Bibliography on Biomimetics of Peristomes and Hygroscopical Mechanisms, from Web of Sciences, Klaus Ammann, November 17, 2010, 716 references

Abasolo, W., M. Eder, et al. (2009). "Pectin May Hinder the Unfolding of Xyloglucan Chains during Cell Deformation: Implications of the Mechanical Performance of Arabidopsis Hypocotyls with Pectin Alterations." Molecular 2(5): 990-999. ://WOS:000270218900015 Plant cell walls, like a multitude of other biological materials, are natural fiber-reinforced composite materials. Their mechanical properties are highly dependent on the interplay of the stiff fibrous phase and the soft matrix phase and on the matrix deformation itself. Using specific Arabidopsis thaliana mutants, we studied the mechanical role of the matrix assembly in primary cell walls of hypocotyls with altered xyloglucan and pectin composition. Standard microtensile tests and cyclic loading protocols were performed on mur1 hypocotyls with affected RGII borate diester cross-links and a hindered xyloglucan fucosylation as well as qua2 exhibiting 50% less homogalacturonan in comparison to wild-type. As a control, wild-type (Col-0) and mur2 exhibiting a specific xyloglucan fucosylation and no differences in the pectin network were utilized. In the standard tensile tests, the ultimate stress levels (similar to tensile strength) of the hypocotyls of the mutants with pectin alterations (mur1, qua2) were rather unaffected, whereas their tensile stiffness was noticeably reduced in comparison to Col-0. The cyclic loading tests indicated a stiffening of all hypocotyls after the first cycle and a plastic deformation during the first straining, the degree of which, however, was much higher for mur1 and qua2 hypocotyls. Based on the mechanical data and current cell wall models, it is assumed that folded xyloglucan chains between cellulose fibrils may tend to unfold during straining of the hypocotyls. This response is probably hindered by geometrical constraints due to pectin rigidity.

Achtemeier, G. L. (2005). "Planned Burn-Piedmont. A local operational numerical meteorological model for tracking smoke on the ground at night: model development and sensitivity tests." International Journal of Wildland Fire 14(1): 85-98. ://WOS:000227452000008 Smoke from both prescribed fires and wildfires can, under certain meteorological conditions, become entrapped within shallow layers of air near the ground at night and get carried to unexpected destinations as a combination of weather systems push air through interlocking ridge - valley terrain typical of the Piedmont of the Southern United States. Entrapped smoke confined within valleys is often slow to disperse. When moist conditions are present, hygroscopic particles within smoke may initiate or augment fog formation. With or without fog, smoke transported across roadways can create visibility hazards. Planned Burn ( PB)- Piedmont is a fine scale, time- dependent, smoke tracking model designed to run on a PC computer as an easy-to-use aid for land managers. PB- Piedmont gives high-resolution in space and time predictions of smoke movement within shallow layers at the ground over terrain typical of that of the Piedmont. PB-Piedmont applies only for weather conditions when smoke entrapment is most likely to occur - at night during clear skies and light winds. This paper presents the model description and gives examples of model performance in comparison with observations of entrapped smoke collected during two nights of a field project. The results show that PB-Piedmont is capable of describing the movement of whole smoke plumes within the constraints for which the model was designed.

Adu, B. and L. Otten (1993). "Simultaneous Microwave Heat and Mass-Transfer Characteristics of Porous Hygroscopic Solids." Journal of Microwave Power and Electromagnetic Energy 28(1): 41-46. ://A1993LD98900007 The underlying principles of drying with microwave power-dielectric drying-are reviewed. A physical model is presented to explain the heating and moisture loss characteristics of a low moisture porous hygroscopic solid. Thin-layers of Natto soybeans, a porous hygroscopic material, were used for the study. A TE10 microwave apparatus operating at 2450 MHz was used to obtain temperature, moisture loss, and power absorption data. Samples were dried from 24.6 to 12% dry basis. Characteristic curves of soybean temperature, moisture content, and absorbed microwave power needed to maintain a constant soybean drying temperature are presented. Results show that under constant power absorption, soybean temperature increases rapidly in initial stages, reaches a maximum, and then decreases gradually during the latter stages of drying. To maintain constant drying temperature, the power needed to be increased with time. Results indicate that increasing hygroscopicity resulting from moisture loss progressively increases the average bond strength of water molecules in a porous hygroscopic solid. This increases the latent heat of desorption and progressively reduces the energy available for sensible heating.

Ajo, D., M. Bossa, et al. (1973). "EHT RE-EXAMINATION OF ACETYLCHOLINE." Theoretica Chimica Acta 30(3): 275-281. ://WOS:A1973Q572400007

Akerholm, J., C. G. Berg, et al. (2001). "An experimental evaluation of the governing moisture movement phenomena in the paper coating process. II. Experimental." Drying Technology 19(10): 2407-2419. ://WOS:000172824000004 This paper investigates the moisture movement in the paper coating process experimentally and theoretically. The experimental data is obtained by coating a base paper with a laboratory coater and by scraping off some of the coating color after a certain amount of time. The moisture content of the material, which has been scraped off, is measured and the amount of liquid absorbed from the coating color by the base paper is determined. The laboratory results are similar to measurements made on a pilot-coating machine. The mathematical solution is based on the diffusion of water vapor in air and taken the vapor partial pressure in a hygroscopic material, i.e. paper. The measurements and a theory based on vapor diffusion show that the moisture content of the base paper is an important parameter when trying to determine the loss of water from the coating color to the base paper. This kind of dependency cannot be explained by theories based on water movement in the liquid phase by capillary suction, as is discussed in Berg et al., 2000, Part I: Theoretical Aspects.

Akiyama, H. (1987). "Morphology and Anatomy of the Peristome in Dozya-Japonica (Musci) and Reconsideration of Its Affinity to the Leucodontaceae." Bryologist 90(4): 409-416. ://A1987N323700019 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Akiyama-Dozya-1987.pdf

Alagirisamy, P. S., G. Jeronimidis, et al. (2009). "An investigation of viscous-mediated coupling of crickets cercal hair sensors using a scaled up model." Proceedings of the SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering: 74010A (10 pp.). ://INSPEC:10890220 Viscous coupling between filiform hair sensors of insects and has gained considerable interest recently. Study of viscous coupling between hairs at micro scale with current technologies is proving difficult and hence the hair system has been physically scaled up by a factor of 100. For instance, a typical filiform hair of 10 mu m diameter and 1000 mu m length has been physically scaled up to 1 mm in diameter and 100mm in length. At the base, a rotational spring with a bonded strain gauge provides the restoring force and measures the angle of deflection of the model hair. These model hairs were used in a glycerol-filled aquarium where the velocity of flow and the fluid properties were determined by imposing the Reynolds numbers compatible with biological system. Experiments have been conducted by varying the separation distance and the relative position between the moveable model hairs, of different lengths and between the movable and rigid hairs of different lengths for the steady velocity flow with Reynolds numbers of 0.02 and 0.05. In this study, the viscous coupling between hairs has been characterised. The effect of the distance from the physical boundaries, such as tank walls has also been quantified (wall effect). The purpose of this investigation is to provide relevant information for the design of MEMS systems mimicking the cricket's hair array.

Aliakberov, R. D., O. F. Gavrilenko, et al. (1993). "Method for Evaluating the Protective Capability of Coatings on Hygroscopic Crystals." Soviet Journal of Optical Technology 60(2): 140-142. ://A1993LG82200018 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Aliakberov-Crystals-1993.pdf A potentiometric survey method is proposed for monitoring and investigating the protective capabilities of coatings on optical components made from alkali-halide crystals. A device is described for measuring and recording the time dependence of the potential difference, which characterizes the diffusion rate of water through the pores and defects of the film to the surface of the component. Estimates of the protective capability of a number of single-layer and composite coatings are presented.

Allen, B. and R. E. Magill (2007). "A revision of Orthostichella (Neckeraceae)." Bryologist 110(1): 1-45. ://000245281900001 Orthostichella Mull. Hal. is a of nine (O. capillicaulis, O. hexasticha, O. longinervis, O. muelleri, O. pachygastrella, O. pandurifolia, O. rigida, O. versicolor and O. welwitschii) found only in tropical and subtropical regions of the New World and Africa. One species (O. hexasticha) is restricted to the Caribbean, one (O. pachygastrella) is found only in the continental regions of the New World, two (O. capillicaulis and O. pandurifolia) are restricted to continental Africa, and one (O. longinervis) is found only in Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands. The other species occur in both Africa and the New World. Orthostichella is predominantly epiphytic and often grows in dense, pendent masses. It has a complex morphology with creeping primary stems or stolons, and erect or pendent, stipitate or evenly foliose secondary stems that are irregularly branched. It lacks a stem central strand and its axillary hairs are usually reddish throughout. Its branches often end in filiform attenuations or stolons. The stolons, stems and branches can abruptly transform from one structure to another, or they can seamlessly intergrade one into another. The leaves are often spirally ranked, they have elongate, smooth, firm-walled leaf cells and weakly developed alar cells. The costae in Orthostichella are wildly variable. In some species most leaves are ecostate, however, some leaves can be found with double or single costae. In other species most leaves have a single or double costa, but ecostate leaves can also be found. In one species (O. longinervis) the leaves always have long, single, subpercurrent costae. Orthostichella has elongate-flexuose, roughened setae, ovoid to short-cylindrical capsules, long-rostrate opercula and mostly hairy, cucullate calyptrae. The Orthostichella peristome is diplolepideous and reduced. Exostomes and endostomes are yellowish white and nearly the same length. The more or less linear exostome teeth are lightly, horizontally striate on the dorsal (outer) surface at base. The endostome has a low basal membrane with filamentous, narrowly perforate segments and cilia are usually absent. Orthostichella appears best placed in the Neckeraceae by virtue of its neckeroid peristome, creeping stolons, stipitate stems with differentiated stipe leaves, foliose pseudoparaphyllia and leaves with weakly developed alar cells. Within the Neckeraceae Orthostichella seems best placed near Porotrichum, but the genus appears isolated by virtue of its non-complanate leaves that are often arranged in spiral rows. Additional new combinations include: Orthostichidium quadrangulare (Schwagr.) n. comb., Orthostichidium pentastichum (Brid.) n. comb. and Hildebrantiella phleoides (Desv. ex Brid.) n. comb.

Allen, B. and R. A. Pursell (2000). "A reconsideration of the systematic position of Splachnobryum." Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory(88): 139-145. ://000165307100007 A collection Of Splachnobryum rostratum Broth. & Par. from Sierra Leone with exceptionally well-developed, closely spaced peristome teeth clearly exhibits a 2:3 haplolepidous peristomial pattern. The relationship of the Splachnobryaceae is with the rather than the , as supported not only by its haplolepidous peristome, but also by its type of stomata and pattern of rhizoid insertion.

Allen, B. H. (1980). "Peristome Variations in the Genus Fissidens - an Sem Study." Bryologist 83(3): 314-327. ://A1980KS97700004 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Allen-Peristome-Variation-Fissidens-1980.pdf

Allen, B. H., R. E. Magill, et al. (1985). "OBSERVATIONS ON THE PERISTOME AND SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF TETRASTICHIUM-FONTANUM (MUSCI)." Journal of Bryology 13: 515-522. ://WOS:A1985AXT2300008 NOT IN EBZ, NOT IN NEBIS

Aloni, R. and C. I. Ullrich (2008). "Biology of crown gall tumors." Agrobacterium: From Biology to Biotechnology: 565-591. ://BIOSIS:PREV200800505275 Specific adaptive mechanisms for water and nutrient acquisition and the suppression of shoot and root differentiation characterize crown gall tumor development. Strong vascularization like in and human tumors is the most prominent and important feature of tumor proliferation. Vascular bundles consisting of phloem and xylem are from the onset of tumor initiation functionally connected to the host bundle. At the host/tumor interface the vessel number is considerably increased and interrupted by multiseriate rays. These altered structures enhance water flow into the tumor parenchyma and, together with the disruption of epidermis and cuticle, substantially support tumor transpiration. Expression of the T-DNA-encoded genes for abundant auxin and cytokinin biosynthesis trigger a cascade of further phytohormones, which are essential for tumor development as well. Auxin accumulation is particularly enhanced by the expression of the T-DNA-located gene 6b for phenylpropanoids, hence for flavonoid biosynthesis. Spatio-temporal distribution patterns of the bioactive free and conjugated auxin and cytokinins, ethylene and abscisic acid match well the sites of highest chalcone synthase (CHS) expression and hence flavonoid concentration. Flavonoids accumulate at the sites of strongest free auxin accumulation and prevent basipetal auxin efflux, thus maintaining high auxin and cytokinin concentrations for induction and development of the vascular system. The considerable auxin- and cytokininenhanced ethylene emission is causally related with the development of the enlarged xylem in the tumor/host interface and the aerenchyma, which is important for aerobic energy metabolism; ethylene finally induces the accumulation of abscisic acid (ABA) in the tumor and host leaves. ABA in turn leads to diminished shoot water loss by enhancing closure of host leaf stomata, so that a stronger water supply to the tumor is guaranteed. In addition, ABA accumulation in the tumor periphery enhances accumulation of osmoprotectants such as sucrose and proline, to prevent tumor desiccation. Tumors accumulate high solute concentrations. The expression of root-specific K+-influx channels (AKT1 and AtKC1) is upregulated while genes of anion transporters at the plasma membrane are down-regulated; therefore, an important role is attributed to phloem transport for xylem-derived nutrient import into the tumor parenchyma. The phloem sieve element/companion cell complex is well coupled to the tumor parenchyma by numerous plasmodesmata. Spatio- temporal analysis of the activity of sucrose degrading enzymes and of sugar accumulation confirm symplastic metabolite phloem unloading. In conclusion, predominantly auxin and cytokinin-induced ethylene have a key role for successful tumor establishment by tumor vascularization and, together with cuticular disruption, by redirecting of water flow and symplastic phloem unloading of carbohydrate, amino acid and anion import.

Alvarez, M. D., D. E. J. Saunders, et al. (2000). "An engineering method to evaluate the crisp texture of fruit and vegetables." Journal of Texture Studies 31(4): 457-473. ://WOS:000165158400007 Precise measurements of the deformation and fracture behaviour of food can be difficult because of problems associated with the produce, for example, sample preparation, gripping, size and geometry. The aim of this study was to characterise fruits and vegetables in terms of fracture properties using an established engineering test method and geometry, the Single-Edge Notched Bend (SENB). The SENB geometry was found to be readily applicable to crisp food produce such as carrots, celery, and apples, which exhibit linear elastic behaviour up to fracture. Fracture toughness and fracture energies were found to be in the range 10-50 kPa m(1/2) and 40-400 J m(-2), respectively. The structure of these materials was confirmed, using confocal microscopy, and related to the observed fracture behaviour. Cell size and intercellular spaces influenced the values of fracture toughness and fracture energy.

Ammann, K. (2010) Bibliography Hygroscopic Mechanisms and Moss Peristomes, 23. October 2010. 107 p. DOI: http://www.ask- force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Bibliography-Hygroscope-Ammann-20101117.pdf http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Bibliography-Hygroscope-Ammann-20101117.pdf

Ammann, K. (2010) Review: Rethinking Communication Strategy in the Debate on GM Crops ASK-FORCE contribution 58 DOI: http://www.ask- force.org/web/ASK-FORCE-Strategy/ASK-FORCE-Strategy-20101109-opensource.pdf http://www.ask-force.org/web/ASK-FORCE-Strategy/ASK-FORCE-Strategy-20101109-opensource.pdf

Amy, S., B. Hamlington, et al. (2005). "Forisome as biomimetic smart materials." Proceedings of the SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering 5765(1): 97-107. ://INSPEC:9477551 With the discovery in plants of the proteinaceous forisome crystalloid (Knoblauch et al. 2003), a novel nastic non-living, ATP- independent biological material became available to the designer of smart materials for advanced actuating and sensing. The in vitro studies of Knoblauch et al. show that forisomes (1-3 micron wide and 10-30 micron long) can be repeatedly stimulated to contract and expand anisotropically by shifting either the ambient pH or the ambient calcium ion concentration. In a device, the energy required for the transformations would be provided electrochemically by mini-electrodes inducing pH variation. Because of their unique abilities to develop and reverse strains greater than 20% in time periods less than 1s , forisomes have the potential to outperform current smart materials (such as ATP-dependent actuators or synthetic hydrogels/polymers) as advanced, biomimetic, multi-functional, smart sensors or valves or actuators. To date, studies have been limited to questions of protein engineering explored by Knaublach et al. Probing forisome material properties is therefore an immediate need to lay the foundation for synthesizing forisome-based smart materials for health monitoring of structural integrity in civil infrastructure and aerospace hardware. Here, we use microfluidics to study the surface interaction between forisome and substrate and the conformational dynamics of forisomes within a confined geometry to lay the foundation for forisome-based smart materials synthesis with controlled and repeatable environment

Anderson, L. E. and P. G. Palmer (1982). "THE PERISTOME OF ANACAMPTODON-SPLACHNOIDES." Bryologist 85(2): 193-203. ://WOS:A1982PB15600002

Andersson, K. M. and L. Bergstrom (2005). "Friction and adhesion of single spray-dried granules containing a hygroscopic polymeric binder." Powder Technology 155(2): 101-107. ://000231575000001 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Anderson-Friction-2005.pdf The atomic force microscope has been used to study the friction and adhesion of single spray-dried granules containing a mixture of fine tungsten carbide and cobalt powders and various amounts of a polymeric binder, polyethylene glycol (PEG). The pull-off and friction forces between two single granules (representing intergranular friction) and between a granule and a hard metal substrate (representing die-wall friction) have been determined as a function of relative humidity. It was found that the granule-wall friction increased with binder content and relative humidity. The small friction force at the lowest addition of PEG was related to a small contact area due to the high surface roughness of the granules. The substantial increase in the friction coefficient at PEG-addition > 1 wt.% was related to the plasticity of the binder-rich granule surface where an increase in binder content or relative humidity increases the deformability. The granule-granule friction and adhesion was independent of the relative humidity and substantially lower than the granule-wall friction at all PEG contents, which has important implications for the handling of granular matter. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Andrews, D. L. and R. G. Crisp (2005). "Directed energy transfer." Proceedings of the SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering: 59240O-1-13. ://INSPEC:10036328 In the field of optical energy harvesting it has long been known that the efficient capture of radiation by suitably designed absorbers is by no means the sole criterion for an effective collection system. The optical energy acquired by an absorbing medium is of little value at its absorption site; useful devices require that the energy rapidly and non-diffusively relocates to traps or reaction centers. Storage is then achieved by driving charge separation or another more complex reaction. The principles that operate over the crucial mechanisms for inter-site energy transport are now well understood, and materials can be engineered to expedite and control an optimally directed, multi-step flow of energy. In this paper the salient principles drawn from nanophotonics, fluorescence spectroscopy, molecular electronic structure and nonlinear optics are exhibited with reference to a number of recently devised energy harvesting materials and systems, prominently featuring dendrimeric organic polymers. It is also shown how the elementary transfer mechanism can be tailored to more efficiently direct the flow of excitation energy.

Arfvidsson, J. and M. J. Cunningham (2000). "A transient technique for determining diffusion coefficients in hygroscopic materials." Building and Environment 35(3): 239-249. ://000084565900006 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Arfvidsson-transient-2000.pdf A transient technique is described to find the diffusion coefficients of moisture transfer in building materials as a function of moisture content. Measurements that take many months by steady-state methods can be done in days or even hours. The material is subjected to a staircase function of relative humidity steps, the transient weight changes noted, and a numerical algorithm used which extracts the Kirchhoff potential, one value for each relative humidity step and corresponding moisture content. Diffusion coefficients are then calculated from the Kirchhoff potential. Experimental results show fair agreement between Kirchhoff potentials found by steady-state methods and those found by this transient technique, but good agreement between the corresponding diffusion coefficients. An important limitation to the technique at this state of its development is the need to know the material sorption curve. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Asai, S., K. Koumoto, et al. (2003). "Advances in nature-guided materials processing." Science and Technology of Advanced Materials 4(5): 421- 33. ://INSPEC:8005746 The center of excellence (COE) titled 'The Creation of Nature-Guided Materials Processing' has been established in Nagoya University as the 21st Century COE Program supported by Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. In the Nature COE, various activities on the education and research are being performed through learning the laws of nature, namely, methods of attaining ' appearance of the maximum function under the minimum substance and energy consumption', which the nature and living organisms have acquired through their evolution in long period. Together with such educational programs for PhD students as research incentive, oversea training, and external evaluation programs, an Open-Cluster Program' was originated for promoting researches proposed by research groups consisting of young researchers in and out of the university and also for fostering them. The researches are being advanced on materials used for living bodies, mimicking structures which nature or living bodies are forming, and producing materials by mimicking processes to form the structures observed in the nature or the living bodies. In this COE, these researches are conducted by four groups to extend the processes observed in the natural world to a new type of processing, that is, thoroughly examined and rationalized by plunging a scalpel of engineering and to establish a new academic field of materials science and engineering

Atencia, J. and D. J. Beebe (2004). "Magnetically-driven biomimetic micro pumping using vortices." Lab on a Chip 4(6): 598-602. ://WOS:000225382800012 Planar micropumps utilizing vortices shed by an oscillating ferromagnetic bar are presented. The movement of the bar is induced by magnetic coupling with an external spinning magnet. Thus, energy transfer is achieved without physical contact or need of any on- chip power source. To create vortices inside the chip, the Reynolds number is locally increased with the oscillation of the bar. The utilization of the vortices as a tool for efficient transfer of energy is inspired by the behaviour of swimming and flying insects in nature. The pumps operate in two different scales (milli-scale and micro-scale) in order to take advantage of both. Experiments are presented characterizing the pumps and their flow patterns. The range of operation of the pumps is from 3 mul min(-1) to 600 mul min(-1), though smaller flow rates are also possible.

Atkins, A. G., G. Jeronimidis, et al. (1998). "Biaxial monotonic and fatigue fracture of some commercial ABS and PVC sheets." Journal of Materials Science 33(17): 4349-4356. ://WOS:000079546200010 Biaxial loading of pre-cracked cruciform testpieces has been preformed in a novel rig attached to a uniaxial testing machine. Fracture toughness R or delta(c) of the ductile acrylonitride butadiene styrene (ABS) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) determined by the Cotterell- Mai method is dependent on remote biaxiality. Least toughness is shown for equibiaxial tension; greatest for uniaxial tension. These monotonic fracture results may be modelled using void growth mechanics. Fatigue crack growth rates also depend on remote biaxiality. Paris/Walker representation of the data shows that the slopes n of log (d aid N) versus log Delta K do not change much, but the constant of proportionality C decreases as the tensile mean stress increases. There may be a connection between the biaxial- dependent C and R or delta(c). (C) 1998 Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Atkins, A. G., X. Xu, et al. (2004). "Cutting, by 'pressing and slicing,' of thin floppy slices of materials illustrated by experiments on cheddar cheese and salami." Journal of Materials Science 39(8): 2761-2766. ://WOS:000220412400013 Why it is easier to cut with even the sharpest knife when 'pressing down and sliding' than when merely 'pressing down alone' is explained. A variety of cases of cutting where the blade and workpiece have different relative motions is analysed and it is shown that the greater the 'slice/push ratio' xi given by ( blade speed parallel to the cutting edge/blade speed perpendicular to the cutting edge), the lower the cutting forces. However, friction limits the reductions attainable at the highest.. The analysis is applied to the geometry of a wheel cutting device (delicatessan slicer) and experiments with a cheddar cheese and a salami using such an instrumented device confirm the general predictions. (C) 2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Avramidis, S., P. Englezos, et al. (1992). "DYNAMIC NONISOTHERMAL TRANSPORT IN HYGROSCOPIC POROUS-MEDIA - MOISTURE DIFFUSION IN WOOD." Aiche Journal 38(8): 1279-1287. ://WOS:A1992JM12100012 A model that predicts heat and moisture transfer in the hygroscopic range of a complex porous material such as wood, was evaluated with unsteady-state nonisothermal diffusion experimental data. Water chemical potential gradient was taken as the driving force for diffusion, and the derivation of the temperature-gradient phenomenological coefficient in the mass balance equation was based on the principles of nonequilibrium thermodynamics. The results reveal an excellent prediction of the specimen's average moisture content during desorption in the hygroscopic range. Moreover, a very good agreement was also shown between the specimen's center temperature and the model predictions. The model revealed the existence of a thermal-diffusion phenomenon during the initial stages of the desorption process. This phenomenon was not predicted by Fick's equation for diffusion.

Avramidis, S., S. G. Hatzikiriakos, et al. (1994). "AN IRREVERSIBLE THERMODYNAMICS MODEL FOR UNSTEADY-STATE NONISOTHERMAL MOISTURE DIFFUSION IN WOOD." Wood Science and Technology 28(5): 349-358. ://WOS:A1994NX66600004 A model that predicts heat and moisture transfer through wood in the hygroscopic range and which is based on the principles of irreversible thermodynamics, was evaluated with unsteady-state nonisothermal moisture desorption experimental data. The model predicted the phenomenon of thermal diffusion during the initial stages of desorption and results in a very good simulation of the desorption curve and the center's temperature change with time.

Bachand, G. D., S. B. Rivera, et al. (2004). "Developing nanoscale materials using biomimetic assembly processes." Micro- and Nanosystems Symposium (Mater. Res. Soc. Symposium Proceedings Vol.782): 3-10|xv+483. ://INSPEC:8198795 The formation and nature of living materials are fundamentally different from those of synthetic materials. Synthetic materials generally have static structures, and are not capable of adapting to changing environmental conditions or stimuli. In contrast, living systems utilize energy to assemble, reconfigure, and dismantle materials in a dynamic, highly non-equilibrium fashion. The overall goal of this work is to identify and explore key strategies used by living systems to develop new types of materials in which the assembly, configuration, and disassembly can be programmed or "self-regulated" in microfluidic environments. As a model system, kinesin motor proteins and microtubule fibers have been selected as a means of directing the transport of molecular cargo, and assembly of nanostructures at synthetic interfaces. Initial work has focused on characterizing and engineering the properties of these active biomolecules for robust performance in microfluidic systems. We also have developed several strategies for functionalizing microtubule fibers with metal and semiconductor nanoparticles, and demonstrated the assembly of composite nanoscale materials. Moreover, transport of these composite assemblies has been demonstrated using energy-driven actuation by kinesin motor proteins. Current work is focused on developing mechanisms for directing the linear transport of microtubule fibers, and controlling the loading/unloading of nanoparticle cargo in microfluidic systems

Backlund, T. G., H. G. O. Sandberg, et al. (2004). "Current modulation of a hygroscopic insulator organic field-effect transistor." Applied Physics Letters 85(17): 3887-3889. ://000224798700079 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Baecklund-Insulator-2004.pdf We have fabricated solution processable polymer transistors with high conductivity, requiring only a few volts for obtaining good current modulation. The devices can be fabricated and operated in air and the operation is greatly enhanced in humid atmosphere. Devices reach an On/Off ratio of about 600 and a subthreshold swing of 500 mV per decade operating on voltages less than 2 V. In this letter the mechanism behind the current modulation is investigated, and we show that the current is modulated through ion- assisted oxidation and reduction of the semiconductor by ions moving vertically in the insulator material to the transistor channel. (C) 2004 American Institute of Physics.

Baillie, C., D. Tual, et al. (2000). "Interfacial pathways in wood." Advanced Composites Letters 9(1): 45-57. ://WOS:000086938600005 Wood structure and properties have been established for many years. The interaction of structure with properties has also been studied, but rarely from a materials science perspective. This paper attempts to focus on a particular aspect of composite structure, that of the interface. In engineered fibre composites the interface is the most important feature as it is the medium by which the stress is transferred from the matrix to the fibres so that they may bear the load. Much research has been focused on solving the optimisation of the interfacial stress transfer, as it is always suggested that the interface needs to be weak for high toughness and strong for high strength of the composite. More recent studies have identified the fact that it may be more advantageous to create an interface, which is not destructive in its energy absorbing capacity. Another area of weakness at the interface is the resistance to water ingress in certain environmental conditions. Biomimetics is an emerging approach to solving scientific issues by looking to nature to see what solutions are offered for the particular concerns of engineers and their products. In this case wood is the subject of study. It is assumed that wood has optimised its internal interfaces to cope with strength and toughness requirements as well as harsh environmental conditions. The internal interfaces thus need to be firstly examined and identified. This paper looks in a qualitative way at the three different interfacial crack paths which may be likened to those occurring in engineered composites: interfacial, interlaminar and intercellular (bundle/bundle interaction) and their proposed relation to energy absorption mechanisms, It also explores the influence of moisture on these fracture paths.

Banu-Fattah, K. (2005). "Funaria hygrometrica Hedw. () from Bangladesh." Bangladesh Journal of 34(2): 121-124. ://000234333300011 Funaria hygrometrica Hedw. an Acrocarpous moss of the family Funariaceae under the order Funariales is described and illustrated with a short note and its world-wide distribution. This moss is autoicous, bright green, leaves rosette at the apex on short slender stem. Capsule, strongly asymmetric, often arcuate, pyriform. Peristome teeth epicranoid, spirally arranged. Operculum without apiculus. Calyptra cucullate. Spores spherical, small and smooth.

Bar-Cohen, Y. (2001). "Nanotechnology using electroactive polymers as artificial muscles." MST News(3): 39-40. ://INSPEC:7006755 During the last ten years, new polymers have emerged that respond to electrical stimulation with a significantly shape or size change. This capability of the new electroactive polymers (EAP) attracted the attention of engineers and scientists from many different disciplines. Since these materials behave in a manner similar to biological muscles, they have acquired the name "artificial muscles" (Bar-Cohen, 2001). Practitioners in biomimetics, a field where robotic mechanisms are developed based on biologically inspired models, are particularly excited about these materials since they can be applied to mimic the movements of animals and insects. The emergence of micro-, nano- and molecular size EAPs are allowing the consideration of such scale mechanisms that were unimaginable in past years. The current limitations of EAP materials that include low actuation force, mechanical energy density and robustness are limiting the scope of their practical application

BARTNICKI-GARCIA, S. (1966). "Chemistry of Hyphal Walls of Phytophthora." J Gen Microbiol 42(1): 57-69. http://mic.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/42/1/57 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Bartnicki-Garcia-Chemistry- Hyphal-Walls-1966.pdf SUMMARY: Hyphal walls of two phytopathogenic moulds, Phytophthora cinnamomi and P. parasitica, were isolated essentially free from cytoplasmic contamination. They have a complex chemical structure consisting of polysaccharide, protein and lipid. D-Glucose was the main monosaccharide detected in acid hydrolysates. Chromatographic evidence suggested the presence of small amounts of mannose (0.6%), glucosamine (0.3%) and traces of galactosamine and ribose. Glucans constituted nearly 90% of the wall but only about a maximum 25% of the wall could be regarded as cellulose I on the basis of solubility, resistance to hydrolysis and X-ray diffraction. Most of the wall glucan exhibited chemical and physical properties unlike typical cellulose. The spectrum of amino acids commonly found in fungal walls was detected; hydrolysates also contained hydroxyproline and two minor unidentified ninhydrin- positive components. Protein comprised 3-5% of the wall. A small amount of lipid (1-3%), mostly of the bound type, was found, and also traces of phosphorus, and compounds with absorption maxima at 263 m{micro}. Hyphal walls of Phytophthora cinnamomi and P. parasitica differed only slightly in quantitative composition.

Basilico, C. and M. Martin (1984). "EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH OF TRANSFER PHENOMENA DURING HIGH-TEMPERATURE CONVECTIVE DRYING OF SOFTWOOD." International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 27(5): 657-668. ://WOS:A1984SP89700003

Bastiene, N., V. Saulys, et al. (2006). "The spread of field horsetail (Equisetum arvense L.) in drained areas of Lithuania: Reasons and consequences, and possibilities for its control." Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica Section B-Soil and Plant Science 56(1): 25-30. ://000235683700004 NOT IN NEBIS, EBZ The blockage of drainage tiles by field horsetail roots is one of the most frequent causes of drainage failure in Lithuania. The frequency of drainage failure has increased over time. Favourable agrochemical conditions of soils in drainage trench backfill are important factors in determining field horsetail prevalence. Mechanical and chemical means are used to control the growth of horsetail in drained areas. The influence of horsetail weeding, soil liming and the effect of herbicides ( Roundup Classic and Dialen 400 SL) on horsetail root systems were investigated. Quantitative root indices were reduced most by soil liming and intensive weeding of field horsetail. Applied herbicides reduced field horsetail root density by an average of 38%.

Bednarek-Ochyra, H. (2000). "Racomitrium ryszardii (Musci, Grimmiaceae), a new hydrophilous species from the Pacific Northwest with comments on Racomitrium aquaticum in North America." Cryptogamie Bryologie 21(4): 275-284. ://000165806100001 Racomitrium ryszardii Bedn.-Ochyra from western Noah America is described and illustrated. It belongs to subg. Cataracta Vilh. sect. Stenotrichum (Chev.) Bedn.-Ochyra and is closely related to R. aquaticum (Schrad.) Brid. with which it constitutes subsect. Hydrophilum Bedn.-Ochyra. It differs from R. aquaticum in its keeled, linear-lanceolate leaves, the absence of a basal marginal row of pellucid cells, a cristate leaf apex, long costa extending almost to the apex, an anatomical structure of the costa and longer peristome teeth. It is a hydrophytic moss growing from sea-level to subalpine elevations on outcrops and boulders near streams through the coastal coniferous forest from north Oregon to south-eastern Alaska. All collections of R. ryszardii have formerly been reported from the Pacific Northwest as R. aquaticum and the only exception is the specimen from Montana which has not been available for examination. The only record of the latter species from eastern North America is also based on misidentification, and the voucher specimen actually belongs to R. sudeticum (Funck) Bruch & Schimp. Accordingly, R. aquaticum must apparently be withdrawn from the moss flora of North America, unless the specimen from Montana represents this species. (C) 2000 Adac / Editions scientifiques et medicales Elsevier SAS.

Bednarek-Ochyra, H. (2004). "Codriophorus corrugatus (, Grimmiaceae), a new species from east Asia and southern Alaska." Bryologist 107(3): 377-384. ://000223476000014 Codriophorus corrugatus Bednarek-Ochyra is described and illustrated as a species new to science. It is closely related to C. anomodontoides (Cardot) Bednarek-Ochyra & Ochyra and C. fascicularis (Hedw.) Bednarek-Ochyra & Ochyra from which it differs in its long subulate, often serpentine leaf acumen which is distinctly corrugate or ruffled in the upper part and markedly cristate or papillose-crenulate at the apex; much longer peristome teeth; and its costa that extends to about mid-leaf and is bistratose in transverse section and flat on the ventral surface. Codriophorus corrugatus is an east-Asian northwestern North American, disjunct, boreal-montane species known from southern Alaska in North America; Yakutia in Arctic Russia; Kamchatka in the Russian Far East; Sichuan, Quinghai, and Shaanxi provinces in China; and Hokkaido in Japan.

Beerling, D. J. (2005). "Leaf evolution: Gases, genes and geochemistry." Annals of Botany 96(3): 345-352. ://WOS:000231363200001 Aims This Botanical Briefing reviews how the integration of palaeontology, geochemistry and developmental biology is providing a new mechanistic framework for interpreting the 40- to 50-million-year gap between the origination of vascular land plants and the advent of large (megaphyll) leaves, a long-standing puzzle in evolutionary biology. Scope Molecular genetics indicates that the developmental mechanisms required for leaf production in vascular plants were recruited long before the advent of large megaphylls. According to theory, this morphogenetic potential was only realized as the concentration of atmospheric CO2 declined during the late Palaeozoic. Surprisingly, plants effectively policed their own evolution since the decrease in CO2 was brought about as terrestrial floras evolved accelerating the rate of silicate rock weathering and enhancing sedimentary organic carbon burial, both of which are long-term sinks for CO2. Conclusions The recognition that plant evolution responds to and influences CO2 over millions of years reveals the existence of an intricate web of vegetation feedbacks regulating the long-term carbon cycle. Several of these feedbacks destabilized CO2 and climate during the late Palaeozoic but appear to have quickened the pace of terrestrial plant and animal evolution at that time.

Bell, J. R. and A. H. Nissan (1959). "Mechanism of Drying Thick Porous Bodies During the Falling-Rate Period .2. a Hygroscopic Material." Aiche Journal 5(3): 344-347. ://A1959WW60700014 AND NEBIS 20070701

Berg, C. G., J. Akerholm, et al. (2001). "An experimental evaluation of the governing moisture movement phenomena in the paper coating process. I. Theoretical aspects." Drying Technology 19(10): 2389-2406. ://WOS:000172824000003 The most important issue when coating paper is the modelling of the moisture movement in the coating process, since the water movement pattern is strongly connected to binder movement and the final structure of fibres and coating colour, which in turn affects the final printing properties of the paper. Therefore, we are now studying a novel laboratory method to determine the dynamic water movement in a hygroscopic porous media, i.e. the liquid movement in the paper coating process. The experimentally determined physical properties yield information relevant to the mass and energy balances of a real paper coating process. We have also studied the widely used Lucas-Washburn capillary suction theory in combination with the build-up of a filter-cake in the coating colour. The study shows, that the water loss from the coating colour into a hygroscopic material can be well explained by applying vapour diffusion into the base paper as the governing mass transfer mechanism.

Berg, C. G., N. C. Berg, et al. (2005). "A study of surface wetting when coating paper." Drying Technology 23(9-11): 2105-2117. ://WOS:000232422200024 The objective of this work will be to look at basic micro-level simulations of liquid state and movement. Defining liquid movement at fiber-coating boundaries is essential when modeling surface wetting of paper fibers. Drying studies have shown that chemical additives in base paper or coating color may reduce or increase quality, productivity, and energy efficiency considerably. The latest question is, Which are the factors that are significantly influencing liquid movement at fiber-coating boundaries? A phenomenon of less liquid drainage at lower paper moisture content is studied in this work together with the fiber hornification process. Fiber hornification is a complex change in the physicochemical properties of the fiber surface and the state of boundary molecules. Another important objective is to show how hornification may be accounted for in basic calculations. This while, printing properties of paper (mottling, etc.), may then be connected to the formation of the base paper and its drying history, explaining in more detail the importance of microlevel physicochemical property changes at fiber surfaces.

Berg, O. H., E. Swietlicki, et al. (1998). "Hygroscopic growth of aerosol particles in the marine boundary layer over the Pacific and Southern Oceans during the First Aerosol Characterization Experiment (ACE 1)." Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 103(D13): 16535-16545. ://000074828200041 The hygroscopic properties of submicrometer aerosol particles were studied with a Hygroscopic Tandem Differential Mobility Analyzer (H-TDMA) in the remote marine tropospheric boundary layer (MBL) over the Pacific and Southern Oceans in connection with the southern hemisphere marine First Aerosol Characterization Experiment (ACE 1) in October-December 1995. The H-TDMA was placed on board the ship RN NOAA Discoverer and measured the hygroscopic diameter growth of individual aerosol particles when taken from a dry state to a relative humidity (RH) of 89-90%. Measurements were performed for the particles with dry diameters of 35, 50, 75, and 150 (or 165) nm. The natural aerosol present in the remote MBL largely consists of two types, a sea-salt component and a non-sea-salt (nss) sulfate component. Since their hygroscopic behavior is significantly different, the H-TDMA. could clearly distinguish between these two types and thus make in situ measurements of the mixing state of the MBL aerosol. During the ACE 1 intensive campaign in the Southern Ocean south of Australia, the hygroscopic diameter growth factors at RH = 90% for the nss-sulfate aerosol particles were 1.62, 1.66, and 1.78 at dry particle diameters of 35, 50, and 150 nm, respectively, and for time periods with remote marine air masses. These values exceed those normally found in continental polluted environments. The growth factors for the externally mixed sea-salt particles were even higher (2.12 and 2.1 for 50 and 150 nm). The corresponding values for the Pacific Ocean (at RH = 89%) for the nss-sulfate particles were 1.56, 1.59, 1.61, and 1.63 for 35, 50, 75, and 165 nm. Particle deliquescence and RH hysteresis between RH = 68-90% was only observed in air masses north of the South Pacific Gyre, and then only for the Aitken mode particles (particle diameters similar to 20-80 nm). The occurrence of externally mixed sea-salt particle!; could be linked to conditions with high wind speeds in connection with frontal passages or low pressure systems. Nevertheless, the number of externally mixed 150 nm sea-salt particles was found to be poorly correlated with local wind speed, probably due to a rather long life-time of these submicrometer particles. Particles with hygroscopic growth factors significantly less than those of the nss-sulfate particles (denoted less hygroscopic particles) were only present during periods with anthropogenic influence.

Bhushan, B. (2007). "Adhesion of multi-level hierarchical attachment systems in gecko feet." Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology 21: 1213-1258. ://WOS:000251189400006 Several creatures including insects, and lizards have developed a unique clinging ability that utilizes dry adhesion. Geckos, in particular, have developed the most complex adhesive structures capable of smart adhesion - the ability to cling to different smooth and rough surfaces as well as detach at will. These animals make use of about three million microscale hairs (setae) (about 14000/mm(2)) that branch off into hundreds of nanoscale spatulae (about a billion spatulae). Van der Waals forces are the primary mechanism utilized to adhere to surfaces, and capillary forces are a secondary effect that can further increase adhesion force. The hierarchical surface construction gives the gecko the adaptability to create a large real area of contact with surfaces. Modeling of the gecko attachment system as a hierarchical spring model has provided insight into adhesion enhancement generated by this system. It is shown that a multi-level hierarchical structure produces adhesion enhancement, and this enhancement increases with an increase in applied load and a decrease in the stiffness of springs. A significant adhesion enhancement occurs when the maximum spring deformation is greater than two to three times the root mean square amplitude of surface roughness. Although a gecko is capable of producing on the order of 20 N of adhesion force, it retains the ability to remove its feet from an attachment surface at will. Adhesion design databases for biomimetic attachment systems are presented. These adhesion design databases are useful for understanding biological systems and for guiding the fabrication of biomimetic attachment systems. A man-made fibrillar structure capable of replicating gecko adhesion has the potential for use in dry, superadhesive tapes that would be of use in a wide range of applications. These adhesives could be created using micro/nanofabrication techniques or self-assembly.

Bhushan, B. (2009). "Biomimetics PREFACE." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society a-Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences 367(1893): 1443-1444. ://WOS:000264660700001

Bhushan, B. (2009). "Biomimetics: lessons from nature. an overview." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 367(1893): 1445-1486. http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1893/1445.abstract AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Koch- Superhydrophobic-2009.pdf Nature has developed materials, objects and processes that function from the macroscale to the nanoscale. These have gone through evolution over 3.8 Gyr. The emerging field of biomimetics allows one to mimic biology or nature to develop nanomaterials, nanodevices and processes. Properties of biological materials and surfaces result from a complex interplay between surface morphology and physical and chemical properties. Hierarchical structures with dimensions of features ranging from the macroscale to the nanoscale are extremely common in nature to provide properties of interest. Molecular-scale devices, superhydrophobicity, self-cleaning, drag reduction in fluid flow, energy conversion and conservation, high adhesion, reversible adhesion, aerodynamic lift, materials and fibres with high mechanical strength, biological self-assembly, antireflection, structural coloration, thermal insulation, self-healing and sensory-aid mechanisms are some of the examples found in nature that are of commercial interest. This paper provides a broad overview of the various objects and processes of interest found in nature and applications under development or available in the marketplace.

Bhushan, B. and Y. C. Jung (2010). "Natural and biomimetic artificial surfaces for superhydrophobicity, self-cleaning, low adhesion, and drag reduction." Progress in Materials Science 56(1): 1-108. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6TX1-502GGYY-1/2/486b75b56430f9f3b6810eea93649523 AND http://www.ask- force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Bhushan-biomimetic-Surfaces-2010.pdf Nature has developed materials, objects, and processes that function from the macroscale to the nanoscale. The emerging field of biomimetics allows one to mimic biology or nature to develop nanomaterials, nanodevices, and processes which provide desirable properties. Hierarchical structures with dimensions of features ranging from the macroscale to the nanoscale are extremely common in nature to provide properties of interest. There are a large number of objects including bacteria, plants, land and aquatic animals, and seashells with properties of commercial interest. Certain plant leaves, such as Lotus leaves, are known to be superhydrophobic and self-cleaning due to the hierarchical roughness of their leaf surfaces. The self-cleaning phenomenon is widely known as the "Lotus effect." These surfaces with high contact angle and low contact angle hysteresis with a self-cleaning effect also exhibit low adhesion and drag reduction for fluid flow. In this article, the theoretical mechanisms of the wetting of rough surfaces are presented followed by the characterization of natural leaf surfaces. The next logical step is to realize superhydrophobic surfaces based on understanding of the leaves. Next, a comprehensive review is presented on artificial superhydrophobic surfaces fabricated using various fabrication techniques and the influence of micro-, nano- and hierarchical structures on superhydrophobicity, self- cleaning, low adhesion, and drag reduction.

Bhushan, B., Y. C. Jung, et al. (2009). "Micro-, nano- and hierarchical structures for superhydrophobicity, self-cleaning and low adhesion." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society a-Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences 367(1894): 1631-1672. ://WOS:000264660800001 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-HygroscopBhushan-Micro-Nano-Hierarchical-2009.pdf Superhydrophobic surfaces exhibit extreme water-repellent properties. These surfaces with high contact angle and low contact angle hysteresis also exhibit a self-cleaning effect and low drag for fluid flow. Certain plant leaves, such as lotus leaves, are known to be superhydrophobic and self-cleaning due to the hierarchical roughness of their leaf surfaces. The self-cleaning phenomenon is widely known as the 'lotus effect'. Superhydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces can be produced by using roughness combined with hydrophobic coatings. In this paper, the effect of micro- and nanopatterned polymers on hydrophobicity is reviewed. Silicon surfaces patterned with pillars and deposited with a hydrophobic coating were studied to demonstrate how the effects of pitch value, droplet size and impact velocity influence the transition from a composite state to a wetted state. In order to fabricate hierarchical structures, a low-cost and flexible technique that involves replication of microstructures and self-assembly of hydrophobic waxes is described. The influence of micro-, nano- and hierarchical structures on superhydrophobicity is discussed by the investigation of static contact angle, contact angle hysteresis, droplet evaporation and propensity for air pocket formation. In addition, their influence on adhesive force as well as efficiency of self-cleaning is discussed.

Bhushan, B., K. Koch, et al. (2009). "Fabrication and characterization of the hierarchical structure for superhydrophobicity and self-cleaning." Ultramicroscopy 109(8): 1029-1034. ://WOS:000268354400031 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Bhushan-Fabrication-Superhydrophobicity- 2009.pdf Hierarchical roughness is beneficial for the superhydrophobicity. Surfaces with microstructure, nanostructure and hierarchical structure were fabricated by replication of micropattern and self-assembly of hydrophobic alkanes. The fabrication technique used is a low-cost two-step process, which provides flexibility in fabrication of variety of hierarchical structures. Fabricated structures and surface chemistry mimic the hierarchical surfaces of superhydrophobic and self-cleaning plant surfaces. The influence of structure on the superhydrophobicity at different length scales is demonstrated by investigation of contact angle, contact angle hysteresis, droplet evaporation and propensity of the air pocket formation as well as adhesive forces. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Bhushan, B., K. Koch, et al. (2008). "Biomimetic hierarchical structure for self-cleaning." Applied Physics Letters: 093101 (3 pp.). ://INSPEC:10667886 Hierarchical roughness is beneficial for superhydrophobicity. Surfaces with microstructure, nanostructure, and hierarchical structure were fabricated by replication of micropattern and self- assembly of hydrophobic alkanes. The fabrication technique used is a low cost two step process, which provides flexibility in the fabrication of a variety of hierarchical structures. Fabricated structures and surface chemistry mimic the hierarchical surfaces of superhydrophobic and self-cleaning plant surfaces. The influence of structure on superhydrophobicity at different length scales is demonstrated by the investigation of static contact angle, hysteresis and tilt angles, and propensity of air pocket formation as well as adhesive forces.

Bigg, E. K. (1997). "An independent evaluation of a South African hygroscopic cloud seeding experiment, 1991-1995." Atmospheric Research 43(2): 111-127. ://A1997WB58600001 An independent statistical evaluation of a randomised hygroscopic cloud seeding experiment carried out in South Africa from 1991- 1995 is presented, based on the original radar data for each storm. It is found that seeded storms clearly lasted longer than unseeded ones. It is suggested that the initiation of precipitation at a lower height in seeded than in unseeded clouds (demonstrated through microphysical measurements by the experimenters) led to a reduced dispersion by windshear of the precipitation falling from the updraft in the seeded clouds. A more concentrated downdraft region resulted, closer to the updraft. The surface gust front was thereby intensified and its interaction with the storm inflow or other gust fronts enhanced convection. Some consequences of such a mechanism are explored. It is concluded that this experiment offers a real hope of increasing precipitation from convective storms and represents an important advance in weather modification.

Bigi, A., A. Ripamonti, et al. (1981). "COLLAGEN ORIENTATION BY X-RAY POLE FIGURES AND MECHANICAL-PROPERTIES OF MEDIA CAROTID WALL." Journal of Materials Science 16(9): 2557-2562. ://WOS:A1981ME89700028

Billard, I., S. Mekki, et al. (2004). "Eu-III luminescence in a hygroscopic ionic liquid: Effect of water and evidence for a complexation process." European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry(6): 1190-1197. ://000220506600006 The spectroscopic characteristics (excitation, emission and lifetime) of Eu-III dissolved in 1-methyl-3-butyhmidazolium bis(trifluoromethanesulfon)imide (BumimTf(2)N) are reported. In a first series of experiments, the effect of the presence of water in BumimTf(2)N was examined. It appears that non-degassed solutions are most probably inhomogeneous, displaying large water clusters leading to an intense diffusion of the red light of an He:Ne laser. In these samples, the Eu emission spectrum is close to that observed in slightly acidic aqueous solutions. In contrast, when the samples were de-gassed the solution appeared homogeneous and water can be considered as a competitive ligand for the first coordination sphere of Eu. In a subsequent series of experiments, tetrabutylammonium chloride (TBACl) was added to the solution and the resultant species investigated. The ensuing enhancement in the metal-centered luminescence has been interpreted in terms of changes in the inner coordination sphere of the Eu-III ion and possible structures are discussed. (C) Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, 69451 Weinheim, Germany, 2004.

Blackledge, T. A. and C. Y. Hayashi (2006). "Unraveling the mechanical properties of composite silk threads spun by cribellate orb-weaving spiders." J Exp Biol 209(16): 3131-3140. http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/abstract/209/16/3131 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Blackledge-Unraveling- Mechanical-2006.pdf Orb-web weaving spiders depend upon the mechanical performance of capture threads to absorb the energy of flying prey. Most orb-weavers spin wet capture threads with core fibers of flagelliform silk. These threads are extremely compliant and extensible due to the folding of their constituent proteins into molecular nanosprings and hydration by a surrounding coating of aqueous glue. In contrast, other orb-weavers use cribellate capture threads, which are composite structures consisting of core fibers of pseudoflagelliform silk surrounded by a matrix of fine dry cribellar fibrils. Based on phylogenetic evidence, cribellate capture threads predate the use of viscid capture threads. To better characterize how pseudoflagelliform and cribellar fibrils function, we investigated the mechanical performance of cribellate capture threads for three genera of spiders (Deinopis, and Uloborus). These taxa spin very diverse web architectures, ranging from complete orbs to evolutionarily reduced triangle webs and cast nets. We found that the pseudoflagelliform core fibers of these webs were stiffer and stronger, but also less extensible, than flagelliform silk. However, cribellate capture threads achieved overall high extensibilities because the surrounding cribellar fibrils contributed substantially to the tensile performance of threads long after the core pseudoflagelliform fibers ruptured. In the case of Deinopis capture threads, up to 90% of the total work performed could be attributed to these fibrils. These findings yield insight into the evolutionary transition from cribellate to viscid capture threads.

Blomquist, H. L. and L. L. Robertson (1941). "The Development of the Peristome in Aulacomnium heterostichum." Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 68(8): 569-584. doi:10.2307/2481457 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Blomquist-Development-Peristome-Aulacomnium-1941.pdf

Bloom, F. and D. W. Coffin (2000). "Modelling the hygroscopic buckling of layered paper sheets." Mathematical and Computer Modelling 31(8- 9): 43-60. ://000087016000005 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Bloom-buckling-paper-2000.pdf A model is constructed to treat the hygroscopic buckling of layered rectangular paper sheets. The sheet is assumed to consist of K layers each of which has a thickness that varies with position. Each layer of the sheet is taken to be rectilinearity orthotropic, and both the constitutive constants and hygroscopic coefficients may vary with position in an individual layer. A set of global constitutive relations is developed and is used to derive the generalized von Karman equations which govern hygroscopic buckling and postbuckling behavior. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Bochicchio, A., C. Vazzana, et al. (1998). "Moisture content of the dried leaf is critical to desiccation tolerance in detached leaves of the resurrection plant Boea hygroscopica." Plant Growth Regulation 24(3): 163-170. ://000072812400003 In our experimental conditions detached leaves of the resurrection plant Boea hygroscopica survived equilibration to 65-80% RH (Relative Humidity), but not to very low RH (close to 0%). The first aim of our research was to determine whether sensitivity to equilibration to very low RH depends on the rate of the drying process or on the very low final MC (Moisture Content) attained, The second aim of our research was to determine ABA content of leaves exposed to the two drying processes: a first step towards understanding whether ABA is involved in the tolerance mechanism of Boea hygroscopica. Detached leaves were equilibrated either to 1.4 or to 60-70% RH or to various temporal combinations of these two RH. ABA content was monitored during drying. Dehydrated leaves were imbibed in liquid water either directly or after a slow rehydration at 98% RH. Tolerance was assessed after 48 h imbibition in liquid water. The low final MC attained (about 3%) and not the rate of drying was responsible of the sensitivity of leaves equilibrated to 1.4% RH. Slow rehydration attained better recovery, but it was not able to allow full "resurrection" thus suggesting that a plain biophysical liquid-crystalline to gel phase transition of the membrane lipid bilayer could not fully account for the lethal damage of the very low MC. The conclusions relative to the first part of our research was of primary importance in interpreting results concerning ABA variations during the two drying treatments, ABA showed a very similar transient increase when excised leaves were dried at either 1.4% RH (sensitive leaves) or at 60-70% RH (tolerant leaves). However we cannot exclude that the transient increase of the hormone is a necessary component of the desiccation tolerance mechanisms in detached leaves of Boea hygroscopica: the extremely low MC reached by equilibration to 1.4% RH may impair the mechanism itself.

Bogus, A., I. C. Gebeshuber, et al. (2008). "Micro- and nanomechanical properties of diamond film with various surface morphologies." Diamond and Related Materials 17(12): 1998-2004. ://WOS:000261140000003 The morphologies of chemical vapour deposited (CVD) diamond films call be changed over a wide range by controlling the process parameters of the deposition. The surface morphologies of the film in turn, govern the micro- and nanomechanical properties of the film. In view of these, diamond films having three different types of morphologies namely coarse ballas, fine ballas and faceted, have been deposited using microwave chemical vapour deposition (MWCVD) technique. The morphology, and nature of bonds of these films are characterised with the help of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Raman spectroscopy. Hardness of the films is evaluated using nanoindenter. Force spectroscopy. topographies and lateral force values of these films are estimated by means of atomic force microscopy (AFM). Results indicate that films having fine ballas morphology exhibit the minimum roughness Whereas film with faceted morphology has highest relative hardness. The friction force was found to be minimum with the Film having fine ballas morphology and the friction force was maximum With film having coarse ballas morphology. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Bonello, P., M. J. Brennan, et al. (2005). "Designs for an adaptive tuned vibration absorber with variable shape stiffness element." Proceedings of the Royal Society a-Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences 461(2064): 3955-3976. ://WOS:000233425800015 An adaptive tuned vibration absorber (ATVA) with a smart variable stiffness element is capable of retuning itself in response to a time-varying excitation frequency., enabling effective vibration control over a range of frequencies. This paper discusses novel methods of achieving variable stiffness in an ATVA by changing shape, as inspired by biological paradigms. It is shown that considerable variation in the tuned frequency can be achieved by actuating a shape change, provided that this is within the limits of the actuator. A feasible design for such an ATVA is one in which the device offers low resistance to the required shape change actuation while not being restricted to low values of the effective stiffness of the vibration absorber. Three such original designs are identified: (i) A pinned-pinned arch beam with fixed profile of slight curvature and variable preload through an adjustable natural curvature; (ii) a vibration absorber with a stiffness element formed from parallel curved beams of adjustable curvature vibrating longitudinally; (iii) a vibration absorber with a variable geometry linkage as stiffness element. The experimental results from demonstrators based on two of these designs show good correlation with the theory.

Bonser, R. H. C., L. Saker, et al. (2004). "Toughness anisotropy in feather keratin." Journal of Materials Science 39(8): 2895-2896. ://WOS:000220412400036

Borges, S. V. and J. Calvidal (1994). "Hygroscopic and Microstructural Analyses of Dehydrated Fruits." Pesquisa Agropecuaria Brasileira 29(5): 815-821. ://A1994NW46500019 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Borges-Hygroscop-frutas-1994.pdf The hygroscopic behavior of dehydrated fruits (Carica papaya, Mangifera indica and Musa sp) war, analysed based on the isotherm and kinetics of water sorption at several environmental conditions of temperature (10,20 and 40-degrees-C) and relative humidity (33 to 87%). The chemical composition and microstructure were also searched. The results showed an influence of the sugars on the equilibrium moisture. This products presented a porous structure, and the water sorption rate for banana and mango was influenced by the amount of water absorbed and by the environmental conditions (temperature and relative humidity).

Borno, R. T., J. D. Steinmeyer, et al. (2006). "Transpiration actuation: the design, fabrication and characterization of biomimetic microactuators driven by the surface tension of water." Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering 16(11): 2375-2383. ://WOS:000242169500018 We have designed, fabricated and characterized large displacement distributed-force polymer actuators driven only by the surface tension of water. The devices were inspired by the hygroscopic spore dispersal mechanism in sporangia. Microdevices were fabricated through a single mask process using a commercial photo-patternable silicone polymer to mimic the mechanical characteristics of plant cellulose. An analytical model for predicting the microactuator behavior was developed using the principle of virtual work, and a variety of designs were simulated and compared to the empirical data. Fabricated devices experienced tip deflections of more than 3.5 mm and angular rotations of more than 330. due to the surface tension of water. The devices generated forces per unit length of 5.75 mN m(-1) to 67.75 mN m(-1). We show initial results indicating that the transient water- driven deflections can be manipulated to generate devices that self-assemble into stable configurations. Our model shows that devices should scale well into the submicron regime. Lastly, the actuation mechanism presented may provide a robust method for embedding geometry-programmable and environment-scavenged force generation into common materials.

Bosanquet, S. D. S. (2006). "Tortella bambergeri (Schimp.) Broth. in the British Isles." Journal of Bryology 28(1): 5-10. ://000236918000001 The moss Tortella bambergeri (Schimp.) Broth. is added to the described British flora. It differs from fragile-leaved forms of T. tortuosa (Hedw.) Limpr. in having the apical quarter of the costa with quadrate, papillose abaxial cells and in having the peristome teeth twisted by a half turn instead of one and a half turns. Other identification features are discussed, and the habitat and distribution of T. bambergeri in Britain are described. Most records are from sandstone boulders in western Britain.

Brauner, L. (1954). "Tropisms and Nastic Movements." Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 5: 163-182. ://A1954XW62200008 NOT IN NEBIS, NOT AVAILABLE IN GOOGLE

Brauner, N., D. Maron, et al. (1987). "Heat and mass transfer in direct contact hygroscopic condensation." Heat and Mass Transfer 21(4): 233- 245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01004026 A theoretical analysis of direct contact hygroscopic-condensation of cold vapor on hot films is presented. The condensation of the relatively low temperature, low pressure, vapors on a hot film of an hygroscopic brine solution may occur due to the reduced vapor pressure of a sufficiently concentrated solution.

Brechtel, F. J. and S. M. Kreidenweis (2000). "Predicting particle critical supersaturation from hygroscopic growth measurements in the humidified TDMA. part I: Theory and sensitivity studies." Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 57(12): 1854-1871. ://000087715800002 A method is described to estimate the critical supersaturation of quasi-monodisperse, dry particles using measurements of hygroscopic growth at relative humidities below 100%. Kohler theory is used to derive two chemical composition-dependent parameters, with appropriate accounting for solution effects through a simplified model of the osmotic coefficient. The two unknown chemical parameters are determined by fitting the Kohler model to data obtained from humidified tandem differential mobility analyzer (HTDMA) measurements, and used to calculate the critical supersaturation for a given dry particle size. In this work the theory and methodology are presented, and sensitivity studies are performed, with respect to assumptions made and uncertainties in key input parameters to the Kohler model. Results show that for particle diameters of 40 and 100 nm, the average error between critical supersaturations derived using the proposed method and theoretical values is -7.5% (1 sigma = 10%, n = 16). This error is similar to experimental uncertainties in critical supersaturations determined from laboratory studies on particles of known chemical composition (-0.6%, 1 sigma = 11%, n = 16).

Brechtel, F. J. and S. M. Kreidenweis (2000). "Predicting particle critical supersaturation from hygroscopic growth measurements in the humidified TDMA. Part II: Laboratory and ambient studies." Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 57(12): 1872-1887. ://000087715800003 Laboratory studies are used to test the method proposed in Part I for estimating the critical supersaturation of quasi-monodisperse, dry particles from measurements of hygroscopic growth at relative humidities blow 100%. An advantage of the proposed technique is that it directly links dry particle size to cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) activity and simultaneously provides some information on particle chemical composition. Studies have been conducted on particles composed of NaCl, (NH4)(2)SO4, NH4HSO4, internally and externally mixed NaCl-(NH4)(2)SO4, and on ambient particles of unknown chemical composition. A modified form of the Kohler equation is fit to measurements from a humidified tandem differential mobility analyzer to derive two chemical composition- dependent parameters and the critical supersaturation for a given dry particle size. A cloud condensation nucleus counter is used to simultaneously observe the critical supersaturation of the same dry particles. Results show that for particles composed of single salts and for diameters between 32 and 57 nm, the average agreement between critical supersaturations derived from measurements of hygroscopic growth and theoretical values of S-crit is -13% (1 sigma = 8.5%, n = 9). This agreement is similar to experimental uncertainties in critical supersaturations determined from laboratory studies on particles of known chemical composition. The agreement between values of S-crit predicted by the fit technique and CCN study-derived values is poorer (-6% to -65%) for ambient particles. This is likely due to both changes in ambient particle characteristics during the study and limitations in the modified Kohler model derived in this work.

