assist. Prof. Dr. Seçkin Köstem (Bilkent University). Many thanks also to my friends Kıvanç, Nesli, Ahmed, Derya, Bea, Miguel for their love and support. Thanks also to all my PRIMO colleagues, both the management team and scientists in charge for their guidance and my fellow PhD students – especially Fleur, Ali, Felipe, and Insa – for sharing this journey together. I am particularly grateful to Prof. Dr. Cord Jakobeit (Hamburg University), PRIMO coordinator and my career mentor. Dr. Hartmut Mayer (Oxford University) deserves all my gratitude for his support and friendship. I would also like to thank my colleagues Maddalena and Martina at the Italian Institute for International Political Studies (ISPI) in Milan for their valuable support and comments. The PRIMO project has received funding from the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme for research, technological development and demonstration under grant agreement no 607133. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS PLAGIARISM ............................................................................................................. iii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ iv ÖZ ................................................................................................................................. v DEDICATION ............................................................................................................ vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................... vii TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................... viii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................... xi CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY .......................................................... 1 1.1. Background and overview ............................................................................. 1 1.2. Research objectives and questions ................................................................. 5 1.3. Contribution to the literature and policy relevance ....................................... 6 1.4. Case studies ................................................................................................... 7 1.5. Methodology ................................................................................................ 10 1.6. Structure of the thesis .................................................................................. 14 2. LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...................... 16 2.1. Joseph Nye‘s soft power .............................................................................. 17 2.2. Looking back: an analysis of the power debate and the ‗seminal concepts‘ ...................................................................................................... 18 2.2.1. The debate on power ............................................................................ 19 2.2.2. Seminal concepts .................................................................................. 21 2.3. ‗Soft Theory‘? The two main gaps of soft power ........................................ 23 2.4. How hard it is to assess soft power .............................................................. 25 2.5. The soft power of illiberal countries ............................................................ 27 2.5.1. De-westernising soft power .................................................................. 29 2.6.
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