Brodribb, T. J., S. A. M. McAdam, et al. (2009). "Evolution of stomatal responsiveness to CO2 and optimization of water-use efficiency among land plants." New Phytologist 183(3): 839-847. ://WOS:000268100800030 P>The stomata of angiosperms respond to changes in ambient atmospheric concentrations of CO2 (C-a) in ways that appear to optimize water-use efficiency. It is unknown where in the history of land plants this important stomatal control mechanism evolved. Here, we test the hypothesis that major clades of plants have distinct stomatal sensitivities to C-a reflecting a relatively recent evolution of water-use optimization in derived angiosperms. Responses of stomatal conductance (g(s)) to step changes between elevated, ambient and low C-a (600, 380 and 100 mu mol mol(-1), respectively) were compared in a phylogenetically and ecologically diverse range of higher angiosperms, , and lycopods. All species responded to low C-a by increasing g(s) but only angiosperm stomata demonstrated a significant closing response when C-a was elevated to 600 mu mol mol(-1). As a result, angiosperms showed significantly greater increases in water-use efficiency under elevated C-a than the other lineages. The data suggest that the angiosperms have mechanisms for detecting and responding to increases in C-a that are absent from earlier diverging lineages, and these mechanisms impart a greater capacity to optimize water-use efficiency. New Phytologist (2009) 183: 839-847doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02844.x.

Bruchert, F. and B. Gardiner (2006). "The effect of wind exposure on the tree aerial architecture and biomechanics of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis, Pinaceae)." Am. J. Bot. 93(10): 1512-1521. http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/10/1512 This paper reports on the effect of wind loading below damaging strength on tree mechanical and physical properties. In a wind- exposed Sitka spruce stand in western Scotland, 60 trees at four different levels of wind exposure (10 m, 30 m, 50 m, 90 m from edge) were characterized for stem and crown size and shape and mechanical properties, including structural Young's modulus (Estruct), natural frequency, and damping ratio. Estruct increased from the stand edge to the mid-forest, but with a large inter-tree variation. Swaying frequency and damping ratio of the trees also increased with distance from edge. Wind-exposed edge trees grew shorter, but more tapered with an overall lower Estruct, allowing for greater flexural stiffness at the stem base due to the larger diameter and for higher flexibility in the crown region of the stem. The trees at the middle of the stand compensated for their increased slenderness with a higher Estruct. Thus, for the different requirements for wind-firmness at stand edge and mid-forest, an adapted combination of tree form and mechanical properties allows the best withstanding of wind loads. The results show the requirement to understand the different strategies of trees to adapt to environmental constraints and the heterogeneity of their growth reactions in response to these strategies.

Buck, W. R. (2007). "The history of pleurocarp classification: Two steps forward, one step back." Pleurocarpous : Systematics and Evolution 71: 1-18. ://WOS:000246959500001 The classification of pleurocarpous mosses has traditionally lagged behind that of acrocarps. Hedwig had only five genera of pleurocarps, which he based on sporophyte characters. The first modern attempt to understand relationships was by Schimper, who sorted pleurocarps into families. Schimper relied primarily on gametophytic characters to sort out the group. Subsequently, based on Philibert's peristome studies (focusing primarily on acrocarps), Fleischer proposed a new system that was primarily sporophyte- based. This system was picked up by Brotherus for Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien. It wasn't until about the 1990s that once again a gametophyte-based classification gained favour. The advent of the use of molecular data has allowed bryologists to present classifications free of morphology. Initial work using one-gene trees resulted in faulty classifications. Multiple-gene trees have refined the process. A combination of multiple genes with carefully observed morphology should provide us with a stable classification. To date, though, the largest group among the mosses lacking phylogenetic resolution is the .

Buck, W. R., B. Goffinet, et al. (2000). "Testing morphological concepts of orders of pleurocarpous mosses (Bryophyta) using phylogenetic reconstructions based on TRNL-TRNF and RPS4 sequences." Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 16(2): 180-198. ://000088977500003 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Buck-Morpho-Concepts-2000.pdf The ordinal classification of pleurocarpous mosses rests on characters such as branching mode and architecture of the peristome teeth that line the mouth of the capsule. The Leucodontales comprise mainly epiphytic taxa, characterized by sympodial branching and reduced peristomes, whereas the Hypnales are primarily terricolous and monopodially branching. The third order, the Hookeriales, is defined by a unique architecture of the endostome. We sampled 78 exemplar taxa representing most families of these orders and sequenced two chloroplast loci, the trnL-trnF region and the rps4 gene, to test the monophyly and relationships of these orders of pleurocarpous mosses. Estimates of levels of saturation suggest that the trnL-trnF spacer and the third codon position of the rps4 gene have reached saturation, in at least the transitions. Analyses of the combined data set were performed under three optimality criteria with different sets of assumptions, such as excluding hypervariable positions, downweighting the most likely transformations, and indirect weighting of rps4 codon positions by including amino acid translations. Multiple parallelism in nonsynonymous mutations led to little or no improvement in various indices upon inclusion of amino acid sequences. Trees obtained under likelihood were significantly better under likelihood than the trees derived from the same matrix under parsimony. Our phylogenetic analyses suggest that (1) the pleurocarpous mosses, with the exception of the Cyrtopodaceae, form a monophyletic group which is here given formal recognition as the Hypnidae; (2) the Leucodontales are at least paraphyletic; and (3) the Hypnales form, with most members of the Leucodontalean grade, a monophyletic group sister to a Hookerialean lineage. The Hypopterygiaceae, Hookeriales, and a clade composed of Neorutenbergia, Pseudocryphaea, and Trachyloma likely represent a basal clade or grade within the Hypnidae. These results suggest that mode of branching and reduced peristomes are homoplastic at the ordinal level in pleurocarpous mosses. (C) 2000 Academic Press.

Budke, J. M., C. S. Jones, et al. (2007). "Development of the enigmatic peristome of megapolitana (Timmiaceae; Bryophyta)." American Journal of Botany 94(3): 460-467. ://WOS:000245097500016 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Budke-Develomment-Timmia-2007.pdf The Timmiaceae (Bryophyta) have been traditionally classified within the Bryales based on peristome architecture. Phylogenetic analyses of nucleotide sequences have revealed relationships that are incongruent with this hypothesis and have implicated an origin for this lineage early in the radiation of arthrodontous mosses (Bryopsida). This unexpected phylogenetic placement raises important questions about the evolutionary significance of the Timmia peristome, which differs from all other mosses by 64 isomorphic filaments topping the endostomial membrane. A developmental study of the peristome in Timmia megapolitana was undertaken to examine alignments of anticlinal cell walls in the inner peristomial layer (IPL) with those of the primary peristomial layer (PPL), a character that has been used to define major arthrodontous lineages. Criteria were established for assessing longitudinally homologous regions that contribute to the peristome-forming region. Young sporophytes were examined using histological techniques, and the alignment of the cell wall divisions was quantified. Critical divisions in the IPL of T. megapolitana were determined to be symmetrical, similar to patterns in the Funariales. This research provides novel developmental observations for a putative ancestral lineage of arthrodontous mosses, reevaluates criteria used to compare developmental studies of different lineages and discusses the phylogenetic implications of these observations.

Burgert, I. (2006). "Exploring the micromechanical design of plant cell walls." Am. J. Bot. 93(10): 1391-1401. http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/10/1391 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Burgert-Micromechanical- 2006.pdf Plants are hierarchically organized in a way that their macroscopic properties emerge from their micro- and nanostructural level. Hence, micromechanical investigations, which focus on the mechanical design of plant cell walls, are well suited for elucidating the details of the relationship between plant form and function. However, due to the complex nature of primary and secondary cell walls, micromechanical tests on the entire structure cannot provide exact values for polymer properties but must be targeted at the general mechanisms of cell wall deformation and polymer interaction. The success of micromechanical examinations depends on well-considered specimen selection and/or sample pretreatment as well as appropriate experimental setups. Making use of structural differences by taking advantage of the natural variability in plant tissue and cell structure, adaptation strategies can be analyzed at the micro- and nanoscale. Targeted genetic and enzymatic treatments can be utilized to specifically modify individual polymers without degrading the structural integrity of the cell wall. The mechanical properties of such artificial systems reveal the functional roles of individual polymers for a better understanding of the mechanical interactions within the cell wall assembly. In terms of testing methodology, in situ methods that combine micromechanical testing with structural and chemical analyses are particularly well suited for the study of the basic structure-property relationships in plant design. The micromechanical approaches reviewed here are not exhaustive, but they do provide a reasonably comprehensive overview of the methodology with which the general mechanisms underlying the functionality of plant micro- and nanostructure can be explored without destroying the entire cell wall.

Burgert, I., A. Bernasconi, et al. (1999). "Evidence for the strength function of rays in living trees." Holz Als Roh-Und Werkstoff 57(5): 397-399. ://WOS:000083380800018 Subject We investigated the importance of ray tissue for the strength of living beech trees (Fagus sylvatica L.). Observations on trees grown under controlled radial tensile loads and technological tests on transverse strengths as well as comparisons among radially stressed parts of trees in nature with control samples indicate that rays are a mechanically functional and adaptive tissue in tl-le transverse plane of living trees.

Burgert, I. and D. Eckstein (2001). "The tensile strength of isolated wood rays of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and its significance for the biomechanics of living trees." Trees-Structure and Function 15(3): 168-170. ://WOS:000168336800006 Wood rays of beech trees were isolated with the aid of a new kind of milling technique, and their strength was directly measured using microtensile testing. The unexpectedly high tensile strength of approximately 75 MPa in dry conditions leads to the supposition that, besides the known physiological functions of substance storage and conduction, the ray parenchyma also makes a contribution to the biomechanics of living trees which has been previously underestimated.

Burgert, I., D. Eckstein, et al. (2000). "Elastomechanical properties of young beech trees (Fagus sylvatica L.) grown at elevated and ambient CO2 content." Holz Als Roh-Und Werkstoff 58(5): 342-343. ://WOS:000166051100012

Burgert, I., M. Eder, et al. (2005). "Properties of chemically and mechanically isolated fibres of spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.). Part 3: Mechanical characterisation." Holzforschung 59(3): 354-357. ://WOS:000228828800017 Microtensile investigations were carried out on chemically and mechanically isolated fibres that had similar dimensions before isolation. The properties calculated for the fibres were nearly identical for the two isolation methods. However, cell wall cross- sections of chemically isolated fibres shrank much more transversely than those of the mechanically isolated fibres.

Burgert, I., M. Eder, et al. (2007). "Tensile and compressive stresses in tracheids are induced by swelling based on geometrical constraints of the wood cell." Planta 226(4): 981-987. ://WOS:000248906100017 Plants are able to pre-stress their tissues in order to actuate their organs. Here, we demonstrate with two tissue types of the secondary xylem of conifers (normal wood and compression wood of spruce (Picea abies)) that either tensile or compressive stresses can develop in the longitudinal direction during the swelling of the cell wall. This dramatic difference appears to be due mostly to differences in cell geometry and cellulose fibril orientation. A mechanical model was developed to demonstrate swelling experiments with the help of sodium iodide experiments. The reversal of longitudinal extension can be predicted, based on the orientation of the (nearly inextensible) cellulose fibrils and the shape of the cell.

Burgert, I. and P. Fratzl (2007). Mechanics of the Expanding Cell Wall. The Expanding Cell: 191-215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/7089_2006_076 Cell enlargement is one of the essential facets in plant growth and development, but the underlying mechanisms of primary cell wall expansion still remain partly elusive. The primary cell wall, only ∼100 nm thick, has to be both strong enough to withstand high stresses due to hydrostatic pressure and external loads as well as flexible enough to allow a tremendous expansion of the cell. Evidently, to shed light on this mechanical paradox, an interdisciplinary combination of biophysical (biomechanical), biochemical and physiological approaches is required. Here we deal with the mechanical constraints of cell wall expansion from a plant biomechanics perspective. Possible mechanisms of increasing cell wall volume are introduced. Current models on cell wall structure and its expansion are reviewed with regard to the capability of the polymer network to undergo sufficient elongation. Methods to determine the mechanical properties of living tissues and isolated cells are briefly reviewed focussing on how the deformation behaviour of the cell wall is influenced by various chemical and biochemical treatments. The crucial role of cellulose microfibril orientation and fibre and matrix interaction in the course of cell wall expansion is discussed.

Burgert, I. and P. Fratzl (2009). "Actuation systems in plants as prototypes for bioinspired devices." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 367(1893): 1541-1557. http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1893/1541.abstract AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Burgert- Actuation-Systems-2009.pdf Plants have evolved a multitude of mechanisms to actuate organ movement. The osmotic influx and efflux of water in living cells can cause a rapid movement of organs in a predetermined direction. Even dead tissue can be actuated by a swelling or drying of the plant cell walls. The deformation of the organ is controlled at different levels of tissue hierarchy by geometrical constraints at the micrometre level (e.g. cell shape and size) and cell wall polymer composition at the nanoscale (e.g. cellulose fibril orientation). This paper reviews different mechanisms of organ movement in plants and highlights recent research in the field. Particular attention is paid to systems that are activated without any metabolism. The design principles of such systems may be particularly useful for a biomimetic translation into active technical composites and moving devices.

Burgert, I. and P. Fratzl (2009). "The Plant Cell Wall Acts as a Sophisticated Mechanical Device." Integrative and Comparative Biology 49: E23- E23. ://WOS:000268808800092 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Burgert-Plant-Cells-Abstr-2009.pdf

Burgert, I. and P. Fratzl (2009). "Plants control the properties and actuation of their organs through the orientation of cellulose fibrils in their cell walls." Integrative and Comparative Biology 49(1): 69-79. ://WOS:000267602100009 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Burgert-Plants-control-fibrils-2009.pdf Plants use the orientation of cellulose microfibrils to create cell walls with anisotropic properties related to specific functions. This enables organisms to control the shape and size of cells during growth, to adjust the mechanical performance of tissues, and to perform bending movements of organs. We review the key function of cellulose orientation in defining structural-functional relationships in cell walls from a biomechanics perspective, and illustrate this by examples mainly from our own work. First, primary cell-wall expansion largely depends on the organization of cellulose microfibrils in newly deposited tissue and model calculations allow an estimate of how their passive re-orientation may influence the growth of cells. Moreover, mechanical properties of secondary cell walls depend to a large extent on the orientation of cellulose fibrils and we discuss strategies whereby plants utilize this interrelationship for adaptation. Lastly, we address the question of how plants regulate complex organ movements by designing appropriate supramolecular architectures at the level of the cell wall. Several examples, from trees to grasses, show that the cellulose architecture in the cell wall may be used to direct the swelling or shrinking of cell walls and thereby generate internal growth stress or movement of organs.

Burgert, I., K. Fruhmann, et al. (2004). "Structure-function relationships of four compression wood types: micromechanical properties at the tissue and fibre level." Trees-Structure and Function 18(4): 480-485. ://WOS:000222943100013 The mechanisms behind compressive stress generation in are not yet fully understood. Investigating the structure- function relationships at the tissue and cell level, however, can provide new insights. Severe compression wood of all species lacks a S3 layer, has a high microfibril angle in the S2 layer and a high lignin content. Additionally, special features like helical cavities or spiral thickenings appear, which are not well understood in terms of their mechanical relevance, but need to be examined with regard to evolutionary trends in compression wood development. Thin compression wood foils and isolated tracheids of four species [Ginkgo biloba L., Taxus baccata L., Juniperus virginiana L., Picea abies (L.) Karst.] were investigated. The tracheids were isolated mechanically by peeling them out of the solid wood using fine tweezers. In contrast to chemical macerations, the cell wall components remained in their original condition. Tensile properties of tissue foils and tracheids were measured in a microtensile apparatus under wet conditions. Our results clearly show an evolutionary trend to a much more flexible compression wood. An interpretation with respect to compressive stress generation is discussed.

Burgert, I., K. Fruhmann, et al. (2005). "Properties of chemically and mechanically isolated fibres of spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.). Part 2: Twisting phenomena." Holzforschung 59(2): 247-251. ://WOS:000227384700024 The twisting behaviour of chemically and mechanically isolated fibres of spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) was examined. Mechanical isolation was carried out using very fine tweezers to obtain fibres with an unmodified cell wall assembly. Chemical isolation was achieved using hydrogen peroxide and glacial acetic acid, leading to partial degradation of lignin and hemicelluloses. Besides normal adult wood, compression wood and opposite wood fibres were investigated. Fibre twisting while drying increased with higher microfibril angles in the S2 layer, and was significantly less pronounced for mechanically isolated compared to chemically macerated fibres. A simple model is introduced that takes into account the interdependency between lateral cell-wall shrinkage and the microfibril angle in the S2 cell wall.

Burgert, I., K. Fruhmann, et al. (2003). "Microtensile testing of wood fibers combined with video extensometry for efficient strain detection." Holzforschung 57(6): 661-664. ://WOS:000186257800015

Burgert, I., N. Gierlinger, et al. (2005). "Properties of chemically and mechanically isolated fibres of spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.). Part 1: Structural and chemical characterisation." Holzforschung 59(2): 240-246. ://WOS:000227384700023 Single fibres of spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) were isolated both chemically and mechanically from a solid wood sample. Mechanical isolation was carried out using very fine tweezers to peel out fibres, thereby taking advantage of the low shear strength between them. Chemical isolation was achieved using hydrogen peroxide and glacial acetic acid. Fibres were examined with Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) microscopy, and field-emission environmental scanning electron microscopy (FE-ESEM) in low-Vacuum mode to compare the isolation techniques with respect to their influence on cell wall structure and polymer assembly. The chemical treatment led to degradation of lignin and hemicelluloses, significantly influencing the cell wall assembly and structure. The cell wall polymers of mechanically isolated fibres remained in their natural constitution. As expected, the peeling process caused separation of cell wall layers. Our examinations indicate that delamination predominately took place at the interface between the secondary cell wall and the compound middle lamella. However, fracture between the S1 and S2 layers was examined as well. With respect to fibre quality, it was of particular importance that transverse crack propagation in the secondary cell walls (S2) was not observed.

Burgert, I. and K. Jungnikl (2004). "Adaptive growth of gymnosperm branches-ultrastructural and micromechanical examinations." Journal of Plant Growth Regulation 23(2): 76-82. ://WOS:000227497300003 The top, the lateral and the underside of basal branch segments of two gymnosperm species, spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) and yew (Taxus baccata L.), were studied with respect to possible adaptation in structural and mechanical properties. Microtensile tests were performed on thin wet foils, which were removed from the periphery of the branches. Structural parameters such as density and the microfibril angle in the S2-layer were examined to investigate the structure-function relationships of the branch wood. The top, the lateral and the underside of both branches showed significant differences in their structural and mechanical properties. However, no significant variations were observed as a function of age and size development. The findings were discussed in view of adaptive growth strategies of trees, including biomechanical constraints of a horizontally growing branch.

Burgert, I., J. Keckes, et al. (2006). "Mechanics of the wood cell wall." Characterization of the Cellulosic Cell Wall: 30-37. ://WOS:000237804900003 The mechanical interaction of cellulose, lignin and hemicelluloses in the wood cell wall is not yet fully understood. For deeper insight into the cell wall assembly, wood foils and fibers of compression wood of spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) were investigated in cyclic tensile tests in laboratory conditions. Moreover, at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) in Grenoble, France, wood foils and fibers were strained in a tensile stage while simultaneously monitoring stress response and collecting X-ray diffraction pattern (XRD) by using a two-dimensional detector. It was found that microfibril angle decreases in the cell wall while stretching. The cyclic load tests indicated a recovery mechanism after irreversible deformation, which was interpreted as a stick-and-slip mechanism on the molecular level of the cell wall.

Burgert, I., J. Keckes, et al. (2002). "A comparison of two techniques for wood fibre isolation evaluation by tensile tests on single fibres with different microfibril angle." Plant Biology 4(1): 9-12. ://WOS:000174377700003 Fibres (tracheids) of spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) were isolated by means of two isolation techniques. On the one hand, a soft chemical treatment with Jeffrey solution was used. The isolation was carried out with a reduced time of treatment (2 h), just to achieve the state where the fibres could be separated easily with tweezers. On the other hand, fibres were directly peeled out with tweezers, taking advantage of the low shear strength between them. Following this approach, a chemical treatment could be avoided completely. In order to compare the isolation techniques, single tracheids from tissue types with different microfibril angle (earlywood, latewood, juvenile wood, opposite wood, compression wood) were tested in the dry state. The microfibril angles were determined by X-ray diffraction. Single tracheids handled with both isolation techniques were strained in microtensile tests and load-strain diagrams were obtained. The chemically treated fibres were found to have much lower strength and stiffness compared to the mechanically isolated fibres, even though the influence of microfibril angle was still obvious for both kinds of treatment. The results clearly show the importance of single fibre extraction to preserve as much as possible the original properties.

Burgert, I., T. Okuyama, et al. (2003). "Generation of radial growth stresses in the big rays of konara oak trees." Journal of Wood Science 49(2): 131-134. ://WOS:000183472400004 In previous models the distribution of radial tensile stresses in the tree trunk has been explained as a response to the mechanisms of growth stress generation in the longitudinal and tangential directions. We investigated the contribution of ray tissue to growth stress generation in the tree trunk by the origin of the radial stresses during differentiation of parenchyma cells. Measurements on three konara oak trees (Quercus serrata Thunb.) were carried out comparing the radial residual strain of big oak rays with the radial residual strain of the axial tissues (containing only uniseriate rays). The results indicated that the ray tissue generated tensile growth stress in the radial direction of the trunk (the axial direction of the parenchyma cells). In contrast to previous assumptions, the growth stresses seem to be variable in relation to the individual tissue types. The mechanical advantage of a radially prestraining effect of the rays is discussed for the living tree.

Burgisser, L. and M. J. Price (2005). "Inventory of the Moss Flora of the Canton of Geneva (Switzerland). Bibliographic catalogue (1791-2001)." Candollea 60(2): 513-562. ://WOS:000234587400012 This bibliographic catalogue constitutes the first contribution towards the project Inventary of hepatics and mosses of Geneva. It presents, to the fullest extent possible, all the names of mosses from the canton of Geneva published between 1791 and 2001. The greatest majority of these records are from between 1791 and 1916. Little bryological research was carried out in the canton after this time and thus we have a large gap in our understanding of the local moss flora. This catalogue records 213 moss species from 102 genera and 34 families, this corresponds to close to 25 % of the moss species present in Switzerland. Specimens were not verified for this work. The names of species as used in the old literature were updated according to modern species and nomenclatural concepts and were listed as they appeared in the original publication under each recognised species. Information on the collection locality, the collector and on the ecology, when given, were also included. Old place names have been updated to their modern use.

Buzorius, G., A. Zelenyuk, et al. (2002). "Simultaneous determination of individual ambient particle size, hygroscopicity and composition." Geophysical Research Letters 29(20). ://000180607700035 [1] A new system for simultaneous determination of individual particle size, hygroscopicity, and composition of internally and externally mixed aerosols is presented. An HTDMA is used to select particles according to their size and hygroscopicity for compositional analysis by a single particle mass spectrometer. The capability of the system is demonstrated on a laboratory generated aerosol consisting of polystyrene latex spheres coated with a layer of ammonium nitrate to represent an internally mixed aerosol with controllable hygroscopicity that is externally mixed with pure ammonium nitrate particles. Results are presented from an ambient study illustrating the sensitivity of the system and the capability to provide detailed information on individual atmospheric particles within a short sampling time.

Cailliau, A. and M. J. Price (2006). "Inventory of the liverworts and of the Canton of Geneva (Switzerland). Bibliographic catalogue (1838-2001)." Candollea 61(2): 393-423. ://WOS:000243678800008 Less literature on liverworts and hornworts of the canton of Geneva is available than for the mosses. The only catalogue treating liverworts and hornworts for Geneva was published in 1888 by Dr. Henri Bernet. He recorded 43 species of liverworts from 27 genera, 22 families and one species of . In 1924 Charles Meylan added just a few more species in his flora Les hepatiques de la Suisse. Since then bryological activity in Geneva has been minimal. To provide a better understanding of the actual bryophyte flora of the canton, an inventory project was started at the Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Geneve. After the old taxonomic names were updated this catalogue provides a list of 48 liverwort species from 29 genera and one species of hornwort that have been recorded in the canton. The catalogue covers the period from the first record in 1838 up to the beginning of 2001. Seventy localities in the canton are mentioned in these records.

Cailliau, A. and M. J. Price (2007). "Hornworts in the agricultural fields of Geneva: new findings, the soil diaspore bank and ex situ soil cultures." Candollea 62(2): 165-172. ://WOS:000252536900007 The hornworts Phaeoceros carolinianus (Michx.) Prosk. and Anthoceros agrestis Paton are reported herein for the Canton of Geneva, Switzerland. The four new findings of P.carolinianus are the first records of this species from the canton since it was first collected by Jacques Rome from Meyrin in 1877. Anthoceros agrestis, not previously reported in the literature for Geneva, was recently discovered growing on cultured soil samples taken from three sites across the canton in the context of a bryophyte inventory of the canton. Its presence in the above-ground bryophyte flora was later confirmed by in situ populations found at seven localities. Culture studies of soil samples revealed that the diaspore bank plays a key role in the long-term maintenance of hornwort populations within Geneva. Hornworts are rare within the canton of Geneva.

Calvert, P., J. Cesarano, et al. (2002). "Toughness in Synthetic and Biological Multilayered Systems." Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 360(1791): 199-209. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3066301 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Calvert-Toughness-Synthetic-2002.pdf Toughness in hard biological tissues is associated with fibrous or lamellar structures that deflect or stop growing cracks. In some cases, such as nacreous shell, protein interlayers absorb much of the crack energy. In other tissues, such as tooth enamel, the toughness derives from the mineral microstructure, and the small amount of residual protein apparently has little effect. There have been a number of efforts to make tough synthetic materials using layered structures. In this work, freeform fabrication has been used to make layered structures with a view to introducing similar toughness into brittle materials. Results are presented for epoxy- glass composites with glass fabric interlayers, porous alumina back-filled with aluminium metal, and layered glass-ceramic/silver materials.

Calvert, P., J. Cesarano, et al. (2002). "Toughness in synthetic and biological multilayered systems." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series a-Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences 360(1791): 199-209. ://WOS:000173869100004 Toughness in hard biological tissues is associated with fibrous or lamellar structures that deflect or stop growing cracks. In some cases, such as nacreous shell, protein interlayers absorb much of the crack energy. In other tissues; such as tooth enamel, the toughness derives from the mineral microstructure, and the small amount of residual protein apparently has little effect. There have been a number of efforts to make tough synthetic materials using layered structures. In this work, freeform fabrication has been used to make layered structures with a view to introducing similar toughness into brittle materials. Results are presented for epoxy- glass composites with glass fabric interlayers, porous alumina back-filled with aluminium metal, and layered glass-ceramic/silver materials.

Cano, M. J., J. Guerra, et al. (1993). "A Revision of the Moss Genus Crossidium (Pottiaceae) with the Description of the New Genus Microcrossidium." Plant Systematics and Evolution 188(3-4): 213-235. ://A1993MN52200004 A world revision of the genus Crossidium JUR. recognizes 11 species, which are described and discussed in the context of important taxonomic characters. An identification key is provided. C. asirense FREY & KURSCHNER is reduced to synonymy with C. davidai CATCHESIDE, and the geographical range of C. laevipilum THER. & TRAB. is extended to Europe. Phylogenetic trends are interpreted on the basis of two main evolutionary lines associated with the presence or absence of hyaline hair-points on the leaves. A twelfth species is transferred to Microcrossidium GUERRA & CANO, gen. nov., as M. apiculatum (MAGILL) GUERRA & CANO, comb. nova, because of differences in stem anatomy, peristome configuration, and spore morphology.

Cara, R. R., G. J. P. Fleming, et al. (2007). "Cuspal deflection and microleakage in premolar teeth restored with resin-based composites with and without an intermediary flowable layer." Journal of Dentistry 35(6): 482-489. ://WOS:000247119800004 Objectives: To assess cuspal deflection and cervical enamel microleakage with and without an intermediary flowable RBC layer for the incremental restoration of mesio-occluso-distal (MOD) cavities with two resin-based composites (RBCs). Methods: Forty sound upper premolar teeth had standardised MOD cavities prepared. Restoration of the teeth involved the placement of the RBCs (Filtek (TM) P60 or Filtek (TM) Supreme) in eight increments with the appropriate bonding system with and without an intermediary flowable RBC layer (Filtek (TM) Flow). Buccal and palatal cusp deflections were recorded post-irradiation using a twin channel deflection measuring gauge. Following restoration, the teeth were thermocycled, immersed in a 0.2% basic fuchsin dye for 24 h, sagittally sectioned and examined for cervical enamel microleakage. Results: A significant reduction in cuspal deflection was evident when both RBC materials were used to restore the cavity by employing an intermediary flowable (P < 0.001) compared with when no intermediary flowable was utilised. No statistically significant differences were identified in microleakage between the teeth restored with Filtek (TM) P60 or Filtek (TM) Supreme when an intermediary flowable (Filtek (TM) Flow) was employed. Conclusions: The results of the current study suggest that there was a benefit to the operator in terms of a reduction in cuspal deflection but not from the maintenance of the synergism of the adhesive bond, namely microleakage at the cervical enamel cavosurface margin, when an intermediate layer of a flowable RBC was used under higher elastic modulus RBCs. (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Carlos, L. D., M. Assuncao, et al. (1998). "Luminescence of non-hygroscopic polymer electrolytes modified by europium picrate complexes." Electrochimica Acta 43(10-11): 1365-1369. ://000074077400036 The luminescence features of new europium-based PEO electrolytes where the lanthanide ion is encapsulated into a ligand structure cage (eg Eu3+-picrate complexes with trans-1,4-dithiane-1,4-dioxide, TDTD) were reported. The complexes are non-hygroscopic and strongly luminescent in the temperature range of 10 to 300 K. The emission spectra were recorded in this temperature range and the corresponding lines assigned to the D-5(0.1)-->F-7(0-4) transitions. The measured line widths, which are of the same order of magnitude of the one observed in crystals (1-2 Angstrom), are approximately,two orders of magnitude sharper than the ones observed in glasses and other Eu3+ based polymeric materials. The Stark components of the F-7(0.4), D-5(0) levels and the corresponding barycenters were calculated;and modeled by the superposition of the free ion Hamiltonian with a local-field perturbation. The average cation-nearest ligand distance was determined for the PEO-Eu(pic)(3)TDTD1.5 complexes and the results obtained, (-)(R)=2.45 A, agree very well with the X-ray average ion-nearest ligands distances measured for the picrate salt, (- )(R)=2.448 Angstrom. (C) 1998 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Carrion, J. S., R. M. Ros, et al. (1993). "Spore Morphology in Pottia-Starckeana (Hedw) C-Mull (Pottiaceae, Musci) and Its Closest Species." Nova Hedwigia 56(1-2): 89-112. ://A1993KT94300005 Light, scanning, and transmission electron microscopy surveys of spore morphology and ultrastructure are given in order to provide some insight into the problematic of the Pottia starckeana aggregate, including P. starckeana (Hedw.) C. Mull., P. davalliana (Sm.) C. Jens., P. commutata Limpr., and P. mutica Vent. Shared characteristics are noted, particularly in the fundamental wall structure, and two major spore types are described on the basis of their distinct shape, size, and sculptural pattern. Spores of type A, mainly with wavy outline and lacking marked perinous projections, correlate well with P. starckeana. Spores of type B, with regular outline, increased size, and more ornamented perine, characterize both P. commutata and P. davalliana. Much intergrading of spore morphology is noticeable, suggesting that localized introgressive hybridization may have taken place within the Mediterranean area involving these three species. No distinctive spore feature is considered useful for the taxonomic recognition of P. mutica. Furthermore, correlation is hardly ever found between spore type A and peristome structure. Resemblances between some spores of type A and certain spores from (Encalyptaceae, Musci) seem to provide additional evidence for phylogenetic relationships between Pottiaceae and Encalyptaceae. Possibly adaptive characters of the sporoderm are discussed in relation to ecological and evolutionary considerations.

Cavalier, D. M., O. Lerouxel, et al. (2008). "Disrupting two Arabidopsis thaliana xylosyltransferase genes results in plants deficient in xyloglucan, a major primary cell wall component." Plant Cell 20(6): 1519-1537. ://WOS:000258061200008 Xyloglucans are the main hemicellulosic polysaccharides found in the primary cell walls of dicots and nongraminaceous monocots, where they are thought to interact with cellulose to form a three-dimensional network that functions as the principal load-bearing structure of the primary cell wall. To determine whether two Arabidopsis thaliana genes that encode xylosyltransferases, XXT1 and XXT2, are involved in xyloglucan biosynthesis in vivo and to determine how the plant cell wall is affected by the lack of expression of XXT1, XXT2, or both, we isolated and characterized xxt1 and xxt2 single and xxt1 xxt2 double T-DNA insertion mutants. Although the xxt1 and xxt2 mutants did not have a gross morphological phenotype, they did have a slight decrease in xyloglucan content and showed slightly altered distribution patterns for xyloglucan epitopes. More interestingly, the xxt1 xxt2 double mutant had aberrant root hairs and lacked detectable xyloglucan. The reduction of xyloglucan in the xxt2 mutant and the lack of detectable xyloglucan in the xxt1 xxt2 double mutant resulted in significant changes in the mechanical properties of these plants. We conclude that XXT1 and XXT2 encode xylosyltransferases that are required for xyloglucan biosynthesis. Moreover, the lack of detectable xyloglucan in the xxt1 xxt2 double mutant challenges conventional models of the plant primary cell wall.

Cerny, I., G. Jeronimidis, et al. (2008). "Static and Fatigue Resistance of GRP Materials and Flywheel Disc of a Storage Unit for Environmentally Friendly Urban Vehicles." Advanced Materials Forum Iv 587-588: 986-990. ://WOS:000259898200193 The paper presents results of a partial experimental programme carried out within the project EUREKA E! 2462 TRUS, which aim is to demonstrate a novel form of hybrid electric drive line without the need for overhead lines. The zero emissions public transport vehicle is based on a hybrid electric drive line with novel, strongly innovative features. The concept includes the use of a small on- board energy storage unit (flywheel) to store the energy that would otherwise be lost on braking. Results of an experimental complex programme of an evaluation of static mechanical and fatigue properties of long glass-fibre reinforced polyester composite material with biaxial or multiaxial structures, respectively, to be used for a manufacture of the flywheel hub disc are presented in the paper. It was shown that results of interlaminar shear fatigue strength of the disc mostly almost correspond to those obtained on basic material - biaxial GRP plates and are close to results obtained on a similar uniaxial GRP used for railways springs. Some ascertained differences are discussed.

Chambers, J. C. and J. A. MacMahon (1994). "A Day in the Life of a Seed: Movements and Fates of Seeds and Their Implications for Natural and Managed Systems." Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 25(1): 263-292. https://www.annualreviews.orghttps://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.es.25.110194.001403 AND http://www.ask- force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Chambers-Day-Life-Seed-1994.pdf

Chan, C. K., C. S. Kwok, et al. (1997). "Study of hygroscopic properties of aqueous mixtures of disodium fluorescein and sodium chloride using an electrodynamic balance." Pharmaceutical Research 14(9): 1171-1175. ://A1997XY99100012 Purpose, The purposes of this study are: a) to demonstrate the use of an Electrodynamic Balance (EDB) to investigate the hygroscopic properties of pharmaceutical aerosols; and b) to evaluate the applicability of the Zdanovskii-Stokes-Robinson model (ZSR) in the associated data analysis with multicomponent pharmaceutical aerosols. Methods. The compositional dependence of the water activity of two model materials commonly employed in the study of pharmaceutical aerosols, namely, NaCl and Disodium Fluorescein(DF), was investigated using an EDB. The water contents of single levitated droplets of NaCl and DF and their mixtures at mass ratios of 1:3, 1:1, 3:1, and 6:1 from dilute concentration to high supersaturation were determined as a function of relative humidity (RH). Results. At decreasing ambient RH, supersaturated aqueous NaCl droplets lose water and crystallize to form dry solid particles at an RH of similar to 50%. Aqueous DF droplet continues to lose water until it reaches a final state containing about 20% by mass of residual water. Mixed solutions of DF and NaCl crystallize at an RH of similar to 50% and then continue to lose water at lower RHs. The resulting ''dried'' particle still contains water whose amount depends on the mass ratios of DF and NaCl in the mixture. Good prediction of water activity of the DF-NaCl mixture can be achieved with the ZSR model. Collection of a full set of water activity-composition data at each mass ratio of DF-NaCl requires only a few hours. Conclusions. The EDB, together with the application of the ZSR model in data treatment, appears to be a valuable tool for studying the hygroscopic properties of pharmaceutical aerosols.

Chan, M. N. and C. K. Chan (2003). "Hygroscopic properties of two model humic-like substances and their mixtures with inorganics of atmospheric importance." Environmental Science & Technology 37(22): 5109-5115. ://000186601300005 Water-soluble macromolecular polyacids can play a potentially important role in the hygroscopic properties of atmospheric aerosols. These acids have molecular structures similar to natural fulvic acids (FA) (or humic acids) and are referred to as humic-like substances (HULIS). In this study, the hygroscopicity of HULIS and the mixture of HULIS and sodium chloride (NaCl) and that of HULIS and ammonium sulfate (AS) aerosols at a mass ratio of 1:1 are studied using two natural FA: the Nordic Aquatic Fulvic Acid (NAFA) and the Suwannee River Fulvic Acid (SRFA) as model compounds in an electrodynamic balance. NAFA and SRFA both absorbed and desorbed water reversibly without crystallization and retained water at a relative humidity (RH) < 10%. NAFA and SRFA have a mass growth ratio of 1.25 and 1.45 from RH = 10% to RH = 90%, respectively. However, these results are different from those of another natural FA (the Nordic River Fulvic Acid Reference) in the literature. The differences are possibly due to the differences in the chemical composition of the natural FA, which depends on their sources and the isolation methods. These results suggest that a standardization of the isolation methods of HULIS is needed for better understanding of their atmospheric properties and environmental impacts. In general, the deliquescence and crystallization RH of FA-inorganic mixtures are comparable with those of their respective pure inorganic species. Since FA are less hygroscopic than NaCl and AS, all mixtures absorb less water compared to their respective pure inorganic species of equal particle mass. The FA-AS mixtures have a larger water uptake than the sum of those of the FA and AS individually following a simple additivity rule as noninteracting species at RH = 90%. This enhancement effect increases as the RH decreases. There is no such enhancement effect for the FA-NaCl mixtures until RH is below 90%. These results reveal that the effect of the interactions between FA and inorganic species on the water uptake of the mixtures, in general, is a function of RH.

Chan, M. N. and C. K. Chan (2005). "Mass transfer effects in hygroscopic measurements of aerosol particles." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 5: 2703-2712. ://000232643900002 The tandem differential mobility analyzer ( TDMA) has been widely utilized to measure the hygroscopicity of laboratory-generated and atmospheric submicrometer particles. An important concern in investigating the hygroscopicity of the particles is if the particles have attained equilibrium state in the measurements. We present a literature survey to investigate the mass transfer effects in hygroscopicity measurements. In most TDMA studies, a residence time in the order of seconds is used for humidification ( or dehumidification). NaCl and (NH4)(2)SO4 particles are usually used to verify the equilibrium measurements during this residence time, which is presumed to be sufficient for other particles. There have been observations that not all types of submicrometer particles, including atmospheric particles, attain their equilibrium sizes within this time scale. We recommend that experimentation with different residence times be conducted and that the residence time should be explicitly stated in future TDMA measurements. Mass transfer effects may also exist in the measurements of other properties related to the water uptake of atmospheric particles such as relative humidity dependent light scattering coefficients and cloud condensation nuclei activity.

Chanliaud, E., K. M. Burrows, et al. (2002). "Mechanical properties of primary plant cell wall analogues." Planta 215(6): 989-996. ://WOS:000178995100012 Mechanical effects of turgor pressure on cell walls were simulated by deforming cell wall analogues based on Acetobacter xylinus cellulose under equi-biaxial tension. This experimental set-up, with associated modelling, allowed quantitative information to be obtained on cellulose alone and in composites with pectin and/or xyloglucan. Cellulose was the main load-bearing component, pectin and xyloglucan leading to a decrease in modulus when incorporated. The cellulose-only system could be regarded as an essentially linear elastic material with a modulus ranging from 200 to 500 MPa. Pectin incorporation modified extensibility properties of the system by topology/architecture changes of cellulose fibril assemblies, but the cellulose/pectin composites could still be described as a linear elastic material with a modulus ranging from 120 to 250 MPa. The xyloglucan/cellulose composite could not be modelled as a linear elastic material. Introducing xyloglucan into a cellulose network or a cellulose/pectin composite led to very compliant materials characterised by time-dependent creep behaviour. Modulus values obtained for the composite materials were compared with mechanical data found for plant-derived systems. After comparing bi-axial and uni-axial behaviour of the different composites, structural models were proposed to explain the role of each polysaccharide in determining the mechanical properties of these plant primary cell wall analogues.

Chanliaud, E., J. De Silva, et al. (2004). "Mechanical effects of plant cell wall enzymes on cellulose/xyloglucan composites." Plant Journal 38(1): 27-37. ://WOS:000220521800003 Xyloglucan-acting enzymes are believed to have effects on type I primary plant cell wall mechanical properties. In order to get a better understanding of these effects, a range of enzymes with different in vitro modes of action were tested against cell wall analogues (bio-composite materials based on Acetobacter xylinus cellulose and xyloglucan). Tomato pericarp xyloglucan endo transglycosylase (tXET) and nasturtium seed xyloglucanase (nXGase) were produced heterologously in Pichia pastoris. Their action against the cell wall analogues was compared with that of a commercial preparation of Trichoderma endo-glucanase (EndoGase). Both 'hydrolytic' enzymes (nXGase and EndoGase) were able to depolymerise not only the cross-link xyloglucan fraction but also the surface-bound fraction. Consequent major changes in cellulose fibril architecture were observed. In mechanical terms, removal of xyloglucan cross-links from composites resulted in increased stiffness (at high strain) and decreased visco-elasticity with similar extensibility. On the other hand, true transglycosylase activity (tXET) did not affect the cellulose/xyloglucan ratio. No change in composite stiffness or extensibility resulted, but a significant increase in creep behaviour was observed in the presence of active tXET. These results provide direct in vitro evidence for the involvement of cell wall xyloglucan-specific enzymes in mechanical changes underlying plant cell wall re-modelling and growth processes. Mechanical consequences of tXET action are shown to be complimentary to those of cucumber expansin.

Chen, B., Q. Yuan, et al. (2010). "Fibre reinforced cellular microstructure of cork wood." Plastics Rubber and Composites 39(2): 86-90. ://WOS:000276097700009 Scanning electron microscopy was used to observe the microstructures of a cork wood. It showed that the wood consists of countless rectangular and honeycomb wood cells. The wall of each wood cell connects with adjacent wood cells at the middle of the cell wall. More careful observation showed that the walls of the wood cells are a kind of fibre reinforced biocomposite consisting of crystalline cellulose fibre layers and hydrocarbonated polymer matrix. The crystalline cellulose fibres in different fibre layers possess different directions, which compose a kind of fibre helicoidal microstructure. In the microstructure, the helicoidal angle is very large. The maximum pullout force of the fibre helicoidal microstructure, which is closely related to the fracture toughness of the wood, was theoretically and experimentally investigated and compared with that of the fibre parallel microstructure. It showed that the maximum pullout force of the fibre helicoidal microstructure is markedly greater than that of the fibre parallel microstructure and that the larger the helicoidal angle, the more the maximum pullout force will increase compared with that of the parallel microstructure.

Chen, L. Y., F. T. Jeng, et al. (2003). "Hygroscopic behavior of atmospheric aerosol in Taipei." Atmospheric Environment 37(15): 2069-2075. ://000182554100007 Hygroscopic growth of particles of different sizes and the resultant size distribution changes were observed as a function of the relative humidity (RH). A particle generation device, RH module, and a Tandem Differential Mobility Analyzer system were set up to measure the particle size distributions under different RH conditions. Adopting Nafion as an RH adjusting module, the aerosol hygroscopic observations were successfully performed without the interference caused by blending sample stream with humidified air. The measured deliquescence humidity of model compounds, NaCl and (NH4)(2)SO4, agree with the theoretical values reported by other investigators. The particle growth factor is enhanced around the RH of 70%. In addition, particle size distribution behaves as two split groups of particles with the RH > 76%. The average growth factors of hygroscopic ambient particles in Taiwan are similar to those reported elsewhere. There are several hygroscopic salt compositions in ambient aerosols, (NH4)2SO4 is the most abundant one. Observed particle deliquescence behaviors showed limited alternation of organics on particle growth at higher RH. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Chen, R. G. (2006). "Simultaneous heat and moisture transfer investigation for a packed agricultural particle pile bed." Jsme International Journal Series B-Fluids and Thermal Engineering 49(4): 1226-1232. ://WOS:000243182800049 As one kind of hygroscopic salts, bulk potash particle easily absorbs water vapor during storage and transportation process to form serious caking. The accumulation and movement of moisture is demonstrated to change with temperature. In this paper, a set of appropriate equations has been presented to formulate a mathematical model of coupled moisture and heat migration in thin pile beds of storage potash particle, assuming moisture diffusion and heat conduction as dominant transport mechanism. The numerical model is validated by comparison of numerical simulation results with experimental data from literature. Then the model is used as a reliable predictive tool to explore the moisture and heat migration for a packed potash bed with average particle size 3.66 mm. The sensitivity analysis presents the influence of the variation of effective thermal conductivity and effective diffusion coefficient.

Chen, R. G. and H. R. Wang (2006). "Measurement and numerical simulation of moisture transport within potash beds as a prelude to moisture migration caking." Advanced Powder Technology 17(1): 29-47. ://WOS:000235453700002 As one kind of hygroscopic salts, potash readily absorbs large quantities of water vapor from air during storage and transportation processes. Accumulated moisture will further penetrate into a potash bed to cause serious caking. To study moisture migration within a potash bed, an experimental test apparatus was constructed to investigate the moisture redistribution of a potash bed. A one-dimensional mathematical model with physically realistic representation of moisture transport processes was developed to simulate moisture migration. Based on Whitaker's theory, a model accounting for vapor diffusion, and liquid film movement by capillarity and gravity effects was fully implemented. An adsorption/desorption model was used to determine the phase change rate. The numerical model is validated using experimental data with a small range of uncertainty for particle sizes that have a small size range. Numerical simulation results show that predictions agree with the experimental results within the 95% uncertainty bounds.

Choi, H. S., K. J. Ahn, et al. (2001). "Hygroscopic aspects of epoxy/carbon fiber composite laminates in aircraft environments." Composites Part a-Applied Science and Manufacturing 32(5): 709-720. ://000167803000010 In this study, various hygroscopic effects of such parameters as hygrothermal temperature, matrix volume ratio (V-m), void volume ratio (V-v), specimen thickness, lay-up sequence and internal stress were investigated for epoxy/carbon fiber composite laminates. The specimen thickness and lay-up sequence had little effect on the through-the-thickness water absorption behavior of composite laminates, but the other parameters affected the moisture absorption rate and equilibrium water uptake in different ways and intensities. The glass transition temperature of composite laminates was strongly affected and linearly decreased by the quantity of equilibrium water uptake. A characteristic length of moisture migration through the unidirectional laminates was proposed as a function of fiber angle to the exposed laminate surface. In this approach, the fibers imbedded in the matrix were assumed to act as a barrier to the penetrating water molecules, and the developed model was well compared with the experimental results. (C) 2001 published by Elsevier Science Ltd.

Chou, T.-W. (1992). Microstructural Design of Fiber Composites, Cambridge University Press Über das Produkt This textbook addresses the design of the microstructure of composite materials in order to obtain optimum performance. The broad spectrum of topics covered includes laminate composites, statistical strength theories of continuous fiber composites, short fiber composites, hybrid composites, two and three-dimensional textile structural composites and flexible composites. Kurzbeschreibung This book addresses the issue of designing the microstructure of fiber composite materials in order to obtain optimum performance. Besides the systematic treatment of conventional continuous and discontinuous fiber composites, the book also presents the state-of-the- art of the development of textile structural composites as well as the nonlinear elastic finite deformation theory of flexible composites. The author's experience during twenty years of research and teaching on composite materials is reflected in the broad spectrum of topics covered, including laminated composites, statistical strength theories of continuous fiber composites, short fiber composites, hybrid composites, two- and three-dimensional textile structural composites and flexible composites. This book provides the first comprehensive analysis and modeling of the thermo-mechanical behavior of fiber composites with these distinct microstructures. Overall, the inter-relationships among the processing, microstructures and properties of these materials are emphasized throughout the book. The book is intended as a text for graduate or advanced undergraduate students, but will also be an excellent reference for all materials scientists and engineers who are researching or working with these materials.

Christie, J. H. and I. M. Woodhead (2002). "A new model of DC conductivity of hygroscopic solids - Part 1: Cellulosic materials." Textile Research Journal 72(3): 273-278. ://000174513000015 We investigate the DC conductivity of cotton, viscose, and wood and develop a quantitative theory. We propose that conduction occurs by exchange of protons within a hydrogen-bonded network of water molecules, in a mariner analogous to that in liquid water and ice. According to this model, the very strong dependence of conductivity on regain, which is characteristic of these materials, arises from its dependence on the average distance between adjacent water molecules. We derive expressions for DC conductivity as a function of regain, which provide very good agreement with experimental data. With independent experimental evidence, we confirm a prediction by the theory that a similar conduction process occurs in dry cellulose.

CisnerosZevallos, L., M. E. Saltveit, et al. (1997). "Hygroscopic coatings control surface white discoloration of peeled (minimally processed) carrots during storage." Journal of Food Science 62(2): 363-&. ://A1997WV15200032 White discoloration on peeled carrots is partially due to surface dehydration which can be controlled with hygroscopic coatings: e.g., poly hydric alcohols and salt solutions. This study was performed at 2.5, 7.5, 10, and 15 degrees C, using a model system controlling relative humidity at 33, 75 or 98% or a commercial system with low-density polyethylene (LDPE) plastic film bags. The moisture sorption properties of propylene glycol, sorbitol, glycerol and calcium chloride enabled them to keep the carrot surface moist and maintain a transparent surface layer through which the underlying orange color was visible. This effect was only observed at high relative humidities (e.g., 98% RH). Similar effects were observed on treated peeled carrots stored in LDPE bags. The moisturized appearance provided by the hygroscopic coatings during storage was effective at several different temperatures.

Clements, R. (2006). "Oophana tiomanensis, a new streptaxid (Gastropoda : Pulmonata : Streptaxidae) from Pulau Tioman, Peninsular Malaysia." Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 54(1): 125-127. ://000237791200010 A new species of terrestrial gastropod belonging to the family Streptaxidae Gray, 1860, is described from Pulau Tioman, Peninsular Malaysia. Oophana tiomanensis, new species, is compared with two congeners that are nearest geographically (i.e., Thailand) and similarly possess three teeth on the peristome. Oophana elisa Gould, 1856, differs from this new species by having the penultimate whorl carinate to the left, while O. bulbulus (Morelet, 1862) differs by being larger (height - 15 mm) and distinctly less oblique. The new species being described here is also the first from the genus Oophana Ancey, 1884, to be recorded from Peninsular Malaysia.

Cole, B. I. and I. D. Lunt (2005). "Restoring Kangaroo Grass (Themeda triandra) to grassland and woodland understoreys: a review of establishment requirements and restoration exercises in south-east Australia." Ecological Management & Restoration 6(1): 28-33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-8903.2005.00216.x AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Cole-Kangoroo-Seed-Dispersal- 2005.pdf Summary Temperate grassy ecosystems are amongst Australia's most endangered ecosystems. Most remnants are small, fragmented and highly degraded. Practical methods for restoring native understorey species are urgently required. Dominant native grasses such as Kangaroo Grass (Themeda triandra Forssk.) and Tussock-grasses (Poa species) have been eliminated from many remnants by heavy grazing in the past. The reintroduction of these grasses is a critical step for understorey restoration. This paper (i) reviews the literature on Themeda seed biology and seedling establishment; (ii) summarizes the lessons learnt from three major attempts to establish Themeda stands in south-east Australia; and (iii) identifies the research needed to enhance Themeda restoration. Considerable information is available on Themeda seed and establishment biology, and restoration exercises have shown that Themeda stands can be readily established by surface-spreading awned seeds in seed-bearing hay. However, many practical challenges remain, including the need to identify optimal sowing periods, create better seedbed conditions, develop practical mulching techniques, and improve weed control. The use of seed-bearing hay has constrained restoration to relatively small areas in the past. Future trials may benefit by using more concentrated seed products such as seed-bearing florets and pure seeds which permit larger areas to be restored at one time.

Collombet, F., X. Lalbin, et al. (1997). "A methodology and tools for the study of composite structures under impact loading: Application to long fiber laminated structures." Journal De Physique Iv 7(C3): 163-168. ://WOS:A1997YA51200031 The aim of this paper is to present a method for taking into account, in numerical terms, the physics of damage events during impact of composite structures. The modeling of damage phenomena is based on the following choices : the use of an averaging model and a contact technique, and simple criteria to define the numerical conditions of initiation and extension of damage events. This approach is applied here to numerical modeling of the impact of ten plies symmetrical glass-epoxy 0/90 laminated plates where matrix cracking controls delamination and hence considered of primary importance.

Conrad, M. J. and S. J. Singer (1979). "Evidence for a large internal pressure in biological membranes." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 76(10): 5202-5206. http://www.pnas.org/content/76/10/5202.abstract AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Conrad-Evidence-Pressure-1979.pdf We have developed a method (hygroscopic desorption) for measuring the binding of small molecules to membranes. With this method, we have found that the binding of the amphipathic compounds chlorpromazine, 2,4-dinitrophenol, and 1-decanol to various cell membranes is remarkably low, with partition coefficients, Kp, no larger than about 0.1. On the other hand, with phospholipid vesicles of large or small diameters, Kp values for these compounds were much larger. The results suggest that there exists in membranes a large internal pressure that excludes the amphipaths from the membranes and that does not exist in phospholipid vesicles.

Corrin, M. L., H. W. Edwards, et al. (1964). "Surface Chemistry of Condensation Nuclei .2. the Preparation of Silver Iodide Free of Hygroscopic Impurities and Its Interaction with Water Vapor." Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 21(5): 565-567. ://A1964WS57700014

Coutand, C., G. Jeronimidis, et al. (2004). "Comparison of mechanical properties of tension and opposite wood in Populus." Wood Science and Technology 38(1): 11-24. ://WOS:000220880900002 In this paper we focused on the differences of mechanical properties of tension and normal wood of 1-year-old poplar trees, artificially tilted. Elastic and fracture properties have been measured and linked to the anatomy. Tension wood is well known because it prevents good surface finishing and leads to difficulties with sawing. We studied three main mechanical properties: young modulus, energy of cutting and longitudinal residual strain of maturation (with strain gauges) because of their importance in wood technology. Moreover, this work takes place in a larger project of study, the phenomena of axes re-orientation in trees (allowing by the production of reaction wood), where these data are required for biomechanical modelling. The results show that tension wood has a higher young modulus, needs a higher energy to be cut and exhibited a higher level of longitudinal residual strain of maturation than those of normal wood. The results suggest that these differences require deeper analysis of the wood than anatomy: measurement of microfibril orientation in the S2 layer and also the lignin composition in monomeric units.

Cox, C. J., B. Goffinet, et al. (2000). "Phylogenetic relationships among the diplolepideous-alternate mosses () inferred from nuclear and chloroplast DNA sequences." Bryologist 103(2): 224-241. ://000087713200004 The diplolepideous-alternate peristome, when most highly developed, has endostome segments attached to a basal membrane and positioned alternate to the outer exostome teeth, with cilia often present between the segments. This peristome type defines the Bryidae (sensu Vitt ct al. 1998), which includes four orders: the Bryales, Leucodontales, Hypnales, ann Hookeriales, of which the latter three are mainly pleurocarpous in their growth form. Chloroplast (rbcL, rps4, and trnL-trnF) and nuclear (18S rRNA) gene sequences have been analyzed using the parsimony optimality criterion to elucidate relationships among the Bryidae. The analyses strongly support the paraphyly of the Bryidae, with the Splachnidae, and possibly the Orthotrichidae, having arisen from ancestors within the Bryidae. The Leucodontales, Hypnales, and Hookeriales form a monophyletic group, as do the pleurocarpous members of the Bryidae. However, the two pleurocarpous clades are riot resolved as sister groups, although their non-monophyly is riot supported by the bootstrap. The phylogenetic hypothesis provides a context irt which to infer evolutionary transitions in sol,le key morphological characters relating to the peristome nod the transition from the acrocarpous to pleurocarpous growth forms.

Cox, C. J., B. Goffinet, et al. (2000). "Phylogenetic Relationships Among the Diplolepideous-alternate Mosses (Bryidae) Inferred from Nuclear and Chloroplast DNA Sequences." The Bryologist 103(2): 224-241. http://dx.doi.org/10.1639/0007-2745(2000)103[0224:PRATDA]2.0.CO;2 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Cox- Phylogenetic-Diplolepidous-2000.pdf null

Cox, C. J. and T. A. J. Hedderson (1999). "Phylogenetic relationships among the ciliate arthrodontous mosses: evidence from chloroplast and nuclear DNA sequences." Plant Systematics and Evolution 215(1-4): 119-139. ://WOS:000078337000008 Parsimony and maximum likelihood analyses of combined trnL (UAA) 5' exon - trnF (GAA) and rps4 exon cpDNA, and 18S nrDNA sequences of 60 arthrodontous moss taxa indicate strong support for the monophyly of a clade containing the Splachnineae, Orthotrichineae, and diplolepideous alternate sub-orders. A clade including the Splachnineae, Meesiaceae and Leptobryum (Bryaceae) is similarly well supported and forms the sister group to a clade comprising the Orthotrichineae and the other diplolepideous alternate mosses. Within this latter clade a number of well supported lineages are identified, but relationships among these remain poorly resolved. These analyses indicate that the Splachnaceous and Orthotrichaceous peristomes have been independently derived from an ancestral 'perfect' bryoid peristome.

Cubison, M. J., H. Coe, et al. (2005). "A modified hygroscopic tandem DMA and a data retrieval method based on optimal estimation." Journal of Aerosol Science 36(7): 846-865. ://000230367200003 We present a new design of hygroscopic tandem differential mobility analyser (HTDMA) capable of rapidly switching between measurement at constant humidity and the determination of humidograms. Both technical aspects of the instrumental setup and the software control are discussed. The optimal estimation method (OEM) developed by Rodgers (Rev. Geophys. 14 (1976), J. Geophys. Res. 95 (1990), Inverse Methods for Atmospheric Sounding, World Scientific, Singapore 2000) for solving atmospheric data inversion problems has been successfully developed to retrieve measurements of hygroscopic particle growth using the tandem DMA. The technique makes no assumptions about the shape of the hygroscopic growth distribution and is able to determine the resolution and shape of the retrieved distribution. The technique has been shown to be robust throughout extensive tests and a thorough error analysis has been performed. The largest source of error arises from the under-sampling of the measurements, the so-called 'smoothing error'. However, the uncertainties in the measurements and error in the forward model are also significant. The technique allows hygroscopic growth measurements to be retrieved under a variety of atmospheric conditions and over an extended time period in a reliable and consistent manner. A comparison is made between the OEM routine and the well- documented TDMAfit method of data analysis, showing the limitations and subjectiveness of TDMAfit in certain situations.

Cunningham, M. J. (1994). "Using Hygroscopic Damping of Relative-Humidity and Vapor-Pressure Fluctuations to Measure Room Ventilation Rates." Building and Environment 29(4): 501-510. ://A1994PK68000009 A field study (carried out for other purposes) indicated that relatively air-tight rooms have small relative humidity fluctuations in response to fluctuating indoor temperature and outdoor vapour pressures. This effect is due to hygroscopic damping and has been quantified here to allow the derivation of a simple formula giving room ventilation rates as a function of the amplitude of sinusoidal fluctuations in external vapour pressure, and fluctuations in room vapour pressure and humidity. It is found that the room air- change rate is proportional to the room relative humidity fluctuations, and inversely proportional to the difference between the indoor and outdoor vapour pressure fluctuations, allowing for phase differences. Calculated results agree well with field data.

Cunningham, M. J. (2003). "The building volume with hygroscopic materials - an analytical study of a classical building physics problem." Building and Environment 38(2): 329-337. ://000178608100013 A global analytical solution covering all cases of a building volume with hygroscopic materials is given. The mathematical and physical simplifications and assumptions are quite modest. Isothermality is not assumed. Examples are rooms, attics, subfloor spaces and building cavities. All share the same physics describing the vapour pressure in the building volume and the moisture content in the hygroscopic materials as a function of building volume temperature and moisture emission rates, external vapour pressure and building volume ventilation levels, heat and mass transfer between the building volume and the hygroscopic materials, and heat and mass storage and transfer within the hygroscopic materials. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Daiko, Y., L. C. Klein, et al. (2006). "Hygroscopic-oxides/Nafion (R) hybrid electrolyte for direct methanol fuel cells." Journal of Membrane Science 281(1-2): 619-625. ://000240207800066 Hygroscopic-oxides/Nafion((R)) hybrid membranes were prepared using an infiltration sol-gel process, and the effects of infiltrated oxides on transport and direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) properties were investigated at 25 degrees C. The inorganic contents were controlled by the infiltration time. Methanol permeability decreased with increasing infiltrated oxides. Spin-lattice relaxation measurements using H-1 nuclear magnetic resonance (H-1 NMR) spectroscopy suggested that the ionic channels of Nafion((R)) become narrow after infiltrating oxides. The hybrid membrane infiltrated with around 3 wt% oxides showed better DMFC performance than Nafion((R)). Impedance analysis suggested that the infiltrated oxides effectively reduce the charge transfer resistance. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Daniel, C., T. J. Balk, et al. (2005). "Bio-mimetic scaling of mechanical behavior of thin films, coatings, and surfaces by laser interference metallurgy." Advanced Engineering Materials 7(9): 823-826. ://WOS:000233059500006

Darwin, F. (1898). "Observations on Stomata. [Abstract]." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 63: 413-417. http://www.jstor.org/stable/116007 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Darwin-F-Observatiions-Stomata-1898.pdf

Darwin, F. (1904). "On a Self-Recording Method Applied to the Movements of Stomata." Botanical Gazette 37(2): 81-105. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2471875 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Darwin-F-Self-Recording-Stomata-1904.pdf

Darwin, F. and D. F. M. Pertz (1911). "On a New Method of Estimating the Aperture of Stomata." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Containing Papers of a Biological Character 84(569): 136-154. http://www.jstor.org/stable/80430 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Darwin-F-New-Method-Stomata-1911.pdf

Dasilva, F. F., R. Wallach, et al. (1993). "Hydraulic-Properties of Sphagnum Peat Moss and Tuff (Scoria) and Their Potential Effects on Water Availability." Plant and Soil 154(1): 119-126. ://A1993MF43900018 The potential rate of water and nutrient supply to plant roots depends on the hydraulic properties of the container medium (growth medium, substrate), primarily on its unsaturated hydraulic conductivity, which is a measure of the medium's resistance to water flow. Water availability to plants grown in containers is usually being evaluated using criteria based exclusively on water characteristic curves of the medium in which the plant is grown. This approach is challenged in the present paper. We hypothise that the coarse structure of peat moss as well as of other container media may result in a sharp decrease in hydraulic conductivity, as the water content of peat is reduced. Transient changes in unsaturated hydraulic conductivity may result in reduced water uptake by plant roots. The objectives of this research were to determine the hydraulic properties of sphagnum peat moss and to evaluate their potential effects on water availability. Tuff (granulated volcanic ash) and its mix with peat were also tested for comparison. Water characteristic curves (drying and wetting cycles) and saturated hydraulic conductivity were measured. A predictive mathematical model was used to calculate the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity of the media. Measured water retention and saturated hydraulic conductivity data were used to estimate model parameters by a nonlinear least-squares curve-fitting technique. Model predictions of unsaturated hydraulic conductivity were validated by direct measurements. Results showed that,sharp variations in hydraulic conductivity occur in a very narrow suction range (0-2.5 kPa). In this range a decrease of more than three orders of magnitude in the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity was observed for peat. A similar trend was observed for the other media tested. This suggests that the approach that has been commonly used for determinations of water availability and for irrigation scheduling in container media may provide inaccurate predictions as to potential plant response.

Dawson, C., J. F. V. Vincent, et al. (1999). "Heat transfer through penguin feathers." Journal of Theoretical Biology 199(3): 291-295. ://WOS:000081735300005 Morphological measurements of penguin feathers are used to construct a thermal model of heat transfer through the coat. Assuming uniform distribution of the feathers and their associated afterfeathers, it is possible to model heat transfer through the coat of the penguin using standard theory. It is shown that convection does not occur in the coat of the penguin and that radiative heat loss is minimized. The theory predicts a thermal conductivity of 2.38 W m(-2) K-1 which compares well with an empirically measured value of 1.93 W m(-2) K-1 (C) 1999 Academic Press. de Freitas, P. S., D. Wirz, et al. (2006). "Pulsatile dynamic stiffness of cartilage-like materials and use of agarose gels to validate mechanical methods and models." Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B-Applied Biomaterials 78B(2): 347-357. ://WOS:000239300000019 Stiffness is a fundamental indicator of the functional state of articular cartilage. Reported test modes include compressive incremental strain to determine the equilibrium modulus, and sinusoidal strain to determine the dynamic modulus and stress/strain loss angle. Here, initial development is described for a method recognizing that gait is pulsatile. Agarose gels have been used by others for validation or comparison of mechanical test methods and models for cartilage and proteoglycan aggregate. Accordingly, gels ranging from 0.5 to 20% agarose were prepared. Pulsatile stiffness in both indentation and unconfined compression were closely reproducible. Stiffness as a function of agarose concentration rose exponentially, as found using other methods. Indentation stiffness was higher than for unconfined compression and ranged from similar to 2.0 kPa for 0.5% gel to similar to 3800 kPa for 20% gel. Pulsatile dynamic stiffness appears to be a useful method, although further development is needed. Agarose gel stiffness values obtained by other methods were reviewed for comparison. Unfortunately, reported values for a given agarose concentration ranged widely (e.g. fourfold) even when test methods were similar. Causes appear to include differences in molecular weight and gel preparation time-temperature regimens. Also, agarose is hygroscopic, leading to unintended variations in gel composition. Agarose gels are problematic materials for validation or comparison of cartilage mechanical test methods and models. (c) 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. de Jong, B., H. T. J. Super, et al. (2000). "Mixed alkali systems: Dietzel's theorem, X-ray structure, hygroscopicity, and 29-Si MAS NMR of NaRbSi2O5 and NaCsSi2O5." Zeitschrift Fur Kristallographie 215(7): 397-405. ://000088537300005 NaRbSi2O5, M-r 244.63, lambda(Mok(a)) = 0.71073 Angstrom, 150K, monoclinic, P2(1)/c, a = 4.8570(10) Angstrom, b = 13.5403(10) Angstrom, c = 7.7328(10) Angstrom, = 90.908(10)degrees, V = 508.59(13) Angstrom(3), mu(Mok(u)) = 10.23 mm(-1), Z = 4, F(000) = 463, D-x = 3.1954(8) g/cm(3), R-I = 0.0899 for 743 reflections with I > 2.0 sigma(I), wR(2) = 0.2425 for all 2534 reflections. NaCsSi2O5, M-r 584.13, lambda(MoKu) = 0.71073 Angstrom, 150 K, orthorhombic, Pna2(1), a = 17.0743(10) Angstrom, b = 4.9011(10) Angstrom, c = 13.3391(10) Angstrom, V = 1116.3(3) Angstrom(3), mu(MoKa) = 7.08 mm(-1), Z = 8, F(000) = 1072, D-x = 3.4757(9) g/cm(3), R-I = 0.0199 for 1103 reflections with I > 2.0 sigma(I), wR(2) = 0.0465 for all 2668 reflections. The crystal structures of NaRbSi2O5 and NaCsSi2O5 have been determined. Though the nominal composition of both phases is that of a phyllosilicate, their anion topology is similar and consists of double chains of [SiO1] tetrahedra forming 4-membered T rings, i.e. rings consisting of 4 tetrahedra in chair conformation and built from Q(3) units. The alkali-oxygen distances in the Na2O-Cs2O-SiO2 system tend to support the notion that in mixed alkali systems the alkali-oxygen distance of the smaller cation decreases at the expense of that of the larger one. The observed very high hygroscopicity of both crystalline phases might be rationalized by substantial underbonding of some of the oxygen atoms. 29-Si spin lattice relaxation times, T-1, vary largely between 535 and 493 sec for NaRbSi2O5 and 2440 and 2329 sec for NaCs-Si2O5.

De Rossi, D. (1994). "Biomimetic actuation systems." Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Intelligent Materials. ICIM '94|Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Intelligent Materials. ICIM '94: 44-51|xii+1398. ://INSPEC:5073373 Organic materials can be used to create new actuators capable of generating controllable mechanical forces and displacements. These novel transduction systems, which arise from research into intrinsic energy conversion characteristics of molecular aggregates possess specific capabilities that may improve upon those of conventional materials. Electronic and ionic macromolecular conductors now promise much broader uses as actuation elements in fields such as bioengineering and advanced robotics

Dean, M. N., B. O. Swanson, et al. (2009). "Biomaterials: Properties, variation and evolution." Integrative and Comparative Biology 49(1): 15- 20. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/content/49/1/15.short deJong, B., H. T. J. Super, et al. (1996). "Structure of KLiSi2O5 and the hygroscopicity of glassy mixed alkali disilicates." Acta Crystallographica Section B-Structural Science 52: 770-776. ://A1996VP71900002 KLiSi2O5, M(r) = 182.21, lambda(MoK alpha) = 0.71073 Angstrom, 150 K, monoclinic, P2(1), a = 5.9803 (6), b = 4.7996 (6), c = 8.1599 (11) Angstrom, beta = 93.477 (10)degrees, V = 233.78 (5) Angstrom(3), mu(MoK alpha) = 15.7 cm(-1), Z = 2, F(000) = 180, D-x = 2.5885 (6) Mg m(-3), R(1) = 0.0331 for 1023 reflections with I > 2.0 sigma(I), wR(2) = 0.0864 for all 1064 reflections. The crystal structure of potassium lithium phyllosilicate has been determined and the hygroscopicity of glassy single and mixed alkali disilicates has been measured. The potassium lithium phyllosilicate sheet topology is the same as that of lithium phyllosilicate, consisting of six- membered silica rings in a chair configuration. Li is fourfold oxygen coordinated by three non-bridging O and one bridging O, while K is sixfold oxygen coordinated by five nonbridging O and one bridging O. The K atoms are sandwiched between the LiSi2O5 layer. Crystalline and glassy lithium disilicate are not hygroscopic. Crystalline and glassy potassium disilicate are the most hygroscopic alkali disilicates known to date, whereas the mixed system, crystalline and glassy lithium potassium disilicate, is again not hygroscopic. Calculated valences for lithium potassium phyllosilicate do not provide a rationale for these observations.

Delgadillo, C. (1999). "The identity of Grimmia involucrata Cardot (Grimmiaceae, Musci)." Novon 9(2): 153-155. ://000080587800008 Grimmia involucrata is a Mexican endemic that has been confused with G. affinis, G. americana, and G. tergestina. It is recognized here as a valid, morphologically distinct species characterized by clavate stems, a gonioautoicous condition, differentiated perichaetial leaves, immersed sporophytes, and the smooth basal third of the outer plate of the peristome teeth. It is illustrated herein.

Dernovskova, J., H. Jirasova, et al. (1995). "An Investigation of the Hygroscopicity of Parchment Subjected to Different Treatments." Restaurator-International Journal for the Preservation of Library and Archival Material 16(1): 31-44. ://A1995QR02200003 Modern and historical parchment (sixteenth century) was subjected to different treatments: soaking in alcohol to remove residues of disinfection treatment; applying a softening agent; or applying natural polymers, cellulose derivates or acrylics to consolidate the structure or to fix loose paint layers. Distinct differences in the change of hygroscopicity and in the manner of connection to the parchment were found.

Deshpande, A. S., I. Burgert, et al. (2006). "Hierarchically structured ceramics by high-precision nanoparticte casting of wood." Small 2(8-9): 994-998. ://WOS:000239717500008

Dixon, H. H. (1907). "On the Transpiration Current in Plants." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Containing Papers of a Biological Character 79(528): 41-57. http://www.jstor.org/stable/80201 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Dixon-Transpiration-Current-1907.pdf

Dobraszczyk, B. J., A. G. Atkins, et al. (1987). "FRACTURE-TOUGHNESS OF FROZEN MEAT." Meat Science 21(1): 25-49. ://WOS:A1987L394800003

Dong, W., C. Qi-Dai, et al. (2010). "A simple strategy to realize biomimetic surfaces with controlled anisotropic wetting." Applied Physics Letters: 053704 (3 pp.). ://INSPEC:11156171 The study of anisotropic wetting has become one of the most important research areas in biomimicry. However, realization of controlled anisotropic surfaces remains challenging. Here we investigated anisotropic wetting on grooves with different linewidth, period, and height fabricated by laser interference lithography and found that the anisotropy strongly depended on the height. The anisotropy significantly increased from 9 degrees to 48 degrees when the height was changed from 100 nm to 1.3 mu m. This was interpreted by a thermodynamic model as a consequence of the increase of free energy barriers versus the height increase. According to the relationship, controlled anisotropic surfaces were rapidly realized by adjusting the grooves' height that was simply accomplished by changing the resin thickness. Finally, the perpendicular contact angle was further enhanced to 131 degrees +/- 2 degrees by surface modification, which was very close to 135 degrees +/- 3 degrees of a common grass leaf.

Donnelly, N., A. Bibas, et al. (2009). "Effect of cochlear implant electrode insertion on middle-ear function as measured by intra-operative laser Doppler vibrometry." Journal of Laryngology and Otology 123(7): 723-729. ://WOS:000267952500005 Hypothesis: The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of cochlear implant electrode insertion on middle-ear low frequency function in humans. Background: Preservation of residual low frequency hearing with addition of electrical speech processing can improve the speech perception abilities and hearing in noise of cochlear implant users. Preservation of low frequency hearing requires an intact middle-ear conductive mechanism in addition to intact inner-ear mechanisms. Little is known about the effect of a cochlear implant electrode on middle-ear function. Methods: Stapes displacement was measured in seven patients undergoing cochlear implantation. Measurements were carried out intra-operatively before and after electrode insertion. Each patient acted as his or her own control. Sound was delivered into the external auditory canal via a speaker and calibrated via a probe microphone. The speaker and probe microphone were integrated into an individually custom-made ear mould. Ossicular displacement in response to a multisine stimulus at 80 dB SPL was measured at the incudostapedial joint via the posterior tympanotomy, using an operating microscope mounted laser Doppler vibrometry system. Results: Insertion of a cochlear implant electrode into the scala tympani had a variable effect on stapes displacement. In three patients, there was little change in stapes displacement following electrode insertion. In two patients, there was a significant increase, while in a further two there was a significant reduction in stapes displacement. This variability may reflect alteration of cochlear impedance, possibly due to differing loss of perilymph associated with the electrode insertion. Conclusion: Insertion of a cochlear implant electrode produces a change in stapes displacement at low frequencies, which may have an effect on residual low frequency hearing thresholds.

Downton, G. E., J. L. Floresluna, et al. (1982). "Mechanism of Stickiness in Hygroscopic, Amorphous Powders." Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Fundamentals 21(4): 447-451. ://A1982PM01900023

Dubey, D. K. and V. Tomar (2010). "Role of Molecular Level Interfacial Forces in Hard Biomaterial Mechanics: A Review." Annals of Biomedical Engineering 38(6): 2040-2055. ://WOS:000277710700010 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Dubey-Role-Molecular-Level-2010.pdf Biological materials have evolved over millions of years and are often found as complex composites with superior properties compared to their relatively weak original constituents. Hard biomaterials such as nacre, bone, and dentin have intrigued researchers for decades for their high stiffness and toughness, multifunctionality, and self-healing capabilities. Challenges lie in identifying nature's mechanisms behind imparting such properties and her pathways in fabricating these composites. The route frequently acquired by nature is embedding submicron- or nano-sized mineral particles in protein matrix in a well-organized hierarchical arrangement. The key here is the formation of large amount of precisely and carefully designed organic-inorganic interfaces and synergy of mechanisms acting over multiple scales to distribute loads and damage, dissipate energy, and resist change in properties owing to events such as cracking. An important aspect to focus on is the chemo-mechanics of the organic- inorganic interfaces and its correlation with overall mechanical behavior of materials. This review focuses on presenting an overview of the past work and currently ongoing work done on this aspect. Analyses focuses on understanding role played by the interfacial mechanics on overall mechanical strength of hard biomaterials. Specific attention is given to synergy between experiments and modeling at the nanoscale to understand the hard biomaterial biomechanics.

Dusek, U., D. S. Covert, et al. (2003). "Cloud condensation nuclei spectra derived from size distributions and hygroscopic properties of the aerosol in coastal south-west Portugal during ACE-2." Tellus Series B-Chemical and Physical Meteorology 55(1): 35-53. ://000181340700004 In this work we propose and test a method to calculate cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) spectra based on aerosol number size distribution., and hygroscopic growth factors, Sensitivity Studies Show that this method can be used in a wide variety of conditions except Mien the aerosol consist mainly of organic Compounds, One crucial step in the calculations. estimating soluble tons in an aerosol particle based on hygroscopic growth factors. is tested in an internal hygroscopic consistency study. The results show that during the second Aerosol Characterization Experiment (ACE-2) the number concentration of inorganic ions analyzed in impactor samples Could be reproduced from measured growth factors within the measurement uncertainties it the measurement site in Sagres. Portugal. CCN spectra were calculated based on data from the ACE-2 field experiment at the Sagres site. The calculations overestimate measured CCN spectra on average by approximately 30%, which is comparable to the uncertainties in measurement, and calculations at supersaturations below 0.5%. The calculated CCN spectra were averaged over time periods with Sagres received clean air masses and air masses influenced by aged and recent pollution, Pollution outbreaks enhance the CCN concentrations at supersaturations near 0.2% by a factor of 3 (aged Pollution) to 5 (recent pollution) compared to the clean marine background concentrations. In polluted air masses, the shape of the CCN spectra changes. The clean spectra can he approximated h a poker function, whereas the polluted spectra are better approximated by an error function.

Eckstein, D., I. Burgert, et al. (1998). "Is there a coherence between the radial and axial strength of living trees?" Allgemeine Forst Und Jagdzeitung 169(6-7): 101-103. ://WOS:000074919200001 Three deciduous tree species with different anatomic structure were examined with regard to a coherence between the radial and axial strengths of living trees. For the axial strength standard tests were carried out. The radial bending strength was determined by means of fractometer II. In consequence, for all study trees together a coherence between the axial and radial strength was found.

Eder, M., K. Jungnikl, et al. (2009). "A close-up view of wood structure and properties across a growth ring of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L] Karst.)." Trees-Structure and Function 23(1): 79-84. ://WOS:000262538700009 A growth ring of an adult Norway spruce (Picea abies [L] Karst.) was analyzed to a high resolution at the single cell level with respect to structural and mechanical changes during the growth period. For this purpose structural characterization was performed by means of light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and wide angle X-ray diffraction for investigating the geometry of cells, their cell wall fractions and cellulose microfibril angles (MFA). The mechanical properties were determined in microtensile tests on individual tracheids which had been taken from sequentially cut tangential slices. The results revealed pronounced differences in tensile stiffness between earlywood and latewood cells but only minor differences in tensile stiffness between the cell walls of both tissue types. These comparatively small changes in cell wall stiffness across the growth ring were caused by slight changes in MFA. The findings suggest that trees mainly vary cell size to optimize water transport and mechanical stability during the growth period and that modification of the cell wall organisation plays a minor role.

Eder, M., S. Stanzl-Tschegg, et al. (2008). "The fracture behaviour of single wood fibres is governed by geometrical constraints: in situ ESEM studies on three fibre types." Wood Science and Technology 42(8): 679-689. ://WOS:000260379500006 In situ tensile tests were performed in an environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) on earlywood, transition wood and latewood cells of Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.). In order to examine the single wood fibres in a wet state, a specially designed tensile testing stage with a cooling device was built. The fracture behaviour of the cell types was studied at high resolution while straining. Different failure mechanisms were observed for the three tissue types. The thin-walled earlywood fibres showed tension buckling which gave rise to crack initiation and resulted in low tensile strength, whereas thick-walled latewood fibres predominately failed by transverse crack propagation without fibre folding.

Eder, M., N. Terziev, et al. (2008). "The effect of (induced) dislocations on the tensile properties of individual Norway spruce fibres." Holzforschung 62(1): 77-81. ://WOS:000252041400011 Axial compressive stresses can cause distortion of the cellulose fibril alignment in the wood cell wall. These deformations are thought to occur in the living tree and/or to develop during wood processing and seem to adversely affect the mechanical properties of pulp and paper and other fibre-based products. To characterise the influence of dislocations on the mechanical properties of the unmodified cell wall, dislocations were artificially created by applying high compression loads to wood blocks parallel to the fibre axis. Mechanically isolated fibres containing different levels of dislocations were then subjected to tensile tests. Comparison between micromechanical properties of reference fibres and fibres that were artificially loaded in compression revealed the importance of dislocations for the mechanics of both earlywood and latewood. However, the tensile strength (decrease similar to 19% for earlywood and similar to 26% for latewood) was less affected than expected from structural observations of the pre- compressed zones.

Ehlers, W. (1986). "HEAT AND DAMPNESS COUPLING IN POROUS-MEDIA." Zeitschrift Fur Angewandte Mathematik Und Mechanik 66(4): T203- T204. ://WOS:A1986C572000088

Ehn, M., T. Petaja, et al. (2007). "Hygroscopic properties of ultrafine aerosol particles in the boreal forest: diurnal variation, solubility and the influence of sulfuric acid." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 7: 211-222. ://000243747100001 The hygroscopic growth of aerosol particles present in a boreal forest was measured at a relative humidity of 88%. Simultaneously the gas phase concentration of sulfuric acid, a very hygroscopic compound, was monitored. The focus was mainly on days with new particle formation by nucleation. The measured hygroscopic growth factors (GF) correlated positively with the gaseous phase sulfuric acid concentrations. The smaller the particles, the stronger the correlation, with r= 0.20 for 50 nm and r= 0.50 for 10 nm particles. The increase in GF due to condensing sulfuric acid is expected to be larger for particles with initially smaller masses. During new particle formation, the changes in solubility of the new particles were calculated during their growth to Aitken mode sizes. As the modal diameter increased, the solubility of the particles decreased. This indicated that the initial particle growth was due to more hygroscopic compounds, whereas the later growth during the evening and night was mainly caused by less hygroscopic or even hydrophobic compounds. For all the measured sizes, a diurnal variation in GF was observed both during days with and without particle formation. The GF was lowest at around midnight, with a mean value of 1.12 - 1.24 depending on particle size and if new particle formation occurred during the day, and increased to 1.25 - 1.34 around noon. This can be tentatively explained by day- and nighttime gas-phase chemistry; different vapors will be present depending on the time of day, and through condensation these compounds will alter the hygroscopic properties of the particles in different ways.

Elbaum, R., S. Gorb, et al. (2008). "Structures in the cell wall that enable hygroscopic movement of wheat awns." Journal of Structural Biology 164(1): 101-107. ://WOS:000259660400013 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Elbaum-Structures-Cell-Wall-Awns-2008.pdf The dispersal unit of wild wheat bears two prominent filaments called awns. The awns bend as they dry and straighten in a damp environment. This hygroscopic movement is explained by the orientation of the cellulose fibrils that build the cell wall, as follows. The stiff fibrils are embedded in a soft hygroscopic matrix. When the cell wall dries, the matrix shrinks but the fibrils do not. Therefore, the cell wall contracts in a direction perpendicular to the fibril orientation. Using X-ray scattering we identified a region at the base of the awn that contains fibrils aligned in all directions. This is the active part, which contracts as it dries and pulls the awn to a bent position. Cryo-scanning electron microscopy revealed sequential laminas which are rotated to form a nano-scale plywood construction, implying planar local order within the global isotropy. Water molecules absorbed into the matrix probably cause large microscopic distortions by expanding neighboring layers in perpendicular directions. This is thought to cause opening of tiny gaps between fiber layers, to facilitate the exchange and the transport of water through the cell wall, and thereby to increase the sensitivity of the actuating unit to moderate changes in humidity. (c) 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Elbaum, R., L. Zaltzman, et al. (2007). "The role of wheat awns in the seed dispersal unit." Science 316(5826): 884-886. ://WOS:000246369800036 The dispersal unit of wild wheat bears two pronounced awns that balance the unit as it falls. We discovered that the awns are also able to propel the seeds on and into the ground. The arrangement of cellulose fibrils causes bending of the awns with changes in humidity. Silicified hairs that cover the awns allow propulsion of the unit only in the direction of the seeds. This suggests that the dead tissue is analogous to a motor. Fueled by the daily humidity cycle, the awns induce the motility required for seed dispersal.

El-Said, A. S., R. Heller, et al. (2008). "Creation of nanohillocks on CaF2 surfaces by single slow highly charged ions." Physical Review Letters 100(23). ://WOS:000256708100071 Upon impact on a solid surface, the potential energy stored in slow highly charged ions is primarily deposited into the electronic system of the target. By decelerating the projectile ions to kinetic energies as low as 150xq eV, we find first unambiguous experimental evidence that potential energy alone is sufficient to cause permanent nanosized hillocks on the (111) surface of a CaF2 single crystal. Our investigations reveal a surprisingly sharp and well-defined threshold of potential energy for hillock formation which can be linked to a solid-liquid phase transition.

El-Said, A. S., W. Meissl, et al. (2007). "Creation of surface nanostructures by irradiation with slow, highly charged ions." Radiation Effects and Defects in Solids 162(7-8): 467-472. ://WOS:000248940800002 It has recently been demonstrated that slow (upsilon << 1 a. u.) highly charged ions (HCIs) are able to generate nano-sized hillocks on cleaved CaF2(1 1 1) surfaces. The aim of the present study was to explore whether surface nanostructures can also be formed on other target materials by the impact of slow HCIs. To this purpose, we have irradiated LiF(0 0 1), diamond-like carbon (DLC) and Au(1 1 1) with slow Xe HCIs (up to charge state 44+) from the Heidelberg electron beam ion trap. After irradiation, the crystals were investigated by scanning force microscopy. Nanometric hillocks protruding from the surface were found in the topographic images for the case of Xeq+ on LiF(0 0 1) for charge states q >= 28, but not for DLC and Au(1 1 1).

El-Said, A. S., W. Meissl, et al. (2007). "Surface nanostructures induced by slow highly charged ions on CaF2 single crystals." Nuclear Instruments & Methods in Physics Research Section B-Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms 256(1): 346-349. ://WOS:000245959300069 We present first results on the generation of surface nanostuctures by slow HCI on cleaved CaF2 (111) surfaces. The CaF, single crystals were irradiated with slow (v << 1 a.u.) Xe44+ HCI from the Heidelberg-EBIT. Like for other ionic fluoride single crystals, ion- induced surface structures in CaF2 are known to be stable in atmospheric conditions at room temperature. After irradiation the crystals were investigated by scanning force microscopy. Topographic images reveal the generation of nanometric hillocks protruding from the surface. The number of hillocks per unit area is in agreement with the applied ion fluence. A discussion of the role of the potential energy as well as a comparison with observations for swift heavy ion irradiations of CaF2 single crystals are presented. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

El-Said, A. S., W. Meissl, et al. (2007). "Potential energy threshold for nano-hillock formation by impact of slow highly charged ions on a CaF2(111) surface." Nuclear Instruments & Methods in Physics Research Section B-Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms 258(1): 167- 171. ://WOS:000246457200037 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/El-Said-Potential-Energy-Threshold-2007.pdf We investigate the formation of nano-sized hillocks on the (111) surface of CaF2 single crystals by impact of slow highly charged ions. Atomic force microscopy reveals a surprisingly sharp and well-defined threshold of potential energy carried into the collision of about 14 keV for hillock formation. Estimates of the energy density deposited suggest that the threshold is linked to a solid-liquid phase transition ("melting") on the nanoscale. With increasing potential energy, both the basal diameter and the height of the hillocks increase. The present results reveal a remarkable similarity between the present predominantly potential energy driven process and track formation by the thermal spike of swift (similar to GeV) heavy ions. (c) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Elsayad, I. (2009). "Cuspal Movement and Gap Formation in Premolars Restored with Preheated Resin Composite." Operative Dentistry 34(6): 725-731. ://WOS:000272268200014 Objective: The current study aimed to determine the effect of preheating resin composite to three different temperatures on the cuspal movement and gap formation at the tooth/restoration interface. Methods: Fifty extracted, sound human upper premolars were subjected to standardized MOD cavity preparations. Five groups of 10 premolars each were restored with either 1) Tetric Ceram BE, 2) a layer of Tetric Flow followed by Tetric Ceram HB, 3-5) preheated composite to 37 degrees C, 54 degrees C and 68 degrees C, respectively, using a chair-side preheating device (Calset thermal assist unit). Cuspal movement was calculated by measuring the intercuspal distance between the indexed cusp tips before restoration 5 minutes and 24 hours after composite curing using a stereomicroscope. The teeth were sectioned longitudinally and examined under a stereomicroscope connected to a digital camera and image analysis software to detect gap formation. Results: Group 2 showed the least cuspal movement at 5 minutes and 24 hours and the highest gap area, while Groups 4 and 5 showed the highest cuspal movement at 5 minutes and 24 hours. Group 3 had the least gap area. Conclusions: Preheating resin composite to temperatures higher than 37 degrees C increases cuspal movement. The adaptation and gap area of preheated resin composite to 37 degrees C and 54 degrees C improved, but it did not change with resin composite preheated to 68 degrees C.

Emons, A. M. C. and B. M. Mulder (1998). "The making of the architecture of the plant cell wall: How cells exploit geometry." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 95(12): 7215-7219. ://000074131900115 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Emons-Cell-geometry-1998.pdf Cell wall deposition is a key process in the formation, growth, and differentiation of plant cells. The most important structural components of the wall are long cellulose microfibrils, which are synthesized by synthases embedded in the plasma membrane. A fundamental question is how the microfibrils become oriented during deposition at the plasma membrane. The current textbook explanation for the orientation mechanism is a guidance system mediated by cortical microtubules. However, too many contraindications are known in secondary cell walls for this to be a universal mechanism, particularly in the case of helicoidal arrangements, which occur in many situations. An additional construction mechanism involves liquid crystalline self-assembly [A. C. Neville (1993) Biology of Fibrous Composites: Development Beyond the Cell Membrane (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, U.K.)], but the required amount of bulk material that is able to equilibrate thermally is not normally present at any stage of the wall deposition process. Therefore, we have asked whether the complex ordered texture of helicoidal cell walls can be formed in the absence of direct cellular guidance mechanisms. We propose that they can be formed by a mechanism that is based on geometrical considerations. It explains the genesis of the complicated helicoidal texture and shows that the cell has intrinsic, versatile tools for creating a variety of textures, A compelling feature of the model is that local rules generate global order, a typical phenomenon of life.

Emons, A. M. C. and B. M. Mulder (2000). "How the deposition of cellulose microfibrils builds cell wall architecture." Trends in Plant Science 5(1): 35-40. ://000084723800034 Cell walls, the extracytoplasmic matrices of plant cells, consist of an ordered array of cellulose microfibrils embedded in a matrix of polysaccharides and glyco-proteins. This construction is reminiscent of steel rods ire reinforced concrete. How a cell organizes these ordered textures around itself, creating its own desirable environment, is a fascinating question. We believe that nature adopted an economical solution to this design problem: it exploits the geometrical constraints imposed by the shape of the cell and the limited space in which microfibrils are deposited, enabling the wall textures essentially to 'build themselves'. This does not imply that the cell cannot control its wall texture. On the contrary, the cell has ample regulatory mechanisms to control wall texture formation by controlling the insertion of synthases and the distance between individual microfibrils within a wall lamella.

Engineering, S.-T. I. S. f. O. (2006). Smart Structures and Materials 2006: Smart Structures and Integrated Systems. Proceedings of the SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering, USA, Smart Structures and Materials 2006: Smart Structures and Integrated SystemsSan Diego, CA, USA, 27 February 2006 ://INSPEC:10095916 The following topics were studied: piezo and SMA actuators; shape memory materials; smart wings; energy harvest/haptic devices; actuators; control analysis and systems; controlled structures and components; biology-inspired technologies; smart systems; composites; and structural health monitoring.

Espinosa, R. M. and L. Franke (2006). "Inkbottle Pore-Method: Prediction of hygroscopic water content in hardened cement paste at variable climatic conditions." Cement and Concrete Research 36(10): 1954-1968. ://000241712200022 The aim of this work is the development of a practicable method for the reliable prediction of the equilibrium hygroscopic water content in hardened cement paste and cement mortars at changing climatic conditions. Sorption thermodynamics and multi-scale pore structure of hardened cement paste build the basis of the new computation procedure. Drying and chemical aging lead to a formation of inkbottle pores. Their influence on sorption behaviour will be considered in particular by including them into the pore model. Experimental data of adsorption, desorption and scanning-isotherms verify the new computation method, which has been called "IBP-Method" (inkbottle pores). (C) 2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Esteban, L. G., F. G. Fernandez, et al. (2006). "Comparison of the hygroscopic behaviour of 205-year-old and recently cut juvenile wood from Pinus sylvestris L." Annals of Forest Science 63(3): 309-317. ://000236559000010 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Esteban-new-old-wood-2006.pdf The hygroscopic response of the juvenile wood of Pinus sylvestris L. from recently cut trees from the Valsain Forest in Segovia, Spain (new wood) was compared to that of the juvenile wood of the same species used in roof rafters installed at the end of the eighteenth century (old wood), which came from the same forest. The 35 degrees C isotherms were plotted using the saturated salts method, and the mathematical fit used was the GAB model. The infrared spectrums and the X-ray diffractograms were used in order to study the possible chemical variations and crystallinity indices of the cell wall. The adsorption-desorption loop of the old wood is above the loop of the new wood, although the hysteresis coefficient is higher in the old wood. The peaks corresponding to the-OH groups are similar, although the degree of crystallinity is significantly lower in the old wood. While cellulose crystallinity differs between the old and new wood, and has a major influence on wood hygroscopicity, other modifications in the amorphous components of the cell wall may have contributed to the changes in hygroscopicity between the old and new wood.

Estebanez, B., T. Yamaguchi, et al. (2006). "The development of an unusual haplolepideous peristome type: Glyphomitrium humillimum." Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory(100): 77-87. ://WOS:000240473700009 The peristome characters in Glyphomitrium humillimum and their development are presented. The mature peristome conforms to the Seligeria-type, except for the extreme irregularity of inner peristome layer (IPL) and the frequent occurrence of misplaced cells in the primary peristome layer (PPL) column. The tooth structure depends almost entirely on PPL thickenings, with some contribution of outer peristome layer (OPL) walls, forming a basal exostome. In its development, the PPL reaches its final number of cells in early stages, the OPL arises from the exothecium and an OPL2 is formed either from exothecial or OPL cell divisions. In spite of this variable development of OPL2 and of the flexibility of the sequence of developmental events, the final pattern (8 exothecial cells: 8 OPL2 cells: 4 OPL cells: 2 PPL cell per octant) is very constant in all sections examined, suggesting it is a taxonomically stable character for the genus.

Fackler, K., C. Gradinger, et al. (2007). "Biotechnological wood modification with selective white-rot fungi and its molecular mechanisms." Food Technology and Biotechnology 45(3): 269-276. ://WOS:000249369700006 Microbial mechanisms of lignin degradation may be utilised for solid-state fermentations other than biopulping, during which the selective conversion of lignin is required. The current paper reviews current work into selective lignin conversion, with emphasis on the contributions made by our research group, which consists of researchers from five different laboratories. Three of them cooperate within Wood K plus. The recent research of this group has focussed on fermentations utilising the unique metabolism of selective white-rot fungi to modify wood surfaces during relatively short fermentation times of less than one week and on research into the molecular mechanisms causing these modifications. Lignin degradation by selective fungi (e.g. Ceriporiopsis subvermispora and species of the genus Phlebia) on the wood surfaces was significant after three days. After seven days the overall lignin content of spruce wood shavings was reduced by more than 3.5%. Lignin loss was accompanied by an increase of extractable substances. To evaluate small changes and to trace the fungal modification processes, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic (FTIR) techniques and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy were applied and adapted. The spectra recorded in the near infrared region (FT-NIR) turned out to be very useful for kinetic studies of the biopulping/biomodification processes and a good method to evaluate the capabilities of fungi to modify wood surfaces within this short period.

Fan, J. T. and X. Y. Cheng (2005). "Heat and moisture transfer with sorption and phase change through clothing assemblies Part I: Experimental investigation." Textile Research Journal 75(2): 99-105. ://WOS:000227029900002 Part I of this two-part series reports on an experimental investigation of heat and moisture transfer through clothing assemblies consisting of porous fibrous battings sandwiched by inner and outer layers of a thin covering fabric. The experiments are conducted on a novel sweating, guarded hot plate at -20 degreesC. The temperature and water content distribution within the porous fibrous battings are obtained for four combinations of two kinds of fibrous battings (polyester and viscose) and two kinds of covering fabrics (one highly permeable nylon and the other a less permeable laminate. Most of the changes in temperature distribution take place within 30 minutes of the tests, and moisture absorption by the hygroscopic viscose fibers affects the temperature distribution. The water content accumulates with time, and water content is higher at the outer regions than at the inner regions of the battings. The accumulation and distribution of water content is a combined result of moisture absorption, condensation, and liquid water movement. The experimental findings form a basis for the development of a theoretical model to be reported in Part 11 of the series.

Fan, J. T., X. Y. Cheng, et al. (2003). "An experimental investigation of moisture absorption and condensation in fibrous insulations under low temperature." Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 27(6): 723-729. ://WOS:000183874300006 This paper reports on an experimental investigation on the temperature and water content distribution within the porous fibrous battings sandwiched by an inner and outer layer of thin covering fabrics using a novel sweating, guarded hot plate. Experimental results for four combinations out of two types fibrous battings (one hydrophobic and non-hygroscopic polyester and the other hydrophilic and hygroscopic viscose) and two types of covering fabrics (one highly permeable nylon fabric and the other less permeable laminated fabric) have been obtained. It was found that most of the changes in temperature distribution took place within 1/2 h of the tests and moisture absorption by the hygroscopic fibers affects the temperature distribution. The water content accumulates with time and higher water content was found at the outer regions than that at the inner regions of the battings. The accumulation and distribution of water content is a combined result of moisture absorption, condensation and liquid water movement. Further theoretical modeling based on the reported experimental results is needed in order to better understand the mechanism. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

Farquhar, T. and Y. Zhao (2006). "Fracture mechanics and its relevance to botanical structures." Am. J. Bot. 93(10): 1449-1454. http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/10/1449 In the field of fracture mechanics, an analytical framework has been established for understanding the mechanical failure of any structure made of inherently flawed materials. In the context of botany, this includes an extraordinarily wide variety of turgid and/or woody structures made of cellulose-based tissues, the diverse soils penetrated by their roots, and a multitude of plant-based commodities and foodstuffs. The goal of this article is to provide an overview of the theory of engineering fracture mechanics and to identify some special characteristics of wood and other plant-based materials that require further development in this area.

Feilzer, A. J., A. J. De Gee, et al. (1990). "Relaxation of Polymerization Contraction Shear Stress by Hygroscopic Expansion." Journal of Dental Research 69(1): 36-39. http://jdr.sagepub.com/content/69/1/36.abstract AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Feilzer-Relaxation-Polymerization- 1990.pdf We studied relaxation by hygroscopic expansion of the interfacial polymerization shear stress of bonded resin composites. In the experimental set-up, resin composite-cured-to-glass strips bent due to the polymerization shrinkage. The strips were stored wet or dry. The curvatures of the bent strips were recorded, by the scanning of the glass surfaces with a contact profilometer, periodically over a period of two months. From the measured deflections, we calculated the maximum tangential bending stress in the resins near the adhesive interface, which provided an estimation for the maximum shear stress values occurring at both ends of the strips. In the particular experimental set-up, the shear stresses in Bis-GMA/TEGDMA and urethane dimethacrylate-based resins were either fully relieved or converted into an "expansion stress" by hygroscopic expansion. The hydrophobic tricyclodecane dimethacrylate- based resins showed very little stress relaxation.

Feingold, G. and B. Morley (2003). "Aerosol hygroscopic properties as measured by lidar and comparison with in situ measurements." Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 108(D11). ://000183554900003 [1] We demonstrate the ability of a single-wavelength backscatter lidar to provide information on the uptake of water vapor by aerosol in a well-mixed, cloud-capped, boundary layer. Aerosol hydration has important consequences for the effect of aerosols on the Earth's radiation budget. A vertically pointing, airborne lidar is used to measure vertical profiles of aerosol backscatter beneath a stratocumulus cloud deck. In situ aircraft thermodynamic measurements are used to derive simultaneous profiles of relative humidity (RH) under the assumption that the boundary layer is well mixed. The change in backscatter is derived as a function of relative humidity over the range similar to85% RH to similar to98.5% RH. In situ measurements of the aerosol size distribution and composition are used to calculate the expected enhancement in backscatter due to equilibrium uptake of water vapor. Comparison between lidar backscatter enhancement as a function of RH and that derived from the in situ aerosol size distribution and composition measurements shows good agreement. Conditional sampling on strong updrafts/downdrafts indicates that aerosol backscatter tends to be higher in downdrafts than it is in updrafts for the same RH range. This is consistent with the concept of inertia of the larger hydrated particles to growth/evaporation at short timescales but may also be due to a bias in the way that lidar- derived cloud base is interpreted in updrafts versus downdrafts. Calculations of enhancement in total scatter due to water vapor uptake with enhancement in backscatter suggest that the effects agree to within similar to20% of one another for RH <&SIM;95% but that they differ significantly for RH > 95%.

Feng, C. and L. Dongxu (2010). "Biotemplate synthesis of monodispersed iron phosphate hollow microspheres." Bioinspiration & Biomimetics: 016005 (6 pp.). ://INSPEC:11292777 Monodispersed iron phosphate hollow microspheres with a high degree of crystallization were prepared through a facile in situ deposition method using rape pollen grains as a biotemplate. The functional group on the surface of the pollen grains could adsorb Fe/sup 3+/ , which provided the nucleation sites for growth of iron phosphate nanoparticles. After being sintered at 600 degrees C for 10 h, the pollen grains were removed and iron phosphate hollow microspheres were obtained. A scanning electron microscope and x-ray diffraction were applied to characterize the morphology and crystalline structure of the pollen grains, iron phosphate- coated pollen grains and iron phosphate hollow microspheres. Differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravity analyses were performed to investigate the thermal behavior of the iron phosphate-coated pollen grains during the calcinations. Energy dispersive spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy were utilized to investigate the interaction between the pollen grains and iron phosphate. The effect of the pollen wall on the surface morphology of these iron phosphate hollow microspheres was also proven in this work.

Feng, Q. L., F. Z. Cui, et al. (2000). "Crystal orientation, toughening mechanisms and a mimic of nacre." Materials Science & Engineering C- Biomimetic and Supramolecular Systems 11(1): 19-25. ://WOS:000088331200005 Based on the investigations of crystal structure of nacre using SEM, TEM and XRD, it is proposed that there exists a domain structure of crystal orientation in the nacre. The orientation domain consists of continuous 3-10 tablets along the direction perpendicular to nacreous plane, and 1-5 tablets in a single lamina. The tablets in a domain are crystallographic identical in three dimensions. From the crack morphologies, it is found that the crack deflection, fibre. pull-out and organic matrix bridging are the three main toughening mechanisms acting on nacre. The organic matrix plays an important role in the toughening of this biological composite. The biomimetically synthesized composite made of alumina and kevlar showed significant increase in the fracture energy compared with the single ceramics. The soluble proteins extracted from nacre can induce aragonite and the one from prism can induce calcite grown with a preferred orientation of [104]. The insoluble proteins control the nucleation site and thus lead to a finer crystallization of CaCO3. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.

Fengxiang, Z., J. Chan, et al. (2008). "Biomimetic, hierarchical structures on polymer surfaces by sequential imprinting." Applied Surface Science: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2007.10.061. ://INSPEC:9811606 Thermal nanoimprint lithography (NIL) is based on the thermo-mechanical deformation of a polymer film above the glass transition temperature (Tg) and at an applied pressure. Sequential imprinting extends the process of thermal NIL to create hierarchical structures by carrying out secondary and tertiary imprintings at temperatures below the Tg of a polymer. In this work, we demonstrate the use of sequential imprinting technique to fabricate two- and three-level hierarchical structures on polystyrene (PS) and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) films over a temperature range of 70-130 degrees C, with the aim to mimic the hierarchical structures found in biological systems. By mimicking the hierarchical structure in a plant leaf, the water contact angle of PS film was increased from 95 degrees to 128 degrees , while the water contact angle of PMMA film was increased from 71 degrees to 104 degrees , without any chemical treatment. [All rights reserved Elsevier].

Fernandez-Mendoza, F., B. Estebanez, et al. (2002). "Sporophyte-bearing specimens of Pleurochaete squarrosa in Zamora, Spain." Cryptogamie Bryologie 23(3): 211-215. ://000178036500003 We report the occurrence of sporophytes in samples of Pleurochaete squarrosa (Brid.) Lindb. from several localities of Zamora province (NW Spain). The frequence and abundance of fructifications in this area are remarkable for a moss species which sexual reproduction is very rarely observed in Europe. The peristome, observed with scanning electron microscope (SEM), is also described. It is shown to consist of 16 deeply cleft teeth, instead of the 32 teeth that are usually reported in the descriptions of this species.

Ferracane, J. L. (2006). "Hygroscopic and hydrolytic effects in dental polymer networks." Dental Materials 22(3): 211-222. ://000235858900002 Objectives. The objective of this manuscript is to outline the factors associated with hygroscopic and hydrolytic effects in dental polymer networks, and to review the literature generated over the past thirty years or more in this area. Methods. Information was gathered from nearly 90 published articles or abstracts appearing in the dental and polymer literature. Studies were predominantly identified through a search of the PubMED database. Results. Studies were included that provided direct evidence for the uptake of solvent by a polymer network and its subsequent physical or chemical effect, or the loss of molecular species into solvents. An attempt was made to select articles that spanned the timeframe from approximately 1970 to today to ensure that most of the classic literature as well as the latest information was included. Conclusions. Dental polymer networks have been shown to be susceptible to hygroscopic and hydrolytic effects to varying extents dependent upon their chemistry and structure. The importance of these effects on the clinical performance of polymer restoratives is largely unknown, though numerous investigators have alluded to the potential for reduced service lives. Significance. White the physical and mechanical properties of these materials may be significantly altered by the effects of solvent uptake and component elution, what may constitute the greatest concern is the short- term release of unreacted components and the long-term elution of degradation products in the oral cavity, both of which should be strongly considered during restorative material development. (c) 2005 Academy of Dental Materials. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Figueroa-Johnson, M. A., J. A. Tindall, et al. (2007). "A comparison of O-18 delta composition of water extracted from suction lysimeters, centrifugation, and azeotropic distillation." Water Air and Soil Pollution 184(1-4): 63-75. ://WOS:000249010500006 The representativeness of soil pore water extracted by suction lysimeters in ground-water monitoring studies is a problem that often confounds interpretation of measured data. Current soil water sampling techniques cannot delineate from which soil volume a pore water sample is extracted, neither macroscopic, microscopic, or preferential flowpath. This research was undertaken to compare delta O-18 and Br- values of extracted suction lysimeters samples from intact soil cores with samples obtained by the direct extraction methods of centrifugation and azeotropic distillation. Also, the study was concerned with determining what portion of soil pore water is sampled by each method and explaining differences in concentrations of the extracted water from each method to allow a determination of the accuracy and viability of the three methods of extraction. Intact soil cores (30 cm diameter by 40 cm height) were extracted from two different sites. Site 1 was rapid infiltration basin number 50, near Altamonte Springs in Seminole County, Florida. Site 2 was the Missouri Management System Evaluation Area (MSEA) near Centralia in Boone County, Missouri. Isotopically (O-18 delta) labeled water and bromide concentrations within water samples taken by suction lysimeters was compared with samples obtained by methods of centrifugation and azeotropic distillation. The O-18 delta water was analyzed by mass spectrometry while bromide concentration, applied in the form of KBr was measured using standard IC procedures. Water collected by centrifugation and azeotropic distillation data were about 0.25 parts per thousand more negative than that collected by suction lysimeter values from a sandy soil and about 2-7 parts per thousand more negative from a well structured soil. Results indicate that the majority of soil water in well-structured soil is strongly bound to soil grain surfaces and is not easily sampled by suction lysimeters. In cases where a sufficient volume of water has passed through the soil profile and displaced previous pore water, suction lysimeters will collect a representative sample of soil pore water from the sampled depth interval. It is suggested that for stable isotope studies monitoring precipitation and soil water, suction lysimeter be installed at shallow depths (10 cm). Samples should also be coordinated with precipitation events. The data also suggest that each extraction method samples a separate component of soil-pore water. Centrifugation can be used with success, particularly for efficient sampling of large areas. Azeotropic distillation is more appropriate when strict qualitative and quantitative data on sorption desorption, and various types of kinetic studies may be needed.

Fisher, K. M., D. P. Wall, et al. (2007). "Phylogeny of the Calymperaceae with a rank-free systematic treatment." Bryologist 110(1): 46-73. ://000245281900002 The Calymperaceae are a large pantropical moss clade. This paper reports the results of a phylogenetic analysis of the Calymperaceae, with an emphasis on the relationships of the large and putatively polyphyletic Syrrhopodon. Two chloroplast genes, rps4 and trnL, part of the nuclear encoded gpd, and morphological characters were analyzed individually and in combination. The total-evidence phylogenetic tree was used to construct a rank-free classification of the Calymperaceae following the guidelines of the current draft of the PhyloCode. The total-evidence cladistic analysis supports the monophyly of Calymperes and Mitthyridium, as well as the "leucobryoid" Calymperaceae, and confirms that Syrrhopodon (s.l.) is polyphyletic. In the context of this phylogeny, the presence of peristome teeth and bordered leaves are derived features within the Calymperaceae. The rank-free system of classification has several advantages over the Linnaean system for dealing with the taxonomic changes implicit in this phylogeny, primarily with regard to preserving the names of well-supported monophyletic groups such as Mitthyridium. However, we question the utility of article 11.7 of the PhyloCode, and offer some practical observations regarding clade names and the use of type specimens as specifiers.

Focatiis, D. S. A. D. and S. D. Guest (2002). "Deployable Membranes Designed from Folding Tree Leaves." Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 360(1791): 227-238. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3066303 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Focatiis-Deployable-Mambranes-2002.pdf A simple model of deploying tree leaves is assembled in different arrangements to produce polygonal foldable membranes for use as deployable structures. One family of folding patterns exhibits a small strain mechanism, which is investigated. Variations on the basic arrangements can be used to fold membranes with a discretized curvature.

Fratzl, P., I. Burgert, et al. (2004). "On the role of interface polymers for the mechanics of natural polymeric composites." Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 6(24): 5575-5579. ://WOS:000225573600018 Research on the deformation mechanisms of tendons and wood has shown that these tissues deform mostly by shearing of a soft matrix between stiff fibres. For this type of composite to be both strong and tough, tight binding between matrix and fibres is required. Recent results suggest that Nature may have evolved special interface polymers, capable both of binding to the fibres and of forming a matrix. Proteoglycans could play this role in tendons by binding to collagen fibrils with their protein-like ends and by forming an aqueous matrix with their sugar-like ends. Hemicelluloses could play a similar role in the plant cell wall, as they are binding to cellulose fibrils and forming aqueous networks between them. This observation suggests that new biomimetic composites might be developed on the basis of amphiphilic polymers capable of binding to stiff fibres and of forming a gel-like matrix around them.

Fratzl, P., I. Burgert, et al. (2004). "Mechanical model for the deformation of the wood cell wall." Zeitschrift Fur Metallkunde 95(7): 579-584. ://WOS:000223199100003 The molecular mechanisms responsible for the deformation of wood, as well as the mechanical interaction of cell-wall components, such as cellulose, lignin and hemicelluloses, are not well understood. In a recently published experiment [I], we have shown that wood foils and single cells of compression wood of spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) could deform permanently under tensile load via a stick and slip mechanism at the molecular level occurring during shear of the matrix between cellulose microfibrils. The shear originates from the fact that microfibrils are spiralling around the central lumen of the wood cell which can be considered as a hollow tube. During stretching, the microfibril angle between the cell axis and the direction of the cellulose was found to decrease in synchrotron X-ray diffraction experiments, giving rise to shear deformation of the matrix and to a recovery mechanism after irreversible deformation. The corresponding stick and slip mechanism is treated here in the framework of a simple mechanical model which shows that the cellulose fibril orientation might define slip planes for shear deformation, in analogy to the slip planes in single crystals as described by Schmid's law. Moreover, the effect of fibril reorientation upon straining as well as the possibility of cell torsion are considered in the model and discussed with respect to experimental data.

Fratzl, P., R. Elbaum, et al. (2008). "Cellulose fibrils direct plant organ movements." Faraday Discussions 139: 275-282. ://WOS:000258949700017 NOT IN EZB, NOT IN NEBIS, The secondary plant cell wall is a composite of cellulose and a water-swelling matrix containing hemicelluloses and lignin. Recent experiments showed that this swelling capacity helps generating growth stresses, e. g., in branches or in the stem when subjected to side loads. A similar mechanism also provides motility to wheat seeds. Here we study a simple mechanical model for the cell wall which-in contrast to earlier models-considers extensible cellulose fibrils in an isotropically swelling matrix. Depending on the detailed architecture of the cellulose fibrils, the model predicts that swelling may lead either to significant compressive or tensile stresses or to large movements at low stresses. The model reproduces most of the experimental observations in the wood cells and in the awns of wheat dispersal units. It is also simple enough to provide general guidelines for designing the architecture of fibres in an isotropic swelling medium to generate movements and forces of various kinds and directions.

Fratzl, P., H. Gupta, et al. (2007). "Mechanical functionality by hierarchical structuring Lessons from biological materials." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology a-Molecular & Integrative Physiology 146(4): DOI 10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.01.250|10. ://WOS:000245748600200

Frey, W., H. Kurschner, et al. (1994). "Tortula Mucronifera (Pottiaceae, Musci), a New Xerophytic Species of the Arabian Peninsula and Jordan - Studies in Arabian -18." Nova Hedwigia 59(3-4): 345-351. ://A1994PU71000004 A new xerophytic pottiaceous species, Tortula mucronifera is described from the Arabian Peninsula and Jordan. Because of its mucronate leaves, the ventrally thickened costa by a row of 3-4 elongated, swollen, papillose cells, 2-3(-4) guide cells and the dorsal stereid band, 3-4 cells thick, it belongs to the section Crassinerves of the genus Tortula. In habit it resembles a member of the genus Pottia, while the peristome (32 filiform, not spirally twisted teeth on a short basal membrane) shows affinities to the genus Desmatodon s.l. It differs from Desmatodon s.str. by its peristome teeth, rising directly from the very short basal membrane. From Tortula atrovirens, T. brevissima and T. revolvens var. obtusata it can be easily distinguished by the ovate-elliptic to spathulate leaves and the strong mucro. Tortula mucronifera is adapted to very dry regions of the Arabian Peninsula with less than 150 mm rainfall per year.

Fruhmann, K., I. Burgert, et al. (2003). "Detection of the fracture path under tensile loads through in situ tests in an ESEM chamber." Holzforschung 57(3): 326-332. ://WOS:000183030100014 In situ tensile tests parallel to the grain were carried out in an Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (ESEM) chamber on Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) samples. The ESEM- mode combined with a cooling device allowed examination of the specimens at a moisture content of 12% with unsputtered surfaces. By recording load-displacement curves and observing crack propagation simultaneously, a detailed image of fracture progress and tissue interaction could be described. Since these experiments required a sufficient specimen size and geometry, focus was concentrated on the methodology.

Fruhmann, K., I. Burgert, et al. (2003). "Mode I fracture behaviour on the growth ring scale and cellular level of spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) and beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) loaded in the TR crack propagation system." Holzforschung 57(6): 653-660. ://WOS:000186257800014 AND NEBIS 201008430 Crack propagation in wood is strongly influenced by the microscopic structure of the material.The relationship between structure and function with regard to damage and fracture behaviour can only be understood with a sufficiently fine level of examination. An experimental approach to perform microwedge splitting tests on spruce and beech inside the chamber of an Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope and under atmospheric conditions is presented. The specimens are loaded in mode I in the TR crack propagation system. Based on the loaddisplacement diagram, the characteristic parameters of fracture energy, critical load and initial elasticity are determined. The load and displacement data for the in situ experiments are related to the obtained ESEM images and allow a discussion of the fracture process on the cellular level. Density was found to be an important factor for fracture mode and several crack arresting phenomena depending on the variation of elasticity could be identified.

Fursatz, M., W. Meissl, et al. (2007). "Charging and discharging of nano-capillaries during ionguiding of multiply charged projectiles." HCI 2006: 13th International Conference on the Physics of Highly Charged Ions 58: 319-322. ://WOS:000246424800071 Slow multiply charged ions are efficiently guided through nano-capillaries with large aspect ratio in polyethylene terephthalate (PET), due to self-organized charging of the inner capillary walls which prevents close collisions with the surface. In order to gain more insight into this interesting phenomenon we have measured the 2-D scattering distribution of transmitted ions during the charge-up process.

Furuyama, Y. and Y. Kanagawa (1994). "THE MECHANISM OF MOISTURE MOVEMENT CONSIDERING CONTINUUM LIQUID-PHASE DURING DRYING IN GREEN WOOD." Mokuzai Gakkaishi 40(3): 243-251. ://WOS:A1994NL23500001 The purpose of this study was to explore moisture movement and the concept of a local continuum liquid phase in green wood with an initial average moisture content of 35%. The apparent moisture diffusion coefficient, expressed by a driving force of a moisture content gradient, is varied cubically with a decrement in moisture content, having a maximum value at a moisture content of 15% and a minimum at 25% during drying for quarter-sawn Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (mirb.) Franco.) lumber. The moisture movement is unstable during the first several days in drying, and the unstable apparent moisture diffusion coefficient is remarkably more than a stable one in the later stage. The phenomenon can be described reasonably on the concept that free water is oriented locally as a continuous phase in adjacent cellular lumina at large moisture contents, and it results in a free water movement from the inner portion to the surface due to differences of tension forces on the menisci. To explain this phenomenon during the drying in wood, two hypotheses are put forth as follows: 1. The driving force of moisture movement in the hygroscopic range is the vapor pressure gradient in the diffusion phenomenon. On the other hand, free water in cellular lumens, which face close to an area below the fiber saturation point, evaporates due to the vapor pressure gradient. It is experimentally evident that the moisture diffusion coefficient driven by the vapor pressure gradient decreases with decrements of moisture content. 2. The uneven distribution of the moisture diffusion coefficient and the initial moisture content are considered in the modeling of the state of green wood, and also the continuum liquid phase is assumed to be constituted locally. With evaporation on menisci surfaces, the free water transfers from the inner portion to the portion with a smaller radius in the menisci due to the differences in tension forces on the menisci. The transformation of free water in this mechanism through the cellular structure is governed by Darcy's law. On this assumption, the modeling of moisture movement in wood during drying is performed. The numerical simulation was in good agreement with the experimental results, introducing the concept of a continuum liquid phase into the mechanism of free water movement.

Fyhr, C. and A. Rasmuson (1996). "Mathematical model of steam drying of wood chips and other hygroscopic porous media." Aiche Journal 42(9): 2491-2502. ://A1996VF87700008 A model is presented that is focused on the drying kinetics of single wood chips as a function of time and external conditions such as temperature, pressure and velocity of the superheated steam. A multiphase and 2-D approach was used to model the coupled transport of water, vapor, air and heat in anisotropic hygroscopic porous media. The model was verified by drying experiments where measurements of the average moisture content, center temperature and pressure in a single wood chip could be performed simultaneously. A comparison between the calculations and the measurements showed that the drying behavior was well predicted. The drying can be divided into three stages: a heat-up period when condensation on the surface initially increases the moisture content; a period of constant drying rate when the external heat transfer controls the drying rate; and a period of decreasing drying rate when the drying is controlled by internal mass transfer Many interesting features of the drying could be assigned to the strong anisotropicity of wood, which makes a 2-D model necessary.

Ganev, S., A. Cloutier, et al. (2005). "Finite element modeling of the hygroscopic warping of medium density fiberboard." Wood and Fiber Science 37(2): 337-354. ://000228604600018 The objective of this study was to develop a three-dimensional finite element model of the hygromechanical deformation of medium density fiberboard (MDF) panels with various vertical density profiles subjected to moisture adsorption on one face. The theoretical model was based on three sets of equations: 1) three-dimensional equations of unsteady-state moisture diffusion, 2) three-dimensional equations of mechanical equilibrium, and 3) Hooke's law for plane isotropy, which takes into account shrinkage and swelling through the panel thickness. The finite element model was applied to six panels with various density profiles. For both the simulations and the experiments, the warping was caused by moisture adsorption from one of the faces of 560-mm x 560-mm x 12-mm MDF panels while the other surface and the edges were sealed. Physical and mechanical characteristics defined as a function of density and moisture content were used as model inputs. The model made it possible to capture the rapid initial development of maximum warp and its following decrease as moisture content equalized through panel thickness; the effect of the density profile on the level of warp caused by moisture adsorption; and warp fluctuations resulting from changes in the ambient relative humidity, and from the hysteresis in the expansion coefficient between adsorption and desorption. To validate the model, the warp development of laboratory MDF panels was compared to simulation results. The agreement between calculated and actual panel warping confirmed that the model could successfully be used to simulate moisture movement in MDF and the resulting warp, and to help in the optimization of panel vertical density profiles aiming at better stability of form in MDF panels. For the typical experimental cases, it was observed that there was a strong effect of panel density profile on the levels of warp and its dynamics. The levels of warp increased with average panel density. The panels with sharper density profile developed stronger warp compared to panels with an even profile. When the density profile was skewed towards one of the surfaces, the panel developed positive or negative warp and did not return to the original flat form.

Gao, N. and Y. Y. Yan (2009). "Modeling Superhydrophobic Contact Angles and Wetting Transition." Journal of Bionic Engineering 6(4): 335-340. ://WOS:000273436900006 It is well known that surface roughness has a very important effect on superhydrophobicity. The Wenzel and Cassie-Baxter models, which correspond to the homogeneous and heterogeneous wetting respectively, are currently primary instructions for designing superhydrophobic Surfaces. However, the particular drop shape that a drop exhibits might depend on how it is formed. A water drop can occupy multiple equilibrium states, which relate to different local minimal energy. In some cases, both equilibrium states can even co-exist on a same substrate. Thus the apparent contact angles may vary and have different values. We discuss how the Wenzel and Cassie-Baxter equations determine the homogeneous and heterogeneous wetting theoretically. Contact angle analysis on hierarchical surface structure and contact angle hysteresis has been put specific attention. In particular, we study the energy barrier of transition from Cassie-Baxter state to Wenzel state, based on existing achievement by previous researchers, to determine the possibility of the transition and how it can be interpreted. It has been demonstrated that surface roughness and geometry will influence the energy required for a drop to get into equilibrium, no matter it is homogeneous or heterogeneous wetting.

Gao, S., D. A. Hegg, et al. (2003). "Aerosol chemistry, and light-scattering and hygroscopicity budgets during outflow from East Asia (vol 46, pg 55, 2003)." Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry 46(2): 205-205. ://000185661100006

Gao, S., D. A. Hegg, et al. (2003). "Aerosol chemistry, and light-scattering and hygroscopicity budgets during outflow from east Asia." Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry 46(1): 55-88. ://000184336400004 During the ACE-Asia field campaign, 41 aerosol filter samples were obtained by airborne sampling over the ocean to the north, south and west of Japan, generally under conditions of outflow from the Asian continent. These samples were analyzed for their water- soluble chemical components, particularly organic species. Suites of inorganic anions, carbohydrates, organic acids and metallic elements were identified and quantified (21 distinct species). Simultaneously, measurements were made of the aerosol hygroscopicity and light scattering. A factor analysis performed on the compositional data identified several sources for the aerosols sampled during the field campaign. Regression of the light-scattering data onto tracers for each of these factors suggests that the aerosol light scattering could be largely attributed to three of these factors: anthropogenic emissions, biomass burning, and soil dust. Similarly, the aerosol hygroscopicity was largely consistent with an empirical mixing model based on past measurements of the hygroscopicity of these individual aerosol types. Limited size-resolved, aerosol composition measurements were also obtained and suggested different sources for various chemical species.

Gardner, J. M., R. P. Scheffer, et al. (1974). "Effects of Host-Specific Toxins on Electropotentials of Plant Cells." Plant Physiol. 54(3): 246-249. http://www.plantphysiol.org/cgi/content/abstract/54/3/246 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Gardner-Effects-Host- Specific-Toxins-Electropotentials-1974.pdf Host-specific toxins from Helminthosporium victoriae (HV) and Periconia circinata (PC) caused gradual decreases in the negative electropotentials of single cells of susceptible but not of resistant plants. When tissues were held in a standard nutrient solution, the decrease (depolarization) induced by HV toxin was approximately 50 mv/hr; the decrease induced by PC toxin was even more gradual. Changes in ion efflux were detected before changes in electropotential. In contrast, toxin from H. carbonum caused a rapid but transient increase in negative electropotential of cells. Carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone, which (like other metabolic inhibitors) blocks electrogenic pumps, caused cell electropotentials to decrease by approximately 50 mv within a few minutes. This suggests that HV and PC toxins do not have direct effects on electrogenic pumps, but do affect passive efflux of ions, or electrically neutral ion exchange systems, across the plasma membrane.

Garilleti, R., F. Lara, et al. (2000). "Peristomal ornamentation, a precise character for discrimination of bruchii and U-crispa (Bryopsida, )." Journal of Bryology 22: 273-278. ://WOS:000166354500005 A comparative study of structure and ornamentation of Ulota bruchii and U. crispa peristomes is reported. New peristomial characters and those previously suggested are recorded and discussed, and characters enabling an accurate discrimination of the taxa are proposed. Among them, the endostome structure and ornamentation are the characters that afford the most accurate discrimination.

Gebeshuber, I. C. (2000). "The influence of stochastic behavior on the human threshold of hearing." Chaos Solitons & Fractals 11(12): 1855- 1868. ://WOS:000087260400006 The inner hair cells in the cochlea perform the crucial task of transforming mechanical sound signals into electrical activity. The cochlear nerve fibers code this information and convey it to the brain for further processing. This study investigates the performance of the system inner hair cell - primary auditory afferent nerve fibers at the physical limit of the mechano-electrical transduction for the human auditory frequency range. The Brownian motion of the hair cell's receptive organelle, the hair bundle, does not blunt the sensitivity, but in fact enlarges - especially in frequency regions which are most important for the perception of music and speech - via the mechanism of nonlinear stochastic resonance (SR) the dynamical range of the mechano-electrical transduction by at least one order of magnitude. The coding efficiency of small sinusoidal hair bundle deflections shows basic properties of the human hearing threshold curve for pure tones and corresponds to experimental results of noise-induced tuning curves in mechano- receptors in the rat foot. Furthermore, the model explains how altered coding efficiency contributes to pathological changes in the spiking pattern which arise from morphological changes in the hair bundle structure (e.g., in noise-induced sensorineural hearing loss of cochlear origin). (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Gebeshuber, I. C. (2007). "Biotribology inspires new technologies." Nano Today 2(5): 30-37. ://WOS:000250475300013 This review deals with natural biotribological systems and how they have inspired novel micro- and nanotechnological applications. The biogenic devices presented here have functional units in the micro- and nanometer regime and have been evolutionarily optimized over millions of years. The examples discussed comprise natural micromechanical systems made of nanostructured silica (diatoms produce hinges and interlocking devices on the micrometer scale and below), adhesive molecules (selectin and integrin) that can switch states and account for white blood cell rolling in endothelial cells, dry adhesives as they occur on the Gecko foot and certain insect attachment pads, and single molecules that serve as strong self-healing adhesives (diatom underwater adhesives, abalone shell proteins).

Gebeshuber, I. C. (2009). "Engineering at the interface revisited." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part C-Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science 223(1): 65-70. ://WOS:000263850300008 Three publications from Part C which strongly influenced the development of the field of lubrication in human joints are revisited and their impact on the field is outlined. Furthermore, the impact of the Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science on the field of lubrication and wear in living and artificial human joints is analysed. 'Analysis of "boosted lubrication" in human joints' by Duncan Dowson, Anthony Unsworth, and Verna Wright appeared in 1970, 'The lubrication of porous elastic solids with reference to the functioning of human joints' by Gordon R. Higginson and Roger Norman was published in 1974, and 'Engineering at the interface' by Duncan Dowson addressed the audience in 1992.

Gebeshuber, I. C., S. Cernusca, et al. (2003). "AFM search for slow MCI-produced nanodefects on atomically clean monocrystalline insulator surfaces." Nuclear Instruments & Methods in Physics Research Section B-Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms 205: 751-757. ://WOS:000183211200144 We have investigated by means of atomic force microscopy (AFM) single impacts of slow singly and multiply charged Ar ions on atomically clean insulator surfaces for LiF(1 0 0), SiO2 (0 0 1) alpha-quartz, muscovite mica and sapphire c-plane Al2O3(0 0 0 1) crystals. The target samples have been continuously kept under UHV conditions by transferring them in a transportable UHV vault from the vacuum chamber for ion bombardment to the AFM instrument. Slow ion bombardment was accompanied by low-energy electron flooding to compensate for possible target surface charge-up. For Al2O3 clear ion-charge dependent surface defects in lateral and vertical directions give evidence for potential sputtering, which until now has only been demonstrated with thin polycrystalline insulator films. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Gebeshuber, I. C., S. Cernusca, et al. (2003). "Nanoscopic surface modification by slow ion bombardment." International Journal of Mass Spectrometry 229(1-2): 27-34. ://WOS:000185519000005 We present systematic scanning tunneling microscopy (STM)/atomic-force microscopic (AFM) investigations on nanoscopic defect production at atomically clean surfaces of SiO2, Al2O3 and highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) after bombardment by slow (impact energy less than or equal to 1.2 keV) singly and multiply charged ions under strict ultra-high vacuum (UHV) conditions. Combined STM and AFM studies show that on HOPG only "electronic" but no visible topographic defects are created by such ion bombardment. On the monocrystalline insulator surfaces, well-defined topographic features of typically nm extensions are produced ("potential sputtering"). For Al2O3 and HOPG, a clear dependence of the defect size on the projectile ion charge is demonstrated. These results are discussed in view to possible new nanoscopic surface structuring and modification methods for which the kinetic projectile energy plays a minor role only. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Gebeshuber, I. C. and R. M. Crawford (2006). "Micromechanics in biogenic hydrated silica: hinges and interlocking devices in diatoms." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part J-Journal of Engineering Tribology 220(J8): 787-796. ://WOS:000243121200014 Diatoms are single-celled organisms with rigid parts in relative motion at the micrometre scale and below. These biogenic hydrated silica structures have elaborate shapes, interlocking devices, and, in some cases, hinged structures. The silica shells of the diatoms experience various forces from the environment and also from the cell itself when it grows and divides, and the form of these micromechanical. parts has been evolutionarily optimized during the last 150 million years or more, achieving mechanical stability. Linking structures of several diatom species such as Aulacoseira, Corethron, and Ellerbeckia are presented in high-resolution SEM images and their structure and presumed functions are correlated. Currently, the industry for micro- and nanoelectromechanical devices (MEMS and NEMS) puts great effort into investigating tribology on the micro- and nanometre scale. It is suggested that micro- and nanotribologists meet with diatomists to discuss future common research attempts regarding biomimetic ideas and approaches for novel and/or improved MEMS and NEMS with optimized tribological properties.

Gebeshuber, I. C. and M. Drack (2008). "An attempt to reveal synergies between biology and mechanical engineering." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part C-Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science 222(7): 1281-1287. ://WOS:000258742800017 Biomimetics is a continuously growing field. In this article specific examples for successful technology transfer among biology and engineering are classified along a newly proposed scheme of the field - biomimetics by analogy and biomimetics by induction - complemented by technical biology. Famous examples as well as niche applications are presented: winglets on airplanes, an optimized straw-bale screw, Velcro, and self-cleaning surfaces and paints, as well as investigations on spiders. The need of a common language for biologists and engineers, in which descriptions at different level of detail are more compatible, is stressed and general principles that can be applied by engineers who are not at all involved in biology are presented.

Gebeshuber, I. C., P. Gruber, et al. (2009). "A gaze into the crystal ball: biomimetics in the year 2059." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part C-Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science 223(12): 2899-2918. ://WOS:000273224400012 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Gebeshuber-Gaze-Crystal-Ball-2009.pdf Biomimetics is a field that has the potential to drive major technical advances. It might substantially support successful mastering of major global challenges. In the first part of the article, the Current state of biomimetics is reviewed, and goals and visions of biomimetics are presented. Subsequently, possible biomimetic scenarios to overcome the major global challenges, as indicated by the Millennium Project, are envisaged. Those of the 15 challenges (Sustainable development, water, population and resources, democratization, long-term perspectives, information technology, the rich-poor gap, health, capacity to decide, peace and conflict, status of women, transnational crime, energy, science and technology, and global ethics) where biomimetics might provide relevant contributions are considered in more detail. The year 2059 will mark the 100th anniversary of Part C of the Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, the Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science. By this time, some of these challenges will hopefully have been Successfully dealt with, possibly with major contribution from biomimetics. A new Leitwissenschaft and a new type of 'biological technology' are emerging, and in biology more and more causation and natural laws are being uncovered. In order to estimate the fields of biology from which technical innovations are likely to appear, the amount of causal knowledge is estimated by comparing it with correlational knowledge in the respective fields. In some fields of biology, Such as biochemistry and physiology, the amount of causal laws is high, whereas in fields Such as developmental biology and ecology, we are just at the beginning. However, sometimes ideas and inspirations can also stem from nature when the causations are not known. The biomimetic approach might change the research landscape and the engineering culture dramatically, by the blending of disciplines (interdisciplinarity). The term 'technoscience' denotes the field where science and technology are inseparably interconnected, the trend goes from papers to patents, and the scientific 'search for truth' is increasingly replaced by search for applications with a potential economic value. Although the trend in many scientific fields goes towards applications for the market, a lot of disciplines will stick to the traditional Picture of science. An open question left to the future is whether the one development or the other (technoscience or pure science) is an advantage for the future of humans. in the subsequent section, the article gives information about organizations active in biomimetics. It shows the relevance of biomimetics on a global scale, and gives reasons for promoting transdisciplinary learning. Increasing interdisciplinarity calls for novel ways to educate the young. Brian Cambourne's 'Conditions of Learning' theory is recommended in this respect. This dynamic and evolving model for literacy learning comprises the concepts immersion, demonstration, engagement, expectations, responsibility, employment, approximation, and response. Each of these conditions supports both the Student and the teacher in their discovery of learning, helps provide a context within which to learn, and creates an interactive and dynamic experience between the learner and the content. In the year 2059, researchers and developers who routinely think across boundaries shall successfully implement knowledge in solving the major challenges of their time!

Gebeshuber, I. C., D. Holzer, et al. (2009). "Development of an atomic force microscope closed fluid cell for tribological investigations of large samples in chemically aggressive environments." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part J-Journal of Engineering Tribology 223(J5): 759-765. ://WOS:000268861500004 Many atomic force microscopes (AFM) are nowadays equipped with closed fluid cells. Most of these closed fluid cells have small volume, limiting the maximum sample size, and, furthermore, do not allow for investigations in chemically aggressive environments such as solvents. The closed fluid cell for MFP-3D, the atomic force microscope from Asylum Research, Santa Barbara, CA, has a glass base and is mainly intended for investigations of flat transparent biological samples. Starting from the MFP-3D closed fluid cell, a fluid cell tailored for investigations in tribologically relevant environments, e.g. at extreme mechanical and chemical conditions which may vary with time, was developed. Samples of various shapes and sizes can thus be investigated in controlled environments, be they fluid (e.g. solvents) or gaseous (e.g. corrosive gases). First results of AFM nanotribology experiments using this fluid cell are presented. Among the systems of interest are additives diluted in solvents adsorbing to surfaces and spreading and persistence of ionic liquids on tribologically stressed surfaces.

Gebeshuber, I. C., J. H. Kindt, et al. (2004). "Atomic force microscopy study of living diatoms in ambient conditions. (vol 212, pg 292, 2003)." Journal of Microscopy-Oxford 214: 101-101. ://WOS:000220382600015

Gebeshuber, I. C., J. H. Kindt, et al. (2003). "Atomic force microscopy study of living diatoms in ambient conditions." Journal of Microscopy- Oxford 212: 292-299. ://WOS:000186751000009 We present the first in vivo study of diatoms using atomic force microscopy (AFM). Three chain-forming, benthic freshwater species -Eunotia sudetica, Navicula seminulum and a yet unidentified species - are directly imaged while growing on glass slides. Using the AFM, we imaged the topography of the diatom frustules at the nanometre range scale and we determined the thickness of the organic case enveloping the siliceous skeleton of the cell (10 nm). Imaging proved to be stable for several hours, thereby offering the possibility to study long-term dynamic changes, such as biomineralization or cell movement, as they occur. We also focused on the natural adhesives produced by these unicellular organisms to adhere to other cells or the substratum. Most man-made adhesives fail in wet conditions, owing to chemical modification of the adhesive or its substrate. Diatoms produce adhesives that are extremely strong and robust both in fresh- and in seawater environments. Our phase-imaging and force-pulling experiments reveal the characteristics of these natural adhesives that might be of use in designing man-made analogues that function in wet environments. Engineering stable underwater adhesives currently poses a major technical challenge.

Gebeshuber, I. C., J. H. Kindt, et al. (2000). "Adhesives made by benthic diatoms studied by in vivo atomic force microscopy." Biophysical Journal 78(1): 55Plat. ://WOS:000084779300057

Gebeshuber, I. C., B. Y. Majlis, et al. (2009). NANOMEDICINE AND BIOMIMETICS: LIFE SCIENCES MEET ENGINEERING & PHYSICS. 3rd Vienna International Conference NANO-TECHNOLOGY – VIENNANO´09, March 18-20, 2009; Vienna, Austria, Vienna. http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Gebeshuber-Nanomedicine-Biomimetics-2009.pdf

Gebeshuber, I. C., A. Mladenka, et al. (1997). "Computational demonstration that Brownian motion of inner hair cell stereocilia may enhance the ability to detect low level auditory tones from auditory nerve spiking patterns." Journal of Physiology-London 504P: P127-P128. ://WOS:A1997YJ42400161

Gebeshuber, I. C., A. Pauschitz, et al. (2006). "Biotribological model systems for emerging nanometer scale technologies." 2006 IEEE Conference on Emerging Technologies - Nanoelectronics: 396-400. ://WOS:000245207000087 Technological devices such as pressure sensors, gyroscopes and accelerometers get smaller and smaller. This increases the necessity for the fundamental understanding of tribological phenomena at the micro- and nanometer scale. Biological systems excel also at this scale. The thesaurus that nature has developed during the last millions of years of evolution comprises self-cleaning surfaces, systems with friction coefficients smaller than any occurring in man-made systems and organisms that produce macromolecules with ice binding properties. Such systems with well adapted biotribological properties shall serve as inspiration for innovation in micro- and nanotechnology.

Gebeshuber, I. C. and F. Rattay (1999). "Computational model for the physical limit of signal transduction in inner hair cells." Biophysical Journal 76(1): A227-A227. ://WOS:000081085901326

Gebeshuber, I. C. and F. Rattay (2001). "Coding efficiency of inner hair cells at the threshold of hearing." Computational Models of Auditory Function 312: 5-16. ://WOS:000174363200003

Gebeshuber, I. C., R. A. P. Smith, et al. (2006). "Nanostructuring surfaces with slow multiply-charged ions." 2006 IEEE Conference on Emerging Technologies - Nanoelectronics: 324-327. ://WOS:000245207000069 With the shrinking of semiconductor devices surface features and structuring become increasingly important. Generally, fast ions are used for modification of surfaces via ion beam writing. Their kinetic energy is not only dissipated close to the surface but also in deeper layers of the material. Associated radiation damage could become a problem in the production of novel 3D micro- and nanoelectromechanical systems (MEMS and NEMS). Slow (< 1keV) multiply-charged ions as opposed to fast ions are a new tool for gentler structuring of surfaces at the nanometer-scale. The substrate is modified only at and slightly below the surface, opening the possibility of controlling electronic properties at the nanometer scale, vertically and horizontally. Materials under investigation are highly orientated pyrolytic graphite, single crystal insulators (quartz, mica, aluminum oxide), hydrogen-terminated single-crystal silicon, AsSe- and Se-glass and mylar foils. The materials modified by the ion irradiation are investigated with scanning probe microscopy (AFM, STM) in ultrahigh vacuum and in ambient conditions.

Gebeshuber, I. C., R. A. P. Smith, et al. (2005). "Scanning probe microscopy across dimensions." From Cells to Proteins: Imaging Nature across Dimensions 3: 139-165. ://WOS:000235038500008 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Gebeshuber-Scanning-Probe-2005.pdf Scanning probe microscopy offers interesting approaches to not only image but also manipulate samples in the micro- and nanoscale regime. Atomic force microscopy became one of the most versatile microscopy methods in biology, since this type of microscopy works under ambient conditions and in many cases, no extensive sample preparation is necessary. From imaging single living cells to large protein molecules and even more interestingly protein-protein interactions in real time, to micro- and nanoscale investigations of mechanical parameters such as viscoelasticity, atomic force microscopy has proved a useful technique. Imaging biomolecules at atomic resolution is a dream which might come true within the next few years. A powerful new technique is magnetic resonance force microscopy, combining three-dimensional magnetic resonance imaging with the excellent force sensitivity of the atomic force microscope. This type of microscopy opens the possibility of performing scanning probe magnetic resonance imaging with a sensitivity more than 10 million times better than the sensitivity of the medical magnetic resonance imaging devices for visualizing of organs in the human body. This improved sensitivity extends magnetic resonance imaging into the nanometer realm.

Gebeshuber, I. C., H. Stachelberger, et al. (2005). "Diatom bionanotribology-biological surfaces in relative motion: Their design, friction, adhesion, lubrication and wear." Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 5(1): 79-87. ://WOS:000226591300011 Tribology is the branch of engineering that deals with the interaction of surfaces in relative motion (as in bearings or gears): their design, friction, adhesion, lubrication and wear. Continuous miniaturization of technological devices like hard disc drives and biosensors increases the necessity for the fundamental understanding of tribological phenomena at the Micro- and nanoscale. Biological systems show optimized performance also at this scale. Examples for biological friction systems at different length scales include bacterial flagella, joints, articular cartilage and muscle connective tissues.' Scanning probe microscopy opened the nanocosmos to engineers: not only is microscopy now., possible on the atomic scale, but even manipulation of single atoms and molecules can be performed with unprecedented precision. As opposed to this top-down approach, biological systems excel in bottom-up nanotechnology. Our model system for bionanotribological investigations are diatoms, for they are small, highly reproductive, and since they are transparent, they are accessible with different kinds of optical microscopy methods. Furthermore, certain diatoms have proved to be rewarding samples for mechanical and topological in vivo investigations on the nanoscale.(2) There are several diatom species that actively move (e.g. Bacillaria paxillifer forms colonies in which the single cells slide against each other) or which ran, as cell colonies, be elongated by as much as a major fraction of their original length (e.g. Ellerbeckia arenaria colonies can be reversibly elongated by one third of their original length). Therefore, we assume that some sort of lubrication of interactive surfaces is present in these species. Current studies in diatom bionanotribology comprise techniques like atomic force microscopy, histochemical analysis, infrared spectrometry, molecular spectroscopy and confoGal infrared microscopy.

Gebeshuber, I. C., H. Stachelberger, et al. (2009). "Exploring the Innovational Potential of Biomimetics for Novel 3D MEMS." Nems/Mems Technology and Devices 74: 265-268. ://WOS:000273130600059 A novel way to describe the complexity of biological and engineering approaches depending on the number of different base materials is proposed: Either many materials are used (material dominates) or few materials (form dominates) or just one material (structure dominates). The complexity of the approach (in biology as well as in engineering) increases with decreasing number of base materials. Biomimetics, i.e., technology transfer from biology to engineering, is especially promising in MEMS development because of the material constraints in both fields. The Biomimicry Innovation Method is applied here for the first time to identify naturally nanostructured rigid functional materials, and subsequently analyse their prospect in terms of inspiring MEMS development.

Gebeshuber, I. C., J. B. Thompson, et al. (2002). "In vivo nanoscale atomic force. microscopy investigation of diatom adhesion properties." Materials Science and Technology 18(7): 763-766. ://WOS:000177407500014 Most state of the art adhesives fail to bond under wet conditions. Therefore, knowledge of the intrinsic properties of natural adhesives might give valuable information for future engineering approaches. This work investigates the adhesive that Eunotia sudetica, a species of benthic freshwater diatoms, produces to attach itself to a substrate. Atomic force spectroscopy under aqueous solution reveals the modular, self-healing properties of this natural adhesive.

Geitmann, A. (2006). "Experimental approaches used to quantify physical parameters at cellular and subcellular levels." Am. J. Bot. 93(10): 1380-1390. http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/10/1380 From a mechanical point of view, plant and hyphal cells are more complex than their animal counterparts because the variety of structural components determining cellular architecture is broader. In addition to cytoskeletal elements and the plasma membrane, the cell wall and turgor pressure equip plant and hyphal cells with structures analogous to an exoskeleton and a hydroskeleton, respectively. To quantify the physical properties of plant and hyphal cells, researchers have developed a plethora of experimental methods. This review provides an overview of experimental approaches that have been used to measure turgor pressure and to determine the mechanical properties of the plant cell wall at the subcellular level. It is completed by a glimpse into the arsenal of techniques that has been used to characterize the physical properties of cytoskeletal elements. These have mostly been used on animal cells, but we hope they will find their way into plant cell research. Finally, assays and tests to measure the generation of forces by cells and subcellular structures are discussed.

Gibson, P. and M. Charmchi (1997). "The use of volume-averaging techniques to predict temperature transients due to water vapor sorption in hygroscopic porous polymer materials." Journal of Applied Polymer Science 64(3): 493-505. ://A1997WP83600006 Volume-averaging techniques developed for modeling drying processes in porous materials offer a convenient framework for analyzing vapor sorption in porous hygroscopic polymeric materials. Because of the large temperature changes associated with water vapor sorption in these materials (from 10 degrees to 20 degrees C), sorption/diffusion processes are best characterized through the coupled differential equations describing both the transport of energy and mass through the porous structure. Experimental and numerical results are compared for a variety of natural and man-made porous polymeric materials (textiles) using the volume-averaging technique. Boundary heat and mass transfer coefficients and assumptions about thermal radiative properties of the experimental apparatus are shown to influence results obtained with the numerical solution method. (C) 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Gierlinger, N. and I. Burgert (2006). "Secondary cell wall polymers studied by confocal Raman microscopy: Spatial distribution, orientation, and molecular deformation." New Zealand Journal of Forestry Science 36(1): 60-71. ://BIOSIS:PREV200600592751 Confocal Raman microscopy was used for chemical imaging of wood cell wall polymers and to follow molecular changes during tensile deformation. Spectral maps were acquired from cross-sections of poplar wood and images calculated by integrating the intensity of characteristic spectral bands. This enabled direct visualisation of the spatial variation of the lignin content without any chemical treatment or staining of the cell wall. A higher lignin content was visualised in the cell corners, the compound middle lamella, and the secondary cell wall of vessels than in the fibres. The S I was distinguished from the S2 by integrating over the band at 1097 cm(-1), because the intensity of this vibration is sensitive to the orientation of the cellulose molecule. The position of this band was shifted towards shorter wavenumbers during straining of wet tangential sections, demonstrating that the cellulose molecule was subjected to a deformation. The band shift was followed during the tensile test and a good trend and correlation with strain and stress were observed. Investigating tissue types with different properties and cell wall assemblies will help to reveal the polymer composition and orientation nondestructively with a high spatial resolution. By investigating structural changes during tensile straining, we aim at understanding the different stress-strain behaviour and the molecular mechanistic phenomena involved.

Gierlinger, N., L. Goswami, et al. (2008). "In situ FT-IR microscopic study on enzymatic treatment of poplar wood cross-sections." Biomacromolecules 9(8): 2194-2201. ://WOS:000258400200015 The feasibility of Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) microscopy to monitor in situ the enzymatic degradation of wood was investigated. Cross-sections of poplar wood were treated with cellulase Onozuka RS within a custom-built fluidic cell. Light-optical micrographs and FT-IR spectra were acquired in situ from normal and tension wood fibers. Light-optical micrographs showed almost complete removal of the gelatinous (G) layer in tension wood. No structural and spectral changes were observed in the lignified cell walls. The accessibility of cellulose within the lignified cell wall was found to be the main limiting factor, whereas the depletion of the enzyme due to lignin adsorption could be ruled out. The fast, selective hydrolysis of the crystalline cellulose in the G-layer, even at room temperature, might be explained by the gel-like structure and the highly porous surface. Young plantation grown hardwood trees with a high proportion of G-fibers thus represent an interesting resource for bioconversion to fermentable sugars in the process to bioethanol.

Gierlinger, N., M. Schwanninger, et al. (2006). "Molecular changes during tensile deformation of single wood fibers followed by Raman microscopy." Biomacromolecules 7(7): 2077-2081. ://WOS:000238848800001 Raman spectra were acquired in situ during tensile straining of mechanically isolated fibers of spruce latewood. Stress-strain curves were evaluated along with band positions and intensities to monitor molecular changes due to deformation. Strong correlations (r = 0.99) were found between the shift of the band at 1097 cm(-1) corresponding to the stretching of the cellulose ring structure and the applied stress and strain. High overall shifts (-6.5 cm(-1)) and shift rates (-6.1 cm(-1)/GPa) were observed. After the fiber failed, the band was found on its original position again, proving the elastic nature of the deformation. Additionally, a decrease in the band height ratio of the 1127 and 1097 cm(-1) bands was observed to go hand in hand with the straining of the fiber. This is assumed to reflect a widening of the torsion angle of the glycosidic C-O-C bonding. Thus, the 1097 cm(-1) band shift and the band height ratio enable one to follow the stretching of the cellulose at a molecular level, while the lignin bands are shown to be unaffected. Observed changes in the OH region are shown and interpreted as a weakening of the hydrogen-bonding network during straining. Future experiments on different native wood fibers with variable chemical composition and cellulose orientation and on chemically and enzymatically modified fibers will help to deepen the micromechanical understanding of plant cell walls and the associated macromolecules.

Gindl, W., C. Hansmann, et al. (2004). "Using a water-soluble melamine-formaldehyde resin to improve the hardness of Norway spruce wood." Journal of Applied Polymer Science 93(4): 1900-1907. ://WOS:000222481500053 Samples of Norway spruce wood were impregnated with a water-soluble melamine formaldehyde resin by using short-term vacuum treatment and long-term immersion, respectively. By means of Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and UV microspectrophotometry, it was shown that only diffusion during long-term immersion leads to sufficient penetration of melamine resin into the wood structure, the flow of liquids in Norway spruce wood during vacuum treatment being greatly hindered by aspirated pits. After an immersion in aqueous melamine resin solution for 3 days, the resin had penetrated to a depth > 4 mm, which, after polymerization of the resin, resulted in an improvement of hardness comparable to the hardwood beech. A finite element model describing the effect of increasing depth of modification on hardness demonstrated that under the test conditions chosen for this study, a minimum impregnation depth of 2 mm is necessary to achieve an optimum increase in hardness. (C) 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Gindl, W. and G. Jeronimidis (2004). "Wood pulp fiber reinforced melamine-formaldehyde composites." Journal of Materials Science 39(9): 3245-3247. ://WOS:000221100000049

Gindl, W., T. Schoberl, et al. (2004). "The interphase in phenol-formaldehyde (PF) and polymeric methylene di-phenyl-di-isocyanate (pMDI) glue lines in wood (vol 24, pg 279, 2004)." International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 24(6): 535-535. ://WOS:000223647800012

Gindl, W., T. Schoberl, et al. (2004). "The interphase in phenol-formaldehyde and polymeric methylene diphenyl-di-isocyanate glue lines in wood." International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 24(4): 279-286. ://WOS:000220777600001 It has been proposed in the literature that the penetration of resin compounds into the wood cell wall may enhance the durability of adhesive bonds. In the study presented here, the diffusion of resin compounds into the cell wall of two systems, phenolformaldehyde (PF) and polymeric methylene di-phenyl-di-isocyanate (pMDI), respectively, was evaluated making use of the UV-absorbance typical for both resins. The effects of resin diffusion into the cell wall on cell-wall mechanical properties were assessed by nanoindentation. It could be shown that significant amounts of PF resin diffused into the cell wall, whereas no pMDI compounds could be detected. In both adhesive assemblies examined, cell walls at the immediate surface were damaged during machine planing. The diffusion of resin compounds into undamaged cell walls did not change their elastic indentation modulus significantly, but clearly increased the hardness of PF-glued cell walls. Cell walls damaged due to planing showed a significantly reduced hardness and indentation modulus. To provide good bond stability it is thus necessary that the glue penetrates deep enough into the wood structure to bond to undamaged cell walls. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Goebel, K. (1895). "Uber die Sporenaustreuung bei den Lauhmoosen." Flora 80: 459-486, 1 pl.

Goennenwein, S., M. Tanaka, et al. (2003). "Functional incorporation of integrins into solid supported membranes on ultrathin films of cellulose: impact on adhesion." Biophysical Journal 85(1): 644-55. ://INSPEC:7825446 Biomimetic models of cell surfaces were designed to study the physical basis of cell adhesion. Vesicles bearing reconstituted blood platelet integrin receptors alpha /sub IIb/ beta /sub 3/ were spread on ultrathin films of cellulose, forming continuous supported membranes. One fraction of the integrin receptors, which were facing their extracellular domain toward the aqueous phase were mobile, exhibiting a diffusion constant of 0.6 mu m/sup 2/ s/sup -1/. The functionality of receptors on bare glass and on cellulose cushions was compared by measuring adhesion strength to giant vesicles. The vesicles contained lipid-coupled cyclic hexapeptides that are specifically recognized by integrin alpha /sub IIb/ beta /sub 3 /. To mimic the steric repulsion forces of the cell glycocalix, lipids with polyethylene glycol headgroups were incorporated into the vesicles. The free adhesion energy per unit area Delta g/sub ad/ was determined by micro-interferometric analysis of the vesicle's contour near the membrane surface in terms of the equilibrium of the elastic forces. By accounting for the reduction for the adhesion strength by the repellers and from measuring the density of receptors one could estimate the specific receptor ligand binding energy. We estimate the receptor-ligand binding energy to be 10 k/sub B/ under bioanalogue conditions

Goffinet, B. (1999). "Brachymitrion immersum (Splachnaceae, musci), a new species from Cameroon." Bryologist 102(1): 108-111. ://000079833200018 The genus Brachymitrion Tayl. is distinguished within the Splachnaceae by its 16 peristome teeth that are erect or curved inward and united at their tips in pairs (Koponen 1982a,b). Brachymitrion currently comprises five species (Koponen 1977), of which two are disjunct between Africa and Central and South America [B. jamesonii Tayl. and B. moritzianum (C. Mull.) A. Kop.], whereas the remaining are either endemic to the neotropics [i.e., B. cochabambae (C. Mull.) A. Kop. and B. laciniatum (Spruce) A. Kop.] or to East Africa [i.e., B. pocsii (A. Kop.) A. Kop.]. As part of a phylogenetic study of the Splachnaceae (Goffinet and Shaw, in prep.) I examined specimens of most species including one sample of alleged B. jamesonii recently collected by Amy Litt (NY) in Cameroon. This collection is primarily composed of plants with immersed capsules and peristome teeth with weak trabeculae on the Primary Peristomial Layer (PPL), rather than long exserted capsules with exostome teeth bearing strong trabeculae as in the sympatric B. jamesonii. Immersed to emergent capsules and weak trabeculae an known from the neotropical B. cochabambae and B. laciniatum, however, these two species differ by having long cylindric capsules and laminal margin, which in B. laciniatum bears long teeth. Hence a new species is described to accommodate this combination of characters distinguishing the plants from Cameroon.

Goffinet, B. and W. R. Buck (2004). "Systematics of the Bryophyta (mosses): From molecules to a revised classification." Molecular Systematics of Bryophytes 98: 205-239. ://WOS:000228941800011 Two hundred years of bryological investigations of morphological, anatomical, and developmental characters form the foundation for systematics concepts in mosses, and hence for their classification. With the development of phylogenetic theory and more recently of techniques allowing the extraction of DNA and the amplification and sequencing of specific loci, a new source of characters has become available to test systematic hypotheses. In the last decade over 100 phylogenetic studies of mosses have been published. These have led to the revision of many supraspecific taxonomic circumscriptions. Indeed, many taxa, whether these are genera, families, or orders, have been shown to be paraphyletic or polyphyletic. The revised lineages may satisfy a criterion of monophyly, but in some cases they can no longer be diagnosed using traditional morphological characters. Although phylogenetic inferences are shaping our systematic concepts, the significance of the contributions remains to be tested by future studies. Indeed, several new hypotheses are only weakly supported. Only recently have inferences been made from multiple loci spanning all three genomic compartments, and structural constraints on the evolution of molecules are only beginning to be integrated in analytical assumptions. Here we review most studies that have addressed systematic hypotheses and, based on these results, have amended our recent classification of mosses. The following new taxa are proposed: Takakiopsida (Crand.-Stotl.) comb. et stat. nov., Andreaeaobryopsida (B. M. Murray) comb. et slat. nov., Oedipodiopsida (Schimp.) comb. et slat. nov., Oedipodiales (Schimp.) comb. et stat. nov., Tetraphidopsida (M. Fleisch.) comb. et slat. nov., Seouleriales (S. P. Churchill) comb. et stat. nov., Bryanae (Engl.) comb. et slat. Nov., Rhizogonianae (M. Fleisch.) comb. et stat. nov., Rhizogoniales (M. Fleisch.) comb. et slat. nov., and Pylaisiadelphaceae fam. nov.

Goffinet, B. and C. J. Cox (2000). "Phylogenetic relationships among basal-most arthrodontous mosses with special emphasis on the evolutionary significance of the Funariineae." Bryologist 103(2): 212-223. ://000087713200003 The classification of the Bryopsida (mosses) has been based primarily oil the variation of sporophytic characters i.e., architectural features of the peristome teeth that line the capsule mouth. Five arthrodontous peristome types have been recognized. Whether peristome types define natural groups and how they are evolutionary related has, however, remained unclear. Nucleotide sequence data from are nuclear and two chloroplast loci are generated and compiled to test two contrasting hypotheses regarding the ancestral peristome type in the Arthrodonteae. The genomic data partitions are incongruent with regard to the phylogenetic signal they carry. All phylogenetic analyses converge toward the polyphyly of the Funariineae and the Funarinceae. The Funariaceae are defined by the loss of a codon in the rps4 gene. Goniomitrium acuminatum, the type of the genus, lacks this deletion, and is always resolved,within the Haplolepideae. Consequently Goniomitrium is transferred to the Pottiaceae. The Ephemeraceae and Splachnobryaceae are tentatively retained as distinct, but with strong affinities to the Pottiineae. Neither the combined nor the independent data sets yield well supported topologies under the parsimony optimality criterion. Hence, the relationships among major lineages remain ambiguous. Inferences from chloroplast data alone yield a basal dichotomy between taxa with alternate peristomes (Orthotrichales and Bryales sensu late) and those with opposite peristomes (Encalyptineae, Disceliaceae, Funarinceae, Timmiaceae, and the Haplolepideae). In contrast, analyses of the combined data resolve the Timmiaceae as sister to the split between the two peristomial lineages. It is hypothesized that the symmetric divisions of the IPL cells, is a synapomorphy for at least the Encayptinae-Funariineae clade. The endostomial appendages of the timmiaceous peristome could, under either phylogenetic hypothesis, be regarded as homologous to the cilia in the bryoid peristome. Although the relationships among major lineages of arthrodontous mosses remain ambiguous, this study suggests that taxa with reduced or no peristomes, such as the Disceliaceae and the Gigaspermaceae, may be crucial in resolving the early evolutionary history of the Arthrodonteae when using DNA sequences.

Goffinet, B., C. J. Cox, et al. (2001). "The bryophyta (mosses): Systematic and evolutionary inferences from an rps4 gene (cpDNA) phylogeny." Annals of Botany 87(2): 191-208. ://WOS:000166925100004 Phylogenetic analyses of nucleotide and amino acid sequences of the chloroplast protein coding gene rps4 were performed for 225 species of mosses, representing 84 % of families recognized by Vitt (1984. In: Schuster RM, ed. New manual of bryology, vol 2. Nichinan: Hattori Botanical Laboratory), under the criterion of maximum parsimony with and Sphagnum as outgroups. Most parsimonious topologies converge to a scenario wherein the Andreaeidae are monophyletic and sister to the Bryidae (peristomate mosses), the Nematodonteae and the Buxbaumiaceae form a monophyletic lineage, the Diphysciaceae are sister to the Arthrodonteae and, within the latter, the Funarineae-Encalyptineae-Timmiaceae-Haplolepideae compose a monophyletic clade sister to remaining diplolepideous mosses. This hypothesis suggests that early in the evolution of the Arthrodonteae, two major lineages diverged, with opposite and alternate peristomes, respectively. Bootstrap support for the deep dichotomies is poor or lacking but increases when protein translations of rps4 sequences are included in the analysis. Several novel systematic hypotheses are raised, including (a) a diplolepideous rather than haplolepideous origin of the Pleurophascaceae; (b) an affinity of the Catascopiaceae with the Funariineae rather than the Bryineae; and (c) a close relationship of the Calomniaceae and Mitteniaceae to the Rhizgoniaceae. The advantages and disadvantages of a single gene phylogeny are discussed with respect to the identification of polyphyletic familial or suprafamilial taxa. (C) 2001 Annals of Botany Company.

Goffinet, B., J. Shaw, et al. (1999). "Peristome development in mosses in relation to systematics and evolution. V. Diplolepideae : orthotrichaceae." Bryologist 102(4): 581-594. ://WOS:000084671700001 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Goffinet-Peristome-Development-Mosses- 1999.pdf The classification of the Bryopsida is based-to a large extent on the architecture of the peristome teeth. Among diplolepideous mosses, three peristome-types have been recognized. The development of the amphithecium in taxa characterized by an Orthotrichum-type peristome is described here, thereby completing our survey of the ontogeny of all three diplolepideous peristome types. Patterns of early divisions leading to a three-layered amphithecium in Schlotheimia rugifolia, Ulota crispa, and U. hutchinsiae are identical-to all other arthrodontous mosses that have been studied. The subsequent anticlinal divisions occurring in the eight celled Inner Peristomial Layer are clearly asymmetric. Lack of alignment of adjacent anticlinical IPL and Primary Peristomial Layer walls is further accentuated by post-divisural lateral displacement of the IPL walls due to swelling of the PPL cells. This development of the amphithecial layers yielding a 4:2:4 pattern in the Orthotrichaceae is identical to that described for the Bryum- type peristome. The asymmetry of the critical late stage division in the IPL is considered homologous between these types. Based on recent phylogenetic hypotheses for the Bryopsida,: we propose to extend this homology assumption to the Haplolepideae, the Diphysciales, and the Tetraphidales, suggesting that the asymmetric division is likely plesiomorphic within :The Arthrodonteae. Whether the peristome of the Orthotrichaceae represents a primitive bryalean peristome, or whether it arose through-reduction of a bryoid-type remains to be addressed further.

Gonzalez-Lopez, S., M. A. V. Diaz, et al. (2007). "Cuspal flexure of teeth with composite restorations subjected to occlusal loading." Journal of Adhesive Dentistry 9(1): 11-15. ://WOS:000244704300003 Purpose: To measure in vitro the cuspal deflection produced by polymerization shrinkage and occlusal loading in mesio-occlusal (MO) and mesio-occlusal-clistal (MOD) bonded composite restorations. Materials and Methods: Twenty first premolars were studied, attaching a small crystal ball to each cusp vertex as a reference point for intercuspal distance measurements. MO cavities were made in ten premolars and MOD cavities in the other ten. Cavities were then restored with Syntac Single adhesive and Tetric Ceram composite in two increments. A precision micrometer was used to measure intercuspal distances in unaltered teeth (baseline distance), unaltered teeth under 150 N load, restored teeth at 5 min after restoration completion, and restored teeth under 150 N load. Results: In the two study groups, both polymerization shrinkage and application of 150 N load produced a statistically significant change in intercuspal distance compared with baseline measurement. The cuspal deflection produced by 150 N load was statistically similar between unaltered and restored teeth, although polymerization shrinkage acted as a preload in the latter case (starting point was not baseline condition). The cuspal deflection produced by polymerization shrinkage and occlusal load was significantly greater in MOD than in MO restorations. Conclusion: The cuspal deflection produced by composite polymerization shrinkage and occlusal loading is significantly greater in MOD vs MO composite restorations.

Gonzalez-Lopez, S., C. Lucena-Martin, et al. (2004). "Influence of different composite restoration techniques on cuspal deflection: An in vitro study." Operative Dentistry 29(6): 656-660. ://WOS:000225727300009 Cuspal deflection produced by polymerization shrinkage was measured after using different composite restoration techniques. This study included 30 healthy premolars embedded in acrylic resin connected to a system that simulated intrapulpal pressure. A small ball was attached to each cuspal vertex as a reference point for intercuspal distance measurements. A large mesio-occlusal cavity was cut in each pre-molar. All premolars were treated with the same adhesive (ScotchBond) and composite (Tetric Ceram). The teeth were randomly distributed among three study groups: Group 1, filled with two horizontal increments; Group 2, filled with two horizontal increments, the first up to half the cavity height and light cured using a transparent plastic cone (Cerana), and the second filling the remainder of the cavity and Group 3, filled in the same way as Group 2, except that the first increment only filled one-third of the cavity height. The intercuspal distance was measured before beginning the restoration and immediately after polymerization of the first and second increments. Under the experimental conditions used, none of the filling techniques utilized avoided the cuspal deflection phenomenon. Polymerization of the final increment, which binds occlusal enamel in the buccal-lingual plane, was the main cause of cuspal deflection and produced a statistically significant reduction in intercuspal distance vs the baseline measurement in the three study groups. The global deflection ranged from 4 pm to 6 pin, depending on the filling technique used, although the differences among techniques did not reach statistical significance (p<0.05).

Gorb, S. N. and V. L. Popov (2002). "Probabilistic Fasteners with Parabolic Elements: Biological System, Artificial Model and Theoretical Considerations." Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 360(1791): 211-225. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3066302 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Gorb-Probabilistic-Fasteners-Parabolic-2002.pdf Probabilistic fasteners are attachment devices composed of two surfaces covered with cuticular micro-outgrowths. Friction-based fasteners demonstrate high frictional forces when the surfaces come into contact. Attachment in this case is based on the use of the surface profile and mechanical properties of materials, and is fast, precise and reversible. The best-studied examples composed of parabolic elements are the wing-locking mechanism in beetles and the head arrester in dragonflies. This study combines experimental data of force measurements, obtained in an artificial model system, and theoretical considerations based on the simple model of behaviour of probabilistic fasteners with parabolic elements. Elements of the geometry in both cases correspond to the biological prototypes. Force measurements on the artificial system show that the attachment force is strongly dependent on the load force. At small loads, the increase of attachment is very slow, whereas rapid increase of attachment was detected at higher loads. At very high loads, a saturation of the attachment force was revealed. A simple explanation of the attachment principle is that with an increasing load elements of both surfaces slide into gaps of the corresponding part. This results in an increase of lateral loading forces acting on elements. High lateral forces lead to an increase of friction between single sliding elements. An analytical model which describes behaviour of the probabilistic fasteners with parabolic elements is proposed.

Gordon, J. E. and Jeronimi.G (1974). "WORK OF FRACTURE OF NATURAL CELLULOSE." Nature 252(5479): 116-116. ://WOS:A1974U582100033

Gordon, J. E. and G. Jeronimidis (1979). "Composites with high work of fracture." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A (Mathematical and Physical Sciences)|Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A (Mathematical and Physical Sciences) 294(1411): 545-50. ://INSPEC:1555788 Results obtained when investigating the fracture behaviour of wood have suggested the possibility of making composite materials with high work of fracture and low density, at the expense of moderate loss of stiffness. The reinforcing elements of the composite are made in the form of cylindrical tubes with helically wound walls of glass or carbon fibres, simulating, to a certain extent, the structure of wood cells. The hollow tubes, under tensile stress and in certain circumstances, are capable of deforming pseudo- plastically absorbing large amounts of energy in a manner which is effectively similar to that of ductile fibres. Work of fracture in excess of 4*10/sup 5/ J/m/sup 2 / has been obtained, comparable to that of ductile metals. The dependence of the work of fracture on various parameters are discussed together with some suggestions for compensating for the loss of stiffness without reducing the energy absorbing capacity of the system

Gordon, J. E. and G. Jeronimidis (1980). "COMPOSITES WITH HIGH WORK OF FRACTURE." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series a-Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences 294(1411): 545-&. ://WOS:A1980JE47400016

Goswami, L., J. W. C. Dunlop, et al. (2008). "Stress generation in the tension wood of poplar is based on the lateral swelling power of the G- layer." Plant Journal 56(4): 531-538. ://WOS:000260824700002 The mechanism of active stress generation in tension wood is still not fully understood. To characterize the functional interdependency between the G-layer and the secondary cell wall, nanostructural characterization and mechanical tests were performed on native tension wood tissues of poplar (Populus nigra x Populus deltoids) and on tissues in which the G-layer was removed by an enzymatic treatment. In addition to the well-known axial orientation of the cellulose fibrils in the G-layer, it was shown that the microfibril angle of the S2-layer was very large (about 36 degrees). The removal of the G-layer resulted in an axial extension and a tangential contraction of the tissues. The tensile stress-strain curves of native tension wood slices showed a jagged appearance after yield that could not be seen in the enzyme-treated samples. The behaviour of the native tissue was modelled by assuming that cells deform elastically up to a critical strain at which the G-layer slips, causing a drop in stress. The results suggest that tensile stresses in poplar are generated in the living plant by a lateral swelling of the G-layer which forces the surrounding secondary cell wall to contract in the axial direction.

Goswami, L., M. Eder, et al. (2008). "Inducing large deformation in wood cell walls by enzymatic modification." Journal of Materials Science 43(4): 1286-1291. ://WOS:000252192300016 It has been shown recently that wood with a high cellulose microfibril angle in the S2-layer, e.g. compression wood, shows permanent plastic deformation without significant mechanical damage to the matrix. This molecular stick-slip mechanism was explained by a gliding of the cellulose fibrils, after a certain shear stress in the matrix was exceeded [1]. Such a material behaviour would be desirable for various applications, for instance, to cover complex geometries with highly deformable veneers as needed in the automotive industry. However, veneers that are typically used for these purposes have a rather brittle failure behaviour, which leads to breakage, and drastic quality and productivity losses. A better deformability of such veneers might be achieved when the underlying deformation principles are conferred by modifying the wood cell wall components, in particular the cellulose fibrils and their matrix coupling. Enzyme treatments were performed on mechanically isolated wood fibres to plastify the entire lignified secondary cell wall. Cellulase Onozuka R-10 from Trichoderma viride (E.C.3.2.1.4) with activity on cellulose and xylan was utilized. Micromechanical tests and FT-IR microscopy studies revealed the change of mechanical properties and nanostructural features of the cell wall. An extended deformability was achieved for two of ten of the modified fibres.

Grebennikov, S. F. and A. T. Kynin (2003). "Water vapor sorption mechanism and hygroscopicity of textile materials." Fibre Chemistry 35(5): 360-365. ://000220772100008 It is shown that the quasichemical model bears much more information on the supramolecular structure Of polymers and the mechanism of sorption of water vapor than the equations borrowed from the theory of adsorption on "rigid" adsorbents. The physical meaning of the constants and limitations of the existing equations formally used for describing sorption in swollen systems are analyzed. The constants of the quasichemical model for sorption of water vapor by different classes of polymers are reported.

Grimmeiss, H. G., G. Marletta, et al. (2003). "Special issue - Current trends in nanoscience - From materials to application - Proceedings of Symposium A, E-MRS spring meeting 2003 - June 10-13, 2003, Strasbourg, France - Preface." Materials Science & Engineering C-Biomimetic and Supramolecular Systems 23(6-8): 661-662. ://WOS:000187403500001

Gruenberger, C., R. Ritter, et al. (2007). "Algal biophysics: Euglena gracilis investigated by atomic force microscopy." Research Trends in Contemporary Materials Science 555: 411-416. ://WOS:000249653700066 Matter produced by organisms is remarkable. Evolutionary optimized properties, e.g. regarding hydrodynamic, aerodynamic, wetting and adhesive behavior, can already be found in the "simplest" forms of organisms. Euglena gracilis, a single-celled algal species, performs tasks as diverse as sensing the environment and reacting to it, converting and storing energy and metabolizing nutrients, living as a plant or an animal, depending on the environmental constraints. We developed a preparation method for atomic force microscopy investigation of dried whole Euglena cells in air and obtained data on whole cells as well as cell parts. Our studies corroborate TEM, SEM and optical microscopy results. Furthermore, we found new features on the pellicle, and set the ground for AFM force spectroscopy and viscoelastic studies on the nanoscale.

Guldi, D. M. (2005). "Biomimetic assemblies of carbon nanostructures for photochemical energy conversion." Journal of Physical Chemistry B 109(23): 11432-11441. ://WOS:000229751800006 This feature article summarizes our recent accomplishments in the field of carbon nanostructures, fullerenes and carbon nanotubes, as integrative components in multifunctional hybrid cells that bear large promise for applications as photochemical energy conversion systems.

Hameri, K., R. Charlson, et al. (2002). "Hygroscopic properties of mixed ammonium sulfate and carboxylic acids particles." Aiche Journal 48(6): 1309-1316. ://000176144600016 The hygroscopic growth of internally mixed ammonium sulfate and carboxylic acid particles was measured as a function of relative humidity by using a tandem differential mobility analyzer (TDMA). In TDAM experiments the organic compounds with different solubilities act in several ways, ranging from the behavior of totally insoluble substance to that of soluble compounds. The hygroscopic properties for mixtures containing either adipic acid or phthalic acid together with ammonium sulfate indicate that the organic fraction of the particles behaves as an inert mass and does not contribute to water uptake. The mixtures involving malonic acid or succinic acid increased the water uptake of the ammonium sulfate part only. The results indicate that the solubility of the organic fraction in individual aerosol particles clearly influences the aerosol-water interaction.

Hameri, K., A. Laaksonen, et al. (2001). "Hygroscopic growth of ultrafine sodium chloride particles." Journal of Geophysical Research- Atmospheres 106(D18): 20749-20757. ://000171216300010 The hygroscopic growth properties of ultrafine NaCl particles between 8 and 50 nm in mobility diameter have been studied using an ultrafine tandem differential mobility analyzer. The data include determination of hygroscopic growth curves, deliquescence behavior, and hysteresis. The measured growth factors are clearly smaller for the nanometer-sized particles compared with particles in the size range of 0.1 Mm and larger. While this behavior of the ultrafine particles can be qualitatively predicted by accounting for the Kelvin effect, quantitative differences to the experimental data remain even after the differential mobility analyzer data have been corrected to account for the cubic shape of the particles. We conclude that the differences are related to size-dependent density and/or shape/structure of nanometer-sized NaCl crystals. The deliquescence relative humidities obtained in this work for nanometer-sized particles also show clear differences from the literature value obtained for large particles. The quantitative values of hygroscopic growth factors and deliquescence relative humidities for small particles have not been available previously, and our data are important in studies of the formation and properties of atmospheric aerosols.

Hameri, K., M. Vakeva, et al. (2001). "Hygroscopic and CCN properties of aerosol particles in boreal forests." Tellus Series B-Chemical and Physical Meteorology 53(4): 359-379. ://000171133400004 The measurements of the hygroscopic and cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) properties of submicrometer atmospheric aerosol particles were performed with two tandem differential mobility analysers (TDMA) and a CCN counter at the Hyytiala forest field station in south-central Finland during the BIOFOR campaign. The TDMAs were used to measure hygroscopic diameter growth factors of individual aerosol particles in the dry particle diameter range 10-365 nm when taken from the dry state (relative humidity RH < 5%) to RH = 90%. The CCN counter was used to study the activation of aerosol particles when exposed to supersaturated conditions. The measurements show clear diurnal pattern of particle solubility. The pattern was strongest for particles in nucleation and Aitken modes. The lowest growth factor (soluble fraction) values were detected during late evening and early morning and the maximum was observed during noon-afternoon. The highest soluble fractions were determined for nucleation mode particles. The response of hygroscopic growth to changes of relative humidity suggests that the soluble compounds are either fully soluble or deliquescent well before 70% RH. The hygroscopic growth was investigated additionally by a detailed model using the size-resolved composition from the impactor samples. The comparison between different instruments shows good consistency. We found good agreement for the 20 nm growth factors measured with two TDMAs, not only on average but also regarding the temporal variation. The similar conclusion was drawn for comparison of TDMA with CCNC for Aitken mode particles with dry sizes 50 and 73 urn. Differences between wet and dry spectra measured using APS and CSASP spectrometer probes Were used to derive growth factors for coarse mode particles. Growth factors for coarse mode particles (D-p ca. 2 mum) ranged between 1.0 and 1.6. Agreement between the evolution of growth factors with time for both accumulation and coarse modes was observed regularly. However, similar portions of the data set also indicated clear differences and consequently different chemical compositions between both modes. When the differences between both modes were observed, the coarse mode always behaved in a less hygroscopic manner, with growth factors near one.

Hand, J. L., R. B. Ames, et al. (2000). "Estimates of particle hygroscopicity during the Southeastern Aerosol and Visibility Study." Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 50(5): 677-685. ://000086986300004 Aerosol water content was determined from relative humidity controlled optical particle counter (ASASP-X) size distribution measurements made during the Southeastern Aerosol and Visibility Study (SEAVS) in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park during summer 1995. Since the scattering response function of the ASASP-X is sensitive to particle refractive index, a technique for calibrating the ASASP-X for any real refractive index was developed. A new iterative process was employed to calculate water mass concentration and wet refractive index as functions of relative humidity. Experimental water mass concentrations were compared to theoretically predicted values assuming only ammonium sulfate compounds were hygroscopic. These comparisons agreed within experimental uncertainty. Estimates of particle hygroscopicity using a rural aerosol model of refractive index as a function of relative humidity demonstrated no significant differences from those made with daily varying refractive index estimates. Although aerosol size parameters were affected by the assumed chemical composition, forming ratios of these parameters nearly canceled these effects.

Hannik, R. H. J. H., A.J. (2006). Nanostrucutre Control of Materials. ://INSPEC:9560128 The following topics are dealt with: nanotechnology; metal processing; polymer processing; composite processing; ceramics processing; nanomaterials; nanoengineering; steel; aluminium alloys; titanium alloys; metal hydrides; hydrogen storage; energy source; nanopolymers; energy storage devices; bone; nanocomposites; nanostructure materials control; automotive engineering.

Hansen, L. D., J. W. Crawford, et al. (1996). "Calorimetric method for rapid determination of critical water vapor pressure and kinetics of water sorption on hygroscopic compounds." International Journal of Pharmaceutics 135(1-2): 31-42. ://A1996UR53200003 A rapid method for determining the equilibrium water vapor pressure over a hydrate or saturated solution has been developed. The vapor space over the sample in an isothermal, heat conduction calorimeter is titrated with water vapor generated by continuously scanning the temperature of a container of water outside the calorimeter. The rate of heat production in the sample, which is proportional to the late of water sorption by the sample, remains very small until the critical water vapor pressure is reached. The heat rate (phi) increases markedly and is proportional to water vapor pressure above the critical water vapor pressure, The change in d phi/dp(H2O) signals the appearance of a new phase. The method was tested with NaBr, NaHSO4, Na2SO4, NH4Cl and (NH4)(2)SO4 at 24, 34, 44 and 54 degrees C. Critical water vapor pressures determined are all within 2 torr of those predicted from literature data. Delta H values for the reaction with H2O(g), calculated from the temperature dependence of the critical water vapor pressure, are close to the enthalpy change for condensation of water and agree with literature data. In the regions of the titration curve before and after a phase change, the value of (d phi/dp(H2O)) is shown to be equal to the product of the rate constant for water sorption, a function of sample surface properties, and Delta H for the reaction. Values of (d phi/dp(H2O)), both before and after phase transitions, were determined at the four temperatures. The Arrhenius activation energy for water sorption is approximately zero for all the reactions studied.

Hao, B. Y. and S. Avramidis (2001). "Wood sorption fractality in the hygroscopic range. Part I. Evaluation of a modified classic bet model." Wood and Fiber Science 33(1): 119-125. ://000166847700015 A new model for determining the fractal dimension (D) of the internal cell-wall surfaces of klinki pine by using sorption isotherms at a relative vapor pressure range from 0.0 to 0.96 is derived and evaluated. The new model was derived from the classic BET theory based on the assumption that the wood internal surfaces are geometrically complex, rather than flat. The results showed that within cell walls, the wood surface profiles and the sorbed water molecules organization changed under different moisture contents and temperatures. For both desorption and adsorption at all four temperatures, namely, 10, 25, 40, and 55 degreesC, there were at least two distinct fractal dimensions (D < 2 and D > 2) to characterize fractality of internal wood surfaces. Fractal dimensions were larger in adsorption than in desorption for all temperatures, except 10 degreesC, from 13% to 20% moisture content range.

Harder, D. L., C. L. Hurd, et al. (2006). "Comparison of mechanical properties of four large, wave-exposed seaweeds." Am. J. Bot. 93(10): 1426- 1432. http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/10/1426 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Seaweeds/Harder-Comparison- mechanical-2006.pdf Seaweeds have a simple structural design compared to most terrestrial plants. Nonetheless, some species have adapted to the severe mechanical conditions of the surf zone. The material properties of either tissue sections or the whole stipe of four wave- exposed seaweeds, Durvillaea antarctica, D. willana, Laminaria digitata, and L. hyperborea, were tested in tension, bending, and torsion. Durvillaea has a very low modulus of elasticity in tension (Etension = 3-7 MN{middle dot}m-2) and in bending (Ebending = 9- 12 MN {middle dot} m-2), torsion modulus (G = 0.3 MN {middle dot} m-2) and strength ({sigma}brk = 1-2 MN {middle dot} m-2), combining a compliable and twistable stipe "material" with a comparatively high breaking strain ({varepsilon}brk = 0.4-0.6). In comparison, the smaller stipes of Laminaria have a higher modulus of elasticity in tension (Etension = 6-28 MN{middle dot}m-2) and in bending (Ebending = 84-109 MN{middle dot}m-2), similar strength ({sigma}brk = 1-3 MN{middle dot}m-2), and a higher torsion modulus (G = 0.7-10 MN{middle dot}m-2), combined with a lower breaking strain ({varepsilon}brk = 0.2-0.3) than Durvillaea. Time- dependent, viscoelastic reactions were investigated with cycling tests. The tested species dissipated 42-52% of the loading energy in tension through plastic-viscoelastic processes, a finding that bears important ecological implications. Overall, there seems to be no correlation between single material properties and the size or habitat position of the tested seaweed species.

Harrisson, P. M., W. Block, et al. (1990). "MOISTURE AND TEMPERATURE-DEPENDENT CHANGES IN THE CUTICULAR PERMEABILITY OF THE ANTARCTIC SPRINGTAIL PARISOTOMA-OCTOOCULATA (WILLEM)." Revue D Ecologie Et De Biologie Du Sol 27(4): 435-448. ://WOS:A1990GM19000008 This paper provides an introduction to the theories which describe and predict how hygroscopic porous solids dry and discusses their relevance to the drying of Collembola. In the maritime Antarctic, the rate of drying of P. octooculata is highly dependent on both moisture content and air temperature. Besides the cuticular conductances of 16 species of Collembola from various habitats are calculated and compared; as a result the drier the habitat the lower the conductance value.

Harrisson, P. M., P. Rothery, et al. (1991). "DRYING PROCESSES IN THE ANTARCTIC COLLEMBOLAN CRYPTOPYGUS-ANTARCTICUS (WILLEM)." Journal of Insect Physiology 37(12): 883-890. ://WOS:A1991HA77900003 Live and dead specimens of the Antarctic collembolan Cryptopygus antarcticus (Willem) dry, under constant external conditions of temperature (25 or 35-degrees-C) and r.h. (0%), like most hygric soil arthropods. The drying curves of both live and dead specimens have three phases: an initial decrease; a constant rate period and a final falling rate period. The latter is exponential. Cryptopygus dries throughout these phases in a purely physical, passive manner. The constant rate period is not indicative of active metabolic or physiological regulation of water loss. The entire drying curve can be explained using drying theories developed for porous, hygroscopic solids. A similar situation pertains in the Antarctic lichen Umbilicaria antarctica Frey et Lamb. Geometrically, the percentage of water remaining at the onset of the falling rate period is related to the hydrated thickness of the collembolan cuticle or the lichen cortices. For Cryptopygus the hydrated thickness is estimated as 14-mu-m.

Hatakeyama, T. and H. Yagi (1982). "Cell motility (Paramecium) under the influence of electric fields." Transactions of the Institute of Electronics and Communication Engineers of Japan, Section E (English)|Transactions of the Institute of Electronics and Communication Engineers of Japan, Section E (English) E65(12): 707-13. ://INSPEC:2040339 When paramecia are exposed to an AC electric field of appropriate strength, the cells show following characteristic behavior in hay infusion with increasing the frequency; (1) the cells repeat going and returning parallel to the lines of the electric field until the frequency reaches about 1 Hz. (2) the cells perform circular movement with their peristome to direct toward the outside of the circle between 1 Hz to 5 Hz and then (3) do rotational movement between about 5 Hz to 500 Hz. As the frequency of the supplied electric field is increased, (4) the cells become swimming perpendicular to the lines of electric field. Beyond the frequency of 2 kHz, (5) the cells swim freely as if the electric field was not supplied. Cell motility of paramecia under a DC electric field is also examined. On the basis of the results obtained, excitability of the cells exposed to the electric field is discussed

Hawthorn, A. C. and B. D. Opell (2002). "Evolution of adhesive mechanisms in cribellar prey capture thread: evidence for van der Waals and hygroscopic forces." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 77(1): 1-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1095-8312.2002.00099.x AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Hawthorn-Evolution-Adhesive- Mechanisms-2002.pdf Sticky prey capture threads are produced by many members of the spider infraorder . Cribellar threads are plesiomorphic for this clade, and viscous threads are apomorphic. The outer surface of cribellar thread is formed of thousands of fine, looped fibrils. Basal araneomorphs produce non-noded cribellar fibrils, whereas more derived members produce noded fibrils. Cribellar fibrils snag and hold rough surfaces, but other forces are required to explain their adherence to smooth surfaces. Threads of Hypochilus pococki (Hypochilidae) formed of non-noded fibrils held to a smooth plastic surface with the same force under low and high humidities. In contrast, threads of Hyptiotes cavatus and Uloborus glomosus () formed of noded fibrils held with greater force to the same surface at intermediate and high humidities. This supports the hypothesis that van der Waals forces allow non-noded cribellar fibrils to adhere to smooth surfaces, whereas noded fibrils, owing to the hydrophilic properties of their nodes, add hygroscopic forces at intermediate and high humidities. Thus, there appear to have been two major events in the evolution of adhesive mechanisms in spider prey capture thread: the addition of hydrophilic nodes to the fibrils of cribellar threads and the replacement of cribellar fibrils by viscous material and glycoprotein glue. © 2002 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2002, 77, 1–8.

Hawthorn, A. C. and B. D. Opell (2003). "van der Waals and hygroscopic forces of adhesion generated by spider capture threads." J Exp Biol 206(22): 3905-3911. http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/abstract/206/22/3905 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Hawthorn-vander-Waals- Forces-2003.pdf Cribellar thread is the most primitive type of sticky prey capture thread found in aerial spider webs. Its outer surface is formed of thousands of fine fibrils that issue from a cribellum spinning field. The fibrils of primitive cribellar thread are cylindrical, whereas those of derived threads have nodes. Cribellar threads snag on insect setae but also adhere to smooth surfaces. A previous study showed empirically that cylindrical fibrils use only van der Waals forces to stick to smooth surfaces, as their stickiness is the same under different humidity. By contrast, noded fibrils are stickier under high humidity, where they are presumed to adsorb atmospheric water and implement hygroscopic (capillary) adhesion. Here, we model thread stickiness according to these two adhesive mechanisms. These models equate stickiness with the force necessary to overcome the adhesion of fibril contact points in a narrow band along each edge of the contact surface and to initiate peeling of the thread from the surface. Modeled and measured thread stickiness values are similar, supporting the operation of the hypothesized adhesive forces and portraying an important transition in the evolution of spider threads. Cribellar threads initially relied only on van der Waals forces to stick to smooth surfaces. The appearance of fibril nodes introduced hydrophilic sites that implemented hygroscopic force and increased thread stickiness under intermediate and high humidity.

Hedderson, T. A., C. J. Cox, et al. (1999). "Phylogenetic relationships of the Wardiaceae (Musci); Evidence from 18s rRNA and rps4 gene sequences." Bryologist 102(1): 26-31. ://000079833200004 Wardiaceae are a monotypic family of aquatic mosses endemic to the Western Cape province of South Africa. The family is often placed in the Isobryales, usually in or near the Fontinalaceae, although some classifications place it near Rhacocarpus in the Leucodontales. A number of features, including the fused columella-operculum complex and the sporophyte shape, seem at odds with such a placement. We use a molecular data set comprising nuclear-encoded 18s rRNA and chloroplast-encoded rps4 gene sequences to address this problem. Parsimony analyses provide very strong support for the inclusion of among the haplolepideae, and in the rps4 and combined analyses, there is some support for a sister group relationship with Blindia (). This placement is in agreement with features of gametophyte and sporophyte morphology as well as with habitat Air s.e.m. study of the rudimentary peristome of Wardia indicates that peristome morphology is also consistent with such a placement.

Hedderson, T. A., D. J. Murray, et al. (2004). "Phylogenetic relationships of haplolepideous mosses () inferred from rps4 gene sequences." Systematic Botany 29(1): 29-41. ://000189310000004 The haplolepideous mosses (Dicranidae) constitute a large group of ecologically and morphologically diverse species recognised primarily by having peristome teeth with a single row of cells on the dorsal surface. The reduction of sporophytes in numerous moss lineages renders circumscription of the Dicranidae problematic. Delimitation of genera and higher taxa within it has also been difficult. We analyse chloroplast-encoded rps4 gene sequences for 129 mosses, including representatives of nearly all the haplolepideous families and subfamilies, using parsimony, likelihood and Bayesian criteria. The data set includes 59 new sequences generated for this study. With the exception of Bryobartramia, which falls within the Encalyptaceae, the Dicranidae are resolved in all analyses as a monophyletic group including the extremely reduced Archidiales and Ephemeraceae. The monotypic Catoscopium, usually assigned to the Bryidae is consistently resolved as sister to Dicranidae, and this lineage has a high posterior probability under the Bayesian criterion. Within the Dicranidae, a core clade is resolved that comprises most of the species sampled, and all analyses identify a proto-haplolepideous grade of taxa previously placed in various haplolepideous families. The data provide considerable resolution of relationships within the core Dicranidae, yielding a number of well-supported clades. These correspond only roughly to taxa that are currently recognised, and most families and orders of Dicranidae apparently are non-monophyletic under their current circumscriptions.

Hedderson, T. A., D. J. Murray, et al. (2004). "Phylogenetic Relationships of Haplolepideous Mosses (Dicranidae) Inferred from rps4 Gene Sequences." Systematic Botany 29(1): 29-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1600/036364404772973960 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Hedderson-Phylogenetic-Relationships- Haplolepidous.2004.pdf null

Hedenas, L. (2002). "Important complexes of intercorrelated character states in pleurocarpous mosses." Lindbergia 27(3): 104-121. ://BIOSIS:PREV200300168906 Correlations between character states in pleurocarpous mosses are evaluated in order to find those states that are most strongly positively related to each other and which form complexes of three or more characters. The most important such complexes of statistically significantly correlated states, some of which include more than 20 states, are related to the spore capsule and peristome, and to the calyptra. These structures are all important in relation to spore dispersal, which evidently depends on a considerably more intricate set of many co-evolving morphological structures than is the case with any found gametophyte function. The numerous correlations between character states of the spore capsule and peristome underline the importance of considering entire complexes of states when studying spore dispersal and the factors that may be important for the evolution of various capsule and peristome traits. Some of these complexes of states can be explained by the phylogenetic history of the taxa having them. However, both such complexes and those that evolved numerous times and in several groups, as a more direct response to specific habitat factors, are likely to be functional under extant environmental conditions because they are distributed in a non-random way among habitats. Parameters such as wind speed, air humidity, and moisture of substrates for spore germination are likely to be important factors for explaining the function of capsule plus peristome state complexes and calyptra structures. More data on microhabitat parameters, as well as theoretical calculations regarding optimal structures for spore release under various conditions are necessary before we can hope to understand sporophyte function in various environments in more detail. The term 'erect capsule' is suggested to be restricted to cases where the capsules are truly erect, that is, directed upwards, whereas straight or almost straight capsules that are oriented along the same axis as the straight seta should be called 'seta-oriented capsules'. The latter term makes more sense biologically, since most pleurocarps with such capsules have horizontally oriented capsules because they grow on more or less vertical surfaces.

Heidarian, M., A. Mihranyan, et al. (2006). "Influence of water-cellulose binding energy on stability of acetylsalicylic acid." International Journal of Pharmaceutics 323(1-2): 139-145. ://000241346400018 The aim of the present study was to investigate how the energies of water binding in cellulose tabletting excipients influence the availability of moisture to induce hydrolysis of acetylsalisylic acid (ASA). Cellulose powders of varying degree of order, denoted as low-crystallinity cellulose (LCC) and high-crystallinity cellulose (HCC), were produced by treating ordinary microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) in ZnCl2 solutions of varying concentrations. Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) and lactose monohydrate were used as reference excipients. The samples were then studied by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Different ratios of each excipient mixed with ASA were stored at 40% RH and 50 degrees C for 35 days to investigate the hydrolytic stability of the mixtures. Stability studies indicated that as concentration of HCC and MCC in binary mixtures with ASA was raised from 1 to 50% (w/w), ASA became increasingly unstable with respect to hydrolysis. Although LCC contained more moisture than the other celluloses, no such trend was observed in the LCC and lactose samples. DSC analysis revealed that each water molecule on the average was bound by more than three hydrogen bonds in the LCC and lactose structures and therefore remained predominantly unavailable to induce hydrolysis. The current study elucidates the necessity of evaluating the energy of water bindings in a pharmaceutical excipient when predicting the excipient's performance in mixtures comprising moisture-sensitive drugs. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Hekele, O., C. G. Goesselsberger, et al. (2008). "Nanodiagnostics performed on human red blood cells with atomic force microscopy." Materials Science and Technology 24(9): 1162-1165. ://WOS:000259796000016 Atomic force microscopy can yield valuable information concerning basic physical properties as well as alterations of human red blood cells. Erythropoietin is a hormone that is naturally produced in the kidney to stimulate the growth of red blood cells. Administration of genetically engineered synthetic erythropoietin stimulates the production of additional red blood cells. Therefore erythropoietin is used for blood doping in serious sports. The present study aims at investigating any differences in structure and stiffness of red blood cells which are produced body own or with synthetic erythropoietin. The samples are prepared via standard methods, and atomic force spectroscopy with trigger forces of three micronewtons is performed in ambient air. The penetration depth does not reveal statistically relevant differences in the two types of red blood cells. Furthermore, cells with a penetration depth four times as large as healthy ones are encountered in the samples of one donor. Subsequent medical examination revealed a rare type of diabetes. Atomic force spectroscopy shall serve as fast screening method for nanodiagnostics of diseases that alter surface nanomechanical properties.

Hemming, B. L. and J. H. Seinfeld (2001). "On the hygroscopic behavior of atmospheric organic aerosols." Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 40(20): 4162-4171. ://000171261000003 The vapor-liquid equilibrium of organic species and water determines the partitioning of volatile organic species between the gas and aerosol phases in the atmosphere. Essential properties that govern this partitioning are the compounds' vapor pressures and the liquid-phase activity coefficients of the organic species. Key issues include (1) the amount of water absorbed by organic particles, both single-component and multicomponent, as a function of relative humidity and (2) how organic and water partitioning is altered as the relative humidity changes, for a fixed total (gas plus particle) quantity of each organic component. We present here calculations relating to each of these issues for organic molecules that are characteristic of those that have been identified in ambient aerosols. Uncertainties exist in knowledge of vapor pressures of atmospheric organics and in activity coefficients, which are calculated by the UNIFAC method. These uncertainties, the level of which is difficult to estimate because of a lack of appropriate thermodynamic data, can lead to significant uncertainty in predicted gas-aerosol partitioning. Current theories for estimating both vapor pressures and activity coefficients are likely to be improved eventually, but the methods discussed here will probably remain the procedures of choice for the immediate future.

Hepworth, D. G., D. M. Bruce, et al. (2000). "The manufacture and mechanical testing of thermosetting natural fibre composites." Journal of Materials Science 35(2): 293-298. ://WOS:000084943200006 High volume fraction hemp and flax fibre composites were manufactured using low viscosity epoxy and phenolic resins. Using 80% volume fraction of flax fibres in epoxy resin, composites with a mean stiffness of 26 GPa and a mean strength of 378 MPa were produced. By reducing processing damage of the plant fibres mechanical properties could be increased by 40%. Strips of retted fibre tissue were found to be just as effective for reinforcement as fibre bundles and individual fibres. Phenolic resin and decorticated flax fibres produced very poor composites. Using 40% volume fraction of fibres the mean stiffness was 3.7 GPa and the mean strength was 27 MPa. Two fibre pre-treatments were devised to improve adhesion with resins. The first, 6 M urea was used only in natural fibre-epoxy composites where it increased the stiffness but not the strength. The second pre-treatment was a 50% PVA solution, which was cured prior to the addition of space filling resin. The PVA treatment improved the stiffness and strength of both natural fibre-epoxy composites and natural fibre-phenolic composites. (C) 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Hepworth, D. G., J. F. V. Vincent, et al. (2000). "The penetration of epoxy resin into plant fibre cell walls increases the stiffness of plant fibre composites." Composites Part a-Applied Science and Manufacturing 31(6): 599-601. ://WOS:000087080500009 A treatment is described that enables epoxy resin to penetrate into the cell walls of plant fibres. This ensures a very good interface in the cured composites, mimicking the way that interfaces are formed in animal and plant materials. The treatment involves swelling the plant cell walls with urea solution, washing out the excess urea and then replacing the water with alcohol in a graded series. Epoxy resin can then penetrate into the swollen cell wall and mix with the alcohol. The alcohol is probably driven off during curing of the resin. This treatment increased the stiffness of composites made from flax fibres and epoxy resin. (C) 2000 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Hepworth, D. G., J. F. V. Vincent, et al. (2002). "Variations in the morphology of wood structure can explain why hardwood species of similar density have very different resistances impact and compressive loading." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series a- Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences 360(1791): 255-272. ://WOS:000173869100008 A clear relationship has been established between the impact resistance and density of softwoods. However, there are hardwood species that have the same density but very different impact resistance. Softwoods are largely composed of tracheid cells (30-50 mum across); hardwoods have smaller fibre cells and also contain vessels (50-500 mum across). We examined white oak, beech, hickory and spruce. Compressive deformation was identified as the main mechanism for energy absorption in the type of impact test used. The disparate size of different wood cells in the hardwoods results in heterogeneous compressive deformation. During compression, large vessels cause smaller surrounding cells to be deformed more than in regions without vessels, increasing the energy absorbed. However, vessels that are too close together initiate kink banding at low loads and less energy is absorbed. The different morphologies of hardwoods are probably responsible for the variation in impact resistance between species of similar density. Drilling small holes along the grain of spruce, which naturally lacks vessels, mimicked the effect of vessels and did not reduce the energy-absorbing capabilities of the wood, despite the density being reduced. These findings could be used to increase the energy-absorbing capacity of synthetic foam materials.

Hepworth, D. G., J. F. V. Vincent, et al. (2002). "Variations in the Morphology of Wood Structure Can Explain Why Hardwood Species of Similar Density Have Very Different Resistances to Impact and Compressive Loading." Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 360(1791): 255-272. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3066305 AND A clear relationship has been established between the impact resistance and density of softwoods. However, there are hardwood species that have the same density but very different impact resistance. Softwoods are largely composed of tracheid cells (30-50 µm across); hardwoods have smaller fibre cells and also contain vessels (50-500 µm across). We examined white oak, beech, hickory and spruce. Compressive deformation was identified as the main mechanism for energy absorption in the type of impact test used. The disparate size of different wood cells in the hardwoods results in heterogeneous compressive deformation. During compression, large vessels cause smaller surrounding cells to be deformed more than in regions without vessels, increasing the energy absorbed. However, vessels that are too close together initiate kink banding at low loads and less energy is absorbed. The different morphologies of hardwoods are probably responsible for the variation in impact resistance between species of similar density. Drilling small holes along the grain of spruce, which naturally lacks vessels, mimicked the effect of vessels and did not reduce the energy-absorbing capabilities of the wood, despite the density being reduced. These findings could be used to increase the energy-absorbing capacity of synthetic foam materials.

Heringa, G. C. and H. A. Lohr (1926). "An inquiry into the physico-chemical structure of the collagenic substance I On the spiral arrangement and on the so-called hygroscopic torsion of collagenic bundles of tendons." Proceedings of the Koninklijke Akademie Van Wetenschappen Te Amsterdam 29(6/10): 1081-1086. ://000202514400045

Hettiarachchi, G. M., E. Lombi, et al. (2006). "Density changes around phosphorus granules and fluid bands in a calcareous soil." Soil Science Society of America Journal 70(3): 960-966. ://WOS:000237344500029 We employed x-ray computed microtomography (X-ray CT) to observe differences in moisture around fertilizer P granules (monoammonium phosphate, MAP) versus injection zones of fluid P fertilizer (technical grade monoammonium phosphate, TG MAP) in a calcareous soil over time. X-ray CT allows nondestructive visualization of small columns containing soils and fertilizers. We were able to visualize the increase in density around the highly hygroscopic fertilizer granule over time. It appeared that both water flow toward the granule and precipitation of P could be responsible for the development of about I turn thick high density zone immediately adjacent to the grantile. The mass flow of water toward the granule may have slowed or restricted the diffusion of fertilizer P from the granule, thus increasing the chances for P fixation through precipitation reactions. Also, the granule became less dense with time indicating the progress of granule dissolution. In contrast, injection of fluid fertilizer (TG-MAP) in soil did not result in moisture changes over time as evidenced by a lack of X-ray CT detectable density differences in the soil column. These data support previous findings that, when P is supplied in granular form, P diffusion and isotopic lability in calcareous soils are reduced compared with equivalent liquid fertilizer formulations, probably due to precipitation reactions induced by osmotically induced flow of soil moisture into the fertilizer granule.

Higham, T. E. (2007). "The integration of locomotion and prey capture in vertebrates: Morphology, behavior, and performance." Integrative and Comparative Biology 47(1): 82-95. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/content/47/1/82.abstract For most vertebrates, locomotion is a fundamental component of prey capture. Despite this ubiquitous link, few studies have quantified the integration of these complex systems. Several variables related to locomotor performance, including maximum speed, acceleration, deceleration, maneuverability, accuracy, and approach stability, likely influence feeding performance in vertebrates. The relative importance of these measures of performance, however, depends on the ecology of the predator. While factors such as morphology and physiology likely define the limits of these variables, other factors such as motivation of the predator, prey type, and habitat structure can also influence performance. Understanding how these variables relate to feeding under a given suite of ecological conditions is central to understanding predator–prey interactions, and ultimately how locomotion and feeding have co-evolved. The goals of this article are to discuss several variables of locomotor performance related to prey capture, present new data on the relationship between locomotor and feeding morphology in fishes, discuss the evolution of prey capture in cichlid fishes, and outline some future directions for research. While suction feeding is a primary mechanism of prey capture in fishes, swimming is vital for accurately positioning the mouth relative to the prey item. Many fishes decelerate during prey capture using their body and fins, but the pectoral fins have a dominant role in maintaining approach stability. This suggests that fishes employing high-performance suction feeding (relatively small mouth) will have larger pectoral fins to facilitate accurate and stable feeding. I provide new data on the relationship between pectoral fin morphology and maximum gape in centrarchid fishes. For seven species, pectoral fin area was significantly, and negatively, correlated with maximum gape. This example illustrates that the demands from one complex system (feeding) can influence another complex system (locomotion). Future studies that examine the morphological, physiological, and functional evolution of locomotion involved in prey capture by aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates will provide insight into the origin and consequences of diversity.

Higinbotham, N. (1973). "Electropotentials of Plant Cells." Annual Review of Plant Physiology 24(1): 25-46. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.pp.24.060173.000325

Hiller, S., D. M. Bruce, et al. (1996). "Micro-penetration technique for mechanical testing of plant cell walls." Journal of Texture Studies 27(5): 559-587. ://WOS:A1996WP06000005 A close examination of mechanical ''noise'' produced during the cutting of potato tuber parenchyma tissue suggested that the signals reflected the summation of the stretching and breaking of individual cell walls. Replacement of the cutting blade by a thin parallel-sides glass probe, together with the use of very sensitive load- and deflection-transducers, produced a micro-penetration test capable of resolving individual cell-wall stretching and breaking events. The use of such data to provide information about mean cell diameters, cell wall fracture energies and cell wall stiffens, together with associated limitations, is discussed.

Hiller, S. and G. Jeronimidis (1996). "Fracture in potato tuber parenchyma." Journal of Materials Science 31(11): 2779-2796. ://WOS:A1996UT35500001 Experiments have been carried out to assess the fracture behaviour of potato tuber parenchyma tissue from two different varieties (cvs. King Edward and Record) in three different turgor states (turgid, fresh and flaccid). Methods included wedge-penetration fracture tests, razor-blade cutting tests, ball indentation tests and compression tests. Turgor was manipulated by immersion of fresh tissue in osmotica of known concentration, and assessed by means of cell pressure probing. No significant differences in properties were ascribed to the difference in variety. Changes in water status were responsible for appreciable changes in the fracture properties of the tissue. Values of compressive Young's modulus and work of fracture were combined to predict critical crack lengths for different turgor states under given levels of applied stress below the yield stress.

Ho, S. P., M. P. Kurylo, et al. (2010). "The biomechanical characteristics of the bone-periodontal ligament-cementum complex." Biomaterials 31(25): 6635-6646. ://WOS:000280028800031 The relative motion between the tooth and alveolar bone is facilitated by the soft-hard tissue interfaces which include periodontal ligament-bone (PDL-bone) and periodontal ligament-cementum (PDL-cementum). The soft-hard tissue interfaces are responsible for attachment and are critical to the overall biomechanical efficiency of the bone tooth complex. In this study, the PDL-bone and PDL- cementum attachment sites in human molars were investigated to identify the structural orientation and integration of the PDL with bone and cementum. These attachment sites were characterized from a combined materials and mechanics perspective and were related to macro-scale function. High resolution complimentary imaging techniques including atomic force microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and micro-scale X-ray computed tomography (Micro XCT (TM)) illustrated two distinct orientations of PDL; circumferential-PDL (cir-PDL) and radial-PDL (rad-PDL). Within the PDL-space, the primary orientation of the ligament was radial (rad-PDL) as is well known. Interestingly, circumferential orientation of PDL continuous with rad-PDL was observed adjacent to alveolar bone and cementum. The integration of the cir-PDL was identified by 1-2 mu m diameter PDL-inserts or Sharpey's fibers in alveolar bone and cementum. Chemically and biochemically the cir-PDL adjacent to bone and cementum was identified by relatively higher carbon and lower calcium including the localization of small leucine rich proteins responsible for maintaining soft-hard tissue cohesion, stiffness and hygroscopic nature of PDL-bone and PDL-cementum attachment sites. The combined structural and chemical properties provided graded stiffness characteristics of PDL-bone (E-r range for PDL: 10-50 MPa; bone: 0.2-9.6 GPa) and PDL- cementum (E-r range for cementum: 1.1-8.3 GPa), which was related to the macro-scale function of the bone tooth complex. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Ho, S. P., S. J. Marshall, et al. (2007). "The tooth attachment mechanism defined by structure, chemical composition and mechanical properties of collagen fibers in the periodontium." Biomaterials 28(36): 5238-5245. ://WOS:000250860000004 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Ho-Tooth-Attachment-Periodontium-2007.pdf In this study, a comparison between structure, chemical composition and mechanical properties of collagen fibers at three regions within a human periodontium, has enabled us to define a novel tooth attachment mechanism. The three regions include, (1) the enthesis region: insertion site of periodontal ligament (PDL) fibers (collagen fibers) into cementum at the root surface, (2) bulk cementum, and (3) the cementum-dentin junction (CDJ). Structurally, continuity in collagen fibers was observed from the enthesis, through bulk cementum and CDJ. At the CDJ the collagen fibers split into individual collagen fibrils and intermingled with the extracellular matrix of mantle dentin. Under wet conditions, the collagen fibers at the three regions exhibited significant swelling suggesting a composition rich in polyanionic molecules such as glycosaminoglycans. Additionally, site-specific indentation illustrated a comparable elastic modulus between collagen fibers at the enthesis (1-3 GPa) and the CDJ (2-4 GPa). However, the elastic modulus of collagen fibers within bulk cementum was higher (4-7 GPa) suggesting presence of extrafibrillar mineral. It is known that the tooth forms a fibrous joint with the alveolar bone, which is termed a gomphosis. Although narrower in width than the PDL space, the hygroscopic CDJ can also be termed as a gomphosis; a fibrous joint between cementum and root dentin capable of accommodating functional loads similar to that between cementum and alveolar bone. From an engineering perspective, it is proposed that a tooth contains two fibrous joints that accommodate the masticatory cyclic loads. These joints are defined by the attachment of dissimilar materials via graded stiffness interfaces, such as: (1) alveolar bone attached to cementum with the PDL; and (2) cementum to root dentin with the CDJ. Thus, through variations in concentrations of basic constituents, distinct regions with characteristic structures and graded properties allow for attachment and the load bearing characteristics of a tooth. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Holland, N. J., A. G. Miron, et al. (2010). "Biomechanics of the new generation of stapesplasty pistons: Efficiency of the self crimped incudo- prosthesis junction." Hearing Research 263(1-2): 248-249. ://WOS:000278583700083

Hou, J. and G. Jeronimidis (2005). "Finite element aided design evolution of composite leaf spring." Advances in Experimental Mechanics IV: 429-34|xii+445. ://INSPEC:8947097 This paper shows the process of the virtual production development of the mechanical connection between the top leaf of a dual composite leaf spring system to a shackle using finite element methods. The commercial FEA package MSC/MARC has been used for the analysis. In the original design the joint was based on a closed eye-end. Full scale testing results showed that this configuration achieved the vertical proof load of 150 kN and 1 million cycles of fatigue load. However, a problem with delamination occurred at the interface between the fibres going around the eye and the main leaf body. To overcome this problem, a second design was tried using transverse bandages of woven glass fibre reinforced tape to wrap the section that is prone to delaminate. In this case, the maximum interlaminar shear stress was reduced by a certain amount but it was still higher than the material's shear strength. Based on the fact that, even with delamination, the top leaf spring still sustained the maximum static and fatigue loads required, the third design was proposed with an open eye-end, eliminating altogether the interface where the maximum shear stress occurs. The maximum shear stress predicted by FEA is reduced significantly and a safety factor of around 2 has been obtained. Thus, a successful and safe design has been achieved

Hou, J. and G. Jeronimidis (2005). "Finite element aided design evolution of composite leaf spring." Advances in Experimental Mechanics IV 3- 4: 429-434. ://WOS:000238287200064 This paper shows the process of the virtual production development of the mechanical connection between the top leaf of a dual composite leaf spring system to a shackle using finite element methods. The commercial FEA package MSC/MARC has been used for the analysis. In the original design the joint was based on a closed eye-end. Full scale testing results showed that this configuration achieved the vertical proof load of 150 kN and 1 million cycles of fatigue load. However, a problem with delamination occurred at the interface between the fibres going around the eye and the main leaf body. To overcome this problem, a second design was tried using transverse bandages of woven glass fibre reinforced tape to wrap the section that is prone to delaminate. In this case, the maximum interlaminar shear stress was reduced by a certain amount but it was still higher than the material's shear strength. Based on the fact that, even with delamination, the top leaf spring still sustained the maximum static and fatigue loads required, the third design was proposed with an open eye-end, eliminating altogether the interface where the maximum shear stress occurs. The maximum shear stress predicted by FEA is reduced significantly and a safety factor of around 2 has been obtained. Thus, a successful and safe design has been achieved.

Hou, J. P., J. Y. Cherruault, et al. (2005). "Design, testing, and simulation of fibre composite leaf springs for heavy axle loads." Journal of Strain Analysis for Engineering Design 40(6): 497-504. ://WOS:000232622200001 This paper summarizes the design, manufacturing, testing, and finite element analysis (FEA) of glass-fibre-reinforced polyester leaf springs for rail freight vehicles. FEA predictions of load-deflection curves under static loading are presented, together with comparisons with test results. Bending stress distribution at typical load conditions is plotted for the springs. The springs have been mounted on a real wagon and drop tests at tare and full load have been carried out on a purpose-built shaker rig. The transient response of the springs from tests and FEA is presented and discussed.

Hou, J. P., J. Y. Cherruault, et al. (2007). "Evolution of the eye-end design of a composite leaf spring for heavy axle loads." Composite Structures 78(3): 351-358. ://WOS:000244926700005 This paper presents the design evolution process of a composite leaf spring for freight rail applications. Three designs of eye-end attachment for composite leaf springs are described. The material used is glass fibre reinforced polyester. Static testing and finite element analysis have been carried out to obtain the characteristics of the spring. Load-deflection curves and strain measurement as a function of load for the three designs tested have been plotted for comparison with FEA predicted values. The main concern associated with the first design is the delamination failure at the interface of the fibres that have passed around the eye and the spring body, even though the design can withstand 150 kN static proof load and one million cycles fatigue load. FEA results confirmed that there is a high interlaminar shear stress concentration in that region. The second design feature is an additional transverse bandage around the region prone to delamination. Delamination was contained but not completely prevented. The third design overcomes the problem by ending the fibres at the end of the eye section. (c) 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Hou, J. P. and G. Jeronimidis (1999). "Vibration of delaminated thin composite plates." Composites Part a-Applied Science and Manufacturing 30(8): 989-995. ://WOS:000080818200006 Free Vibration tests have been conducted to study the effect of low-velocity impact induced damage consisting of interlaminar delamination accompanied by matrix cracking on the natural frequencies of thin composite laminated circular plates. Local thickening has been identified, for the first time, as one of the important factors that influence the resonant frequencies of a plate after delmination. Two types of finite element models have been developed to simulate the experiments. Results from both the experiments and finite element modelling have been discussed. (C) 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Hou, J. P. and G. Jeronimidis (2000). "Bending stiffness of composite plates with delamination." Composites Part a-Applied Science and Manufacturing 31(2): 121-132. ://WOS:000084873400003 Cross-ply GFRP circular plates have been impacted repeatedly at increasing input energies. The global bending stiffness of each plate was measured before and after each impact through quasi-static bending tests. The effects of local thickening as well as matrix cracking and delamination on global bending stiffness have been discussed. Approximate analytical solutions for bending of damaged and undamaged plates under uniform ring load have been obtained. Two types of models have been used to separate the effects of changes in material and geometrical properties on global bending stiffness. The trends of bending stiffness changes have been successfully simulated by analytical calculations. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Howell, W. E. (1949). "THE GROWTH OF CLOUD DROPS IN UNIFORMLY COOLED AIR." Journal of Meteorology 6(2): 134-149. http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/abs/10.1175/1520-0469%281949%29006%3C0134%3ATGOCDI%3E2.0.CO%3B2 AND http://www.ask- force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Howell-Growth-Cloud-Drops-1949.pdf

Hubbard, D. (1946). "Hygroscopicity and Electrode Function (Ph Response) of Glasses as a Measure of Serviceability." Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards 36(6): 511-520. ://A1946UP05800002

Hubbard, D., M. H. Black, et al. (1951). "Electrode Function (Ph-Response), Hygroscopicity, and Chemical Durability of Soda-Potash-Silica Glasses." Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards 46(3): 168-175. ://A1951UZ36000002

Hubbard, D., M. H. Black, et al. (1950). "Electrode Function (Ph Response), Hygroscopicity, and Chemical Durability of Soda-Lead Oxide-Silica Glasses." Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards 45(5): 430-439. ://A1950UN91300010

Hubbard, D., G. W. Cleek, et al. (1950). "Electrode Function (Ph Response), Hygroscopicity, and Chemical Durability of Na2o-Cao-Sio2 Glasses." Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards 44(3): 247-257. ://A1950UZ35400005

Hung, H. M. and P. Ariya (2007). "Oxidation of oleic acid and oleic acid/sodium chloride(aq) mixture droplets with ozone: Changes of hygroscopicity and role of secondary reactions." Journal of Physical Chemistry A 111(4): 620-632. ://000243705200014 The heterogeneous reactions of oleic acid (OL) and oleic-acid/sodium-chloride(aq) (OL/NaCl(aq)) mixture droplets with ozone are studied at two relative humidities ( RH). The reactions were monitored concomitantly using attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FT-IR) for the organic species and UV-vis spectrometry for the ozone concentration in order to investigate reaction rate discrepancies reported in literature as well as the oxidation mechanism. The less volatile products were identified and resolved by a Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometer (FT-ICR-MS). This led to identification of 13 organic molecules (up to 45 carbons). Identified products were predominantly composed by nananoic acid and azelaic acid. Our results suggest that the propagation reaction is possibly initiated by a secondary reaction such as the stabilized Criegee intermediates reacting with oleic acid. For hygroscopic properties, the ATR-IR spectra at high RH (87 +/- 5%) showed that the hydrophobic oleic acid droplets can take up water slightly when exposed to ozone. For internally mixed OL/NaCl( aq) droplets, the hygroscopic properties of the droplets upon ozone exposure were found to be complex; hygroscopic properties or the growth factors of the droplets are altered as the oxidation products of oleic acid exist concurrently with NaCl(aq). Furthermore, the concentration of ozone was monitored to examine the kinetics of the oxidation reaction. The integrated ozone profile recorded by UV-vis spectrometry showed the consumed ozone represents only 30 +/- 2% of total oleic acid and hence confirmed the existence of secondary reactions. A kinetic model was used to simulate an ozone temporal profile that could only be described if the secondary reactions were included. The discrepancy of ozone uptake coefficients according to the OL and ozone measurements as well as their atmospheric implications are herein discussed.

Huttunen, S., M. S. Ignatov, et al. (2004). "Phylogeny and evolution of epiphytism in the three moss families , Brachytheciaceae, and ." Molecular Systematics of Bryophytes 98: 328-361. ://WOS:000228941800017 The phylogeny of three pleurocarpous moss families, Meteoriaceae. Brachytheciaceae, and Lembophyllaceae was studied using both morphology and molecular data. Phylogenetic analyses using different approaches revealed very similar, well-resolved topologies wherein the Meteoriaceae and Brachytheciaceae are monophyletic and sister to each other. The Lembophyllaceae were found not to be closely related to those families, but to the Neckeraceae. Results suggest several independent origins of epiphytism within these families. Character states that are commonly regarded as adaptations to epiphytism are concentrated oil those clades with epiphytic species. The evolution of certain characters, such as peristomes that open Under humid conditions, seta length, and spore size, is clearly correlated with all epiphytic habit. In phylogenetic analyses, this kind of morphological character could be suspected to lead to biased results if species are grouped based on shared ecological conditions instead of common ancestry. Our study revealed that despite correlated evolution With epiphytism, these characters do not significantly deteriorate the robustness of the hypotheses on relationships between families. However. there may be negative effects oil the phylogenetic reconstruction by increasing homoplasy, as well as incongruence between data partitions, and decreasing the phylogenetic structure. obtained with morphological data.

Ichiura, H., N. Okamura, et al. (2001). "Preparation of zeolite sheet using a papermaking technique - Part II - The strength of zeolite sheet and its hygroscopic characteristics." Journal of Materials Science 36(20): 4921-4926. ://000172237100011 Zeolite has been widely applied to practical processes in various industrial fields as a desiccant, an adsorbent, a molecular sieve, an ion exchanger, a catalyst and so on. It has generally been used in the form of beads or pellets. However, these methods of utilization have some disadvantages such as powdering of the zeolite when particles rub against each other and remarkable pressure losses in reaction towers with increasing gas flow velocities. Zeolite sheets consisting of 10% cotton linters pulp, about 30% ceramic fiber and 60% zeolite were easily prepared using a papermaking technique intending to produce their honeycomb structure. The sheets were ignited at 700 degreesC to remove linters pulp, but they were fragile and brittle. To improve the zeolite sheet strength, alumina sol was used as a binder. Although a very high retention of alumina was achieved by the internal addition method with polymer retention aids, the improvement of sheet strength was not satisfactory. In this case, the added alumina seemed to be located mainly on the outermost surface of the sheet because the retention of alumina occurred through the filtration. On the other hand, soaking of zeolite sheets in the alumina sol increased the sheet strength remarkably. These results suggested that the alumina was distributed in the whole sheet and formed a tight network structure between particles. These procedures are expected to lead to useful zeolite products, which have a potential for new practical uses. (C) 2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Im, J. S., V. K. Saxena, et al. (2001). "An assessment of hygroscopic growth factors for aerosols in the surface boundary layer for computing direct radiative forcing." Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 106(D17): 20213-20224. ://000171044200017 Aerosol optical properties in the southeastern United States were measured at two research sites in close horizontal proximity but at different altitudes at Black Mountain (35.66 degreesN, 82.38 degreesW, 951 m msl) and Mount Gibbes (35.78 degreesN, 82.29 degreesW, 2006 in msl) to estimate the direct radiative forcing in the lowest 1 km layer of the troposphere during the summer of 1998. Measurements of light scattering and light absorption at ambient relative humidity (RH) are categorized by air mass type (polluted continental, marine with some continental influence, continental) according to 48-hour back-trajectory analysis. At a wavelength of 530 nm the average total scattering coefficient (sigma (sp)) measured at the valley site was 1.46 x 10(-4) m(-1) for polluted continental air masses, 7.25 x 10(-5) m(-1) for marine air masses, and 8.36 x 10(-5) m(-1) for continental air masses. The ratio of sigma (sp) at the mountain site to sigma (sp) at the valley site was 0.64, 0.58, and 0.45 for polluted continental, marine, and continental air masses, respectively. The hygroscopic growth factor (sigma (sp)(RH = 80%)/sigma (sp)(RH = 30%)) was calculated to be almost a constant value of 1.60 +/- 0.01 for polluted continental, marine, and continental air masses. As the RH increased from 30% to 80%, the backscatter fraction decreased by 23%. On the basis of these measurements, direct radiative climate forcing (DeltaF(R)) by aerosols in the lowest 1 km layer of the troposphere was estimated. The patterns of DeltaF(R) for various values of RH were similar for the three air masses, but the magnitudes of DeltaF(R)(RH) were larger for polluted continental air masses than for marine and continental air masses by a factor of about 2 due to higher sulfate concentration in polluted continental air masses. The average value of DeltaF(R)(RH = 80%)/DeltaF(R)(RH = 30%) was calculated to be almost a constant value of 1.45 +/- 0.01 for all three types of air masses. This implies little dependence of the forcing ratio on the air mass type. The averaged DeltaF(R) for all the observed ambient RHs, in the lowest 1 km layer during the 3-month summer period, was -2.95 W m(-2) (the negative forcing of -3.24 W m(-2) by aerosol scattering plus the positive forcing of +0.30 W m(-2) by aerosol absorption) for polluted continental air masses, - 1.43 W m(-2) (-1.55 plus +0.12) for marine air masses, and -1.50 W m(-2) (-1.63 plus +0.14) for continental air masses. The DeltaF(R) for polluted continental air masses was approximately twice that of marine and continental air masses. These forcing estimates are calculated from continuous in situ measurements of scattering and absorption by aerosols without assumptions for Mie calculations and global mean column burden of sulfates and black carbon (in g m(-2)) used in most of the model computations.

Imerito, T. (2005). "Nanotechnology: Building from the bottom and building the bottom line." Jom 57(12): 18-23. ://WOS:000234185800002

Imre, L. (1965). "On Mechanism of Shrinkage and Drying in Cylindrical Bodies of Mixtures in Hygroscopic Casings." Periodica Polytechnica- Engineering 9(1): 69-&. ://A19656955100006

Irvine, D. J., K. A. Hue, et al. (2002). "Simulations of cell-surface integrin binding to nanoscale-clustered adhesion ligands." Biophysical Journal 82(1): 120-132. ://WOS:000173250500012 Clustering of ligated integrins strongly influences integrin signaling and mechanical linkages between integrins and intracellular structures. Extracellular spatial organization of integrin ligands in clusters may facilitate clustering of bound integrins and thus potentially regulate cellular responses to a defined average amount of ligand in the extracellular environment. The possible role of such ligand clustering effects in controlling overall receptor occupancy is studied here using a simple mass-action equilibrium model as well as a two-dimensional Monte Carlo lattice description of the cell-substrate interface, where cell surface receptors are free to diffuse in the plane of the interface and interact with the substrate-immobilized ligand. Results from the analytical treatment and simulation data indicate that for a single-state model in which receptor-ligand binding equilibria are not influenced by neighboring complexes, clustering of ligand does not enhance total receptor binding. However, if receptor binding energy increases in the presence of neighboring ligated receptors, strong ligand spatial distribution effects arise. Nonlinear responses to increasing ligand density are also observed even in the case of random ligand placement due to stochastic juxtaposition of ligand molecules. These results describe how spatial distribution of ligand presented by the extracellular matrix or by synthetic biomimetic materials might control cell responses to external ligands, and suggest a feedback mechanism by which focal contact formation might be initiated.

Ishii, K. and Y. Matsumoto (1997). "Influence of sample temperature and hygroscopicity of W-electrode on carbon analytical value in the analysis of low carbon steel by atomic emission spectrometry." Tetsu to Hagane-Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan 83(7): 419-424. ://A1997XJ70300002 In our previous paper concerning the analysis of low carbon steel by atomic emission spectrometry, carbon intensity was found to increase considerably with the rise of sample temperature before discharge and with the time intervals between analyses. However, the mechanism of this intensity rise has not been known. Therefore, we tried to establish a model for this mechanism. The results were as follows. (1) The analytical value of carbon increased 0.2 ppm with 1 degrees C rise in sample temperature before discharge. It is explained from the additional atomic emission; (1)an oxide layer produced on the sample surface was thicker as the sample temperature rose.; (2)carbon monoxide gas (CO gas)was formed through the oxidation of carbon in the sample by the oxide layer(C+O reversible arrow CO). (3)the formed CO gas was introduced in a discharge column and decomposed to C and O to give rise to the carbon intensity. Therefore, to analyze carbon in low carbon steels accurately, the sample temperature before discharge should be adjusted to room temperature. If the sample temperature is higher than room temperature, we must grind the sample again after cooling the sample to lower temperature than room temperature and adjust the sample to room temperature. (2) Carbon intensity increased when the time intervals between analyses were prolonged. It is considered that this increase results from water adhesion to W-electrode; (1)in the time intervals, the dust as by-product of discharge adhered to W-electrode.; (2)as being discharged under this condition, CO2 in water adsorbed to the dust was introduced in discharge column and decomposed to C and O to give rise to carbon intensity. Therefore, to analyze carbon in low carbon steels accurately, we needed to remove the dust adhered to W-electrode by discharge of cleaning or heating of Ar gas as an atmosphere.

Ishizaki, T., J. Hieda, et al. (2009). "Biomimetic materials processing." Proceedings of the SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering: 74040M (12 pp.). ://INSPEC:10925220 A biomimetic super-hydrophobic/super-hydrophilic micro-patterned surface was successfully fabricated by microwave plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (MPECVD) and vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) light lithography. On the micropatterned surface, various site-selective immobilizations were carried out. The fluorescent polystyrene spheres and copper were deposited site- selectively on super-hydrophobic regions using electrostatic interactions. The micropatterned surface brought the discrete adhesions of E. coli and B. subtilis specifically on super-hydrophobic regions. On the other hand, NIH 3T3 fibroblast cells attached to the super-hydrophilic regions in a highly selective manner.

Ito, A. (2000). "Dehumidification of air by a hygroscopic liquid membrane supported on surface of a hydrophobic microporous membrane." Journal of Membrane Science 175(1): 35-42. ://000088290500004 A new type of liquid membrane was developed and used fur the dehumidification of air. This two-layer membrane was a single laminate of a supported liquid membrane of a hygroscopic liquid, triethylene glycol (TEG) or polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG400), and a highly hydrophobic microporous membrane, Durapel. The liquid membrane was supported on the surface of the microporous membrane by its water-repellency and is stable during vacuum operation. The permeability of water vapor and air were independently measured through the liquid membrane. The observed value of water permeability was comparable to hydrophilic polymer membranes and was a slight function of its partial pressure. The selectivity of water vapor with respect to air was over 2000. A dehumidification experiment was conducted using a small Aat-type membrane cell. The humidity of the feed air was successfully removed under a high vacuum mode of operation. The observed dehumidification performances of the liquid membranes were compared with model calculations of cross-flow conditions using the measured permeabilities. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Iwatsuki, Z. and T. Suzuki (2002). "Three new species of Fissidens from Japan." Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory(92): 165-173. ://000178352000005 Three new species of Fissidens from Japan are described. F. neomagofukui Z.Iwats. & Tad.Suzuki, F.pseudoadelphinus Z.Iwats. & Tad.Suzuki and F.fujiensis Tad.Suzuki & Z.Iwats. Fissidens neomagofukui is similar to F diversifolius, but it lacks a limbidium, and its peristome teeth are short and papillose. Fissidens pseudoadoelphinus in compared with F. teysmannianus (= F. adelphinus), but has narrower leaves which are often very asymmetrical, and a costa ceasing far below the apex. Fissidens fujiensis is similar to F. taxifolius, but the cells in the apical lamina are much larger than those in E taxifolius, and have indistinct papillae in the corners.

Jagels, R., B. Seifert, et al. (1988). "ANALYSIS OF WET-SITE ARCHAEOLOGICAL WOOD SAMPLES." Forest Products Journal 38(5): 33-38. ://WOS:A1988N552900007

Jakobsen, D. F., S. Frokjaer, et al. (1997). "Application of isothermal microcalorimetry in preformulation .1. Hygroscopicity of drug substances." International Journal of Pharmaceutics 156(1): 67-77. ://A1997XZ73700008 Isothermal microcalorimetry was evaluated for the determination of the critical relative humidity (cRH) for three drug substances possessing different hygroscopic properties. Two extremely water-soluble substances (flupentixol,2HCl and Lu 25-109, water solubility over 1000 mg/ml) and a hydrophobic substance (sertindole, approximately 10 mu g/ml) were examined. The technique was evaluated with respect to sample size, duration of exposure time and temperature for the substance Lu 25-109, and further tested with the other compounds. The cRH values determined by isothermal microcalorimetry showed results similar to various weighing methods. This, together with the high sensitivity of the technique, which will enable a determination within hours, and the small sample amount needed, makes isothermal microcalorimetry a valuable screening technique for new drug candidates. The temperature effects on the cRH for Lu 25-109 showed a linear van't Hoff plot, but with a heat of interaction with water differing from the enthalpy of water condensation, however. By results obtained from solution calorimetry, this deviation was accounted for by the heat of formation of a saturated solution in the water layer surrounding the solid particles. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science B.V.

James, K. R., N. Haritos, et al. (2006). "Mechanical stability of trees under dynamic loads." Am. J. Bot. 93(10): 1522-1530. http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/10/1522 Tree stability in windstorms and tree failure are important issues in urban areas where there can be risks of damage to people and property and in forests where wind damage causes economic loss. Current methods of managing trees, including pruning and assessment of mechanical strength, are mainly based on visual assessment or the experience of people such as trained arborists. Only limited data are available to assess tree strength and stability in winds, and most recent methods have used a static approach to estimate loads. Recent research on the measurement of dynamic wind loads and the effect on tree stability is giving a better understanding of how different trees cope with winds. Dynamic loads have been measured on trees with different canopy shapes and branch structures including a palm (Washingtonia robusta), a slender Italian cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) and trees with many branches and broad canopies including hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghamii) and two species of eucalypt (Eucalyptus grandis, E. teretecornus). Results indicate that sway is not a harmonic, but is very complex due to the dynamic interaction of branches. A new dynamic model of a tree is described, incorporating the dynamic structural properties of the trunk and branches. The branch mass contributes a dynamic damping, termed mass damping, which acts to reduce dangerous harmonic sway motion of the trunk and so minimizes loads and increases the mechanical stability of the tree. The results from 12 months of monitoring sway motion and wind loading forces are presented and discussed.

Jarvis, L. R. (1975). "SIMPLE METHOD FOR EXPOSING PLASTIC IMBEDDED STRUCTURES FOR SCANNING ELECTRON-MICROSCOPY." Journal of Microscopy-Oxford 105(SEP): 115-117. ://WOS:A1975AZ21800011

Jeong Ho, C. and L. Jun (2005). "Biomimetic application of hierarchically ordered nanoporous silica ceramics." Key Engineering Materials 287: 33-8. ://INSPEC:8685580 This work describes chemically functionalized nanoporous silica as a novel catalyst for the rapid hydrolysis of a phenyl ester. Work demonstrates a very simple and flexible approach to control surface reactivity on the nanometer scale using a self-assembled organic monolayer consisting of polar, (dihydroxyl, carboxyl, ethylene-diamine, and dihydroimidazole), and non-polar (isobutyl) groups. All five functional groups are an essential requirement in preparing an enzyme-like catalyst because of the synergistic effect and hydrophobic partitioning, which has been verified by a /sup 13/C CP-MAS solid-state NMR technique. Catalytic activities were obtained from the catalytic efficiency constant and specificity constant using Michaelis-Menten kinetics. Catalytic activities were close to those of a natural enzyme when 12% of the surface was covered by hydrophobic isobutyl silane. The rate of enzyme catalyzed activity was dependent on the energy of the transition state as defined in terms of an energy barrier derived from the relationship between transfer free energy and specificity constant

Jeong Ho, C. and K. Kyung Ja (2005). "Biomimetic application of tailored mesoporous materials with self-assembled multifunctional monolayers." Proceedings of the SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering: 355-62. ://INSPEC:9760293 This paper describes chemically functionalized mesoporous silica as a novel catalyst for the rapid hydrolysis of a phenyl ester. Work demonstrates a very simple and flexible approach to control surface reactivity on the nanometer scale using a self-assembled organic monolayer consisting of polar, (dihydroxyl, carboxyl, ethylene-diamine, and dihydroimidazole), and non-polar (isobutyl) groups. All five functional groups are an essential requirement in preparing an enzyme-like catalyst because of the synergistic effect and hydrophobic partitioning, which has been verified by a /sup 13/C CP-MAS solid-state NMR technique. Catalytic activities were obtained from the catalytic efficiency constant and specificity constant using Michaelis-Menten kinetics. Catalytic activities were close to those of a natural enzyme when 12% of the surface was covered by hydrophobic isobutyl silane. The rate of enzyme catalyzed activity was dependent on the energy of the transition state as defined in terms of an energy barrier derived from the relationship between transfer free energy and specificity constant.

Jeronimidis, G. (1980). "THE FRACTURE-BEHAVIOR OF WOOD AND THE RELATIONS BETWEEN TOUGHNESS AND MORPHOLOGY." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences 208(1173): 447-&. ://WOS:A1980KC14000006

Jeronimidis, G. (2003). "Smart actuation from coupling between active polymer gels and fibrous structures - Can we learn from biological systems ?" Iutam Symposium on Dynamics of Advanced Materials and Smart Structures 106: 167-176. ://WOS:000186344700017

Jeronimidis, G. (2004). "Biodynamics (Natural dynamic systems, material behaviour and adaptation in architecture and engineering)." Architectural Design(169): 90-95. ://WOS:000222173700013

Jeronimidis, G. (2007). "Biornimetic functionality from fibres." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology a-Molecular & Integrative Physiology 146(4): DOI 10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.01.248|8. ://WOS:000245748600198 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Jernonomidis-Biomimetics-Fibres-2007.pdf

Jeronimidis, G. (2009). "Selected articles form the COST Action E35 2004-2008: Wood machining-micromechanics and fracture." Holzforschung 63(2): 119-119. ://WOS:000263932200001

Jeronimidis, G. and A. G. Atkins (1995). "MECHANICS OF BIOLOGICAL-MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES - NATURES LESSONS FOR THE ENGINEER." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part C-Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science 209(4): 221-235. ://WOS:A1995RU27100001 Biological structures have evolved to fit their purpose and a discussion is given of the materials and engineering reasons for their success. The contrast is made between traditional engineering's extraction of maximum benefit from choice of materials and Nature's extraction of maximum benefit from structural shapes made of in different materials. The issue of integration and continuous optimization from the molecular level up to large structural components is highlighted. The relevance of such principles to engineering design is explored. Biological systems are also intelligent and an exciting possibility is that the engineering designer will be able to make use of materials and structures that are capable of preparing themselves for future events, not merely respond to immediate events. This, and ideas of integrating use with function, will require radical changes in design thought processes.

Jeronimidis, G. and A. T. Parkyn (1988). "RESIDUAL-STRESSES IN CARBON FIBER-THERMOPLASTIC MATRIX LAMINATES." Journal of Composite Materials 22(5): 401-415. ://WOS:A1988N997900002

Jiang, D., A. Bibas, et al. (2007). "Equivalent noise level generated by drilling onto the ossicular chain as measured by laser Doppler vibrometry: A temporal bone study." Laryngoscope 117(6): 1040-1045. ://WOS:000246925000018 Background: Inadvertent drilling on the ossicular chain is one of the causes of sensorineural hearing loss (HL) that may follow tympanomastoid surgery. A high-frequency HL is most frequently observed. It is speculated that the HL is a result of vibration of the ossicular chain resembling acoustic noise trauma. It is generally considered that using a large cutting burr is more likely to cause damage than a small diamond burr. Aim: The aim was to investigate the equivalent noise level and its frequency characteristics generated by drilling onto the short process of the incus in fresh human temporal bones. Methods and Materials: Five fresh cadaveric temporal bones were used. Stapes displacement was measured using laser Doppler vibrometry during short drilling episodes. Diamond. and cutting burrs of different diameters were used. The effect of the drilling on stapes footplate displacement was compared with that generated by an acoustic signal. The equivalent noise level (dB sound pressure level equivalent [SPL eq]) was thus calculated. Results: The equivalent noise levels generated ranged from 93 to 125 dB SPL eq. For a 1-mm cutting burr, the highest equivalent noise level was 108 dB SPL eq, whereas a 2.3-mm cutting burr produced a maximal level of 125 dB SPL eq. Diamond burrs generated less noise than their cutting counterparts, with a 2.3-mm diamond burr producing a highest equivalent noise level of 102, dB SPL eq. The energy of the noise increased at the higher end of the frequency spectrum, with a 2.3-mm cutting burr producing a noise level of 105 dB SPL eq at 1 kHz and 125 dB SPL eq at 8 kHz. In contrast, the same sized diamond burr produced 96 dB SPL eq at 1 kHz and 99 dB at 8 kHz. Conclusion:This study suggests that drilling on the ossicular chain can produce vibratory force that is analogous with noise levels known to produce acoustic trauma. For the same type of burr, the larger the diameter, the greater the vibratory force, and for the same size of burr, the cutting burr creates more vibratory force than the diamond burr. The cutting burr produces greater high-frequency than lower-frequency vibratory energy.

Jin, L. Z., L. Wang, et al. (2006). "Corrosion inhibition of a hygroscopic inorganic dust-depressor." Journal of University of Science and Technology Beijing 13(4): 368-371. ://000242119600016 Metallic corrosion is a serious problem in the application of a hygroscopic inorganic dust-depressor. The basic characteristics of a hygroscopic inorganic dust-depressor and its corrosivity, corrosion mechanism, as well as the principle of corrosion inhibition were analyzed. The static mass-loss test was carried out to investigate the corrosion behavior and the effect of the dust-depressor. The static corrosion rates of steel specimens were measured in six different corrosion inhibitor solutions of the dust-depressor, and the suitable corrosion inhibitors for the dust-depressor to reduce the corrosivity were found out.

Jintu, F. and C. Xiao-Yin (2005). "Heat and moisture transfer with sorption and phase change through clothing assemblies. Part 1: experimental investigation." Textile Research Journal 75(2): 99-105. ://INSPEC:8659002 Part I of this two-part series reports on an experimental investigation of heat and moisture transfer through clothing assemblies consisting of porous fibrous battings sandwiched by inner and outer layers of a thin covering fabric. The experiments are conducted on a novel sweating, guarded hot plate at -20 degrees C. The temperature and water content distribution within the porous fibrous battings are obtained for four combinations of two kinds of fibrous battings (polyester and viscose) and two kinds of covering fabrics (one highly permeable nylon and the other a less permeable laminate. Most of the changes in temperature distribution take place within 30 minutes of the tests, and moisture absorption by the hygroscopic viscose fibers affects the temperature distribution. The water content accumulates with time, and water content is higher at the outer regions than at the inner regions of the battings. The accumulation and distribution of water content is a combined result of moisture absorption, condensation, and liquid water movement. The experimental findings form a basis for the development of a theoretical model to be reported in Part II of the series

John, G., D. Clements- Croome, et al. (2005). "Sustainable building solutions: a review of lessons from the natural world." Building and Environment 40(3): 319-328. ://WOS:000226295200003 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/John-Sustainable-Building-2005.pdf The realisation that much of conventional. modern architecture is not sustainable over the long term is not new. Typical approaches are aimed at using energy and materials more efficiently. However, by clearly understanding the natural processes and their interactions with human needs in view, designers can create buildings that are delightful. functional productive and regenerative by design. The paper aims to review the biomimetics literature that is relevant to building materials and design. Biomimetics is the abstraction of good design from Nature, an enabling interdisciplinary science. particularly interested in emerging properties of materials and structures as a result of their hierarchical organisation. Biomimetics provides ideas relevant to: graded functionality of materials (nano-scale), adaptive response (nano-, micro-. and macro-scales): integrated intelligence (sensing and actuation at all scales), architecture and additional functionality. There are many examples in biology where emergent response of plants and animals to temperature, humidity and other changes in their physical environments is based on relatively simple physical principles. However, the implementation of design solutions which exploit these principles is where inspiration for man-made structures should be. We analyse specific examples of sustainability from Nature and the benefits or value that these solutions have brought to different creatures. By doing this, we appreciate how the natural world fits into the world of sustainable buildings and how as building engineers we can value its true application in delivering sustainable building. (C) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Johnson, E., C. Santulli, et al. (2007). "The morphology and mechanics of Orthopteroidea mechanosensors." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology a-Molecular & Integrative Physiology 146(4): DOI 10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.01.260|20. ://WOS:000245748600210

Johnson, E. A. C., R. H. C. Bonser, et al. (2009). "Recent advances in biomimetic sensing technologies." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 367(1893): 1559-1569. http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1893/1559.abstract AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Johnson-Recent- Advances-Sensing-2009.pdf The importance of biological materials has long been recognized from the molecular level to higher levels of organization. Whereas, in traditional engineering, hardness and stiffness are considered desirable properties in a material, biology makes considerable and advantageous use of softer, more pliable resources. The development, structure and mechanics of these materials are well documented and will not be covered here. The purpose of this paper is, however, to demonstrate the importance of such materials and, in particular, the functional structures they form. Using only a few simple building blocks, nature is able to develop a plethora of diverse materials, each with a very different set of mechanical properties and from which a seemingly impossibly large number of assorted structures are formed. There is little doubt that this is made possible by the fact that the majority of biological ‘materials’ or ‘structures’ are based on fibres and that these fibres provide opportunities for functional hierarchies. We show how these structures have inspired a new generation of innovative technologies in the science and engineering community. Particular attention is given to the use of insects as models for biomimetically inspired innovations.

Johnson, G. R., Z. Ristovski, et al. (2004). "Method for measuring the hygroscopic behaviour of lower volatility fractions in an internally mixed aerosol." Journal of Aerosol Science 35(4): 443-455. ://000221425300002 A tandem differential mobility analyser system combining volatilisation and humidification aerosol conditioning to allow the observation of hygroscopic behaviour for non-volatile residues in sulphate aerosols in real time has been developed and demonstrated. The volatilisation and humidification tandem differential mobility analyser (VH-TDMA) system can measure changes in the hygroscopic behaviour of heterogeneously nucleated aerosol as one or more semi-volatile species are removed through thermal evaporation or decomposition. The VH-TDMA system has the potential to distinguish between submicrometer particles containing residues of differing volatility and hygroscopic growth and can do so for residue diameters as small as 5 nm. The technique has the potential to distinguish between components such as sea salt and combustion-derived particles within submicrometer sulphate aerosols and will find application in marine and combustion aerosol research investigating nucleation, coagulation and secondary aerosol fort-nation processes. Hygroscopic growth and volatility data measured with the system are presented for di-2-ethylhexyl-sebacate, sodium chloride, ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulphate, sulphuric acid, ammonium bisulphate and methane sulphonic acid, as single aerosol species for comparison with values reported by other authors. Results of investigations of aerosols containing mixtures of two species are also presented. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Johnson, G. R., Z. D. Ristovski, et al. (2005). "Hygroscopic behavior of partially volatilized coastal marine aerosols using the volatilization and humidification tandem differential mobility analyzer technique." Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 110(D20). ://000233106300001 Coastal marine nucleation, Aitken, and accumulation mode aerosol particles with back trajectories indicative of marine origin were examined using a volatilization and humidification tandem differential mobility analyzer (VHTDMA) to reveal the volatilization temperatures of the various component species. The diameter hygroscopic growth factors of the residue particles were continually examined throughout the volatilization process. In each of the three modes the dominant particle type appeared to be composed of the same four physicochemically distinct species though in different ratios. These species exhibited volatility and hygroscopic behavior consistent with combinations of a volatile organic species, sulfuric acid, ammonium sulfate or bisulfate, iodine oxide, and an insoluble nonvolatile residue. The Aitken and accumulation mode aerosols contain large fractions of the insoluble, volatile, organic-like material, and the volatilization of this species results in a distinct increase in the water volume uptake of the particles. Of the four distinct species, only the sulfuric acid-like species constituted an increasing volume fraction with decreasing particle size. This finding indicates that nucleation mode particles constitute an acidic seed and as such would undergo acid-catalyzed secondary organic aerosol growth at a faster rate. The lack of a nonvolatile hygroscopic residue consistent with sea salt in these particles implies that the aerosolization of seawater is not the dominant production mechanism for these submicrometer coastal marine aerosols.

Jokisch, F. and W. Kast (1973). "CAPILLARY WATER MOVEMENT IN HYGROSCOPIC RANGE IN TECHNICAL ADSORBENTS." Chemie Ingenieur Technik 45(22): 1321-1321. ://WOS:A1973R350500014

Jokisch, F. and W. Kast (1974). "CAPILLARY WATER MOVEMENT IN HYGROSCOPIC RANGE IN TECHNOLOGICAL ADSORBENTS." Chemie Ingenieur Technik 46(4): 168-168. ://WOS:A1974S205000031

Joly, B. and B. Fonters (2007). "Morphotypes, polymorphism and peristome in the species of the genus Holcophylloceras SPATH, 1927. Hypothesis of the dimorphism in the species Holcophylloceras zignodianum (d'ORBIGNY, 1848)." Bulletin De La Societe Geologique De France 178(3): 217-229. ://WOS:000248291200005 The genus Holcophylloceras SPATH, 1927, including especially a majority of Jurassic species and some rare lower Cretaceous species, is easy to distinguish from other genera with constrictions such as Calliphylloceras SPATH, 1927 or Sowerbyceras PARONA & BONARELLI, 1895. In the genus Holcophylloceras the constrictions are clearly sigmoid or falcoid. Both characteristics can be observed on the same specimen. In the genus Calliphylloceras the constrictions are falcoid while they are sigmoid on Sowerbyceras. Actually these genera are closely allied and they represent evolutionary stages in a lineage characterized by more or less growth alteration. The lineage origin probably exists among Liassic Phylloceras. The genus Calliphylloceras shows a small growth alteration, while it is maximal in Sowerbyceras and it is intermediate in Holcophylloceras. This note shows that species of the genus Holcophylloceras are also characterized by three morphotypes: prae-caucasica. calicasica and nausikaae; these morphotypes do not characterize any particular species. The first and the second morphotypes could be an adaptation to live in deep waters. They probably give more solidity to the shell. The initial object of this note was to study again all the morphotypes of the genus Holcophylloceras with a new material collected in the oxfordian "Terres noires". The authors of this note have studied the relations between the morphotypes prae-caucasica, caucasica and the peristome of Holcophylloceras. Does the peristome study permit to envisage the existence of dimorphic couples? (sexual dimorphism?). The result has been disappointing. On the other hand many microconchs and macroconchs have been identified. In particular with zignodianum-mediterraneum it is possible to identify the "male form" (zignodianum = microconch) and the "female form" (mediterraneum = macroconch) which confirms the intuition of Beznosov [1958] by an other approach to the problem. Many authors asked them if they had to separate the forms with sigmoid constrictions from those with falcoid constrictions. It seems now, there is no doubt and both species zignodianum-mediterraneum have to be joined in the same taxon zignodianum which has priority over mediterraneum. Last result of this study is the justification of the genus Holcophylloceras created by Spath.

Jordanov, N. and R. Zellner (2006). "Investigations of the hygroscopic properties of ammonium sulfate and mixed ammonium sulfate and glutaric acid micro droplets by means of optical levitation and Raman spectroscopy." Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 8(23): 2759-2764. ://000238130000013 In the presented work an optical levitation technique performed by means of a focused laser beam, Mie and Raman spectroscopy have been utilized for measuring hygroscopic growth curves and composition of laboratory generated single ammonium sulfate (AS) and internally mixed ammonium sulfate-glutaric acid (GA) droplets in the micrometer range. The generated particles have been found to immediately supersaturate (above 45wt% for AS) at 297 K after capturing in the laser beam. Further increase of the relative humidity (RH) up to 85% does not dilute the droplets under the saturation point. A spontaneous hygroscopic growth takes place at 73.5-78% RH for pure AS. The particle grows with an average factor of 1.62 at the deliquescence relative humidity (DRH). Efflorescence of AS occurs at 43% RH with a corresponding concentration of more than 85wt%. Independent of the mixing ratios in ranges 25/75, 50/50, 75/25% AS/GA mixed particles don't exist as a metastable supersaturated solution droplets in the 35-85% RH range. Instead of growing with increasing relative humidity internally mixed particles build up a solid crystalline layer on the surface. This crystalline phase is not further influenced by ambient relative humidities.

Jou, J. H., R. Huang, et al. (1991). "Structure Effect on Water Diffusion and Hygroscopic Stress in Polyimide Films." Journal of Applied Polymer Science 43(5): 857-875. ://A1991GB22800003 A bending-beam technique has been used to in situ monitor the diffusion of water in various polyimide films. The polyimides studied are pyromellitic dianhydride-4,4'-oxydianiline (PMDA-ODA), pyromellitic dianhydride-p-phenylenediamine (PMDA-PDA), and 3,3',4,4'-benzophenone tetracarboxylic dianhydride-p-phenylenediamine (BPDA-PDA), and their blends and random copolymers. The diffusion of water in these films obeys Fick's law. In PMDA-ODA, the mean diffusion constant is 5.2 +/- 0.4 X 10(-9) (cm2/s) for thicknesses ranging from 6.7 to 27.3-mu-m. In PMDA-PDA, it is 2.0 +/- 0.4 X 10(-9) (cm2/s) for thicknesses ranging from 7.3 to 20.0- mu-m, and in BPDA-PDA, 0.27 +/- 0.02 X 10(-9) (cm2/s) for thicknesses ranging from 4.8 to 21.0-mu-m. In the blends and random copolymer with 50 wt % PMDA-ODA and 50 wt % PMDA-PDA, the diffusion constants are slightly smaller than those in the pure PMDA-ODA, but much larger than in the pure PMDA-PDA. On the contrary, in those with 50 wt % BPDA-PDA and 50 wt % PMDA- PDA, the diffusion constants are much smaller than those in the pure PMDA-PDA, but slightly larger than in the pure BPDA-PDA. These diffusion constants are primarily affected by the chemical structure of the imide molecule. The morphology, such as crystallinity, of the films has played a secondary factor. Hygroscopic stresses due to water uptake in all the studied films increase as the film thickness increases. It can be attributed to that the film orientation decreases with the increase of thickness.

Jung, Y. C. and B. Bhushan (2009). "Wetting Behavior of Water and Oil Droplets in Three-Phase Interfaces for Hydrophobicity/philicity and Oleophobicity/philicity." Langmuir 25(24): 14165-14173. ://WOS:000272394400062 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Jung-Wetting-Behaviour-2009.pdf Biomimetics, mimicking nature for engineering solutions, provides a model for the development of superhydrophobic/superoleophobic and self-cleaning surfaces. A number of biomimetic superhydrophobic surfaces have been developed by using a hydrophobic coating, surface roughness, and the ability to form air pockets between solid and water. Oleophobic surfaces that have the potential for self-cleaning and antifouling from biological and organic contaminants in both air and water need to be studied. The surface tension of oil and organic liquids is lower than that of water, so to create a superoleophobic surface, the surface energy of the solid surface in air should be lower than that of oil. The wetting behavior of water and oil droplets for hydrophobic/philic and oleophobic/philic surfaces in three-phase interfaces was studied. In order to make the surface oleophobic at a solid-air-oil interface, a material with a surface energy lower than that of oil was used. In underwater applications, the oleophobicity/philicity of an oil droplet in water was studied on the surfaces with different surface energies of various interfaces and contact angles of water and oil droplets in air. A model For predicting the contact angles of water and oil droplets was proposed. To validate the model, the wetting behavior of flat and micropatterned surfaces with varying pitch values Were Studied. Furthermore, the wetting behavior of the nano- and hierarchical structures found in Lotus plant surfaces and the shark skin replica as an example of aquatic animal were also studied. On the basis of the experimental data and the model, the trends were explained.

Jung, Y. C. and B. Bhushan (2010). "Biomimetic structures for fluid drag reduction in laminar and turbulent flows." Journal of Physics- Condensed Matter 22(3). ://WOS:000273055400008 Biomimetics allows one to mimic nature to develop materials and devices of commercial interest for engineers. Drag reduction in fluid flow is one of the examples found in nature. In this study, nano, micro, and hierarchical structures found in lotus plant surfaces, as well as shark skin replica and a rib patterned surface to simulate shark skin structure were fabricated. Drag reduction efficiency studies on the surfaces were systematically carried out using water flow. An experimental flow channel was used to measure the pressure drop in laminar and turbulent flows, and the trends were explained in terms of the measured and predicted values by using fluid dynamics models. The slip length for various surfaces in laminar flow was also investigated based on the measured pressure drop. For comparison, the pressure drop for various surfaces was also measured using air flow.

Jungnikl, K., J. Goebbels, et al. (2009). "The role of material properties for the mechanical adaptation at branch junctions." Trees-Structure and Function 23(3): 605-610. ://WOS:000266394100016 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Jungnikl-Role-Material-Properties-2009.pdf Branch junctions are mechanically particularly interesting areas of trees, because they have to withstand a combination of static and dynamic loads, from the stem as well as from the branch. In the present work, the local adaptation of material properties at branch junctions was assessed by mapping microfibril angle and tissue density. Images of the density distribution were obtained by computer tomography (CT). Wide angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) was used to determine the microfibril angle distribution with high- resolution around the junctions. The stem tissue around the junctions showed increased density and microfibril angle, which points towards an optimisation for fracture toughness. The tissue at the branch bases showed low density combined with high MFA, which provides deformability and flexibility and might act as protection of the stem against load transmission from the branch.

Jungnikl, K., G. Koch, et al. (2008). "A comprehensive analysis of the relation of cellulose microfibril orientation and lignin content in the S2 layer of different tissue types of spruce wood (Picea abies (L.) Karst.)." Holzforschung 62(4): 475-480. ://WOS:000257273000017 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Jungnikl-Comprehensive-Analysis-2008.pdf A possible relation between cellulose microfibril angle and lignin content in the S2 layer was investigated by X-ray diffraction and cellular UV microspectrophotometry on spruce tissues [Picea abies] with different structural features and chemical composition. A strong correlation was not found, neither for the individual tissue types nor for the compiled data of all tissues. As the data did not confirm the findings in former studies, further examinations are necessary concerning a possible general interrelation between microfibril angle and lignin content.

Jungnikl, K., O. Paris, et al. (2008). "The implication of chemical extraction treatments on the cell wall nanostructure of softwood." Cellulose 15(3): 407-418. ://WOS:000255398700005 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Jungnikl-Implication-Chemical-2007.pdf Spruce wood was subjected to well-defined extraction treatments with sodium chlorite (NaClO2) for delignification, as well as with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) at different concentrations for extraction of hemicelluloses. The corresponding changes of the macromolecular polymer assembly were investigated by small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). Measurements with Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and wide-angle scattering (WAXS) gave qualitative information about the effectiveness of the extraction process, while the scattering experiments provided information about the regularity and typical dimensions of the molecular structures. The scattering data indicated that delignification had only a moderate effect on the structural organisation of the cell wall, while further extraction with NaOH induced considerable nanostructural changes.

Kai, A. and P. Xu (1991). "Characteristic Hygroscopicity of Bacterial Cellulose Fluorescent Brightener Complex." Kobunshi Ronbunshu 48(7): 419- 424. ://A1991GA31200004 The relation between the structure and hygroscopicity of cellulose-brightener complex and the Cell I, which was regenerated from the complex by dye-extraction, was examined by the vapor phase deuteration-IR spectroscopy method. In 60 min, 37% of the OH groups of bacterial cellulose was deuterated. In contrast, 80 approximately 90% of the OH groups of cellulose in the complex was deuterated in 5 min. A 43.1% portion of the OH groups of regenerated Cell I was deuterated in 5 min and 48.6% in 60 min. The OH groups of the complex showed a broad peak at near 3400 cm-1. In the spectrum, however, absorptions due to intramolecular- and intermolecular-hydrogen bonding, which appeared in that of bacterial cellulose, were not observed. The OD groups of the complex also showed a broad peak at 2517 cm-1, but no absorptions due to intramolecular- and intermolecular-hydrogen bonding appeared. In the OH region, an absorption due to the intramolecular-hydrogen bonding at 3345 cm-1 appeared, indicating the regeneration of Cell I, but the band was broad owing to low crystallinity. The increase in hygroscopicity of the complex is thus attributable to the inclusion of the brightener between the mono-molecular cellulose sheets corresponding to the (110BAR) plane thereby preventing the direct binding of the sheets.

Kaku, K. C., D. A. Hegg, et al. (2006). "Organics in the Northeastern Pacific and their impacts on aerosol hygroscopicity in the subsaturated and supersaturated regimes." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 6: 4101-4115. ://000240490000001 Aerosol samples were collected by aircraft during the summer of 2004 in the Northeastern Pacific and compared to measurements of aerosol hygroscopicity. Chemical speciation analyses of the samples revealed that a significant portion of the marine aerosols was organic, and on average 8% of the total aerosol mass was insoluble organic material, tentatively attributed to natural marine emissions. Two chemical models were explored in an attempt to achieve closure between the marine aerosol chemical and physical properties through reproduction of the observed aerosol growth, both in the subsaturated and supersaturated regimes. Results suggest that at subsaturated relative humidities, the nonideal behavior of water activity with respect to aerosol chemistry has an important effect on aerosol growth. At supersaturations, the underprediction of critical supersaturations by all models suggests the hypothesis that formation of a complete monolayer by the insoluble organics may inhibit the activation of aerosols to form cloud droplets.

Kanade, P. B. and J. S. Pai (1988). "Moisture Sorption Method for Hygroscopic Samples Using a Modified Proximity Equilibration Cell." Journal of Food Science 53(4): 1218-1219. ://A1988P675300053

Kaneto, K. (2006). "Soft and wet devices using organic materials-soft actuators." Oyo Buturi 75(3): 318-21. ://INSPEC:9107196 A living material that grows by itself in atmospheric conditions is flexible and works efficiently in wet ones. Biomimicking materials and devices are new technologies geared toward energy conservation and environment preservation. Artificial muscles or soft actuators using the electrochemical redox reaction of conducting polymers are developed almost to the level of performance of natural muscles. A contraction ratio of 26 %, a force of 20 MPa and a rate of 10 % / s are attained, although the cycle life and contraction rate still have to be improved for practical use. In this article, the mechanisms of conducting polymer muscles and their current status are discussed

Kang, W., W. Y. Chung, et al. (2008). "Some considerations in heterogeneous nonisothermal transport models for wood: a numerical study." Journal of Wood Science 54(4): 267-277. ://WOS:000258579000001 This study compares a number of coupled heat and mass transfer models and presents numerical comparisons of phenomenological coefficients between the four models (Stanish, Perre, Pang, and Avramidis) that are most frequently used in the literature to describe wood-drying processes. The USDA sorption isotherm, the Hailwood-Horrobin model, was adopted to calculate the relations between moisture content in wood and water vapor pressure at any temperature. Due to different assumptions about the driving forces of heat and mass transfer, coefficients in each model represent different values for moisture content and temperature and are closely related to each other. In the case of isothermal mass transfer, the moisture diffusion coefficient in the transverse directions from the Stanish and Pang models increased with decreasing moisture content. This contradicts the Avramidis and Perre models and numerous experimental results. Thermal diffusion effects on the drying process may not be predominant because the nonisothermal state is relatively short. Therefore, the Perre model, which does not consider the thermal diffusion effect, has been used successfully in the drying simulation. However, it may be erroneous in certain cases when the nonisothermal state prevails over the system, such as building physics. The Pang model cannot explain the phenomena of thermal diffusion and moisture thermodiffusion. It might be reasonable to modify the thermal diffusion of the Avramidis model, which is lower than that of the Stanish model. The apparent heat diffusivity was higher than the true heat diffusivity.

Karaolis, N. M., G. Jeronimidis, et al. (1989). "Composite wind turbine blades: coupling effects and rotor aerodynamic performance." EWEC '89. European Wind Energy Conference and Exhibition|EWEC '89. European Wind Energy Conference and Exhibition: 244-8 vol.1|2 vol. xxx+1063. ://INSPEC:3876563 The authors discuss a method of passive aerodynamic control using blades whose bending and torsional stiffnesses are comparable with equivalent commercial designs. It is achieved using composite blades whose load-carrying laminated skins are laid up asymmetrically relative to the spanwise blade axis so as to couple one of the loads experienced by the blade in normal operation with twisting. One design option provides bending-twisting coupling where twist is induced due to the action of the bending aerodynamic loads on the blade. This is relevant to both vertical and horizontal axis rotors. Stretching-twisting coupling is another option applicable to horizontal axis rotors to induce blade twist using the stretching centrifugal force

Kardomateas, G. A. and C. B. Chung (1994). "Boundary-Layer Transient Hygroscopic Stresses in Orthotropic Thick Shells under External- Pressure." Journal of Applied Mechanics-Transactions of the Asme 61(1): 161-168. ://A1994NE37100024 An exact elasticity solution is obtained for the stresses and displacements in an orthotropic cylinderical shell loaded by an external pressure under imposed constant moisture concentrations on the inner and outer surfaces. The material properties are assumed moisture independent and a displacement approach is used. Since the moisture diffusion process is relatively slow, the hygroscopic stresses are confined for practical time values to a boundary layer region near the surfaces. Illustrative results are presented for graphite-epoxy material regarding the boundary layer hyperscopic on the stress field with respect to time and the coupling of mechanical loading (external pressure) and moisture diffusion. For this material, it is shown that this effect is more pronounced for the axial component of stress.

Kawakami, K., Y. Ida, et al. (2005). "Effect of salt type on hygroscopicity of a new cephalosporin S-3578." Pharmaceutical Research 22(8): 1365- 1373. ://000230990900018 Purpose. Effect of salt type on hygroscopicity was evaluated using S-3578 salts. Methods. The hydration behavior of a sulfate and a nitrate salt of S-3578 were evaluated by powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), simultaneous measurement of PXRD-differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), moisture sorption analysis, simultaneous measurement of thermogravimetric/differential thermal analyses, and solid state C-13-nuclear magnetic resonance (C-NMR). Results. The sulfate salt incorporated two types of lattice water to form a monohydrate or a trihydrate. Additional water could also be absorbed as channel water to expand the lattice structure. The activation energy for dehydration was very high, probably due to steric hindrance in the lattice structure. The nitrate salt incorporated only one water molecule per compound as the lattice water. The additional water was absorbed as channel water as observed for the sulfate salt. X-ray diffractograms showed little dependence on the salt type under the ambient condition. The hydration number was likely to be affected by the size of the counter acids. Conclusions. The hygroscopicity of S-3578 salts was significantly altered by the salt type. The difference in the amount of the lattice water could be explained in terms of the difference in the molecular size of the counter acids.

Keckes, J., I. Burgert, et al. (2003). "Cell-wall recovery after irreversible deformation of wood." Nature Materials 2(12): 810-814. ://WOS:000186843800018 The remarkable mechanical properties of biological materials reside in their complex hierarchical architecture and in specific molecular mechanistic phenomena(1-3). The fundamental importance of molecular interactions and bond recovery has been suggested by studies on deformation and fracture of bone and nacre(4-6). Like these mineral-based materials, wood also represents a complex nanocomposite with excellent mechanical performance, despite the fact that it is mainly based on polymers. In wood, however, the mechanistic contribution of processes in the cell wall is not fully understood(7-9). Here we have combined tensile tests on individual wood cells and on wood foils with simultaneous synchrotron X-ray diffraction analysis in order to separate deformation mechanisms inside the cell wall from those mediated by cell-cell interactions. We show that tensile deformation beyond the yield point does not deteriorate the stiffness of either individual cells or foils. This indicates that there is a dominant recovery mechanism that re-forms the amorphous matrix between the cellulose microfibrils within the cell wall, maintaining its mechanical properties. This stick-slip mechanism, rather like Velcro operating at the nanometre level, provides a 'plastic response' similar to that effected by moving dislocations in metals. We suggest that the molecular recovery mechanism in the cell matrix is a universal phenomenon dominating the tensile deformation of different wood tissue types.

Keunecke, D., M. Eder, et al. (2008). "Micromechanical properties of common yew (Taxus baccata) and Norway spruce (Picea abies) transition wood fibers subjected to longitudinal tension." Journal of Wood Science 54(5): 420-422. ://WOS:000260150000012 The longitudinal modulus of elasticity of common yew is astonishingly low in light of its high raw density. At least this was found for specimens examined at the solid wood level and at the tissue level. However, to reveal if this low axial stiffness is also present at the cellular level, tensile tests were performed on individual yew fibers and on spruce fibers for reference. The results revealed a low stiffness and a high strain to fracture for yew when compared with spruce. This compliant behavior was ascribed to a relatively high microfibril angle of yew measured by X-ray scattering. It can be concluded that the high compliance of yew observed at higher hierarchical levels is obviously controlled by a structural feature present at the cell wall level. In future studies, the biomechanical function of this compliant behavior for the living yew tree would be of particular interest.

Klazenga, N. (2006). "Holomitrium trichopodum (Bryophyta, Dicranaceae), a Holomitrium with split peristome teeth from Australia and New Zealand." Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory(100): 293-303. ://000240473700019 Results of cladistic analyses of both ITS and trnL-trnF sequences, as well as peristome structure, suggest that the species currently recognised as Dicranoloma trichopodum (Mitt.) Broth. is affiliated to Holomitrium. A new combination, Holomitrium trichopodum (Mitt.) Klazenga, is proposed.

Kluwer, A. M., R. Kapre, et al. (2009). "Self-assembled biomimetic [2Fe2S]-hydrogenase-based photocatalyst for molecular hydrogen evolution." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106(26): 10460-10465. ://WOS:000267564300015 The large-scale production of clean energy is one of the major challenges society is currently facing. Molecular hydrogen is envisaged as a key green fuel for the future, but it becomes a sustainable alternative for classical fuels only if it is also produced in a clean fashion. Here, we report a supramolecular biomimetic approach to form a catalyst that produces molecular hydrogen using light as the energy source. It is composed of an assembly of chromophores to a bis(thiolate)-bridged diiron ([2Fe2S]) based hydrogenase catalyst. The supramolecular building block approach introduced in this article enabled the easy formation of a series of complexes, which are all thoroughly characterized, revealing that the photoactivity of the catalyst assembly strongly depends on its nature. The active species, formed from different complexes, appears to be the [Fe-2(mu-pdt)(CO)(4){PPh2(4-py)}(2)] (3) with 2 different types of porphyrins (5a and 5b) coordinated to it. The modular supramolecular approach was important in this study as with a limited number of building blocks several different complexes were generated.

Koch, K. and W. Barthlott (2009). "Superhydrophobic and superhydrophilic plant surfaces: an inspiration for biomimetic materials." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 367(1893): 1487-1509. http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1893/1487.abstract AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Koch- Superhydrophobic-2009.pdf The diversity of plant surface structures, evolved over 460 million years, has led to a large variety of highly adapted functional structures. The plant cuticle provides structural and chemical modifications for surface wetting, ranging from superhydrophilic to superhydrophobic. In this paper, the structural basics of superhydrophobic and superhydrophilic plant surfaces and their biological functions are introduced. Wetting in plants is influenced by the sculptures of the cells and by the fine structure of the surfaces, such as folding of the cuticle, or by epicuticular waxes. Hierarchical structures in plant surfaces are shown and further types of plant surface structuring leading to superhydrophobicity and superhydrophilicity are presented. The existing and potential uses of superhydrophobic and superhydrophilic surfaces for self-cleaning, drag reduction during moving in water, capillary liquid transport and other biomimetic materials are shown.

Koch, K., B. Bhushan, et al. (2009). "Multifunctional surface structures of plants: An inspiration for biomimetics." Progress in Materials Science 54(2): 137-178. ://WOS:000263210600001 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Koch-Multifunctional-surface-2009.pdf Biological surfaces provide multifunctional interfaces to their environment. More than 400 million years of land plants evolution led to a large diversity of functional biological surface structures. This article provides an overview of the most frequently functional surface structures of plants, It focuses on functional adaptations of plant surface structures to environmental conditions. The structural and functional relationships of plants growing in deserts, water and wetlands are discussed. The article is written for both biologists and non-biologists and should stimulate the readers to initiate or intensify the study of functional biological surfaces and their potential for technical use, leading to, so called, biomimetic inspired smart surfaces. For a broader understanding of the structural diversity in plants, the origin of surface structuring is introduced from the sub-cellular level up to multi-cellular structures. Functional aspects of plant surface structures include the reduction of particle adhesion and the self-cleaning properties in the Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) leaves. These surface properties are based on physico-chemical principles and can be transferred into technical "biomimetic" materials, as successfully done for the Lotus leaves. In plants, several other functional structures, e.g., for the absorption of water or light reflection, exist. Some, which might be useful models for the development of functional materials, are introduced here and some existing technical applications and fabrication techniques for the generation of biomimetic surfaces are discussed. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Koehler, K. A., S. M. Kreidenweis, et al. (2006). "Water activity and activation diameters from hygroscopicity data - Part II: Application to organic species." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 6: 795-809. ://000235902300002 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Koehler-Water-Activity-Activation-2006.pdf A method has been developed for using particle hygroscopicity measurements made with a humidified tandem differential mobility analyzer (HTDMA) to determine water activity as a function of solute weight percent. In Part I, the method was tested for particles composed of sodium chloride and ammonium sulfate. Here, we report results for several atmospherically-relevant organic species: glutaric acid, malonic acid, oxalic acid and levoglucosan. Predicted water activities for aqueous dicarboxylic acid solutions are quite similar in some cases to published estimates and the simplified predictions of Kohler theory, while in other cases substantial differences are found, which we attribute primarily to the semivolatile nature of these compounds that makes them difficult to study with the HTDMA. In contrast, estimates of water activity for levoglucosan solutions compare very well with recently-reported measurements and with published data for aqueous glucose and fructose solutions. For all studied species, the critical dry diameters active at supersaturations between 0.2 and 1% that are computed with the HTDMA-derived water activities are generally within the experimental error (similar to 20%) estimated in previously-published direct measurements using cloud condensation nuclei counters. For individual compounds, the variations in reported solution water activity lead to uncertainties in critical dry diameters of 5-25%, not significantly larger than the uncertainty in the direct measurements. To explore the impact of these uncertainties on modeled aerosol-cloud interactions, we incorporate the variations in estimates of solution water activities into the description of hygroscopic growth of aerosol particles in an adiabatic parcel model and examine the impact on the predicted drop number concentrations. For the limited set of initial conditions examined here, we find that the uncertainties in critical dry diameters for individual species lead to 0-21% changes in drop number concentration, with the largest effects at high aerosol number concentrations and slow updraft velocities. Ammonium sulfate, malonic acid and glutaric acid have similar activation behavior, while glutaric acid and levoglucosan are somewhat less hygroscopic and lead to lower drop number concentrations; sodium chloride is the most easily activated compound. We explain these behaviors in terms of a parameter that represents compound hygroscopicity, and conclude that this parameter must vary by more than a factor of 2 to induce more than a 15% change in activated drop number concentrations. In agreement with earlier studies, our results suggest that the number concentration of activated drops is more sensitive to changes in the input aerosol size and number concentrations and the applied updraft velocity than to modest changes in the aerosol composition and hygroscopic properties.

Koehler, L. and F. W. Telewski (2006). "Biomechanics and transgenic wood." Am. J. Bot. 93(10): 1433-1438. http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/10/1433 Wood, or secondary xylem, is composed mostly of three components--cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin. Yet this apparent simplicity is deceiving because the sophisticated arrangement of the components on various structural levels, ranging from intricate molecular architecture to defined cellular arrangements to tissue morphology, makes wood a challenging and interesting subject of biomechanical investigation. Recent advances in genetic transformation, providing easier access to wood of specifically altered composition or structure, have opened new opportunities for research on the intricate relation between material structure and composition and mechanical properties. At the same time, investigations into the mechanical properties have provided new information regarding the structural configuration of wood. The present paper reviews the work conducted in this field and outlines future perspectives and prospects for research.

Kokorin, A. M. and K. S. Shifrin (2003). "Effect of humidity on the backscattering distribution of an ensemble of small hygroscopic inhomogeneous particles." Journal of Optical Technology 70(5): 311-316. ://000183048000003 This paper discusses the effect of humidity of the air on the scattering index (SI) and backscattering distribution (BSD) of an ensemble of small hygroscopic and inhomogeneous atmospheric particles in an approximation involving models of a polydispersed ensemble of clarified two-layer and homogeneous spherical particles' . It is established that, in a variable humidity field in air, the SO is weakly sensitive to the internal structure of the particles. In the process of hydration of an ensemble of particles with internal structure of the clarified-sphere (CS) type, clarification and clouding effects are detected for their BSD, and this can cause serious errors when interpreting the results of optical radar and laser probing of disperse media if the CS-type internal structure is neglected under conditions of variable humidity of the air. (C) 2003 Optical Society of America.

Koller, D. and N. Roth (1964). "Studies on the Ecological and Physiological Significance of Amphicarpy in Gymnarrhena micrantha (Compositae)." American Journal of Botany 51(1): 26-35. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2440059 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Koller-Studies-Ecological-Gymnarrhena-1964.pdf The 2 types of fruit (aerial and subterranean) borne by the dwarf desert annual Gymnarrhena micrantha were compared with regard to their responses to factors affecting their formation, dispersal, germination and seedling mortality. The 2 types of fruit differed markedly in several respects. In comparison with the subterranean fruits, the aerial ones are much smaller and more numerous, but the formation of the inflorescence in which they develop is more dependent on a favorable supply of soil moisture. The aerial fruits are dispersed by wind, after becoming detached by a complex series of hygroscopic movements which involve several organs and tissues, while the subterranean fruits never leave the dead parent plant, germinating right through its tissues. Germination of the subterranean fruits starts after a shorter incubation period and is less temperature-dependent in both light and dark. Light stimulated germination of both types of fruit, increasing their germination rates and final percentages, but not affecting the duration of the incubation period. In the subterranean fruits, the rate of germination was equally stimulated by light over the entire temperature range, with a well-defined optimum at 15 C in both light and dark. In the aerial fruits, the same optimum was found only in the light, rates in darkness increasing with decreasing temperatures. In the aerial fruits, alternations of light and dark were more favorable to germination than either continuous light or dark, the full effect being obtained with a single 8-hr or 16-hr light period, provided it was preceded by 16 or 8 hr of darkness, respectively. Similar reactions to combinations of light and dark were not observed in the subterranean fruits. Seedlings developing from the subterranean fruits were much larger, but grew at a relatively much slower rate than those from aerial fruits. The former were distinctly more tolerant of unfavorable soil-moisture regimes, such as low moisture supply and drought. It was concluded that the 2 types of fruit serve 2 distinct functions in the biology of the plant. The aerial fruits are adapted to the function of increasing the distribution of the species within suitable habitats, while the subterranean fruits are adapted to increasing the probability of the survival of the species.

Konopka, A. S., P. S. Herendeen, et al. (1998). "Sporophytes and gametophytes of Dicranaceae from the Santonian (Late Cretaceous) of Georgia, USA." American Journal of Botany 85(5): 714-723. ://000073708300014 A new species (Campylopodium allonense) of the moss family Dicranaceae is described for fossil sporophyte capsules and associated gametophytes from the late Santonian (Late Cretaceous) Buffalo Creek Member of the Gaillard Formation in central Georgia, USA. The sporophyte capsules are most comparable to those of the living genus Campylopodium. Sporangia are curved, cylindrical, and strumose, with an obliquely rostrate operculum, cucullate calyptra, and compound annulus. The peristome is haplolepidous with 16 dicranoid, apically bifid teeth that are vertically striate on the outer surface and asymmetrically trabeculate on the inner surface. Spores are spherical, alete, and finely rugose, and thus differ from the finely papillose spores of extant Campylopodium. Associated fossil gametophytes Ne consistent with the morphology of extant Campylopodium and have leaves with a broad sheathing base and a narrow blade. Spores identical to those in the sporangium occur on the leaf surfaces of one of the gametophyte specimens, providing circumstantial evidence that both sporophyte and gametophyte belong to the same species. Inadequacies of the moss fossil record have led to contrasting interpretations of the timing of evolutionary change in this lineage since the Paleozoic. Campylopodium allonense unequivocally provides the earliest evidence of Dicranaceae in the fossil record. This material, along with other fossil mosses from this late Santonian locality, indicates the presence of modern families of mosses in the Cretaceous. In a phylogenetic contest, these fossils from two different subclasses imply that mosses were already diverse by the Late Cretaceous.

Konopka, A. S., P. S. Herendeen, et al. (1997). "Sporophytes and gametophytes of from the Campanian (late Cretaceous) of Georgia, USA." International Journal of Plant Sciences 158(4): 489-499. ://A1997XN62800011 A new genus and species (Eopolytrichum antiquum) of the moss family Polytrichaceae are described for fossil sporophyte capsules and associated gametophytes from the early Campanian (Late Cretaceous) Buffalo Creek Member of the Gaillard Formation in central Georgia, U.S.A. The capsules show diagnostic features of the Polytrichaceae but differ from those of all extant genera. The capsules are terete in cross section, somewhat dorsiventrally flattened, and have a swollen, asymmetrical apophysis and mammillose exothecium. Stomatal complexes, each surrounded by a ring of subsidiary cells, are confined to the apophysis. The operculum is tall and dome shaped, but the calyptra and beak of the operculum are not preserved. The remains of a peristomial membrane are present around the rim of the capsule after the operculum has dehisced, but peristome teeth are absent, and the epiphragm is retained in the operculum. Spores are alete, spherical, and echinulate. Associated sterile and fertile gametophytes have leaves with adaxial, presumed photosynthetic, lamellae on the blade surface in addition to other anatomical structures comparable to extant Polytrichaceae. Inadequacies in the moss fossil record have led to contrasting interpretations as to the age of the origin of mosses and the extent of evolutionary change in the group since the Paleozoic. These fossils, which represent the first unequivocal polytrichaceous sporophytes known from the fossil record, along with other fossil mosses from this early Campanian locality, provide the first definitive evidence of modern families of mosses in the Cretaceous and demonstrate that mosses were already diverse by approximately 80 million years before present.

Kornyshev, A. A. and S. Leikin (1998). "Symmetry laws for interaction between helical macromolecules." Biophysical Journal 75(5): 2513-2519. ://WOS:000076638200042 The power of symmetry laws is applied in many scientific areas from elementary particle physics to structural biology. The structures of many biological helices, including DNA, were resolved with the use of pertinent symmetry constraints, It was not recognized, however, that similar constraints determine cardinal features of helix-helix interactions vital for many recognition and assembly reactions in living cells. We now formulate such symmetry-determined interaction laws and apply them to explain DNA "over- winding" from 10.5 base pairs per turn in solution to 10 in hydrated fibers, counterion specificity in DNA condensation, and forces observed over the last 15 Angstrom of separation between DNA, collagen, and four-stranded guanosine helices.

Kreidenweis, S. M., K. Koehler, et al. (2005). "Water activity and activation diameters from hygroscopicity data - Part I: Theory and application to inorganic salts." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 5: 1357-1370. ://000229615500001 A method is described that uses particle hygroscopicity measurements, made with a humidified tandem differential mobility analyzer (HTDMA), to determine solution water activity as a function of composition. The use of derived water activity data in computations determining the ability of aerosols to serve as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) is explored. Results for sodium chloride and ammonium sulfate are shown in Part I. The methodology yields solution water activities and critical dry diameters for ammonium sulfate and sodium chloride in good agreement with previously published data. The approach avoids the assumptions required for application of simplified and modified Kohler equations to predict CCN activity, most importantly, knowledge of the molecular weight and the degree of dissociation of the soluble species. Predictions of the dependence of water activity on the mass fraction of aerosol species are sensitive to the assumed dry density, but predicted critical dry diameters are not.

Kulmala, M., P. Korhonen, et al. (1996). "The effect of hygroscopicity on cloud droplet formation." Tellus Series B-Chemical and Physical Meteorology 48(3): 347-360. ://A1996UY59100002 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Kulmala-Hygroscopicity-Cloud-1996.pdf The effects of particle hygroscopicity and the availability of condensable material (other than water) in the gas phase on cloud droplet formation and the radiative properties of clouds have been studied using an adiabatic air parcel model with detailed multicomponent condensation. The pre-existing log-normal particle distribution used is bimodal in size and bimodal in hygroscopicity. To simulate this, four log-normal distributions were used and in each mode particles were assumed to be internally mixed, i.e., they are composed partly of salt and partly of an insoluble substance. The mean diameters, standard deviations, total number of pre-existing particles, the mass fraction of the soluble salt and initial concentration of condensable vapour were varied in the simulations. There is a clear effect of hygroscopicity on the activated fraction of aerosol particles in our simulations. Thus hygroscopicity of pre-existing aerosol particles and concentrations of condensable gases can also influence the optical thickness and reflectance of clouds. The change in optical thickness varies as a function of the number concentration of pre-existing particles, having a maximum (Delta tau/tau = 0.2) near a concentration of 1000/cc.

Kulmala, M., A. Toivonen, et al. (1998). "Variations of cloud droplet concentrations and the optical properties of clouds due to changing hygroscopicity: A model study." Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 103(D13): 16183-16195. ://000074828200017 The effects of the availability of gaseous nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, and ammonia on cloud droplet formation have been studied using an adiabatic air parcel model including detailed multicomponent condensation. The used preexisting lognormal particle distribution is bimodal in size and in hygroscopicity: four lognormal distributions were used. In each mode particles were assumed to be internally mixed; that is, they were composed partly of salt and partly of an insoluble substance. According to the simulations made, a clear positive correlation between condensable species concentrations and the number of activated cloud droplets exists. Thus trace gases can also influence the optical thickness and reflectance of clouds. The simulations show that ammonia enhances the condensation rate of acids and thus also their effect on the cloud droplet activation significantly. The change in optical thickness varies as a function of the number concentration of preexisting particles, having a maximum (Delta tau/tau = 1.6) near a concentration of 1000-2000 cm(-3).

Kungu, E. M., L. Bonner, et al. (2003). "Patterns of peristome reduction and ornamentation in african Entodontaceae." Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory(93): 223-246. ://000181327100012 The Entodontaceae is characterised by erect capsules with inset and substantially reduced peristomes. Differences in peristome morphology and ornamentation delimit both genera and species within the family. The Entodontaceae, as presently recognised, consists of four genera, Entodon, Erythrodontium, Mesonodon and Pylaisiobryum, which show a variety of peristome ornamentation patterns, and exhibit differing levels of peristome reduction. This variation encompasses an unusual combination of structurally reduced peristomes, which retain massive exostome ornamentation, and residual peristome function, As part of a taxonomic revision of the family in Africa, generic patterns of peristome reduction and ornamentation are described. Inter- and intra-specific variation patterns of both the exostome and endostome have been investigated using detailed SEM studies of material from Africa and beyond, Structural reduction of the peristome is associated with high levels of intra-specific variation in peristome ornamentation patterns. Common trends in these patterns of variation are identified within the family. Putative hybrid sporophytes have been identified in Entodon, and the taxonomic implications of these observations are considered for a family where species delimitation has in the past often depended on minor variation in peristome structure or ornamentation patterns.

Kungu, E. M., R. Longton, et al. (2007). "Character reduction and peristome morphology in Entodontaceae: Constraints on an inforrnation source." Pleurocarpous Mosses: Systematics and Evolution 71: 247-268. ://WOS:000246959500012 Evaluation of the morphological characters used to delimit taxa within the African Entodontaceae is problematic because of reduction of many of the morphologies. The characters available in both the sporophyte and gametophyte are described and assessed in the light of the restrictions incurred due to this reduction. Peristome ornamentation patterns provide key characters for delimiting both genera and species within the Entodontaceae. Gametophyte structures are examined for corresponding characters to reinforce these taxonomic boundaries.' However, the use of peristome ornamentation patterns is confounded by the high level of variation associated with peristome reduction. Examination of internal peristome structure demonstrates a relationship with function and proves that the major differences in surface ornamentation between papillose and striate reflects a difference in internal deposition. Morphology indicates that the family as currently recognized is probably not monophyletic and the status of Pylaisiobryum is unresolved.

Kusoglu, A., A. M. Karlsson, et al. (2006). "Mechanical response of fuel cell membranes subjected to a hygro-thermal cycle." Journal of Power Sources 161(2): 987-996. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6TH1-4K7NHM5-3/2/e3436142ef0ce7a8cb4b136b6ad82892 AND http://www.ask- force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Kusoglu-Mechanical-Response-2006.pdf The mechanical response of fuel cell proton exchange membranes subjected to a single hygro-thermal duty cycle in a fuel cell assembly is investigated through numerical means. To this end, the behavior of the membrane with temperature and humidity dependent material properties is simulated under temperature and humidity loading and unloading conditions. The stress-evolution during a simplified operating cycle is determined using finite element analysis for two clamping methods and two alignments of the bipolar plates. It is shown that compressive, plastic deformation occurs during the hygro-thermal loading, resulting in tensile residual stresses after unloading. These residual in-plane stresses in the membrane may explain the occurrence of cracks and pinholes in the membrane under cyclic loading.

Kuznetsova, N. and S. Leikin (1999). "Does the triple helical domain of type I collagen encode molecular recognition and fiber assembly while telopeptides serve as catalytic domains? Effect of proteolytic cleavage on fibrillogenesis and on collagen-collagen interaction in fibers." Journal of Biological Chemistry 274(51): 36083-36088. ://WOS:000084279200009 Over the last several decades, it has been established that proteolytic removal of short, non-helical terminal peptides (telopeptides) from type I collagen significantly alters the kinetics of in vitro fibrillogenesis. However, it has also been observed that the protein is still capable of forming fibers even after complete removal of telopeptides. This study focuses on the characterization of this fibrillogenesis competency of collagen, We have combined traditional kinetic and thermodynamic assays of fibrillogenesis efficacy with direct measurements of interaction between collagen molecules in fibers by osmotic stress and x-ray diffraction. We found that telopeptide cleavage by pepsin or by up to 20 h of Pronase treatment altered fiber assembly kinetics, but the same fraction of the protein still assembled into fibers. Small-angle x-ray diffraction showed that these fibers have normal, native-like D-stagger. Force measurements indicated that collagen-collagen interactions in fibers were not affected by either pepsin or Pronase treatment, In contrast, prolonged (>20 h) Pronase treatment resulted in cleavage of the triple helical domain as indicated by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The triple-helix cleavage correlated with the observed decrease in the fraction of protein capable of forming fibers and with the measured loss of attraction between helices in fibers, These data suggest that telopeptides play a catalytic role, whereas the information necessary for proper molecular recognition and fiber assembly is encoded in the triple helical domain of collagen.

Kwak, S. H., T. H. Yang, et al. (2004). "Polymer composite membrane incorporated with a hygroscopic material for high-temperature PEMFC." Electrochimica Acta 50(2-3): 653-657. ://000225261000077 A polymer composite membrane incorporated with a hygroscopic material for high-temperature polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) was prepared by hot-pressing the mixture of melt fabricable perfluorosulfonylfluroide copolymer resin (Nation resin) with fine mordenite powder. The composite membranes with various modernite contents were fabricated. The physico-chemical properties of composite membranes, such as tensile strength and proton conductivity were investigated. The proton conductivity in composite membranes increased with increasing mordenite content at high temperature above 90 degreesC due to water in the mordenite. In addition, the results of current-voltage relationship for single cells at various operation temperatures showed that the composite membrane, containing 10wt.% mordenite has better performance than the others. It suggests that the improvements of fuel cell performance are not due simply to increased water content in the composite membrane, but that there is an interaction between proton mobility and structure. (C) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

Kwak, S.-H., T.-H. Yang, et al. (2004). "Polymer composite membrane incorporated with a hygroscopic material for high-temperature PEMFC." Electrochimica Acta 50(2-3): 653-657. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6TG0-4D2MV1B-3/2/ee29bb5d5e83c761d8617020bb6f4860 AND http://www.ask- force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/KwakPolymer-Composite-2004.pdf

Kynin, A. T., S. F. Grebennikov, et al. (2000). "Alteration of the hygroscopic properties in systematic (homologous) series of fibre-forming polymers." Fibre Chemistry 32(6): 423-427. ://000169485900007 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Kynin-Alteration-Hygroscopic-2000.pdf It is shown that the hygroscopicity and characteristic energy of sorption of water vapor by fibre-forming polymers with a systematically varied molecular composition change nonlinearly with an increase in the concentration of functional groups. Equations are proposed for calculating the sorption isotherms as a function of the molecular structure (concentration of functional groups) and supermolecular structure (degree of crystallinity) of the polymer.

Lacey, E. P. (1980). "THE INFLUENCE OF HYGROSCOPIC MOVEMENT ON SEED DISPERSAL IN DAUCUS-CAROTA (APIACEAE)." Oecologia 47(1): 110-114. ://WOS:A1980KP53900017 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Lacey-Hygroscopic-Daucus-1983.pdf

Lacey, E. P., P. B. Kaufman, et al. (1983). "The Anatomical Basis for Hygroscopic Movement in Primary Rays of Daucus-Carota Ssp Carota (Apiaceae)." Botanical Gazette 144(3): 371-375. ://A1983RV74800009 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Lacey-Hygroscopic-Daucus-1983.pdf

Lara, F., V. Mazimpaka, et al. (1999). "Orthotrichum handiense, sp nov. from Fuerteventura, Canary Islands." Bryologist 102(4): 619-622. ://000084671700004 A new epiphytic moss, Orthotrichum handiense F. Lara,: Garilleti, & Mazimpaka, is described from the Jandia Peninsula (Fuerteventura, Canary-islands, Spain). The new species is included in section Pulchella Vent. and characterized by robustness, lanceolate leaves with recurved margins, immersed capsules, stomata cryptopore located in the neck, well developed prostome, peristome of 16 teeth and 16 segments, and calyptra and vaginula densely covered with slightly papillose hairs. Drawings and SEM micrographs of the main characters are given, and possible confusion with other taxa is discussed.

Lazarenko, A. S. (1957). "On Some Cases of Singular Behavior of the Moss Peristome." The Bryologist, 60(1): 14-17. http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Lazarenko-Peristome-1957.pdf

LeBozec, N., D. Persson, et al. (2004). "In situ studies of the initiation and propagation of filiform corrosion on aluminium." Corrosion and Protection of Light Metal Alloys 2003(23): 111-122. ://WOS:000221516700012 We have investigated the initiation and propagation of filiform corrosion on coated aluminium surfaces was using in situ FTIR microspectroscopy and the scanning Kelvin probe. During the initiation partially hydrolysed aluminium chloride was formed in a defect on the coated surface. The conditions in the defect resembled the environment that is found in growing pits with low pH and high chloride concentration close to the coating interface. This weakened the adhesion of the organic coating and initiated the formation of a filament. The movement of the active head was followed with in situ FTIR microspectroscopy in humid air using the characteristic IR band around 2500 cm(-1) from Al(H2O)(6)(3+). This band is present in spectra from partially hydrolysed aluminium chloride, which was found in the head during propagation of the filament. The absorption of water in the hygroscopic corrosion products in the head of the filament was followed by measuring the changes in the intensity of the Al(H2O)(6)(3+) band during variation in the relative humidity.

LeBozec, N., D. Persson, et al. (2004). "In situ studies of the initiation and propagation of filiform corrosion on aluminum." Journal of the Electrochemical Society 151(7): B440-B445. ://WOS:000222676300034 We have investigated the initiation and propagation of filiform corrosion on coated aluminum surfaces using a new experimental set-up for in situ Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) microspectroscopy and the scanning Kelvin probe. During the initiation partially hydrolyzed aluminum chloride was formed in a defect on the coated surface. The conditions in the defect resembled the environment that is found in growing pits with low pH and high chloride concentration close to the coating interface. This weakened the adhesion of the organic coating and initiated the formation of a filament. The movement of the active head was followed with in situ FTIR microspectroscopy in humid air using the characteristic IR band around 2500 cm(-1) from Al(H2O)(6)(3+). This band is present in spectra from partially hydrolyzed aluminum chloride, which was found in the head during propagation of the filament. The absorption of water in the hygroscopic corrosion products in the head of the filament was followed by measuring the changes in the intensity of the Al(H2O)(6)(3+) band during variations in the relative humidity. The hygroscopic properties of the aluminum hydroxy chloride salts formed in the head have important consequences for filiform corrosion, especially concerning the influence of climatic parameters such as the relative humidity and the effect of wet/dry transitions on the propagation of filiform corrosion. (C) 2004 The Electrochemical Society.

Legros, M., H. Imakoma, et al. (1992). "Approximate Isothermal Drying Curves of Hygroscopic Porous Materials with Given Desorption Isotherm." Chemical Engineering and Processing 31(3): 149-155. ://A1992JG49000001 The drying curves of hygroscopic porous materials can usually only be predicted by solving the mass transfer equation (isothermal case) numerically with the corresponding limit conditions because of the strong dependence of the apparent diffusion coefficient on the moisture content and the influence of the desorption isotherm on the drying rate. A simple approximate method which gives an analytical expression for the drying curve under isothermal conditions for both drying periods (penetration period and regular regime) for any given diffusion coefficient and desorption isotherm, both defined as a function of the moisture content, is presented here. In this method, the observation that the drying rate normalized by an appropriate steady-state flux hardly depends on the form of the diffusion coefficient is used.

Leikin, S. and D. C. Rau (1992). "HYDRATION FORCES IN MACROMOLECULAR ASSEMBLIES." Faseb Journal 6(1): A278-A278. ://WOS:A1992GY44001590 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Kuznetsova-Does-Triple-Helical-1999.pdf

Lemell, C., A. S. El-Said, et al. (2007). "On the nano-hillock formation induced by slow highly charged ions on insulator surfaces." Solid-State Electronics 51(10): 1398-1404. ://WOS:000250964700019 We discuss the creation of nano-sized protrusions on insulating surfaces using slow highly charged ions. This method holds the promise of forming regular structures on surfaces without inducing defects in deeper lying crystal layers. We find that only projectiles with a potential energy above a critical value are able to create hillocks. Below this threshold no surface modification is observed. This is similar to the track and hillock formation induced by swift (similar to GeV) heavy ions. We present a model for the conversion of potential energy stored in the projectiles into target-lattice excitations (heat) and discuss the possibility to create ordered structures using the guiding effect observed in insulating conical structures. (C) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Lemon, G. D. and U. Posluszny (1998). "A new approach to the study of apical meristem development using laser scanning confocal microscopy." Canadian Journal of Botany-Revue Canadienne De Botanique 76(5): 899-904. ://WOS:000076135800018 Epi-illumination light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy have been standard techniques for developmental studies of shoot apices. Recently, laser scanning confocal microscopy has gained popularity as a tool for biological imaging. We have adapted laser scanning confocal microscopy to study development in whole shoot apices. It was tested on angiosperm and fern apices using three fluorescent dyes; acriflavine, safranin O, and acid fuchsin, and compared with epi-illumination light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Ln all cases, acid fuchsin proved to be the best fluorochrome for examining shoot apices; having a high affinity for cell walls and nuclear material. The images produced with laser scanning confocal microscopy were sharper and clearer than images generated with epi-illumination light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Laser scanning confocal microscopy allows one to map patterns of cell division on the surface of an apical meristem, which is extremely difficult using other techniques such as scanning electron microscopy or epi-illumination light microscopy. Since the laser scanning light microscope records images digitally a method for digital plate production is described. Our methods can easily be applied to study the development of other plant structures on a cellular level such as root apical meristems, floral meristems, stomata, or trichomes, and reproductive organs in lower plants.

Leong, P. L. and E. F. Morgan (2009). "Correlations between indentation modulus and mineral density in bone-fracture calluses." Integrative and Comparative Biology 49(1): 59-68. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/content/49/1/59.abstract The mechanical properties of a healing bone fracture depend not only on the geometry of the fracture callus but also on the material properties of the callus tissues. Despite the biomechanical importance of callus tissues in restoring mechanical integrity to the injured bone, little is known about the material properties of these tissues and whether these properties can be estimated non- invasively. This study used nanoindentation to quantify the spatial variations in indentation modulus throughout the fracture callus and correlated the measurements of modulus with measurements of tissue mineral density (TMD) obtained from images from micro-computed tomography (µCT). Fracture calluses were harvested from rats 24 days following creation of a full-thickness, transverse osteotomy in the femoral mid-diaphysis. Calluses were imaged using µCT, and the average TMD and the median grayvalue (X-ray attenuation) of five, pre-defined volumes of interest (VOIs) in each callus were computed. Nanoindentation was then performed at multiple, regularly spaced locations across 150 µm-thick, sagittal sections of the calluses. The indentation modulus ranged from 0.51 to 1680 MPa throughout the callus, with the highest moduli in the center of the fracture gap and the lowest in the periphery of the gap (P < 0.05). TMD was also highest in the center of the gap (P < 0.05). An increasing trend in both modulus and TMD was observed in the regions of the callus adjacent to the periosteal surfaces of the cortex. While no correlation was found between the average indentation modulus in a given VOI and the median grayvalue of that VOI, the average indentation modulus and the average TMD were positively correlated (R = 0.70, P < 0.05). Together, these findings establish the spatial heterogeneity in the mechanical behavior of tissues in fracture calluses and indicate that the indentation modulus of these tissues can be estimated by non-invasive measurements of tissue mineralization.

Li, F. Z., Y. Li, et al. (2004). "Numerical simulation of coupled heat and mass transfer in hygroscopic porous materials considering the influence of atmospheric pressure." Numerical Heat Transfer Part B-Fundamentals 45(3): 249-262. ://WOS:000189027300003 A model of simultaneous transport in hygroscopic porous materials was developed. Water in fabrics is considered to be present in three forms: liquid water in the void space between fibers, bound water in the fibers, and vapor. It is assumed that the heat and mass transport mechanisms include movement of liquid water due to the capillarity and atmospheric pressure gradient, diffusion of vapor within interfibers due to the partial pressure gradient of vapor and total gas pressure gradient, diffusion of vapor into fiber, evaporation, and condensation of water. The moisture diffusion process into hygroscopic porous materials such as wool fabrics was simulated. At normal atmospheric pressure, the results were compared with experimental data on the temperature and water content changes reported in the literature. The distribution of temperature, moisture concentration, liquid water saturation, and atmospheric pressure in the void space between fibers at different boundary conditions are numerically computed and compared. The conclusion is that atmospheric pressure gradient has significant impact on heat and mass transport processes in hygroscopic porous materials.

Li, L.-B. and J.-C. Zhao (2009). "Peristome Morphology of Bryum Hedw. (Musci:Bryaceae) and Its Taxonomic Significance." Bulletin of Botanical Research 29(6): 651-658. ://BIOSIS:PREV201000048496 Peristome morphology of 12 species of the genus Bryum Hedw. were observed by LM and SEM. The results show that based on the tropism of dentium the 12 species could be divided into three types. approximately erection; dentium insert between two processus; excurvature of dentium. According to cilia of the genus the 12 species may also be divided into three groups. Meanwhile, the clustering analysis and principal components analysis of these species have been made by the software STATISTICA 6.0. The result showed that the dentium characteristics, like tropism of dentium and the development state of cilia, can be the standards to classify the plants in Bryum among species. The paper gives new information on the system evolution study on the characteristics of moss peristome.

Li, Y., B. V. Holcombe, et al. (1992). "MOISTURE BUFFERING BEHAVIOR OF HYGROSCOPIC FABRIC DURING WEAR." Textile Research Journal 62(11): 619-627. ://WOS:A1992JW46800001 Water vapor buffering of hygroscopic fabrics during wear has been studied using both theoretical modeling and wear trials. Both theoretical predictions and experimental observations demonstrate that highly hygroscopic wool fabrics absorb significantly more sweat than fabrics of verv low hygroscopicity, such as polyester, during a period of exercise following rest. The wool fabric removes more moisture from the microclimate than polyester, and reduces the perceived discomfort caused by moisture build-up on the skin under wear trial conditions. The prediction technique is applied to previously reported wear trials, and used to explain the results observed under different wear conditions. Hygroscopic buffering is effective during wear under dry environmental conditions in combination with light to moderate physical activity.

Li, Y. and Z. X. Luo (2000). "Physical mechanisms of moisture diffusion into hygroscopic fabrics during humidity transients." Journal of the Textile Institute 91(2): 302-316. ://000168805700008 A mathematical simulation carried out to study the physical mechanisms of moisture diffusion into hygroscopic fabrics during humidity transients is reported. On the basis of a mathematical model developed to describe the coupled heat and moisture transfer in wool fabric, the moisture-sorption mechanisms are investigated for fabrics made from fibers with different degrees of hygroscopicity. Theoretical predictions on the moisture uptake and temperature changes under humidity transients are compared with those measured previously in a sorption-cell experiment for fabrics made from wool, cotton, acrylic fiber, and polypropylene fiber. It is concluded that the physical mechanism of moisture diffusion into highly hygroscopic fibers such as wool and cotton can be described by a two-stage moisture-diffusion process: a fast Fickian diffusion,vith a concentration-dependent diffusion coefficient and a slow diffusion with a time-dependent diffusion coefficient. For weakly hygroscopic fibers such as polypropylene fiber, the moisture-sorption process can be described by a single Fickian diffusion with a constant diffusion coefficient. Through theoretical calculations of the distributions of moisture concentration in the air of fabric void space, fiber moisture content, and temperature through fabric thickness, we show that moisture diffusion into a fabric through air is a fast process for all the fabrics studied. Meanwhile, the moisture diffusion into fibers is coupled,vith the heat-transfer process, which is much slower and is dependent on the ability of fibers to absorb moisture. The strength of the coupling effect is a function of a number of fiber properties, such as the moisture-sorption isotherms, water-diffusion coefficient, fiber diameter, and heat of sorption.

Lin, Z. H., L. F. Xu, et al. (2004). "Ab initio study of the hygroscopic properties of borate crystals." Physical Review B 70(23). ://000226112100004 The hygroscopic properties of the borate crystals LiB3O5, CsB3O5, and CsLiB6O10 are studied by density-functional theory. It is found that the absorption energy and the diffusion mechanism of water molecules differ significantly for the three crystals. The deliquescent properties of borate crystals are determined mainly by the stress induced by water absorption. Our calculations are in good agreement with experimental observations.

Liu, J. H., A. G. Atkins, et al. (1996). "Theoretical analysis of large deformation simultaneous tearing and peeling of elastoplastic materials." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part C-Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science 210(5): 433-444. ://WOS:A1996VQ61900003 Simultaneous tearing and peeling of multiple strips is theoretically investigated using the large deflection theory of cantilevers made of elastoplastic material with linear strain hardening. The relationship between the fracture toughness and the curvature at the fracture propagation front is obtained for general cases. It is shown that for the moment loading case, the non-dimensional external moment, m(1), during tearing and peeling along straight paths, is a constant and is independent of the initial beam length L(0). With concentrated force loading, the non-dimensional force f will reach a constant value f = f(m) during propagation. It is shown that f(m) is almost the same for both initially straight and pre-bent beams, and decreases with an increase in the external force loading angle phi. For initially straight beams, when the non-dimensional fracture toughness, D, is small, f(m) may be less than the initiation force f(i) for fracture. F-m/H does not increase linearly with an increase in the beam width B-0 and decreases at large B-0 after it passes through a peak value. Comparison is made with experimental results for the tearing of ductile metal sheets along straight paths and the tearing fracture roughness value is found, including a method that uses propagation crack front curvature alone, without additional reference to the tearing force. However, the accuracy of the curvature at the crack propagation front has a large effect on the estimation of fracture toughness. High work-hardening and/or low toughness materials have no rapid change of curvature away fi om the crack front so that good estimates are possible and vice versa for low work-hardening solids.

Liu, J. H., A. G. Atkins, et al. (2001). "Relationship between the external force and the specific work of fracture /b R/ for steady-state tearing and peeling of elastoplastic materials." Transactions of the ASME. Journal of Applied Mechanics 68(5): 758-65. ://INSPEC:7080620 A simple relationship is obtained between the external force F and the fracture toughness R for thin sheets in steady state elastoplastic combined tearing and peeling along self-similar paths. The relationship depends only on the material properties (/b E/, sigma /sub y/, and alpha for an elastoplastic material with linear hardening) and strip cross section (B and /b H/). An earlier analysis (which incorporates transient tearing and peeling) requires lengthy computations over the whole length of the strip. The present analysis avoids that complication. Experiments in steady-state agree with the theory

Liu, J. H., A. G. Atkins, et al. (2001). "Relationship between the external force and the specific work of fracture R for steady-state tearing and peeling of elastoplastic materials." Journal of Applied Mechanics-Transactions of the Asme 68(5): 758-765. ://WOS:000170934100008 A simple relationship is obtained between the external force F and the fracture toughness R for thin sheets in steady state elastoplastic combined tearing and peeling along se similar paths. The relationship depends only on the material properties (E, sigma (y), and alpha for an elastoplastic material with linear hardening) and strip cross section (B and H). An earlier analysis (which incorporates transient tearing and peeling) requires lengthy computations over the whole length of the strip. The present analysis avoids that complication. Experiments in steady-state agree with the theory.

Liu, L. Q., M. Eder, et al. (2007). "One-step electrospun nanofiber-based composite ropes." Applied Physics Letters 90(8). ://WOS:000244420600074 A one-step procedure to assemble nanoscale electrospun poly(methylmetacrylate) (PMMA) and multiwall carbon nanotube (MWCNT) reinforced PMMA fibers into twisted continuous ropes is presented. A post-treatment procedure following rope assembly is essential to maximize the mechanical properties of the ropes. A comparison between the mechanical properties of the individual nanoscale fibers and microscale ropes reveals that rope strength variability is advantageously smaller than single fiber strength variability, but also that the average rope strength is smaller than the single fiber strength. The incorporation of MWCNTs in PMMA ropes often leads to a significant increase in failure strain and toughness. (c) 2007 American Institute of Physics.

Louguet, P. (1974). "MECHANISMS OF STOMATAL MOVEMENTS - CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF MAIN CLASSICAL AND MODERN HYPOTHESIS AND ANALYSIS OF EFFECTS OF CO2 ON MOVEMENTS OF STOMATA OF PELARGONIUM-X HORTORUM IN DARKNESS." Physiologie Vegetale 12(1): 53- 81. ://WOS:A1974S894300005

Lowenthal, D. H., N. Kumar, et al. (2003). "Hygroscopic organic aerosols during BRAVO?" Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 53(10): 1273-1279. ://000185765500014 The hygroscopic properties of the organic fraction of aerosols are poorly understood. The ability of organic aerosols to absorb water as a function of relative humidity (RH) was examined using data collected during the 1999 Big Bend Regional Aerosol and Visibility Observational Study (BRAVO). (On average, organics accounted for 22% of fine particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 mum (PM2.5) mass). Hourly RH exceeded 80% only 3.5% of the time and averaged 44%. BRAVO aerosol chemical composition and dry particle size distributions were used to estimate PM2.5 light scattering (Bsp) at low and high ambient RH. Liquid water growth associated with inorganic species was sufficient to account for measured Bsp for RH between 70 and 95%.

Luo, Z. X., F. Z. Li, et al. (2004). "Effect of the environmental atmosphere on heat, water and gas transfer within hygroscopic fabrics." Journal of Computational and Applied Mathematics 163(1): 199-210. ://WOS:000188836300017 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Luo-Effect-Environmental-2004.pdf A dynamic model of simultaneous heat and mass transfer in hygroscopic porous, materials was developed. In the model, evaporation/condensation and movement of water, sorption/desorption of fiber and effect of atmosphere on mass transfer in porous media were considered. The theoretically calculated results agree well with the experimental data reported in the literature. The distributions of temperature, moisture concentration, liquid water saturation and atmosphere at different boundary conditions are numerically computed and compared. It could be concluded that the atmospheric pressure has significant impact on heat and mass transport processes in hygroscopic porous materials. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Lu-Qi, L., M. Eder, et al. (2007). "One-step electrospun nanofiber-based composite ropes." Applied Physics Letters 90(8): 83108-1-3. ://INSPEC:9353909 A one-step procedure to assemble nanoscale electrospun poly(methylmetacrylate) (PMMA) and multiwall carbon nanotube (MWCNT) reinforced PMMA fibers into twisted continuous ropes is presented. A post-treatment procedure following rope assembly is essential to maximize the mechanical properties of the ropes. A comparison between the mechanical properties of the individual nanoscale fibers and microscale ropes reveals that rope strength variability is advantageously smaller than single fiber strength variability, but also that the average rope strength is smaller than the single fiber strength. The incorporation of MWCNTs in PMMA ropes often leads to a significant increase in failure strain and toughness

Luth, M. (2002). "Cinclidotus confertus (Musci, Cinclidotaceae), a new species from Greece." Cryptogamie Bryologie 23(1): 11-16. ://000174290700002 Cinclidotus confertus Luth sp. nov. is described and illustrated from Vikos-Aoos National Park in northwest Greece. It is a compact, brownish- to blackish-green plant with densely set leaves. In its papillose and reddish-brown peristome teeth the new species resembles C.mucronatus (Brid.) Mach., but differs in its entirely smooth lamina] cells and shorter setae, 4-5 mm long.

Luz, G. M. and J. Mano, F (2009). "Biomimetic design of materials and biomaterials inspired by the structure of nacre." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 367(1893): 1587-1605. http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1893/1587.abstract AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Luz-Biomimetic- Design-Nagre-2009.pdf The micro-architecture of nacre (mother of pearl) has been classically illustrated as a ‘brick-and-mortar’ arrangement. It is clear now that hierarchical organization and other structural features play an important role in the amazing mechanical properties of this natural nanocomposite. The more important structural characteristics and mechanical properties of nacre are exposed as a base that has inspired scientists and engineers to develop biomimetic strategies that could be useful in areas such as materials science, biomaterials development and nanotechnology. A strong emphasis is given on the latest advances on the synthetic design and production of nacre-inspired materials and coatings, in particular to be used in biomedical applications.

Lyon, H. W., G. Dickson, et al. (1953). "The Mechanism of Hygroscopic Expansion in Dental Casting Investments." Journal of Dental Research 32(5): 713-713. ://A1953UY94600212

Ma, T. J. and B. Bhushan (2003). "Mechanical, hygroscopic, and thermal properties of ultrathin polymeric substrates for magnetic tapes." Journal of Applied Polymer Science 89(11): 3052-3080. ://000183936600025 Mechanical, hygroscopic, and thermal properties of improved ultrathin polymeric films for magnetic tapes are presented. These films include poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), poly(ethylene naphthalate) (PEN), and aromatic polyamide (ARAMID). PET films are currently the most commonly-used polymeric substrate material for magnetic tapes, followed by PEN and ARAMID. The thickness of the films ranges from 6.2 to 4.8 gm. Tensile tests were run to obtain the Young's modulus, F5 value, strain at yield, breaking strength, and strain at break. The storage modulus, E', and the loss tangent, tan 5, were measured using a dynamic mechanical analyzer (DMA) at temperature ranges of -50 to 150degreesC (for PET) and -50 to 210degreesC (for PEN and ARAMID) and at a frequency range of 0.016-28 Hz. Frequency-temperature superposition was used to predict the dynamic mechanical behavior of the films over a 28-decade frequency range. Short-term longitudinal creep behavior of the films during 10, 30, 60, and 300 s, 7 MPa, were measured at 25 and 55degreesC. Long-term longitudinal creep measurements were performed at 25, 40, and 55degreesC for 100 h. The Poisson's ratio and 50-h long-term lateral creep were measured at 25degreesC/15% RH, 25degreesC/50% RH, 25degreesC/80% RH, and 40degreesC/50% RH. The in-plane coefficient of hygroscopic expansion (CHE) at 25degreesC/20-80% RH and the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) at 30-70degreesC were measured for all the samples. The properties for all films are summarized. The relationship between the polymeric structure and the mechanical and physical properties are discussed, based on the molecular structure, crystallinity, and molecular orientation. (C) 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Ma, T. J. and B. Bhushan (2003). "Technique development and measurement of Poisson's ratio, lateral creep behavior, and thermal and hygroscopic expansion of individual layers in magnetic tapes." Journal of Applied Polymer Science 88(8): 2082-2096. ://000181547000026 An experimental technique was developed to measure the Poisson's ratio (lateral contraction over longitudinal elongation), lateral creep, and both thermal and hygroscopic expansion of thin polymeric films. A so-called profile-matching method was developed to measure the lateral and longitudinal deformation with the help of a laser scan micrometer. A thermomechanical analyzer was used to measure the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). The laser scan technique was also used to measure the coefficient of hygroscopic expansion (CHE). The measurements were performed on magnetic tapes, substrates, and tapes with front coat or back coat, or with both coats stripped. A model based on the rule of mixtures was developed to determine the Poisson's ratio, lateral and longitudinal deformation behavior, and thermal expansion of the front coat and back coat. To investigate the mechanical degradation of the substrates during tape manufacturing, the data for substrate with the front and back coats removed from the tape, were compared with the data for the never-coated virgin film. The relationship between the molecular structure and the degradation mechanism of the substrates is discussed. The magnetic tapes used in this research include two metal particle (MP) tapes and two metal evaporated (ME) tapes that use polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polyethylene naphthalate (PEN) substrates. Longitudinal and lateral deformation tests were performed at 25 +/- 0.5degreesC and 50 +/- 2%RH, and thermal expansion was measured from 15 to 70degreesC. The CHE was measured at 25 +/- 0.5degreesC and 15-80%RH. (C) 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Macintyre, N. R., H. R. Anderson, et al. (1983). "Pulmonary-Function in Mechanically Ventilated Patients During 24 Hour Use of a Hygroscopic Condenser Humidifier." Chest 84(5): 560-564. ://A1983RP28700013

Magombo, Z. L. K. (2003). "The phylogeny of basal peristomate mosses: Evidence from cpDNA, and implications for peristome evolution." Systematic Botany 28(1): 24-38. ://WOS:000181505800004 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Zacharia-Phylogeny-Basal-Peristomate-2003.pdf Cladistic analyses based on chloroplast protein coding genes rbcL and rps4, and the chloroplast encoded trnL (UAA) intron were conducted (1) to investigate phylogenetic relationships among basal peristomate mosses, especially the nematodontous mosses (Tetraphidaceae and Polytrichaceae), and the arthrodontous mosses with pleated endostomes (Buxbaumiaceae and Diphysciaceae), and (2) to make inferences on evolution of the peristome. A combined data matrix included 46 taxa and 2206 characters of which 619 were parsimony informative. The results indicate that the basal peristomate mosses, particularly the Tetraphidaceae, Polytrichaceae and Buxbaumiaceae, are paraphyletic. Sister group relationships between the following taxa are newly suggested: Tetraphidaceae and all peristomate mosses; Polytrichaceae and the clade consisting of Buxbaumiaceae, Diphysciaceae, diplolepideous and haplolepideous mosses; Buxbaumiaceae and the clade consisting of Diphysciaceae, diplolepideous and haplolepideous mosses. The following novel inferences on peristome evolution are also suggested: the plesiomorphic condition of the endostome of the arthrodontous peristome was pleated; the pleated endostome has been transformed into a keeled endostome in the diplolepideous/haplolepideous clade; the similarity in cell divisions preceding deposition of secondary peristomial wall material in peristome development is a synapomorphy in the peristomate mosses. The exostome has been independently lost or reduced in the Diphysciaceae, and the diplolepideous/haplolepideous clade.

Maier, E. and M. J. Price (2005). "In the Footsteps of Lantzius-Beninga: Investigating the Peristome Characters of Mosses." The Bryologist 108(1): 36-46. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20061067 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Maier-Footsteps-Lantzius-Beninga-2005.pdf Lantzius-Beninga (1815-1871), influenced by the earlier work of Hedwig (1730-1799), investigated the capsules of mosses, and more specifically characteristics of the peristome. He was the first to show that longitudinal sections of the capsule and peristome teeth at the capsule mouth provided characters useful to distinguish species. Limpricht (1888-1903) integrated the findings of Lantzius- Beninga into his species descriptions in Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz. The ideas of Lantzius- Beninga were later taken up by S. Edwards; J. Shaw and H. Robinson; and J. Shaw, L. Anderson and B. Mishler for taxonomic research, although the technique of sectioning the capsule and peristome has not been widely adopted by bryologists. Drawings of longitudinal sections through peristome teeth of selected species of Grimmia are presented here to illustrate specific differences between them using the technique of Lantzius-Beninga. We show that it is possible to correlate some variable characters of the gametophyte with the characters of the sporophyte, specifically longitudinal sections of the peristome and capsule at the capsule mouth, and to clearly separate taxa on the basis of peristome differences. A paragraph concerning sectioning methods is included.

Mall, S., J. F. Murphy, et al. (1983). "CRITERION FOR MIXED-MODE FRACTURE IN WOOD." Journal of Engineering Mechanics-Asce 109(3): 680- 690. ://WOS:A1983QR98200002

Malm, W. C., D. E. Day, et al. (2005). "Hygroscopic properties of an organic-laden aerosol." Atmospheric Environment 39(27): 4969-4982. ://000231885500015 Observation and appreciation of scenic landscape features, airport runway visibility, and the earth's radiation balance are all dependent on the radiative properties of the atmosphere, which in turn are dependent on the scattering and absorption characteristics of ambient aerosols. Atmospheric scattering and, to a lesser degree, absorption characteristics are highly dependent on the amount of water vapor absorbed by aerosols under ambient relative humidity (RH) conditions. Water vapor absorptive properties of inorganic aerosols have been extensively measured and modeled; however, hygroscopic properties of organic aerosols are less understood, especially as they occur in the ambient atmosphere. Therefore, an aerosol characterization study was conceived and implemented at Yosemite National Park, which is highly impacted by carbonaceous aerosols. The overall objective of the study was to characterize the physical, chemical, and optical properties of a carbon-dominated aerosol, including the ratio of total organic matter weight to organic carbon, organic mass scattering efficiencies, and the hygroscopic characteristics of a carbon- laden ambient aerosol. The study was conducted during July, August, and the first week of September at Turtleback Dome on the south rim of the entrance to Yosemite Valley. The ratio of the scattering coefficient at some RH divided by the scattering coefficient at some minimum RH (f(RH) = b(scat)(RH)/b(scat)(RHmin)) was measured over a wide range of RHs. f(85 < RH < 90) decreased from about 2.0 to < 1.2 as the organic carbon mass (OMC/(NH4)(2)(SO4)) ratio increased from a low of 0.57 to 11.15, implying that the f(RH) associated with organics is small, possibly on the order of 1.1 or less. Furthermore, modeling f(RH) as a function of RH suggested that ambient organic mass aerosols may be weakly hygroscopic with an f(RH) at RH = 85-90% of about 1.1. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Malm, W. C. and S. M. Kreidenweis (1997). "The effects of models of aerosol hygroscopicity on the apportionment of extinction." Atmospheric Environment 31(13): 1965-1976. ://A1997XA62300006 The role that aerosols play in climate forcing and visibility issues has been the subject of research for several decades. Recent research efforts have focused on assessing the contribution of individual species to scattering and absorption under ambient conditions and on how scattering and absorption change as one or more species are removed from the atmosphere. A key concern is the distribution of water among aerosols as a function of mixing assumptions. As an illustrative and relevant example, we examine the roles of sulfates and organics in visibility and climate forcing, and in particular, the implications of assumptions regarding hygroscopic growth behavior upon the assignment of mass-scattering efficiencies to these species. We demonstrate that the total scattering computed for an aerosol sample is relatively insensitive to the choice of internal or external mixture, and can be insensitive to the exact formulation of the hygroscopic growth of the sample. Since the atmospheric aerosol is generally a complex mixture of chemical species, with the precise distribution of species on a particle-by-particle basis not known, the use of semi- empirical models of multicomponent aerosol hygroscopicity is appropriate for the calculation of atmospheric aerosol scattering and/or extinction, particularly since these details appear to be unimportant in most cases. In contrast, the apportionment of percentages of the total scattering to individual chemical species is quite sensitive to the choice of assumption regarding the aerosol microphysical structure. The use of semiempirical hygroscopic growth models for computing the change in species scattering efficiency can lead to incorrect predictions in the limit of the complete removal of all but one chemical component. We propose a model that invokes the Zdanovskii, Stokes, and Robinson (ZSR) assumptions for the water content of multicomponent mixtures, and demonstrate that this method both approximates the predictions of generally accepted, semi-empirical models and asymptotically approaches the correct single-species scattering contributions upon removal of species. Efficiencies computed with this model can differ significantly from those predicted using the semi-empirical approach. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd.

Mansfield, T. A. (1983). "MOVEMENTS OF STOMATA." Science Progress 68(272): 519-542. ://WOS:A1983RT79000005

Markstrom, D. C., C. E. Shuler, et al. (1984). "WARPAGE OF STUDS FROM YOUNG GROWTH PONDEROSA PINE FROM NORTHERN NEW- MEXICO." Usda Forest Service Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station Research Paper(NRM-2): 1-13. ://WOS:A1984AET1800001

Marra, S. P., K. T. Ramesh, et al. (2002). "The Actuation of a Biomimetic Poly(Vinyl Alcohol)-Poly(Acrylic Acid) Gel." Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 360(1791): 175-198. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3066300 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Marra-Actuation-Biomimetic-2002.pdf Active polymer gels expand and contract in response to certain environmental stimuli, such as the application of an electric field or a change in the pH level of the surroundings. This ability to achieve large, reversible deformations with no external mechanical loading has generated much interest in the use of these gels as biomimetic actuators and 'artificial muscles'. In previous work, a thermodynamically consistent finite-elastic constitutive model has been developed to describe the mechanical and actuation behaviours of active polymer gels. The mechanical properties were characterized by a free-energy function, and the model uses an evolving internal variable to describe the actuation state. In this work, an evolution law for the internal variable is determined from free actuation experiments on a poly(vinyl alcohol)-poly(acrylic acid) (PVA-PAA) gel. The complete finite-elastic/evolution law constitutive model is then used to predict the response of the PVA-PAA gel to isotonic and isometric loading and actuation. The model is shown to give relatively good agreement with experimental results.

Martin-Palma, R. J., A. Lakhtakia, et al. (2009). "Replication of biotemplates for the development of highly efficient biomimetic optical metamaterials and devices." Proceedings of the SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering: 720507 (9 pp.). ://INSPEC:10542650 Biomimetics involves the implementation of ideas and concepts from nature in different technoscientific fields. Aiming at the further development of biomimetic optical metamaterials and devices, we devised the conformal-evaporated-filmby- rotation (CEFR) technique to fabricate inorganic replicas of biotemplates with high reliability and fidelity at the micro- and nano-scales. Some potential applications include high-sensitivity chemical sensors and biosensors, textured coatings for solar cells and other energy- harvesting structures, environmental sensors, high-speed motion detectors, surveillance systems, cameras for image-guided surgeries, as well as for many clinical treatments that can be controlled by implanted light-delivery devices. Moreover, we demonstrated the successful conformal coating of the external surface of a MEMS comb resonator by the CEFR technique, thereby extending application to microelectronics.

Martone, P. T., M. Boller, et al. (2010). "Mechanics without Muscle: Biomechanical Inspiration from the Plant World." Integrative and Comparative Biology 50(5): 888-907. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2010/08/29/icb.icq122.abstract AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Martone- Mechanics-without-Muscle-2010.pdf Plant and animal biomechanists have much in common. Although their frame of reference differs, they think about the natural world in similar ways. While researchers studying animals might explore airflow around flapping wings, the actuation of muscles in arms and legs, or the material properties of spider silk, researchers studying plants might explore the flow of water around fluttering seaweeds, the grasping ability of climbing vines, or the material properties of wood. Here we summarize recent studies of plant biomechanics highlighting several current research themes in the field: expulsion of high-speed reproductive projectiles, generation of slow movements by shrinking and swelling cell walls, effects of ontogenetic shifts in mechanical properties of stems, flexible reconfiguration and material properties of seaweeds under crashing waves, and the development of botanically-inspired commercial products. Our hope is that this synopsis will resonate with both plant and animal biologists, encourage cross-pollination across disciplines, and promote fruitful interdisciplinary collaborations in the future.

Martonen, T. B., Y. Yang, et al. (1994). "Hygroscopic Behavior of Secondary Cigarette-Smoke in Human Nasal Passages." Stp Pharma Sciences 4(1): 69-76. ://A1994ND18800011 Inhaled particles that are hygroscopic will absorb the ubiquitous water vapour present within the warm humid environment of the human respiratory tract. As a direct result, their physical and chemical characteristics will be affected. Specifically, the size, shape and density of a particle may experience pronounced changes. Likewise, the composition of the native particle will change. Therefore, risk assessment programs must account for hygroscopicity, because it influences the dosage delivered to airway cells. The effects of hygroscopicity within the lung are well documented. However, the influence of water vapour uptake within the airways of the head and throat has been relatively ignored. Our text will focus upon this extrathoracic region. The main results of the investigation are itemized below. 1) An original analytical description of cigarette smoke hygroscopicity is derived based upon the laboratory work of Martonen. 2) Data indicate that the hygroscopic growth of environmental tobacco smoke is a dynamic process within the entire extrathoracic region. The extent to which growth is completed within, or persists beyond, the nasal passages is a sensitive function of inhaled particle size and inspiratory flow rate. 3) The magnitude of hygroscopic growth for environmental tobacco smoke is quite profound. It is about a factor of 1.8, that is, particles nearly double in size within the nasal passages. 4) Hygroscopic growth is the dominant factor affecting the airborne behaviour of environmental tobacco smoke. A sound risk assessment program must account for its effects. Likewise, the hygroscopicity of pharmacologic drugs should be addressed in aerosol therapy protocols.

Massling, A., A. Wiedensohler, et al. (2003). "Hygroscopic properties of different aerosol types over the Atlantic and Indian Oceans." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 3: 1377-1397. ://000185621900001 Hygroscopic properties of atmospheric particles were studied in the marine tropospheric boundary layer over the Atlantic and Indian Oceans during two consecutive field studies: the Aerosols99 cruise (Atlantic Ocean) from 15 January to 20 February 1999, and the INDOEX cruise (Indian Ocean Experiment) from 23 February to 30 March 1999. The hygroscopic properties were compared to optical and chemical properties, such as absorption, chemical inorganic composition, and mass concentration of organic and elemental carbon, to identify the influence of these parameters on hygroscopicity.

Mather, G. K., D. E. Terblanche, et al. (1997). "Results of the South African cloud-seeding experiments using hygroscopic flares." Journal of Applied Meteorology 36(11): 1433-1447. ://A1997YE05900001 A new method of seeding convective clouds for the purpose of augmenting rainfall is being developed in South Africa. Flares that produce small salt particles (0.5-mu m mean diameter) are attached to the trailing edge of the wings of seeding aircraft and ignited in updrafts below the cloud base of convective storms. This method of delivery overcomes most of the difficulties encountered in the handling and the use of hygroscopic materials, difficulties that made seeding with ice nuclei (AgI) a more attractive option. The research that has led to the development of this new technique was prompted by an encounter with a storm with dramatically altered microphysics that was growing over a Kraft paper mill in the research area. Hygroscopic seeding flares were subsequently developed, and seeding trials began in October 1990. Successful seeding trials quickly led to the design and execution of a randomized convective cloud-seeding experiment, the results of which show convincing evidence of increases in the radar-measured rain mass from seeded storms when compared to the control or unseeded storms. Heightened reflectivities aloft seen by the real- time storm-tracking software and observed in the exploratory analysis raises the possibility of developing a radar-measured seeding algorithm that can recognize in almost real time a successful convective seeding event. The implications of such a development would have far-reaching effects on the conduct of future convective cloud-seeding experiments and operations. The authors' seeding hypothesis postulates that the hygroscopic seeding at cloud base accelerates the growth of large hydrometeors in the treated clouds, which harvest more of the available supercooled water before it is expelled into the anvils by the strong updrafts that are a characteristic of the local storms, thereby increasing the efficiency of the rainfall process. The validity of this hypothesis is supported by microphysical measurements made from an instrumented Learjet and the results of the randomized experiment, both of which are supported by numerical condensation-coalescence calculations. There are also indications that the hygroscopic seeding may have an impact upon the dynamics of the treated storms, lengthening their lifetimes by strengthening the coupling of the updraft-downdraft storm propagation mechanism. The apparent sensitivity of rainfall in convective clouds to the aerosol concentration, size, and chemical content may have climatic implications. Higher concentrations of small aerosols produced by pollution, biomass burning, etc., could adversely affect the efficiency of the rainfall process. The negative consequences of this effect would be magnified in regions that depend upon convective storms to provide the bulk of their annual rainfall.

Matthews, L., V. B. Sundaresan, et al. (2006). "Bioenergetics and mechanical actuation analysis with membrane transport experiments for use in biomimetic nastic structures." Journal of Materials Research 21(8): 2058-2067. ://WOS:000239674800023 Nastic structures are synthetic constructs capable of controllable deformation and shape change similar to plant motility, designed to imitate the biological process of nastic movement found in plants. This paper considers the mechanics and bioenergetics of a prototype nastic structure system consisting of an array of cylindrical microhydraulic actuators embedded in a polymeric plate. Non- uniform expansion/contraction of the actuators in the array may yield an overall shape change resulting in structural morphing. Actuator expansion/contraction is achieved through pressure changes produced by active transport across a bilayer membrane. The. active transport process relies on ion-channel proteins that pump sucrose and water molecules across a plasma membrane against the pressure gradient. The energy required by this process is supplied by the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate. After reviewing the biochemistry and bioenergetics of the active transport process, the paper presents an analysis of the microhydraulic actuator mechanics predicting the resulting displacement and output energy. Experimental demonstration of fluid transport through a protein transporter follows this discussion. The bilayer membrane is formed from 1-Palmitoyl-2-Oleoyl-sn-Glycero-3-[Phospho-L- Serine] (Sodium Salt), 1-Palmitoyl-2-Oleoyl-sn-Glycero- 3-Phosphoethanolamine lipids to support the AtSUT4 H+-sucrose cotransporter.

Matthews, L. A. and V. Giurgiutiu (2006). "Modeling actuation forces and strains in nastic structures." Proceedings of the SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering: 617310-1-10. ://INSPEC:10051254 Nastic structures are capable of three dimensional shape change using biological principles borrowed from plant motion. The plant motor cells increase or decrease in size through a change in osmotic pressure. When nonuniform cell swelling occurs, it causes the plant tissue to warp and change shape, resulting it net movement, known as nastic motion, which is the same phenomena that causes plants to angle their broad leaf and flower surfaces to face light sources. The nastic structures considered in this paper are composed of a bilayer of microactuator arrays with a fluid reservoir in between the two layers. The actuators are housed in a thin plate and expand when water from the fluid reservoir is pumped into the actuation chamber through a phospholipid bilayer with embedded active transport proteins, which move the water from the low pressure fluid reservoir into a high pressure actuation chamber. Increasing water pressure inside the actuator causes lateral expansion and axial bulging, and the non-uniform net volume change of actuators throughout the nastic structure results in twisting or bending shape change. Modifying the actuation displacement allows controlled volume change. This paper presents an analytical model of the driving and blocking forces involved in actuation, as well as stress and strain that occurs due to the pressure changes. Actuation is driven by increasing osmotic pressure, and blocking forces are taken into consideration to plan actuator response so that outside forces do not counteract the displacement of actuation. Nastic structures are designed with use in unmanned aerial vehicles in mind, so blocking forces are modeled to be similar to in-flight conditions. Stress in the system is modeled so that any residual strain or lasting deformation can be determined, as well as a lifespan before failure from repeated actuation. The long-term aim of our work is to determine the power and energy efficiency of nastic structures actuation mechanism.

Mazimpaka, V., F. Lara, et al. (2000). "Orthotrichum shawii Wilson, a distinct European species." Journal of Bryology 22: 183-192. ://000089863500003 During the last three decades, Orthotrichum shawii Wilson has been considered to be conspecific with O. striatum Hedw. The discovery of new populations of this moss in Southern Europe (N. W. Iberian Peninsula and Sicily) after more than seventy years allowed the re-evaluation of its taxonomical status and relationships. It is concluded that O. shawii is a distinct species, easily distinguished from related species by sporophytic characters: capsule scarcely or not ribbed, exostome of 16 whitish and opaque teeth recurved to the theca when dry, and endostome absent or consisting of eight vestigial segments; additionally, the areolation of the exothecium cells as well as the peristome ornamentation represent significant differences from O. striatum Hedw. that support the specific status of this moss. It is redescribed and keys for its discrimination from closely related species as well as information on its ecology and distribution are provided.

McMillan, S. G. and U. Schwertmann (1998). "Morphological and genetic relations between siderite, calcite and goethite in a Low Moor Peat from southern Germany." European Journal of Soil Science 49(2): 283-293. ://000074233600012 Siderite, calcite and goethite occur in a Low Moor Feat near Freising, southern Germany. Siderite is present mainly as microcrystalline ovoids which have a lamellar structure and are less than 5 mu m long. Selected area electron diffraction and X-ray diffraction data suggest a crystal size less than that of the ovoids, probably as small as 20-50 nm. Siderite occurs interstitially between plant materials, predominantly of the genus Equisetum. Calcite, which is subordinate to siderite, occurs as pseudomorphs of plant cells. This suggests an earlier crystallization for calcite predating that of the siderite. The distribution of mineral morphologies and pH and Eh data suggest that siderite weathers by oxidation to goethite under mildly alkaline conditions, despite the probable production of protons. This process initially involves a pseudomorphism of the siderite ovoids by goethite. However, the goethite, comprising poorly acicular crystals with a mean coherence length of 11 nm normal to the 111 plane, eventually develops into a massive fabric. Calcite occurs with goethite in oxidized samples in the same location as in the unoxidized samples, but in decreased amount. Thus, calcite dissolution may act as a buffer to siderite oxidation.

Mertes, S., K. Lehmann, et al. (2005). "Link between aerosol hygroscopic growth and droplet activation observed for hill-capped clouds at connected flow conditions during FEBUKO." Atmospheric Environment 39(23-24): 4247-4256. ://000231414200008 Within the ground-based cloud passage experiment FEBUKO, which was carried out at the mountain ridge Thuringer Wald (Germany) during October 2001 and 2002, the dry number size distribution and hygroscopic growth of aerosol particles upwind cloud and the dry number size distributions of interstitial particles and cloud droplet residuals inside cloud were measured at connected flow conditions. The connected flow between the upwind and in-cloud summit site was meteorologically predicted and experimentally confirmed for three selected cloud events. For these events, it could be verified that entrainment and droplet deposition had only a minor influence on the evolution of the particle size distribution between the two sites. Hence, the size resolved soluble volume fraction of the cloud input aerosol particles determined from the hygroscopic growth measurements could be related to the particle activation inferred from the particle size distributions observed inside cloud. The shape and steepness of the scavenging fraction as a function of particle diameter was found to correlate with the increase of soluble volume fraction with size, which had implications for the droplet activation diameter of the cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) that ranged between 110 and 180 nm. The minimum soluble volume fraction epsilon(min) that was required to serve as CCN was determined for three different dry diameters from the relation of the particle volume fraction and scavenging fraction. From the comparison with epsilon(min) predictions from classical Kohler theory it is inferred that aerosol particles remained in the interstitial phase although they should have been activated. A discussion of different processes which have the general ability to explain this finding favoured the hypothesis of organic surface films retarding the uptake of water molecules. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Middleton, V., P. Fitches, et al. (1998). "Passive blade pitching for overspeed control of an HAWT." Wind Energy 1998: 103-117. ://WOS:000078180900015 A key challenge in the design of all wind turbines is the control of rotor speed and power in a simple rugged and reliable manner. Also of concern is the issue of rotor protection in the event of electrical disconnection of the generator, especially during storm conditions. Both small and large scale turbines would benefit from the development of a much simpler approach to the mechanical control and protection systems currently employed. This paper reports on a novel technology which meets these required criteria using passive pitching approach which relies upon the composite material properties of the blade. The blade has been constructed in such a way as to self pitch in response to increasing centrifugal loads, and thereby change the rotor aerodynamics to limit the rotational speed. The generator has been tested over a period of 6 months and has regularly generated more than 1 kW. The machine has been allowed to run unloaded in wind speeds up to 20 m/s, the induced twist limiting the maximum speed to 700 rpm.

Mihranyan, A., S. B. Andersson, et al. (2004). "Sorption of nicotine to cellulose powders." European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 22(4): 279-286. ://000222396200007 The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of the crystallinity, surface area, and pore volume of cellulose powders on the loading, release, and stability of nicotine. Four different types of cellulose powders with varying crystallinity index, surface area, and pore volume were produced and characterized. The powders were loaded with nicotine by rotary evaporation from an ethanol solution and by adsorption from nicotine-saturated air. The release of nicotine from loaded cellulose powders into both a passing airstream and water was investigated by UV spectroscopy. A 3-month stability study was conducted and the total sum of nicotine oxidation products was measured. Nicotine loading and release were independent of cellulose powder crystallinity, whereas it was possible to load more nicotine on the cellulose powder with a large surface area and pore volume. Release into water was very rapid and almost complete for all samples. Nicotine was most stable when loaded on the powder with a large surface area and pore volume. Highly porous cellulose matrices could be useful for stabilization and handling of both nicotine and other liquid active pharmaceutical ingredients. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Mihranyan, A., K. Edsman, et al. (2007). "Rheological properties of cellulose hydrogels prepared from Cladophora cellulose powder." Food Hydrocolloids 21(2): 267-272. ://000242510300016 The theological properties of cellulose hydrogels prepared from cellulose powder of algal origin (Cladophora sp. ) were investigated and compared to a commercially available dispersive cellulose grade (Avicel RC-591). The theological properties of cellulose hydrogels were investigated using a controlled rate instrument of couette type in the dynamic oscillation mode. Cladophora cellulose powder was dispersed in carboxymethylcellulose solutions of different concentrations. It was found that Cladophora cellulose forms gel structures at cellulose concentrations as low as 0.2% (w/v), whereas the lower threshold for the commercially available analog is around 1.5% (w/v) solids contents. Carboxymethylcellulose, even though useful in aiding the dispersion, has a negative effect on the viscoelastic properties of Cladophora cellulose when used in high concentrations. Cladophora cellulose powder could be a useful alternative to commercially available dispersible cellulose grades when very low quantities of stabilizing agents are required. (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Mihranyan, A., A. P. Llagostera, et al. (2004). "Moisture sorption by cellulose powders of varying crystallinity." International Journal of Pharmaceutics 269(2): 433-442. ://000188608900014 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Mihranyan-Sorption-Crystallinity-2004.pdf Moisture in microcrystalline cellulose may cause stability problems for moisture sensitive drugs. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of crystallinity and surface area on the uptake of moisture in cellulose powders. Powders of varying crystallinity were manufactured, and the uptake of moisture was investigated at different relative humidities. The structure of the cellulose powders was characterized by X-ray diffraction, BET surface area analysis, and scanning electron microscopy. Moisture uptake was directly related to the cellulose crystallinity and pore volume: Cellulose powders with higher crystallinity showed lower moisture uptake at relative humidities below 75%, while at higher humidities the moisture uptake could be associated with filling of the large pore volume of the cellulose powder of highest crystallinity. In conclusion, the structure of cellulose should be thoroughly considered when manufacturing low moisture grades of MCC. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Mihranyan, A. and M. Stromme (2004). "Capillary condensation of moisture in fractal pores of native cellulose powders." Chemical Physics Letters 393(4-6): 389-392. ://000223043100020 This study was performed to investigate the applicability of the theory of capillary condensation of moisture in fractal nanopores of native cellulose powders of various origins. The characteristic fractal dimensions D were calculated and their physical meaning discussed. The method proved useful for obtaining versatile information about the water-cellulose interactions as well as the bulk structure of cellulose particles. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Mihranyan, A. and M. Stromme (2007). "Solubility of fractal nanoparticles." Surface Science 601(2): 315-319. ://000244006200004 A relationship between the fractal surface dimension of dissolving nanoparticles and their solubility has been derived showing that fractally rough nanoparticles are expected to exhibit significantly higher solubility than predicted from the classical Ostwald- Freundlich equation. The derived relationship estimates the latent solubility increase for a given material by manipulating the surface of the particles to be dissolved, and can thus be used for developing new strategies for improving the solubility of poorly soluble drug candidates. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Mihranyan, A., M. Stromme, et al. (2006). "Influence of cellulose powder structure on moisture-induced degradation of acetylsalicylic acid." European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 27(2-3): 220-225. ://000234788200013 The stability of crystalline acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) powder in binary mixtures with cellulose powders was investigated to reveal information about the influence of the cellulose structural properties on the moisture-induced ASA degradation. Different cellulose powder samples were manufactured and characterized by X-ray diffraction and N-2 BET gas adsorption. The degradation patterns in ASA/cellulose mixtures were monitored as a function of salicylic acid increase versus time under various relative humidity conditions at 50 degrees C. The crystallinity index of cellulose samples varied between approximately 49 and 95%. The results indicated that cellulose powder with the lowest crystallinity index exhibited lower degradation rates than the samples with the higher crystallinity index. it should be noted that higher ASA degradation rates were observed in the samples with comparably lower moisture contents. This effect was most pronounced in the 1:3 (w/w), ASA/cellulose mixtures, whereas in 3:1 (w/w), ASA/cellulose mixtures the effect was less obvious. The findings emphasise the importance of cellulose structural Organisation when governing the moisture's partition between cellulose and ASA during the hydrolytic degradation. (C) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Mikhailov, E., S. Vlasenko, et al. (2004). "Interaction of aerosol particles composed of protein and salts with water vapor: hygroscopic growth and microstructural rearrangement." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 4: 323-350. ://000189003600002 The interaction of aerosol particles composed of the protein bovine serum albumin (BSA) and the inorganic salts sodium chloride and ammonium nitrate with water vapor has been investigated by hygroscopicity tandem differential mobility analyzer (H-TDMA) experiments complemented by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and Kohler theory calculations ( 100 - 300 nm particle size range, 298 K, 960 hPa). BSA was chosen as a well-defined model substance for proteins and other macromolecular compounds, which constitute a large fraction of the water-soluble organic component of air particulate matter. Pure BSA particles exhibited deliquescence and efflorescence transitions at similar to 35% relative humidity ( RH) and a hygroscopic diameter increase by up to similar to 10% at 95% RH in good agreement with model calculations based on a simple parameterisation of the osmotic coefficient. Pure NaCl particles were converted from near-cubic to near-spherical shape upon interaction with water vapor at relative humidities below the deliquescence threshold ( partial surface dissolution and recrystallisation), and the diameters of pure NH4NO3 particles decreased by up to 10% due to chemical decomposition and evaporation. Mixed NaCl-BSA and NH4NO3-BSA particles interacting with water vapor exhibited mobility equivalent diameter reductions of up to 20%, depending on particle generation, conditioning, size, and chemical composition ( BSA dry mass fraction 10 - 90%). These observations can be explained by formation of porous agglomerates ( envelope void fractions up to 50%) due to ion-protein interactions and electric charge effects on the one hand, and by compaction of the agglomerate structure due to capillary condensation effects on the other. The size of NH4NO3-BSA particles was apparently also influenced by volatilisation of NH4NO3, but not as much as for pure salt particles, i. e. the protein inhibited the decomposition of NH4NO3 or the evaporation of the decomposition products NH3 and HNO3. The efflorescence threshold of NaCl- BSA particles decreased with increasing BSA dry mass fraction, i. e. the protein inhibited the formation of salt crystals and enhanced the stability of supersaturated solution droplets. The H-TDMA and TEM results indicate that the protein was enriched at the surface of the mixed particles and formed an envelope, which inhibits the access of water vapor to the particle core and leads to kinetic limitations of hygroscopic growth, phase transitions, and microstructural rearrangement processes. The Kohler theory calculations performed with different types of models demonstrate that the hygroscopic growth of particles composed of inorganic salts and proteins can be efficiently described with a simple volume additivity approach, provided that the correct dry solute mass equivalent diameter and composition are known. A parameterisation for the osmotic coefficient of macromolecular substances has been derived from an osmotic pressure virial equation. For its application only the density and molar mass of the substance have to be known or estimated, and it is fully compatible with traditional volume additivity models for salt mixtures.

Mikolajczyk, T. and T. Skwarski (1996). "Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fibres of high porosity and hygroscopicity .1. Pan fibres formed from solutions in dimethylformamide (DMF)." Polimery 41(2): 102-106. ://A1996TV97100006 The conditions of forming highly porous and hygroscopic PAN fibres from an acrylonitrile/methyl methacrylate copolymer (96.45 mass-% acrylonitrile) were established. Fibres were formed from a DMF solution upon introducing into a water-DMF coagulating bath. Optimum drawing ratio from the spinning nozzle and temperature and composition of the coagulating bath were determined. Under such conditions the resulting fibres had a differentiated shell-core structure, an internal surface area of about 97 cm(2)/g and a total volume of pores 1.22 cm(3)/g. They revealed water sorption at 100% relative humidity and water retention, respectively, 14 and 12 times as high as those of conventional PAN fibres, with mechanical strength properties preserved at the level required for the textile-grade PAN fibres.

Mikolajczyk, T. and T. Skwarski (1997). "Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) fibers of high porosity and hygroscopicity .2. PAN fibers formed from thiocyanate solutions." Polimery 42(9): 560-564. ://A1997XW85300007 Technical conditions were established to spin high-porosity high-hygroscopicity PAN fibers in coagulating baths of industrial thiocyanate solutions containing a (93:5.3:1.7 w/w) acrylonitrile/methyl acrylate/itaconic acid terpolymer. The porous structure of the fibers and their sorptive and mechanical properties were studied in relation to the as-spun draw ratio, temperature, and coagulating bath composition. As compared with DMF as solvent, the thiocyanate solution allowed to prepare fibers with differentiated sheath-core structures and much narrower parameter variability. As the draw ratio was increased, the mechanical properties of the fibers improved and the total pore volume rose to provide good sorptive properties and high water retention (Figs. 1-3). The porous fiber structure was affected by the coagulating bath temperature and composition: total pore volume, water retention and moisture absorption were all higher at elevated bath temperatures (Figs. 4-6); strong (i.e., low-thiocyanate) or mild baths, the latter at elevated temperatures only, favored the formation of the sheath-core structure. As the thiocyanate was raised to 12-13% in the bath, water retention and moisture absorption rose and so did tenacity though slightly (Figs. 7, 8). Optimum as-spun draw ratio, temperature and coagulating bath temperature allowed to produce fibers with the sheath-core structure, internal surface area 56-85 m(2)/g and total pore volume 0.53-0.65 cm(3)/g. Under the 100% R.H. conditions, these fibers sorbed 25 times as much moisture and retained about 8 times as much water as did conventional PAN textile fibers; fiber tenacity was slightly lower (Table 1). The assumption made in Part I, concerning the formation of PAN fibers in DMF as solvent endowed with differentiated sheath-core structures, high porosity and high hygroscopicity, was also found to hold true for the thiocyanate solutions.

Milbau, A., L. Scheerlinck, et al. (2005). "Ecophysiological and morphological parameters related to survival in grass species exposed to an extreme climatic event." Physiologia Plantarum 125(4): 500-512. ://WOS:000233407900010 An experiment was performed to elucidate interspecific differences in survival time of grass species subjected to an extreme climatic event. We exposed eight grass species to a simulated heat wave in the field ('free air' temperature increase at 11 degrees C above ambient) combined with drought. We determined whether interspecific differences in survival time were related to the responses of the species to the imposed stress or could be explained by their ecophysiological or morphological characteristics in unstressed conditions. Surprisingly, there was no effect of specific leaf area, but species with a higher total leaf area survived longer. This may arise from a greater water reserve in the plant as a whole, which could delay the desiccation of the meristem, or from reduced evaporation due to a higher leaf area index. Species in which the decrease in light-saturated stomatal conductance (g(s)) and photosynthetic CO2 uptake rate (A(max)) was strongly related to the decrease in soil water availability (measured as soil relative water content and stress duration) survived longer than species in which g(s) and A(max) likewise declined but responded more to daily fluctuations in irradiance, temperature, and vapor pressure deficit during the heat wave. We, therefore, hypothesize that interspecific differences in stress survival time might be related to the extent to which stomata react to changes in soil water conditions relatively to changes in other environmental and physiological factors. The results suggest that resistance to extremes is governed by other mechanisms than resistance to moderate drought.

Milwich, M., I. Burgert, et al. (2007). "Plant stems as role models for structurally optimized biomimetic composite profiles with gradient structure." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology a-Molecular & Integrative Physiology 146(4): DOI 10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.01.249|9. ://WOS:000245748600199

Milwich, M., T. Speck, et al. (2006). "Biomimetics and technical textiles: solving engineering problems with the help of nature's wisdom." Am. J. Bot. 93(10): 1455-1465. http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/10/1455 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Milwich-Biomimetics- Textiles-2006.pdf The significance of inspiration from nature for technical textiles and for fibrous composite materials is demonstrated by examples of already existing technical solutions that either parallel biology or are indeed inspired by biological models. The two different basic types of biomimetic approaches are briefly presented and discussed for the "technical plant stem." The technical plant stem is a biomimetic product inspired by a variety of structural and functional properties found in different plants. The most important botanical templates are the stems of the giant reed (Arundo donax, Poaceae) and of the Dutch rush (Equisetum hyemale, Equisetaceae). After analysis of the structural and mechanical properties of these plants, the physical principles have been deduced and abstracted and finally transferred to technical applications. Modern computer-controlled fabrication methods for producing technical textiles and for structuring the embedding matrix of compound materials render unique possibilities for transferring the complex structures found in plants, which often are optimized on several hierarchical levels, into technical applications. This process is detailed for the technical plant stem, a biomimetic, lightweight, fibrous composite material based on technical textiles with optimized mechanical properties and a gradient structure.

Miner, M. R., B. Hosticka, et al. (2004). "The effects of ambient humidity on the mechanical properties and surface chemistry of hygroscopic silica aerogel." Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 350: 285-289. ://000226089200041 The stress vs. strain relation of hygroscopic aerogels was tested in a controlled humidity chamber to study how the Young's modulus and non-recoverable strain are affected by the adsorption of water in the gel. Mass gains over desiccated conditions varied from 4% at 32% relative humidity (RH) to 12% at 70% RH. Above 70% RH, the samples failed catastrophically. The Young's modulus increased from 0.51 to 0.70 MPa and non-recoverable strain increased from 0.047 to 0.059 over the same humidity range. Yield stress did not show significant changes. The samples were also studied with near-infrared transmission measurements to determine if the adsorbed water was chemically as well as physically bound to the surface. Several absorption lines indicative of hydrogen bonding between water and silica were seen to increase with increasing humidity while surface silanol lines decreased. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Ming, Y. and L. M. Russell (2001). "Predicted hygroscopic growth of sea salt aerosol." Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 106(D22): 28259-28274. ://000172355800018 Organic species in sea salt particles can significantly reduce hygroscopic growth in subsaturated conditions, an important uncertainty in the radiative effect of aerosol particles on the atmosphere. This hygroscopic behavior is predicted with a numerical model of the the organic-water, electrolyte-water, and organic-electrolyte interactions in complex mixtures of organic species and inorganic ions. The results show a 15% decrease in hygroscopic growth above 75% relative humidity for particles that include as little as 30% organic mass. Organic compositions of 50% organic mass reduce hygroscopic growth by 25%. This prediction relies on particle chemical composition estimated from measurements of insoluble organic species in marine-derived particles and, of soluble organic species measured in seawater. Twenty insoluble and four soluble organic species are used to represent the behavior of sea salt organic composition. The hygroscopic growth is strongly sensitive to the organic fraction that is soluble or slightly soluble, although variations among different soluble or insoluble species are small above the sodium chloride deliquescence point. Interactions between organic and electrolyte species depend primarily on the "salting out" behavior of NaCl with alkanes, carboxylic acids, and alcohols, although interactions with other inorganic ions in sea salt were estimated to cause small changes in the hygroscopic growth. The predicted growth factors for sea salt with < 30% organic species are consistent with growth factors measured for ambient marine-derived particles by another group [Berg et al,, 1998; Swietlicki et al., 2000; Zhou et al., 2001]. This coincidence suggests that the less-hygroscopic particles could indicate the presence of marine organic compounds, although multiple combinations of inorganic and anthropogenic organic species would also satisfy the measured behavior.

Miyazaki, J. and T. Nakano (2005). "Hygroscopicity of resorcinol-formaldehyde resin and aqueous vinyl polymer-isocyanate resin in high humidity." Holzforschung 59(3): 342-346. ://000228828800015 The hygroscopicity and hygro-mechanical properties of the adhesives, resorcinol-formaldehyde (RF) resin and aqueous vinyl polymer-isocyanate (API) resin have been examined. Adsorption isotherms for cured RF and API resins with various degrees of crosslinking showed that the hygroscopicity of both resins decreased as the curing reactions proceeded, although the mechanisms for these decreases differed. In RF resins cured with a large amount of hardener, a highly crosslinked structure is formed, so swelling is limited by the network. Thus, the hygroscopicity of cured RF resins decreases due to the restricted swelling, while the number of hydroxyl groups, another source of hygroscopicity, are not changed by the curing. On the other hand, swelling in API resins cured with a large amount of hardener is not completely inhibited because of long segments between the crosslinks. The hygroscopicity of cured API resins is lowered as the curing extent increased, since this reaction decreases the number of hydroxyl groups.

Miyazaki, K., K. Hisada, et al. (1999). "Modification of Polypropylene fabric for giving water repellent and hygroscopic properties simultaneously." Sen-I Gakkaishi 55(9): 408-415. ://000082602800009 The finishing procedure for giving to polypropylene non-woven fabric water-repellent and hygroscopic properties simultaneously was investigated. It was found that high repellent property(surface tension: over 29 similar to 35 x 10(-3) N/m) and suitable hygroscopic property (moisture content: 8 similar to 60wt%) were obtained simultaneously by the following steps. As the first step, the hydrophilic group was introduced into the non-woven polypropylene fabric by radiation induced graft polymerization of acrylic acid (AA) or mixture of sodium p-styrene sulfonate (SSS) and AA. Hygroscopic and wettable properties were given by treating the grafted sample with sodium hydroxide solution. As the second step, polyion-complexes were formed on the sodium acrylate surface by treating with dioctadecyldimethylammoniumbromide aqueous solution. As a result hydrophobic surface was obtained. Then, as the third step, the alkyl chain surface was treated further with CF4-plasma treatment to give water-repellent property on that. The structure of the modified surface was analyzed after each treatment by measuring ATR-FT/IR and XPS.

Mochida, M., M. Kuwata, et al. (2006). "Relationship between hygroscopicity and cloud condensation nuclei activity for urban aerosols in Tokyo." Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 111(D23). ://000242753800001 As described by the Kohler theory, the hygroscopicity of atmospheric aerosol particles is a key factor regulating their cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) activity. Here we investigated the relationship between hygroscopicity and CCN activity for urban aerosol particles using a hygroscopicity tandem differential mobility analyzer (HTDMA) coupled in series to a CCN counter. The HTDMA- CCNC system was operated near the center of the Tokyo metropolitan area from 10 to 17 November 2004. For aerosol particles whose dry mobility diameters were 30-200 nm, the ratios of CCN to condensation nuclei (CN) at 0.22-1.3% supersaturation were obtained as a function of particle hygroscopicity at 83 and 89% RH. More-hygroscopic particles were found to be more CCN active than less-hygroscopic particles of the same size, indicating that hygroscopicity is a critical factor regulating CCN activity. The chemical compositions of particles were simultaneously measured using an aerosol mass spectrometer. They were found to relate closely to CCN activity as well as to the hygroscopicity. The measured CCN-hygroscopicity relationships were compared to those predicted by Kohler theory. The results suggest that CCN activity is possibly perturbed by changes in surface tension due to organics, dissolution/dissociation of water-soluble organics under supersaturation conditions, or different nonideality of organics from inorganic salts. These factors associated with organics are potentially important for CCN activity and thus microphysical cloud processes in the atmosphere.

Mock, U., R. Forster, et al. (2005). "Towards ultrahydrophobic surfaces: a biomimetic approach." Journal of Physics-Condensed Matter 17(9): S639-S648. ://WOS:000228031100027 We report on efforts to mimic the wetting behaviour of surfaces or leaves of certain plants, which are rendered ultrahydrophobic through a dense layer of hairs grown on top of the leaf. We use a simple moulding approach to obtain elastic hydrophilic hydrogel networks with pillar structures that may serve as model systems for such hairy surfaces. In order to generate such structures, we first generate either a steel master or directly use a lady's mantle leaf. Second, the master is moulded against a silicone to yield an elastomer, which is a negative of the hairy surface. A subsequent radical polymerization in the negative leads to the formation of an elastic hydrogel even for the very high aspect ratios characteristic of the natural system. The results of some preliminary contact angle measurements on the obtained structures are discussed.

Mott, K. A. (2009). "Opinion: Stomatal responses to light and CO2 depend on the mesophyll." Plant Cell and Environment 32(11): 1479-1486. ://WOS:000270663000001 The mechanisms by which stomata respond to red light and CO2 are unknown, but much of the current literature assumes that these mechanisms reside wholly within the guard cells. However, responses of guard cells in isolated epidermes are typically much smaller than those in leaves, and there are several lines of evidence in the literature suggesting that the mesophyll is necessary for these responses in leaves. This paper advances the opinion that although guard cells may have small direct responses to red light and CO2, most of the stomatal response to these factors in leaves is caused by an unknown signal that originates in the mesophyll.

Mott, K. A. and D. Peak (2010). "Stomatal responses to humidity and temperature in darkness." Plant Cell and Environment 33(7): 1084-1090. ://WOS:000278624200003 Stomatal responses to leaf temperature (T-l) and to the mole fractions of water vapour in the ambient air (w(a)) and the leaf intercellular air spaces (w(i)) were determined in darkness to remove the potential effects of changes in photosynthesis and intercellular CO2 concentration. Both the steady-state and kinetic responses of stomatal conductance (g(s)) to w(a) in darkness were found to be indistinguishable from those in the light. g(s) showed a steep response to the difference (Delta w) between w(a) and w(i) when w(a) was varied. The response was much less steep when w(i) was varied. Although stomatal apertures responded steeply to T-l when Delta w was held constant at 17 mmol mol-1, the response was much less steep when Delta w was held constant at about zero. Similar results were obtained in the light for Delta w = 15 mmol mol-1 and Delta w approximate to 0 mmol mol-1. These results are discussed in the context of mechanisms for the stomatal response to humidity.

Moulia, B., C. Coutand, et al. (2006). "Posture control and skeletal mechanical acclimation in terrestrial plants: implications for mechanical modeling of plant architecture." Am. J. Bot. 93(10): 1477-1489. http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/10/1477 Self-supporting plant stems are slender, erect structures that remain standing while growing in highly variable mechanical environments. Such ability is not merely related to an adapted mechanical design in terms of material-specific stiffness and stem tapering. As many terrestrial standing animals do, plant stems regulate posture through active and coordinated control of motor systems and acclimate their skeletal growth to prevailing loads. This analogy probably results from mechanical challenges on standing organisms in an aerial environment with low buoyancy and high turbulence. But the continuous growth of plants submits them to a greater challenge. In response to these challenges, land plants implemented mixed skeletal and motor functions in the same anatomical elements. There are two types of kinematic design: (1) plants with localized active movement (arthrophytes) and (2) plants with continuously distributed active movements (contortionists). The control of these active supporting systems involves gravi- and mechanoperception, but little is known about their coordination at the whole plant level. This more active view of the control of plant growth and form has been insufficiently considered in the modeling of plant architecture. Progress in our understanding of plant posture and mechanical acclimation will require new biomechanical models of plant architectural development.

Mudgal, V. D. and K. P. Vishakha (2009). "Thin-layer drying kinetics of bittergourd (Momordica charantia L.)." Journal of Food Science and Technology-Mysore 46(3): 236-239. ://WOS:000267381800012 Bittergourd samples were dehydrated using mechanical tray dryer at 60, 70, 80 and 90 degrees C air temperatures with blanching pretreatment for 3 min in 5% salt solution. Drying time of 240-390 min was required to reduce the moisture content from 89.6% to about 7.0%. Moisture content of bittergourd decreased rapidly during the initial 150 min. It was found that bittergourd is a hygroscopic non-porous food material during drying. The moisture movement inside the material occurred only by diffusion. The moisture diffusivity during drying process was 2.028x10(-9) - 3.296x10(-9) m(2)/sec. The carbohydrate and ascorbic acid contents in dehydrated samples ranged from 3.5 to 3.8% and 32.6 to 80.3 mg/100 g as against 4.2% and 88.9 mg/100 g, respectively, in fresh bittergourd indicating a significant loss of nutrients during processing. The rehydration ratio (3.1) and coefficient of rehydration (0.343) were maximum in bittergourd slices dehydrated at 60 degrees C.

Mueller, D. M. J. (1970). "CRYSTAL-CONTAINING BODIES ASSOCIATED WITH PERISTOME ONTOGENY IN A MOSS." Journal of Ultrastructure Research 30(5-6): 615-&. ://WOS:A1970G072300008 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Mueller-Crystal-Containing-1970.pdf

Mueller, D. M. J. (1974). "CORRELATION OF STRUCTURE AND MOVEMENT OF PERISTOME IN FISSIDENS." American Journal of Botany 61(5): 60- 60. ://WOS:A1974T035800253

Muller, U., W. Gindl, et al. (2006). "Biomechanics of a branch-stem junction in softwood." Trees-Structure and Function 20(5): 643-648. ://WOS:000240062300012 Direct measurement of strain field in a mechanically loaded Norway spruce branch-stem junction was performed by means of electronic speckle pattern analysis. Results were compared with strain distribution in a polyester cast of identical shape as the branch-stem junction, and a simplified polyester model consisting of two half-cylinders. Compared to polyester models, the branch- stem junction was characterised by a very homogeneous distribution of strain, which can be interpreted as a homogeneous distribution of stress in terms of fraction of material strength. This optimised transfer of mechanical load from the branch to the stem is achieved by a combination of naturally optimised shape with, additionally, optimised mechanical wood properties in the junction area.

Muntz, A. H. (2003). "From cell to galaxy: cell mimetic technology for enabling multi-scale bioNEMS." SCI 2003. 7th World Multiconference on Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics Proceedings: 252-7 Vol.16|7750. ://INSPEC:8160075 Natural systems are a complex composition of many subsystems interacting at a multitude of levels. For example, environmental factors such as air quality, radiation, ozone, and low gravity may cause changes at the genetic level and start cellular chain reactions that, over time, result in changes in physiological behaviors. Today, the comprehension, control, and integration of complex multilevel interactions have just begun, CMISE is a NASA funded University Research, Engineering & Technology Institute (URETI) at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). CMISE researchers have pioneered cell mimetic technology consisting of nanoscale sensor, actuators and energy sources for sensing, control, and integration of complex multilevel natural and man-made systems. We mimic the adaptive ability of natural cells to structure themselves precisely into ever more complex systems. CMISE builds intelligent hybrid systems of molecular machines to monitor and control biological and man-made subsystems. The technology developed has immense impact in the aerospace, medical, defense, and energy fields, to name a few

Nanassy, A. J. (1965). "Cell for Dielectric Measurements on Hygroscopic Materials." Review of Scientific Instruments 36(6): 756-&. ://A19656532400008

Naumov, P., G. Jovanovski, et al. (2006). "Crystal structure and spectroscopic characterization of lithium saccharinate (11)/(6) hydrate, a hygroscopic and potentially physiologically active compound." Zeitschrift Fur Anorganische Und Allgemeine Chemie ZAAC 632(3): 454-460. ://000235638500017 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Naumov-Crystal-Structure-205.pdf The structure of the only structurally yet uncharacterized alkali saccharinate, lithium saccharinate, is reported, together with the infrared spectra of its protonated and partially deuterated analogues. The compound crystallizes as strongly hygroscopic colorless triclinic crystal blocks of a (11)/(6) hydrate, LiC7H4NO3S center dot(11)/6H2O, space group PT, with unit cell dimensions a = 10.070(1), b = 15.755(2), c = 19.134(2) angstrom, alpha = 68.085(2), beta = 76.940(2), gamma = 84.169(2)degrees, V = 2743.0(5) angstrom(3) and Z = 12 at T = 200(2) K.

Nebbia, S., B. Bissonnette, et al. (1993). "Efficiency of Passive Airway Humidification as a Function of the Dead Space between Hygroscopic Filter and Endotracheal-Tube." Anesthesiology 79(3A): A1183-A1183. ://A1993LY10801179

Needham, A. J., D. Jiang, et al. (2005). "The effects of mass loading the ossicles with a floating mass transducer on middle ear transfer function." Otology & Neurotology 26(2): 218-224. ://WOS:000231411700015 Hypothesis: The aim of this study was to measure the mass loading effect of an active middle-ear implant (the Vibrant Soundbridge) in cadaver temporal bones. Background: Implantable middle ear hearing devices such as Vibrant Soundbridge have been used as an alternative to conventional hearing aids for the rehabilitation of sensorineural hearing loss. Other than the obvious disadvantage of requiring implantation middle ear surgery, it also applies a direct weight on the ossicular chain which, in turn, may have an impact on residual hearing. Previous studies have shown that applying a mass directly on the ossicular chain has a damping effect on its response to sound. However, little has been done to investigate the magnitude and the frequency characteristics of the mass loading effect in devices such as the Vibrant Soundbridge. Methods: Five fresh cadaver temporal bones were used. The stapes displacement was measured using laser Doppler vibrometry before and after the placement of a Vibrant Sound-bridge floating mass transducer. The effects of mass and attachment site were compared with the unloaded response. Measurements were obtained at frequencies between 0.1 and 10 kHz and at acoustic input levels of 100 dB sound pressure level. Each temporal bone acted as its own control. Results: Placement of the floating mass transducer caused a reduction of the stapes displacement. There were variations between the bones. The change of the stapes displacement varied from 0 dB to 28 dB. The effect was more prominent at frequencies above 1,000 Hz. Placing the floating mass transducer close to the incudostapedial joint reduced the mass loading effect. Conclusion: The floating mass transducer produces a measurable reduction of the stapes displacement in the temporal bone model. The effect is more prominent at high frequencies.

Neumetzler, L., N. Obel, et al. (2005). "Rapid and sensitive structural analysis of polysaccharide materials by oligosaccharide mass profiling (OLIMP)." Abstracts of Papers of the American Chemical Society 229: 048-CELL. ://WOS:000228177701578

Newton, A. E., C. J. Cox, et al. (2000). "Evolution of the major moss lineages: Phylogenetic analyses based on multiple gene sequences and morphology." Bryologist 103(2): 187-211. ://000087713200002 Evolutionary relationships of moses are still poorly understood, with family, order, and subclass circumscription and relationship remaining especially obscure. Over the past decade, a considerable body of data has accumulated, including information on morphological, developmental, anatomical, and ultrastructural characteristics, as well as nucleotide sequences for a number of nuclear and plastid genes. We have combined data from these different sources to provide an overview of the relationships of the major lineages of mosses. We analyzed a data set that includes 33 moss species and ten outgroup taxa drawn from the liverworts, hornworts, and vascular plants. Molecular data consisted of nucleotide sequences from four DNA regions, (rbcL, trnL-trnF, rps4 and 18S). Morphological data included 41 characters of which many were derived from published anatomical and ultra-structural studies. Combining morphological and molecular data in the analyses showed that mosses, including Sphagnum, Takakia, Andreaea and , from a monophyletic group, provided improved resolution of higher level relationships, and further insight into evolutionary patterns in morphology.

Newton, A. E. and R. S. Tangney (2007). "Systematics Association Special Volume Series." Systematics Association Special Volume Series. ://BIOSIS:PREV200700565009 This 464 page book, entitled 'Pleurocarpous Mosses, Systematics and Evolution', is volume 71 in the The Systematics Association Special Volume Series, and focuses on cutting-edge analytical methods. The book begins with a note on the editors and a list of contributing authors. There are 19 individually-authored chapters written in English. Each chapter contains a table of contents, an abstract, and is individually-referenced. Chapters 1-10, respectively, discuss pleurocarp classification; phylogenetic distribution; pleurocarpy in the Rhizogoniaceous grade; phylogeny of the Hypopterygiaceae; growth patterns in Calyptrochaeta; Brachytheciaceae; phylogenetic relationships within Meteoriaceae; Amblystegiaceae and Calliergonaceae; relationships of mosses of the order Hypnales; phylogeny of Hygrohypnum. Chapters 11-19, respectively, deal with character reduction and peristome morphology in Entodontaceae; homologies of stem structures; branching architecture; sympodial and monopodial growth; pleurocarpous mosses origin; dating the diversification of the Pleurocarpous mosses; phylogenetic and morphological studies; and biogeography of austral pleurocarpous mosses. The final chapter is followed by an index. This book will be of interest to all those working or studying in the fields of ecology and taxonomy.

Nguyen, T. A., P. Verboven, et al. (2004). "Effect of picking date, time and temperature on water sorption of 'Conference' pear tissue." Postharvest Biology and Technology 33(3): 243-253. ://WOS:000223089700003 Sorption isotherm experiments in the high RH range (80-100%) were carried out at 1, 6.5, 10.5 and 18.5 degreesC for different parts (inner cortex. outer cortex tissues and cuticle) of early and late picked 'Conference' pears after 1 and 6 months of storage in controlled atmosphere conditions. Experiments were implemented successfully with the pressure-controlled method, in which samples were submitted to an air-flow of very high velocity (similar to10 m/s) for 48 h. The results showed no significant effect of picking date and storage period. The effect of temperature was evident in the RH range above 91% for the inner cortex tissue, but much less for the outer cortex tissue. The difference in sorption isotherms of different tissues is quite obvious. The cuticle showed a non-hygroscopic behaviour, while the inner and outer cortex tissues showed the opposite. The inner cortex tissue had a hi-her water holding capability than the outer cortex tissue, which indicates the more protective properties of the latter against temperature and relative humidity fluctuations during storage. The water content change versus water activity was also stronger in the case of inner cortex tissue. In an attempt to relate the moisture distribution (water content) to the water status (potential) in pears and, to understand water movement in fresh fruit, a detailed modelling of the cellular structural properties and of the intercellular space is a necessity. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Niklas, K. J., H.-C. Spatz, et al. (2006). "Plant biomechanics: an overview and prospectus." Am. J. Bot. 93(10): 1369-1378. http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/10/1369 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Niklas-Biomechanics- 2006.pdf We provide a brief overview of the articles appearing in this special issue and place them in the context of the long history of the study of plant biomechanics and what we judge to be the next major intellectual and/or technological challenges in this field.

Nilsson, M., A. Mihranyan, et al. (2006). "Mesopore structure of microcrystalline cellulose tablets characterized by nitrogen adsorption and SEM: The influence on water-induced ionic conduction." Journal of Physical Chemistry B 110(32): 15776-15781. ://000239656100023 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Nilsson-Mesopore-Structure-2006.pdf Tablets of microcrystalline cellulose were formed at different compaction pressures and physical properties, such as pore size distribution, surface area, and pore surface fractality, were extracted from N-2 adsorption isotherms. These properties were compared to previously published data on the water-induced ionic conductivity of the tablets. The conduction process was shown to follow a percolation model with a percolation exponent of 2 and a porosity percolation threshold of similar to 0.1. The critical pore diameter for facilitated charge transport was shown to be in the 5-20 nm range. When the network of pores with a diameter in this interval is reduced to the point where it no longer forms a continuous passageway throughout the compact, the conduction process is dominated by charge transport on the surfaces of individual microfibrils mainly situated in the bulk of fibril aggregates. A fractal analysis of nitrogen adsorption isotherms showed that the dominant interface forces during adsorption is attributed to surface tensions between the gas and the adsorbed liquid phase. The extracted fractal dimension of the analyzed pore surfaces remained unaffected by the densification process at low compaction pressures (< similar to 200 MPa). At increased densification, however, pore-surface structures smaller than similar to 100 nm become smoother as the fractal dimension decreases from similar to 2.5 at high porosities to similar to 2.3 for the densest tablets under study.

Nogata, F. (1997). "Learning about design of FGMs from intelligent modelling system in natural composites." Functionally Graded Materials 1996: 737-742. ://WOS:A1997BJ82W00119 It was found that plants have a cell-based sensing system for external mechanical stimuli, which is similar to the role of piezoelectric effects in bone, i.e., mechanical stress will change the resting electrical potential of plants therefore influencing the growth activity of their load carriers. The shape and ingenious construction observed in natural composites are a continuos process of the intelligent optimization based on the adaptive modelling with a cell-based mechanosensor. It seems that this process is the best choice to survive in hard competition for energy and external mechanical condition with minimum materials that they get in the limited living space.

Nonami, H., E. D. Schulze, et al. (1991). "MECHANISMS OF STOMATAL MOVEMENT IN RESPONSE TO AIR HUMIDITY, IRRADIANCE AND XYLEM WATER POTENTIAL." Planta 183(1): 57-64. ://WOS:A1991EP34600008 Turgor, and osmotic and water potentials of subsidiary cells, epidermal cells and mesophyll cells were measured with a pressure probe and a nanoliter osmometer in intact transpiring leaves of Tradescantia virginiana L. Xylem water potential was manipulated by changing air humidity, light, and water supply. In a transpiring leaf the water potential of mesophyll cells was lower, but turgor was higher, than in cells surrounding the stomatal cavity owing to the presence of a cuticle layer which covers the internal surface of subsidiary and guard cells. Cuticular transpiration from the outer leaf surface was negligibly small. When stomata closed in dry air, transpiration decreased despite an increasing vapor-pressure difference between leaf and air, and the water potential of subsidiary cells dropped to the level of the water potential in mesophyll cells. We suggest that the observed decrease of transpiration at increasing vapor-pressure difference can be attributed to a shortage of water supply to the guard cells from subsidiary cells, causing turgor to decrease in the former more than in the latter. The leaf's internal cuticle appears to play a special role in channelling the internal water flow during a water shortage.

Nosonovsky, M. and B. Bhushan (2005). "Roughness optimization for biomimetic superhydrophobic surfaces." Microsystem Technologies- Micro-and Nanosystems-Information Storage and Processing Systems 11(7): 535-549. ://WOS:000231838300011 For non-wetting liquids the contact angle with a rough surface is greater than with a flat surface and may approach 180 degrees, as reported for leaves of water-repellent plants, such as lotus. Roughness affects the contact angle due to the increased area of solid- liquid interface and due to the effect of sharp edges of rough surfaces. High roughness may lead to composite solid-liquid-air interface, which may be either stable or unstable. A comprehensive analytical model is proposed to provide a relationship between local roughness and contact angle, which is used to develop roughness distribution and to create biomimetic superhydrophobic surfaces. Various roughness distributions are considered, including periodic and surfaces with rectangular, hemispherically topped cylindrical, conical and pyramidal asperities and the random Gaussian height distribution. Verification of the model is conducted using experimental data for the contact angle of water droplet on a lotus leaf surface. For two solid bodies in contact, for wetting liquids, wetting leads to the meniscus force, which affects friction. Dependence of the meniscus force on roughness, previously ignored, is considered in the paper and it is found that with increasing roughness meniscus force can grow due to scale effect.

Nosonovsky, M. and B. Bhushan (2007). "Biomimetic superhydrophobic surfaces: Multiscale approach." Nano Letters 7: 2633-2637. ://WOS:000249501900016 Micro- and macrodroplet evaporation and condensation upon micropatterned superhydrophobic surfaces built of flattop pillars are investigated with the use of an environmental scanning electron microscope. It is shown that the contact angle hysteresis depends upon both kinetic effects at the triple line and adhesion hysteresis (inherently present even at a smooth surface) and that the magnitude of the two contributions is comparable. The transition between the composite (Cassie) and wetted (Wenzel) states is a linear effect with the microdroplet radius proportional to the pitch over pillar diameter. It is shown that wetting of a superhydrophobic surface is a multiscale phenomenon that involves three scale lengths. Although the contact angle is the macroscale parameter, the contact angle hysteresis and the Cassie-Wenzel transition cannot be determined from the macroscale equations and are governed by micro- and nanoscale effects.

Nosonovsky, M. and B. Bhushan (2007). "Hierarchical roughness optimization for biomimetic superhydrophobic surfaces." Ultramicroscopy 107(10-11): 969-979. ://WOS:000249142600017 Superhydrophobic surfaces should have high contact angles (CA) with water and low contact angle hysteresis (CAH). High CA may be achieved by increasing surface roughness, while in order to have low CAH, superhydrophobic surfaces should be able to form a stable composite interface with air pockets between solid and liquid. Capillary waves, nanodroplets condensation, hydrophilic spots due to chemical surface inhomogeneity, and liquid pressure can destroy the composite interface. These destabilizing factors have different characteristic length scales, so a hierarchical roughness is required to resist them. It is shown that convex rather than concave profile enhances stability, so nanoscale convex bumps should be superimposed over microasperities, in order to pin the liquid-air interface. In addition, the nanoroughness is required to support nanodroplets. The ability of the interface to support high pressure requires high asperity density and size, so it is in conflict with the requirement of low fractional solid-liquid contact area for low CAH and slip length. The new parameter, spacing factor for asperities, is proposed, and requirements for optimum design, which combines conflicting conditions, are formulated and discussed. Remarkably, biological superhydrophobic surfaces satisfy these requirements. (c) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Nosonovsky, M. and B. Bhushan (2007). "Multiscale friction mechanisms and hierarchical surfaces in nano- and bio-tribology." Materials Science & Engineering R-Reports 58(3-5): 162-193. ://WOS:000251679000003 Various mechanisms of solid-solid and solid-liquid friction are studied in this review, and their relation to the surface roughness hierarchy is discussed. For ideal solid bodies with conservative forces acting between them, there would be no friction. Different deviations from the ideal state, such as the surface roughness, contamination and chemical heterogeneity, bulk material deformation and non-conservative adhesive bonds, lead to energy dissipation. Most heterogeneities involved into various dry friction mechanisms are associated with small ratios of magnitudes and of characteristic lengths of the forces at the interface and in the bulk. This small ratio leads to an almost linear dependence of the friction force upon load (the Coulomb law). However, the heterogeneities lead also to non-linear and multiscale effects. Mapping of dry friction mechanisms is proposed based upon the characteristic length parameters. It is discussed also how hierarchical friction mechanisms lead to biological hierarchical surfaces with reduced or increased adhesion and friction. Current advances in nano- and bio-tribology reveal a growing number of hierarchical (multiscale) surfaces. From the lotus leaf and gecko foot to self-affine and textured engineering surfaces, the hierarchy plays a fundamental role in frictional energy dissipation. (c) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Nosonovsky, M. and B. Bhushan (2008). "Biologically inspired surfaces: Broadening the scope of roughness." Advanced Functional Materials 18(6): 843-855. ://WOS:000254872100001 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Nosonovsky-Biologically-Inspired-Surfaces- 2008.pdf Superhydrophobicity can be used for many applications that require non-adhesive and water-repellent surfaces. A successful design of superhydrophobic surfaces requires a correct assessment of the surface roughness effect on wetting. Roughness is an important property in surface mechanics, physics, chemistry, and biology, and it is critical for many tribological applications. Roughness can be defined in different ways, and the definition should be adequate to the problem under investigation. Our recent studies of biological and biomimetic superhydrophobic surfaces show that traditional roughness parameters, such as the root-mean-square, correlation length, or fractal dimension, are not always appropriate for the analysis of wetting. This is, in particular, due to the hierarchical nature of wetting mechanisms and interfaces. We discuss the effect of roughness on wetting mechanisms and relevant roughness parameters and ways to broaden the concept and scope of surface roughness.

Nosonovsky, M. and B. Bhushan (2008). "Energy transitions in superhydrophobicity: low adhesion, easy flow and bouncing." Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter 20: 395005 ( 6 pp.). ://INSPEC:10201869 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Nosonovsky-Energy-Transistions-2008.pdf The concept of superhydrophobicity was introduced in the 1990s as a result of the investigation of the microstructure of extremely water-repellent plant leaves. Since that time, artificial superhydrophobic surfaces have been developed and implemented, stimulated by advances in nanotechnology, and giving one of the most successful examples of a bio-inspired technology transferred into engineering applications. Superhydrophobicity is usually defined as the ability of a surface to have (i) a very high water contact angle (CA) and (ii) low CA hysteresis. Here we argue that the ability of a water droplet to bounce off a surface constitutes a third property that is crucial for applications. Furthermore, this property is naturally related to the first two properties, since the energy barriers separating the 'sticky' and 'non-sticky' states needed for bouncing droplets have the same origin as those needed for high CA and for low CA hysteresis.

Nosonovsky, M. and B. Bhushan (2009). "Multiscale effects and capillary interactions in functional biomimetic surfaces for energy conversion and green engineering." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 367(1893): 1511- 1539. http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1893/1511.abstract AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Nosonovsky- Multiscale-Effects-2009.pdf Biological surfaces (plant leaves, lizard and insect attachment pads, fish scales, etc.) have remarkable properties due to their hierarchical structure. This structure is a consequence of the hierarchical organization of biological tissues. The hierarchical organization of the surfaces allows plants and creatures to adapt to energy dissipation and transition mechanisms with various characteristic scale lengths. At the same time, an addition of a micro-/nanoscale hierarchical level, for example of surface roughness, can change qualitatively the properties of a system and introduce multiple equilibriums, instability and dissipation. Thus, small roughness has a large effect. In particular, a small change of surface roughness can lead to a large change in the capillary force. The capillary effects are crucial for small-scale applications. Multiscale organization of the biomimetic surfaces and their adaptation to capillary effects make them suitable for applications using new principles of energy transition (e.g. capillary engines) and environment-friendly technologies (e.g. self-cleaning oleophobic surfaces).

Nosonovsky, M. and B. Bhushan (2009). "Thermodynamics of surface degradation, self-organization and self-healing for biomimetic surfaces." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 367(1893): 1607-1627. http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1893/1607.abstract AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Nosonovsky- Thermodynamics-Self-Healing-2009.pdf Friction is a dissipative irreversible process; therefore, entropy is produced during frictional contact. The rate of entropy production can serve as a measure of degradation (e.g. wear). However, in many cases friction leads to self-organization at the surface. This is because the excess entropy is either driven away from the surface, or it is released at the nanoscale, while the mesoscale entropy decreases. As a result, the orderliness at the surface grows. Self-organization leads to surface secondary structures either due to the mutual adjustment of the contacting surfaces (e.g. by wear) or due to the formation of regular deformation patterns, such as friction-induced slip waves caused by dynamic instabilities. The effect has practical applications, since self-organization is usually beneficial because it leads to friction and wear reduction (minimum entropy production rate at the self-organized state). Self- organization is common in biological systems, including self-healing and self-cleaning surfaces. Therefore, designing a successful biomimetic surface requires an understanding of the thermodynamics of frictional self-organization. We suggest a multiscale decomposition of entropy and formulate a thermodynamic framework for irreversible degradation and for self-organization during friction. The criteria for self-organization due to dynamic instabilities are discussed, as well as the principles of biomimetic self- cleaning, self-lubricating and self-repairing surfaces by encapsulation and micro/nanopatterning.

Nosonovsky, M. and B. Bhushan (2010). "Surface self-organization: From wear to self-healing in biological and technical surfaces." Applied Surface Science 256(12): 3982-3987. ://WOS:000275234000046 Wear occurs at most solid surfaces that come in contact with other solid surfaces. While biological surfaces and tissues usually have the ability for self-healing, engineered self-healing materials only started to emerge recently. These materials are currently created using the trial-and-error approach and phenomenological models, so there is a need of a general first-principles theory of self- healing. We discuss the conditions under which the self-healing occurs and provide a general theoretical framework and criteria for self-healing using the concept of multiscale organization of entropy and non-equilibrium thermodynamics. The example of epicuticular wax regeneration of plant leaves is discussed as a case study. (C) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Obataya, E., T. Higashihara, et al. (2002). "Hygroscopicity of heat-treated wood III. Effect of steaming on the hygroscopicity of wood." Mokuzai Gakkaishi 48(5): 348-355. ://000179459000004 Spruce wood specimens were steamed at 120-180degreesC and their equilibrium moisture content (M) was compared with that of wood heated in the absence of moisture. Steaming gave larger losses in weight of wood (WL) than dry heating at the same temperature and duration. At low relative humidity (RH) (less than 57%), no reversible effect was recognized in the M of steamed wood while the M of wood heated dry recovered considerably after moistening. At 97% RH, the M of steamed wood was higher than that of wood heated dry at the same WL. The higher M value of the steamed. wood was attributed to the hygroscopic nature of depolymerized hemicelluloses remaining in the wood. However, the M of the steamed wood was still higher than that of the wood heated dry, even after the removal of hygroscopic water-soluble substances. The water sorption isotherms of unheated and heated wood were analyzed by using the Hailwood-Horrobin adsorption equation. At the same WL, steaming and dry heating had the same effect on the reduction of hydrated water. On the other hand, steaming showed less effect on the reduction of dissolved water than dry heating. In addition, the amount of dissolved water increased by steaming to a 5% WL. It was speculated that steaming loosened the binding structure of the wood cell wall to increase the dissolved water, whereas dry heating tightened the cell wall structure to restrict moisture sorption and swelling of the cell wall components.

Obataya, E., F. Tanaka, et al. (2000). "Hygroscopicity of heat-treated wood - I. Effects of after-treatments on the hygroscopicity of heat-treated wood." Mokuzai Gakkaishi 46(2): 77-87. ://000087015900010 Effects of heat-treatments and various after-treatments on hygroscopicity of wood were investigated. By heat-treatments at 140, 160, 180 and 200 degrees C for 8 hours, equilibrium moisture contents of hinoki wood specimens were reduced remarkably. However, moisture contents of heat-treated woods were fairly recovered by moistening at 25 degrees C and 100% relative humidity for 2 weeks, steaming at 95 degrees C for 12 hours, or boiling for an hour. Amounts of active adsorption site calculated by using Hailwood-Horrobin's adsorption equation were reduced remarkably by the heat-treatments, but the reduction was almost recovered to their original level by after-treatments. It was suggested that some temporary structure formed by the heat-treatment suppressed the water adsorption at low relative humidities, whereas it disappeared with scission of hydrogen bonds and mobilization of amorphous molecules at high relative humidities. The changes in the hygroscopicity due to heat-treatments and after-treatments could not be explained with those in the relative crystallinity determined by the X ray diffraction. Thus, it was considered that the irreversible reduction of hygroscopicity was not due to recrystallization of cellulose, but mainly due to chemical changes of amorphous substances.

Obataya, E. and B. Tomita (2002). "Hygroscopicity of heat-treated wood II. Reversible and irreversible reductions in the hygroscopicity of wood due to heating." Mokuzai Gakkaishi 48(4): 288-295. ://000178062200010 Spruce wood specimens were heated at 60-200degreesC for 2-48hours in the absence of moisture, and their equilibrium moisture content (M) was measured. The M of wood at 57% relative humidity (RH) was reduced by heating at 100degreesC or above, but it was largely recovered after moistening at 97% RH. Similar changes were observed regardless of wood species, and were also recognized in holocellulose, a-cellulose and milled wood lignin. The temporary reduction in M due to heating was interpreted as the effect of annealing of the amorphous molecules in the wood cell wall, and the recovery of M due to moistening was explained by the rapid rearrangement of amorphous molecules being mobilized at high RH. By heating above 140degreesC, the M of wood was reduced irreversibly. This effect was more remarkable at higher RH. The irreversible reduction in M of wood decreased clearly with the removal of lignin, but not with the removal of hemicelluloses. In addition, the irreversible reduction in M of milled wood lignin was evidently larger than that of wood and other wood constituents. It was suggested that chemical changes in the lignin were responsible for the irreversible reduction in the M of wood due to relatively mild heating.

O'Brien, E. P. and T. C. Ward (2005). "Novel capacitance sensor design for measuring coating debonding: the effects of thermal-hygroscopic cycling." Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology 19(16): 1409-1426. ://000234169400003 The effects of combined thermal and hygroscopic cycling on the adhesion performance of an epoxy coating were measured using a novel electrode sensor. The sensor is uniquely designed, consisting of a series of independent interdigitated electrode traces which are arranged parallel to the sensor edges. Coupled with single-frequency capacitance measurements, the sensor detects changes in capacitance in the adhered coating-sensor interfacial region as a function of the distance from the edge of the sensor, x. Recently, this sensor was utilized by O'Brien and co-workers to measure interfacial diffusion and the concentration profile of fluid in an adhesive joint (Int. J. Adhesion Adhesives 23, 335-338 (2003)). In the present work, large capacitance changes due to debonding and displacement of the coating by fluids at the sensor surface were used to monitor coating delamination. The apparent debond growth rate and number of cycles until failure were determined as a function of coating thickness, fluid environment and sensor surface chemistry. The results show that the coating becomes more durable as the thickness is reduced and also that thermal and hygroscopic cycling of coatings produces different results than conventional continuous adhesion tests. This study suggests that this novel sensor or a similar design is applicable for the study of adhesion loss and interfacial diffusion processes, and could be extended to other coatings or adhesives in a variety of environments. General trends about coating durability are also discussed.

Ochyra, R. (1998). "Schistidium halinae (Grimmiaceae, Bryopsida), a new moss species from the Antarctic." Annales Botanici Fennici 35(4): 267- 273. ://000078631500006 Schistidium halinae Ochyra (Grimmiaceae, Bryopsida) is described as a new species based on ten collections from the maritime West Antarctic. It differs from the congeners in (1) its piliferous upper leaves giving the plants a hoary appearance, (2) sharply spinulose- denticulate, hyaline, broad, flattened and membraneous hair-points, 0.2-1.0 mm long on the upper leaves, (3) narrowly recurved and partially bistratose margins in the upper half leaf, (4) presence of a large central strand, (5) short-rectangular and sinuose laminal cells in the lower middle, and (6) long-rectangular basal juxtacostal cells with straight incrassate walls and quadrate to short- rectangular basal marginal cells forming a band 4-6 cells wide. Additionally, the capsules are deeply immersed in the ovate perichaetial leaves with a plane or narrowly recurved margin on one side below the apex and terminated with a long, hyaline hair- point (0.6-1.4 mm). The exothecial cells are mostly isodiametric to oblong, thin-walled with distinct corner thickenings and the peristome teeth are erect, lanceolate, perforate to irregularly cracked. The new species is fully described and illustrated and its affinities are discussed. Schistidium halinae is currently known from King George and Livingston Islands in the South Shetland Islands and from Vega and James Ross Islands near Trinity Peninsula on the NE coast of the Antarctic Peninsula. The distribution is mapped.

Ochyra, R. (2003). "Antipodal mosses: VIII. Valdonia gen. nov (Seligeriaceae) from the Kerguelen Province in the Subantarctic." Cryptogamie Bryologie 24(2): 87-102. ://000184001000001 The taxonomic position of the Subantarctic species Blindia microcarpa Mitt. is discussed. It is reinstated as a distinct species, definitely different from B. contecta (Hook. f. & Wilson) Mull. Hal. from the antipodal islands of Campbell and Auckland in the cool temperate zone of the Australasian sector. B. microcarpa is considered to be a discordant element in the genus Blindia Bruch & Schimp. which differs from all other congeners by its very small capsules which are turbinate when dry and empty and hemispheric when wet; strongly modified, convolute-sheathing perichaetial leaves; straight or flexuose-secund leaves on drying; peristome teeth granulose on both ventral and dorsal surfaces; lack of prostome and stomata; heterogeneous costal elements; shortly rectangular to subquadrate laminal cells sheathing the long-excurrent costa; and longitudinal cuticular ridges on the leaf cells giving them a papillose appearance in cross-section. A new monotypic genus, Valdonia Ochyra, is established which is placed in the subfamily Dicranoweisioideae within the Seligeriaceae. The single species of the genus, V microcarpa (Mitt.) Ochyra, endemic to the Kerguelen Province of the Subantarctic, is a constituent of fellfield vegetation and is particularly common on Prince Edward Island and Marion Island in the Prince Edward Islands archipelago. It appears to be less frequent on Iles Kerguelen from where it was actually described. The relationships of Valdonia are discussed and the details of the gametophytes and sporophytes of V microcapa are illustrated.

Ochyra, R., H. Bednarek-Ochyra, et al. (2003). "Schistidium deceptionense, a new moss species from the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica." Bryologist 106(4): 569-574. ://000188206800009 Schistidium is the richest moss genus in the Antarctic consisting of twelve species, one of which, S. deceptionense Ochyra, Bednarek- Ochyra, & Lewis Smith, is here described as new to science from the volcanic Deception Island in the South Shetland Islands archipelago in the northern maritime Antarctic. Its most peculiar diagnostic characters are strongly thickened walls of the exothecial cells; small, cupulate, and pachydermous capsules; and sinuouse laminal cells. In these features the new species shows the closest affinity to S. urnulaceum (Mull. Hal.) B. G. Bell, a South Georgian-Antarctic endemic, from which it can be distinguished by sharply keeled leaves, stout costae that are semi-terete in transverse section and strongly convex dorsally, bistratose leaf margins in 1-2 rows of cells forming bulging thickenings in the distal portion, shorter laminal cells, and larger spores. The relationships of S. deceptionense are discussed and the species is considered to belong to the Confertum group with which it shares pellucid alar region of the hyaline cells with the transverse walls much thicker than the longitudinal walls, narrow upper laminal cells, irregular and mostly strongly perforated peristome teeth, and yellow reaction of the upper leaves and leaf cells with KOH. A key to all species of Schistidium in the Antarctic is given.

Ogawa, T., D. Bin, et al. (2007). "Super-hydrophobic surfaces of layer-by-layer structured film-coated electrospun nanofibrous membranes." Nanotechnology 18(16): 8 pp. ://INSPEC:9415864 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Ogawa-Super-Hygrophobic-2007.pdf We have recently fabricated super-hydrophobic membrane surfaces based on the inspiration of self-cleaning silver ragwort leaves. This biomimetic super-hydrophobic surface was composed of fluoroalkylsilane (FAS)-modified layer-by-layer (LBL) structured film- coated electrospun nanofibrous membranes. The rough fibre surface caused by the electrostatic LBL coating of TiO/sub 2/ nanoparticles and poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) was used to imitate the rough surface of nanosized grooves along the silver ragwort leaf fibre axis. The results showed that the FAS modification was the key process for increasing the surface hydrophobicity of the fibrous membranes. Additionally, the dependence of the hydrophobicity of the membrane surfaces upon the number of LBL coating bilayers was affected by the membrane surface roughness. Moreover, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) results further indicated that the surface of LBL film-coated fibres absorbed more fluoro groups than the fibre surface without the LBL coating. A (TiO/sub 2//PAA)/sub 10/ film-coated cellulose acetate nanofibrous membrane with FAS surface modification showed the highest water contact angle of 162 degrees and lowest water-roll angle of 2 degrees

Ohe, T., Y. Yoshimura, et al. (2004). "Enhancement of hydrophilicity of PET fabric by sugar-lactone (2) - Effects of aminolysis on mechanical strength and hygroscopic property of PET fabric." Sen-I Gakkaishi 60(5): 144-149. ://000222627700006 In the preceding paper, it was found that a combination of the aminolysis of PET fabric by ethylenediamine and the following reaction with sugar-lactone gave a large increase of the hydrophilicity of PET fabric, but the former reaction caused decrease in its mechanical strength readily. Here, the effects of a reaction temperature of aminolysis and the structure of amines on the mechanical strength and an amount of water vapor adsorbed on it were examined. As a result, aminolysis at lower temperature or by using higher bulky amines prevented large decreases in the mechanical strength. Furthermore, we reported on the aminolysis of PET fabric by sugar-amine (GlcNH(2)) synthesized from gluconolactone and ethylenediamine.

Ohmi, M. and M. Suzuki (1996). "Humidity control property of hygroscopic wood composites." Mokuzai Gakkaishi 42(5): 469-475. ://A1996UV96500005 The relative humidity in a small space with a certain amount of hygroscopic material will stay constant because of sufficient moisture adsorption or desorption of these materials with temperature changes. To clarify this mechanism, fifteen kinds of hygroscopic composites composed of wood meals, calcium silicate, and moisture-adsorbing synthetic polymers were prepared. The relative humidity changes in this small space containing these composites were measured for temperature changes of the surrounding air. Humidity control efficiencies (HCEs) of these composites were calculated from equilibrium humidities. The HCEs of wood meal composites proved to be equal or a little more than that of untreated wood veneer. Because it was supposed that humidity control properties were affected by the hygroscopicities of the materials, the relationships between the slopes of adsorption isotherms and the HCEs of the hygroscopic composites were investigated in relation to the weights of the materials per spacial air volumes. As a result, the HCEs could be expressed as logarithmic functions. It was suggested that the HCEs of composites at equilibrium humidities could be predicted from the adsorption isotherms. The results obtained are not only useful in designing hygroscopic composites but also are applicable to the finish or the overlay of an interior wall.

Olsson, A. M., L. Salmen, et al. (2007). "Mechano-sorptive creep in wood fibres." Wood Science and Technology 41(1): 59-67. ://WOS:000243399600004 In order to investigate the way in which fibre properties affect the mechano-sorptive creep phenomenon in paper, single wood fibres were exposed to tensile stresses at a constant humidity of 80% relative humidity (RH) and in a cyclic humidity environment varying between 80 and 30% RH. Contrary to earlier claims, it was demonstrated that single wood fibres exposed to a cyclic RH show a considerably higher creep than that corresponding to the highest RH experienced in the cycle, i.e., a mechano-sorptive behaviour. The creep strain rate at cyclic humidity was shown to be a function of the creep rate at constant climate, and to be an apparent linear function of the applied stress.

Ordonez, A., M. T. Gallego, et al. (2007). "A preliminary account of the peristome structure and spores in six species of Philonotis (Bartramiaceae, Bryophyta)." Cryptogamie Bryologie 28(1): 15-29. ://000244178400002 NOT IN EBZ, NOT IN NEBIS A morphological study of the peristome and spores of six species of European Philonotis is reported. New peristome and spore characters are described and discussed. Among them the characters that show consistent differences and could help with accurate discrimination of the species are the papillosity of the surface of the endostome and exostome teeth, the differentiation of the OPL median line, the papillosity and number of cell rows of the basal membrane of the exostome and endostome, the number of cilia per cluster, and spore ornamentation. Nevertheless a more intensive study and examination of more numerous specimens is needed to confirm the taxonomic value of these characters.

Oriani, A. and V. L. Scatena (2009). "The movement of involucral bracts of Syngonanthus elegans (Eriocaulaceae-Poales): Anatomical and ecological aspects." Flora 204(7): 518-527. ://WOS:000269649200004 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Oriani-Movement-Involucral-Bracts-2009.pdf Syngonanthus elegans flowers are distributed in capitula whose involucral bracts open and close in a diurnal rhythm. The anatomy of these bracts was studied to understand how such movements occur and how it influences reproductive ecology of the species. The involucral bracts have a single layered epidermis composed of thick-walled cells on the abaxial surface, which are responsible for the movement. Since they are hygroscopic, these cells swell when they absorb water from the surrounding environment, causing the bracts to bend and the capitula to close. In natural conditions, the capitula open by day, when temperature increases and the relative air humidity decreases, and close at night, when temperature decreases and the relative air humidity increases. The involucral bracts may thus protect the flowers from abiotic factors, exposing them only at the time of the day when temperature is higher and insects are more active, favoring pollination by small insects. The closed capitula do not only protect the flowers, but they also function as a shelter for floral visitors as Brachiacantha australe (Coccinellidae) and Eumolpini sp. (Chrysomelidae). These small Coleoptera pollinate the flowers of S. elegans during the day and remain within the closed capitula during the night, in a possible mutualistic relationship. (C) 2008 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Paparcone, R., R. Kniep, et al. (2009). "Hierarchical pattern of microfibrils in a 3D fluorapatite-gelatine nanocomposite: simulation of a bio- related structure building process." Phys Chem Chem Phys 11(13): 2186-94. ://INSPEC:10882306 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Paparcone-Hierarchical-Pattern-Microfibrils-2009.pdf The shape development of a biomimetic fluorapatite-gelatine nanocomposite on the mu m scale is characterised by a fractal mechanism with the origin being intrinsically coded in a (central) elongated hexagonal-prismatic seed. The 3D superstructure of the seed is distinctively overlaid by a pattern consisting of gelatine microfibrils. The orientation of the microfibrils is assumed to be controlled by an intrinsic electrical field generated by the nanocomposite during development and growth of the seed. In order to confirm this assumption and to get more detailed information on orientational relations of the complex nanocomposite we simulated the pattern formation process up to the mu m scale. The results from experimental studies and simulation results on an atomistic level support a model scenario wherein the elementary building blocks for the aggregation are represented by elongated hexagonal-prismatic objects (A-units), with the embedded collagen triple-helices in their centers. The interactions of the A-units are consequently modelled by three contributions: the crystal energy part (originating from the pair-wise interactions of the "apatite shells" of the prismatic units), the electrostatic interaction (originating from the unit charges located at the ends of the collagen triple helices), and the interaction energy of the A-units mediated by the solvent. The next level of complexity is related to the fact that micro fibrils were found in the fluorapatite-gelatine nanocomposites. They consist of bundles of triple helical protein molecules, which are embedded within the 3D-hexagonal prismatic arrangement of the A-units. In our approach we consider the microfibrils as chains of flexible dipoles with effective dipole moments. The crystal growth processes is modelled as an energetically controlled stepwise association of elementary building blocks of different kind on a 3D-grid. The remarkable and excellent qualitative agreement between the simulated fibril patterns and the observations made by SEM and TEM support the concept of an intrinsic electric field driven morphogenesis of the fluorapatite-gelatine nanocomposite. The simulated fibril pattern also bears the chance to make fresh attempts in order to find explanations for experimental observations which are not understood up to now.

Paris, O., I. Burgert, et al. (2010). "Biomimetics and Biotemplating of Natural Materials." Mrs Bulletin 35(3): 219-225. ://WOS:000275527100018 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Paris-Biomimetics-Biotemplating-2010.pdf Natural materials display a wealth of structures and fulfill a variety of functions. Hierarchical structuring is one of the keys to providing multifunctionality and to adapting to varying needs of an organism. As a consequence, the natural environment represents not only a direct and renewable source of useful materials, such as wood, plant fibers, or even proteins of pharmaceutical importance, but also an enormous "database" of structures with exceptional mechanical, optical, or magnetic properties. Rather than focusing on the direct use of natural materials, this article discusses the use of structures that appeared in evolution and have been implemented in artificial materials of an entirely different type and chemical composition. This may be done either by directly copying the structure (biotemplating) or by extracting the design principles encoded in them for the fabrication of novel bioinspired materials.

Patterson, P. M. (1953). "The Aberrant Behavior of the Peristome Teeth of Certain Mosses " The Bryologist, 56: 157-159.

Pedersen, N., C. J. Cox, et al. (2003). "Phylogeny of the Moss family Bryaceae inferred from chloroplast DNA sequences and morphology." Systematic Botany 28(3): 471-482. ://000184845900002 Phylogenetic relationships within the moss family Bryaceae were studied using chloroplast DNA sequences (atpB-rbcL, rpl16 intron, rps4, and trnL-trnF region) and anatomical and morphological data. Phylogenetic analyses using maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian methods indicate that the genera Brachymenium, Bryum, and Rhodobryum are not monophyletic. A clade including Acidodontium, Anomobryum, Brachymenium acuminatum, Bryum species, Haplodontium, Mielichhoferia himalayana, and Plagiobryum is robustly supported in all analyses. The sections Brachymenium, Globosa, and Leptostomopsis of Brachymenium occur in a basal grade also including Bryum billarderi and Rhodobryum. The total evidence analysis supports Acidodontium as a monophyletic genus. In general, the results are congruent with previous molecular analyses. Features of the reduced peristome are homoplastic within the Bryaceae, and it is obvious that circumscriptions of taxa based on sporophytic characters alone may unite taxa that are distantly related. The rosulate growth condition is homoplastic within the family, which suggests that the genus Rosulabryum is not monophyletic. Based on present phylogenetic evidence, no morphological synapomorphies can be detected for the Bryaceae.

Pedersen, N. and L. Hedenäs (2005). "Taxonomic and Nomenclatural Implications of Phylogenetic Studies of the Bryaceae Based on Molecular Data and Morphology." The Bryologist 108(1): 123-128. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20061075 The taxonomic and nomenclatural implications of phylogenetic studies of the Bryaceae are presented. Bryum algovicum Müll. Hal., B. archangelicum Müll. Hal., B. capillare Hedw., B. bimum (Schreb.) Turner, B. cyclophyllum (Schwägr.) Bruch & Schimp., B. donianum Grev., B. lisae De Not., B. meesioides Kindb., B. orthothecium Card. & Broth., B. pallens Sw., B. pallescens Schwägr., B. purpurascens (R. Br.) Bruch & Schimp., B. uliginosum (Brid.) Bruch & Schimp., and B. wrightii Sull. are transferred to Plagiobryum Lindb. Brachymenium acuminatum Harv., B. philonotula Broth., and B. preissianum Hampe (A. Jaeger) are transferred to Bryum Hedw. Finally, the genus Imbribryum is described comprising B. alpinum With, B. blandum Hook. f. & Wilson, and Bryum muehlenbeckii Bruch & Schimp.

Peishi, C. and D. C. T. Pei (1989). "A mathematical model of drying processes." International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer|International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 32(2): 297-310. ://INSPEC:3383676 A drying model is proposed which may be used to describe drying behavior of hygroscopic and non-hygroscopic materials. The constant rate, the first falling rate and the second falling rate periods in drying are addressed separately. The concept of `bound water conductivity, is introduced. Movement of bound water and its contribution to moisture transfer within hygroscopic materials are discussed. The bound water conductivity is found to be affected by moisture content as well as desorption isotherms of the drying material. The major internal moisture transfer mechanisms are considered to be capillary flow of free water in the wet region and movement of bound water and vapor transfer in the sorption region. The convective heat and mass transfer coefficients are assumed to vary with the surface free water content in the first falling rate period. Three systems with different hygroscopic properties, wool, brick and corn kernels are chosen to evaluate the validity of this model. The moving finite element method is used to solve the differential equations numerically. The predicted drying curves and the temperature and moisture distributions compare favorably with reported experimental results

Peltola, H. M. (2006). "Mechanical stability of trees under static loads." Am. J. Bot. 93(10): 1501-1511. http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/10/1501 Wind affects the structure and functioning of a forest ecosystem continuously and may cause significant economic loss in managed forests by reducing the yield of recoverable timber, increasing the cost of unscheduled thinning and clear-cuttings, and creating problems in forestry planning. Furthermore, broken and uprooted trees within the forest are subject to insect attack and may provide a suitable breeding substrate, endangering the remaining trees. Therefore, an improved understanding of the processes behind the occurrence of wind-induced damage is of interest to many forest ecologists, but may also help managers of forest resources to make appropriate management decisions related to risk management. Using fundamental physics, empirical experiments, and mechanistic model-based approaches in interaction, we can study the susceptibility of tree stands to wind damage as affected by the wind and site and tree/stand characteristics and management. Such studies are not possible based on statistical approaches alone, which are not able to define the causal links between tree parameters and susceptibility to wind damage. The aim of this paper is to review the recent work done related to tree-pulling and wind tunnel experiments and mechanistic modeling approaches to increase our understanding of the mechanical stability of trees under static loading.

Peng, C. G., A. H. L. Chow, et al. (2000). "Study of the hygroscopic properties of selected pharmaceutical aerosols using single particle levitation." Pharmaceutical Research 17(9): 1104-1109. ://000090147600010 Purpose. To use a single particle levitation technique to investigate the equilibrium water sorption characteristics in both the evaporation and growth of four respiratory drugs at 37 degreesC: atropine sulfate (AS), isoproterenol hydrochloride (IPHC) and isoproterenol hemisulfate (IPHS) and disodium cromoglycate (DSCG). Methods. The equilibrium water content was measured as a function of relative humidity (RH) by a single particle levitation technique using an electrodynamic balance (EDB). The change of water content was determined by the voltage required to balance the weight of the levitated particle electrostatically. The water activities of bulk samples were also measured. Growth ratios were determined and compared with values in the literature. Results Crystallization or deliquescence was not observed for AS, IPHC and IPHS. The hysteresis in the water cycle was not observed for any of the drugs. At RH similar to 0%, AS particles still contain about 5% water but IPHC and IPHS particles do not contain any residual water. The aerodynamic growth ratio from RH 0% to 99.5% is 2.60, 2.86, 2.42 and 1.26 for AS, IPHC, IPHS and DSCG, respectively. Supersaturated droplets of IPHC and IPHS are expected to exist in the ambient conditions. DSCG is in a solid state in the RH range of 10-90%. Conclusions. It is expected that some aerosolized drugs of low solubility may experience supersaturation before they enter the human body and this could exert a significant influence both on particle loss before inhalation and on the deposition of the drugs in the lungs. The EDB is a convenient and reliable tool for studying the hygroscopic properties of pharmaceutical aerosols, especially for supersaturated solutions.

Peng, C. G., A. H. L. Chow, et al. (2001). "Hygroscopic study of glucose, citric acid, and sorbitol using an electrodynamic balance: Comparison with UNIFAC predictions." Aerosol Science and Technology 35(3): 753-758. ://000171020000006 The equilibrium water sorption and desorption characteristics of three pharmaceutical excipients, namely, glucose, citric acid, and sorbitol, were investigated at 25 degreesC using an electrodynamic balance (EDB). The mass fraction of solute (mfs), defined as the ratio of the dry solute mass to the solution mass, of the additives was measured as a function of relative humidity (RH) at equilibrium. Bulk measurements and literature data suggest that these three additives all crystallize at their respective saturation conditions. However, crystallization or deliquescence was not observed for the suspended particles of the three additives. They behave as nondeliquescent materials and sorb and desorb water reversibly. At RH = 5%, citric acid particles still contain similar to8 wt% residual water, which corresponds to a stoichiometry of citric acid monohydrate. Glucose and sorbitol particles are essentially water-free. Universal Functional Activity Coefficient (UNIFAC) model predicts the water activities of glucose, citric acid, and sorbitol (expressed as mfs of the particles) to within +/-16%, 24%, and 6% of those determined by the EDB, respectively.

Perry, K. D., S. S. Cliff, et al. (2004). "Evidence for hygroscopic mineral dust particles from the Intercontinental Transport and Chemical Transformation Experiment." Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 109(D23). ://000225584600002 Two collocated, eight-stage rotating drum impactors were deployed at Trinidad Head ( California) during the spring of 2002 as part of the Intercontinental Transport and Chemical Transformation 2002 (ITCT 2K2) experiment. One of the samplers operated at ambient relative humidity while the other was operated at a relative humidity of 55%. The impaction substrates from these samplers were analyzed using synchrotron X-ray fluorescence (SXRF) to provide continuous measurements of the size-resolved aerosol elemental composition with 3-hour time resolution. The aerosol elemental composition data identified three significant mineral dust episodes near the beginning of the time series. The backward air mass trajectory calculations from the Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) model and the PM10 to PM2.5 elemental mass ratios are consistent with the long-range transport of mineral dust from Asian sources. The data from the paired ambient relative humidity and low-relative-humidity samplers show that the aluminum, silicon, and iron elemental mass distributions are a function of relative humidity. In each case, the elemental mass distributions shifted toward smaller sizes as the relative humidity was reduced. This behavior indicates that the mineral dust transported from Asia to the west coast of the United States is somewhat hygroscopic upon its arrival. The hygroscopic nature of the aged mineral dust should increase its ability to nucleate cloud droplets (i.e., act as cloud condensation nuclei). Measurements of transported Asian mineral dust made at a high-elevation mountain site in Oregon (i.e., Crater Lake National Park) during the spring of 2002 show a strong correlation between the silicon and sulfur elemental mass concentrations. The ratio of calcium to sulfur makes it unlikely that this coarse sulfur is derived from gypsum (i.e., CaSO4). Instead, it indicates that the coarse mineral dust most likely accumulates sulfate coatings either near the source region or during transport across the Pacific Ocean.

Petracchi, D., I. C. Gebeshuber, et al. (2000). "Stochastic resonance in biological systems - Introduction." Chaos Solitons & Fractals 11(12): 1819-1822. ://WOS:000087260400001

Pfaehler, A. (1904). "Etude biologique et morphologique sur la dissemination des spores chez les mousses." Bull. Soc. Vaudoise Sci. Nat. 40: 41-132, pl. 6-14.

Piepenbring, M., G. Hagedorn, et al. (1998). "Spore liberation and dispersal in smut fungi." Botanica Acta 111(6): 444-460. ://WOS:000078306500003 Teliospores are the most important diaspores of smut fungi, albeit not the only ones. The role of basidia, basidiospores, secondary spores, yeast cells, and infected parts of the host for dispersal has often been neglected. Many smut species have soral structures like galls, peridia, and elaters, which cause teliospores to be liberated over prolonged periods. This increases the chance that at least some spores are released under favourable wet climatic conditions and while host plants are susceptible. In this review, the diversity of dispersal units as well as vectors of smut fungi are presented. The importance of timing of diaspore liberation, flexibility in dispersal strategies, and the genetic and evolutionary implications of dispersal strategies of smut fungi are discussed. The general considerations are complemented by examples based on original field and laboratory observations: peridia of Forysia corniculata and certain species of Sporisorium expose the spore mass by hygroscopic movement under wet conditions (hygrochasy) favourable for teliospore germination and infection of a host plant. Basidia with firmly attached basidiospores liberated from spore balls of Doassansiopsis deformans, branched basidiospores of Rhomphospora nymphaeae, needle-shaped basidiospores of species of Entyloma, folded basidiospores of Mycosyrinx cissi, and stellate groups of yeast cells of Trichocintractia utriculicola show enlarged surfaces, which are advantageous for dispersal in water. Galls Filled with spore balls of Doassansiopsis limnocharidis and witches' brooms formed by spikelets infected by Cintractia standleyana separate from the host and fall into water where they are dispersed.

Pieranski, P. (2005). "New phenomena and a new lyotropic phase detected by isoplethal and hygroscopic methods." Journal of Physics- Condensed Matter 17(45): S3333-S3339. ://000235394200020 Several striking phenomena found recently by isoplethal and hygroscopic methods are reviewed briefly: rich and poor facetings at cubic/isotropic interfaces, growth by redistribution process in cubic crystals. faceting by the ratchet-like effect in a saw-tooth temperature cycling, asymmetric shapes of cubic crystals induced in thermal gradients by the Ludwig-Soret effect and anisotropic and facet-by-facet surface meltings. We also report on the discovery, by hygroscopy, of a new phase that has been so far missed by isoplethal methods. The constellation of facets of this ephemeral phase suggests a random hexagonal close packed structure similar to the one found recently in soft polymeric colloids.

Pipes, R. B., J. R. Vinson, et al. (1976). "On the Hygrothermal Response of Laminated Composite Systems †" Journal of Composite Materials 10(2): 129-148. http://jcm.sagepub.com/content/10/2/129.abstract AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Pipes-Hygrothermal-Response- 1976.pdf The hygroscopic nature of polymeric systems, which find widespread application as matrices in advanced composite materials, requires that dila tations induced by the absorption of moisture be considered m the stress analysis of composite laminates. Considerable attention has recently been focused upon the reduction m both strength and constitutive properties of fiber- reinforced polymeric composites at elevated temperatures when the composite has been subjected to environments which enhance moisture diffusion. This apparent degradation in elevated temperature properties may be magnified even more by residual stresses induced by both the hygroscopic and thermoelastic characteristics of the unidirectional com posite.A unified treatment of the hygrothermal response of the laminated composite plate element is derived. The analysis develops effective mois ture inplane force resultants and bending resultants, which when coupled with mechanical and thermal loadings, yield laminae stresses resulting from the total hygrothermal and mechanical loading environment.Solutions of the classical diffusion equation are obtained yielding mois ture profiles through the laminate thickness. Typical composite laminates consisting of T300/5208 graphite-epoxy are analyzed. Results reveal both the magnitude and distribution of hygrothermally induced stresses.

Pirs, J., L. Pomenic, et al. (1990). "Analysis of the Hygroscopic Layer of the Multilayer Material of the Accumulation Mass of the Wet Rotary Regenerator." Strojarstvo 32(5): 375-384. ://A1990ER39200010 Besides the thermodynamic conditions related to heat and mass transfer in wet heat regenerator, the application of materials with more layers dictate the conditions of chemical and mechanical stability of the basic material as well as that of the hygroscopic layer. The paper presents the results obtained by means of Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) that analyzed two types of hygroscopic layers applied to aluminum foils with lithium chloride coating and oxyde layer. The results are shown by profile diagrams, thus presenting the changes in the chemical composition of the hygroscopic layer on the surface of aluminum foil. The results of analysis, which are not completed, show time limitations of the application of such multilayer materials.

Platteau, C., J. Lefebvre, et al. (2004). "Ab initio structure determination of the hygroscopic anhydrous form of a-lactose by powder X-ray diffraction." Acta Crystallographica Section B-Structural Science 60: 453-460. ://000222725100012 Annealing of alpha-lactose monohydrate at 408 K yielded a mixture of this compound with hygroscopic anhydrous alpha-lactose. A powder X-ray diffraction pattern of this mixture was recorded at room temperature. The starting structural model of hygroscopic alpha-lactose was found by a Monte Carlo simulated-annealing method. The final structure was obtained through Rietveld refinements, with soft restraints on interatomic bond lengths and bond angles, and crystalline energy minimization to locate the H atoms of the hydroxy groups. The crystalline cohesion is achieved by networks of O - H ... O hydrogen bonds that differ from those of the monohydrate phase. The width of the Bragg peaks is interpreted by a phenomenological microstructural approach in terms of isotropic size effects and anisotropic strain effects.

Prakash, M., O. F. Turan, et al. (2000). "CFD modelling of natural convection heat and mass transfer in hygroscopic porous media." Drying Technology 18(10): 2175-2201. ://000165121500002 This paper presents the derivation of a model to predict heat and mass transfer in a system consisting of a turbulently flowing fluid overlying a saturated hygroscopic porous medium. Comparisons with experimental and numerical simulations have been carried out to check the accuracy of components of the model. Finally, a case study using silica gel as a representative hygroscopic porous medium is presented as an application of the model. It is shown that moisture is convected from the warm interior of a bulk of porous medium to the relatively cool periphery. This result has profound practical implications when the hygroscopic medium is stored agricultural produce as the region of high moisture content may become moldy.

Price, M. (2002). "Monograph of the moss genus Macrodictyum (Broth.) EHHegew. (Dicranaceae)." Journal of Bryology 24: 133-142. ://000176954700004 Macrodictyum is a small acrocarpous moss genus of three species (M. latifolium (E.B.Bartram) M.J.Price, W. proliferum (Mitt.) E.H.Hegew., M. wrightii (Sull.) E.H.Hegew.). It grows in tufts and mats on trees or rocks at 450-1500 m in the Neotropics. The genus has a restricted distribution within the Neotropics and is currently known from only a few localities in Cuba. the Dominican Republic, and southeastern Brazil. Macrodictyum is characterized by four main features: 1) appressed, non-crispate, ovate-oblong, lingulate to ligulate or linear leaves, 2) large, rhomboidal, thin-walled cells in the upper leaf, 3) large. irregular. multicellular apical teeth, and 4) guide cells that are ventral at and above mid-leaf. These features Lire atypical of the Dicranaceae. However, Macrodictyum shares pseudautoicous sexuality, sheathing perichaetial leaves, and peristome structure with the large pantropical Dicranaceous genus Holomitrium Brid. In these two genera the peristome consists of 16 single, triangular, entire or weakly divided. fenestrate, striate teeth that are papillose throughout on both the inner and outer surfaces. Macrodictyum is retained in the Dicranoideae (Dicranaceae), close to Holomitrium, based on its pseudautoicous sexuality, sheathing perichaetial leaves, and peristome structure.

Price, M. J. (2010). "Lectotypification of the name pellucida Hedw. (Bryophyta)." Candollea 65(1): 15-19. ://WOS:000280259600002 PRICE, M. J. (2010). Lectotypification of the name Hedw. (Bryophyta). Candollea 65: 15-19. In English, English and French abstracts. Selection of a lectotype for the name Tetraphis pellucida Hedw. (Bryophyta, Tetraphidaceae) is necessary as two original Hedwig herbarium sheets, containing multiple stems, are present in the Hedwig-Schwagrichen collection housed in G. Protologue information and label information do not entirely correspond for either of the herbarium sheets, however a stem of Tetraphis pellucida from one of the two sheets resembles the stem depicted in Hedwig's original illustration. This stem conforms to the protologue as well as to the modern concept of this taxon and is proposed as the lectotype for this name herein

Proskauer, J. (1958). "ON THE PERISTOME OF FUNARIA HYGROMETRICA." American Journal of Botany 45(7): 560-563. ://WOS:A1958WN38800009

Pursell, R. A. and M. A. Bruggeman-Nannenga (2004). "A revision of the infrageneric taxa of Fissidens." Bryologist 107(1): 1-20. ://000220225400001 The Fissidentaceae are recognized to include a single genus, Fissidens, which is divided into four subgenera, Aloma, Fissidens, Octodiceras, and Pachyfissidens, on the basis of new taxonomically useful characters i.e., peristome type, costa type, and number of files of exothecial cells. Subgenera Aloma and Octodiceras are not subdivided. Subgenus Fissidens consists of sections Fissidens and Sarawakia, comb. nov. Subgenus Pachyfissidens is divided into three sections: Amblyothallia, comb. nov., Crispidium comb. nov., and Pachyfissidens. The most primitive species of the genus are found in section Amblyothallia, while the most advanced species are in subgenera Aloma and Octodiceras. A key to the subgenera and sections is provided.

Quandt, D., S. Huttunen, et al. (2009). "Back to the Future? Molecules Take Us Back to the 1925 Classification of the Lembophyllaceae (Bryopsida)." Systematic Botany 34(3): 443-454. ://WOS:000269770000001 Although the Lembophyllaceae has undergone considerable revision during the last century, the generic and familial level relationships of this pleurocarpous moss family are still poorly understood. To address this problem, a generic revision of the Lembophyllaceae based oil molecular data was undertaken. We analyzed two plastid markers, the trnL-trnF and the psbT-psbH region in combination with the ITS2 of nuclear ribosomal DNA. The molecular data reveal that the Current circumscription of the family is too narrow and that several genera previously placed in the Lembophyllaceae Should be reincluded. The family includes: Beslia, Camptochaete, Dolichomitra, Dolichomitriopsis, Fallaciella, Fifea, Isothecium, Lembophyllum, Looseria stat. nox, Pilotrichella, Rigodium, Tripterocladium, and Weymouthia. Looseria contains a single species: Looseria orbiculata comb. nov. Acrocladium is excluded and provisionally accommodated in the Lepyrodontaceae. Generic limits supported by the molecular data Support a return to the early twentieth century family concept of Brotherus. The analyses indicate that the segregate genus Orthostichella is distinct from its parent genus Pilotrichella, probably at the family level. Whereas Pilotrichella is resolved within the Lembophyllaceae, Orthostichella clusters with porotrichum and Porothanmium forming a clade (OPP-clade) sister to the remaining Neckeraceae and Lembophyllaceae. Hence, the Neckeraceae

Radulovic, N., G. Stojanovic, et al. (2006). "Composition and antimicrobial activity of Equisetum arvense L. essential oil." Phytotherapy Research 20(1): 85-88. ://000234905300019 The volatile constituents of the sterile stems of Equisetum arvense L. (Equisetaceae) were investigated for the first time using GC, GC/MS and C-13-NMR. Twenty-five compounds were identified. Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (18.34%), cis-geranyl acetone (13.74%), thymol (12.09%) and trans-phytol (10.06%) were the major constituents. A disk diffusion method was used for the evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of this oil against a panel of microorganisms (bacteria: Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella enteritidis; fungi: Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans). The 1:10 dilution of the essential oil of Equisetum arvense L. was shown to possess a broad spectrum of a very strong antimicrobial activity against all tested strains. Copyright (c) 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Rajala, R., E. Laine, et al. (1994). "Characterization and Hygroscopic Properties of Dexmedetomidine Hydrochloride, a New Drug Substance." European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 1(4): 219-225. ://A1994MY92900007 The effect of humidity on the crystal structure of a new drug substance, dexmedetomidine hydrochloride (DMH), a novel selective alpha(2)-adrenoceptor agonist, has been studied using X-ray powder diffractometry (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetry (TG) and the gravimetric method for hygroscopicity determinations. The measurements suggest that dexmedetomidine hydrochloride appears in two different structural forms representing the anhydrous and the hydrous form. Although the ambient relative humidity affects the hydration process, the hygroscopic property of this material is significant only at high relative humidities. Also, true density and specific optical rotation of DMH have been figured out.

Raju, M. and R. Barton (1984). "On dislodging caryopses of wild oats." Journal of Plant Research 97(1): 127-130. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02488151 Abstract  The untwisting movement of the hygroscopic awn of wild oats (Avena fatua L.) causes the caryopses to rotate in anticlockwise direction and to dislodge from the spikelet. While untwisting, the awn generates more torque than is required to separate the caryopsis. The periodic shattering of caryopses caused by awn movement may be biologically significant in that the chances of having favorable moisture conditions for caryopses germination in the field at the time of dispersal are increased.

Raju, M. V. S. and R. J. Barton (1983). "On dislodging caryopses of wild oats." Journal of Plant Research 97(1): 127-130. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02488151 The untwisting movement of the hygroscopic awn of wild oats (Avena fatua L.) causes the caryopses to rotate in anticlockwise direction and to dislodge from the spikelet. While untwisting, the awn generates more torque than is required to separate the caryopsis. The periodic shattering of caryopses caused by awn movement may be biologically significant in that the chances of having favorable moisture conditions for caryopses germination in the field at the time of dispersal are increased.

Ramsay, H. P. (2010). "Scanning electron microscope studies on four species of Ulota from Australia." Botany-Botanique 88(4): 435-438. ://WOS:000277319200017 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Ramsay-Scanning-Electronic-Ulota-2010.pdf Ulota species are difficult to separate to species level on leaf characters alone. In this study, scanning electron microscopy of habit and leaves, capsules, peristomes, and spores proved useful in separating four Australian species. Details of capsule and peristome, particularly distinctive features of the endostome, are shown.

Rattay, F., I. C. Gebeshuber, et al. (1998). "The mammalian auditory hair cell: A simple electric circuit model." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 103(3): 1558-1565. ://WOS:000072522900037 A model based on the potassium current pathway through the hair cell is used to analyze the electrical behavior of mammalian inner and outer hair cells. Without taking into account the effects of calcium it is possible to simulate experimental results concerning the shape and strength of the receptor potential and the frequency dependent ac (alternating current) and dc (direct current) components of the receptor current. This model and a simplified form of it are utilized to explain: (1) Transduction latencies: that the receptor potential follows a stimulating signal with a very short delay, under the assumption of a constant number of open K+ channels in the lateral part of the cell membrane. (2) Transduction gains: why higher potential changes an measured in inner hair cells than in outer hair cells, although the outer hair cells are expected to be exposed to higher stereociliary motions: in inner hair cells a decrease in the conductance of the basolateral membrane causes higher gain (receptor potential increases) and together with an increase of membrane capacitance slower reaction (a larger time constant). (3) Transduction channel kinetics: that the shortest (0.1 ms) as well as the longest (20 ms) possible open times of the transduction channels in the stereocilia have different frequency related effects on the shape of the receptor potentials. (C) 1998 Acoustical Society of America.

Rau, D. C. and V. A. Parsegian (1990). "DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF FORCES BETWEEN LINEAR POLYSACCHARIDES XANTHAN AND SCHIZOPHYLLAN." Science 249(4974): 1278-1281. ://WOS:A1990DY35100032 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Rau-Direct-Measurement-Forces-1990.pdf

Ravi, S., T. M. Zobeck, et al. (2006). On the effect of moisture bonding forces in air-dry soils on threshold friction velocity of wind erosion, Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 53: 597-609. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.2006.00775.x

Read, J. and A. Stokes (2006). "Plant biomechanics in an ecological context." Am. J. Bot. 93(10): 1546-1565. http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/10/1546 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Read-Biomechanics- Ecology-2006.pdf Fundamental plant traits such as support, anchorage, and protection against environmental stress depend substantially on biomechanical design. The costs, subsequent trade-offs, and effects on plant performance of mechanical traits are not well understood, but it appears that many of these traits have evolved in response to abiotic and biotic mechanical forces and resource deficits. The relationships between environmental stresses and mechanical traits can be specific and direct, as in responses to strong winds, with structural reinforcement related to plant survival. Some traits such as leaf toughness might provide protection from multiple forms of stress. In both cases, the adaptive value of mechanical traits may vary between habitats, so is best considered in the context of the broader growth environment, not just of the proximate stress. Plants can also show considerable phenotypic plasticity in mechanical traits, allowing adjustment to changing environments across a range of spatial and temporal scales. However, it is not always clear whether a mechanical property is adaptive or a consequence of the physiology associated with stress. Mechanical traits do not only affect plant survival; evidence suggests they have downstream effects on ecosystem organization and functioning (e.g., diversity, trophic relationships, and productivity), but these remain poorly explored.

Reed, E. J., L. Klumb, et al. (2009). "Biomimicry as a route to new materials: what kinds of lessons are useful?" Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 367(1893): 1571-1585. http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/367/1893/1571.abstract AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Reed- Biomimicry-Route-New-Materials-2009.pdf We consider the attributes of a successful engineered material, acknowledging the contributions of composition and processing to properties and performance. We recognize the potential for relevant lessons to be learned from nature, at the same time conceding both the limitations of such lessons and our need to be selective. We then give some detailed attention to the molecular biomimicry of filamentous phage, the process biomimicry of silk and the structure biomimicry of hippopotamus ‘sweat’, in each case noting that the type of lesson now being learned is not the same as the potential lesson that originally motivated the study.

Reiterer, A., I. Burgert, et al. (2002). "The radial reinforcement of the wood structure and its implication on mechanical and fracture mechanical properties - A comparison between two tree species." Journal of Materials Science 37(5): 935-940. ://WOS:000174853200005 The radial direction of wood is reinforced by an additional tissue called rays. These rays are one of the reasons for the anisotropy of wood in the transverse plane. In this paper the influence of rays on the mechanical properties like tensile strength as well as on fracture mechanical parameters like critical stress intensity factor and specific fracture energy is shown. By investigating two deciduous tree species with a similar wood structure in general but a different ray characteristic in particular the importance of this radial reinforcement of the wood structure could be demonstrated. The relevance for the living tree is discussed. (C) 2002 Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Renzaglia, K. S., K. D. McFarland, et al. (1997). "Anatomy and ultrastructure of the sporophyte of Takakia ceratophylla (Bryophyta)." American Journal of Botany 84(10): 1337-1350. ://WOS:A1997YB41500003 In this study, morphogenesis and structure of the sporophyte of Takakia ceratophylla are characterized beginning with the late embryo and culminating in the fully dehisced capsule. Information is presented on the development, ultrastructure, and anatomy of the three organographic regions of the sporophyte, namely capsule, sera, and foot. Diagnostic features that identify Takakia as a moss include the gradual elongation of sera, persistence of an apical calyptra, expansion of the capsule after cessation of seta elongation, existence of a columella, monoplastidic meiosis, spore ultrastructure (including a perine layer deposited late in spore wall development), and the structure of the foot. Commonalities with the capsule of the Andreaeopsida include sporogenous tissue that overarchs a central columella, absence of stomata, and lack of a peristome and operculum. Peculiarities of the genus are seen in the internal structure of the capsule, the disintegration of the columella with spore maturation, and the dehiscence of the capsule along a single, spiralled, longitudinal suture line. Passive spore dispersal through longitudinal splitting of the capsule occurs in andreaeopsid mosses, liverworts, hornworts, and seedless vascular plants. The precise mechanism of dehiscence along a spiralled suture is unparalleled in extant archegoniates but finds counterparts in ancestral land plants such as the pteridophyte Tortilicaulis.

Rissler, J., A. Vestin, et al. (2006). "Size distribution and hygroscopic properties of aerosol particles from dry-season biomass burning in Amazonia." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 6: 471-491. ://000235230500001 Aerosol particle number size distributions and hygroscopic properties were measured at a pasture site in the southwestern Amazon region (Rondonia). The measurements were performed 11 September-14 November 2002 as part of LBA-SMOCC (Large scale Biosphere atmosphere experiment in Amazonia - SMOke aerosols, Clouds, rainfall and Climate), and cover the later part of the dry season (with heavy biomass burning), a transition period, and the onset of the wet period. Particle number size distributions were measured with a DMPS (Differential Mobility Particle Sizer, 3-850 nm) and an APS (Aerodynamic Particle Sizer), extending the distributions up to 3.3 mu m in diameter. An H-TDMA (Hygroscopic Tandem Differential Mobility Analyzer) measured the hygroscopic diameter growth factors (Gf) at 90% relative humidity (RH), for particles with dry diameters (d(p)) between 20-440 nm, and at several occasions RH scans (30-90% RH) were performed for 165 nm particles. These data provide the most extensive characterization of Amazonian biomass burning aerosol, with respect to particle number size distributions and hygroscopic properties, presented until now. The evolution of the convective boundary layer over the course of the day causes a distinct diel variation in the aerosol physical properties, which was used to get information about the properties of the aerosol at higher altitudes. The number size distributions averaged over the three defined time periods showed three modes; a nucleation mode with geometrical median diameters (GMD) of similar to 12 nm, an Aitken mode (GMD=61-92 nm) and an accumulation mode (GMD=128- 190 nm). The two larger modes were shifted towards larger GMD with increasing influence from biomass burning. The hygroscopic growth at 90% RH revealed a somewhat external mixture with two groups of particles; here denoted nearly hydrophobic (Gf similar to 1.09 for 100 nm particles) and moderately hygroscopic (Gf similar to 1.26). While the hygroscopic growth factors were surprisingly similar over the periods, the number fraction of particles belonging to each hygroscopic group varied more, with the dry period aerosol being more dominated by nearly hydrophobic particles. As a result the total particle water uptake rose going into the cleaner period. The fraction of moderately hygroscopic particles was consistently larger for particles in the accumulation mode compared to the Aitken mode for all periods. Scanning the H-TDMA over RH (30-90% RH) showed no deliquescence behavior. A parameterization of both Gf(RH) and Gf(d(p)), is given.

Roberts, J. S. and C. H. Tong (2003). "The development of an isothermal drying apparatus and the evaluation of the diffusion model on hygroscopic porous material." International Journal of Food Properties 6(1): 165-180. ://000180947000013 A drying apparatus combining microwave energy and hot air was developed to dry materials isothermally and its applicability for hygroscopic porous materials has been demonstrated. With on-line sample mass measurements, the apparatus is suitable for determining drying kinetics and investigating the mechanism(s) that limit the drying process for a variety of food materials. Drying curves have been obtained from bread samples using the isothermal drying apparatus. These drying curves were analyzed to compare effective diffusivities calculated from convective hot air conditions (2.35-4.21 x 10(-9) m(2)/s) to effective diffusivities calculated from isothermal conditions (7.6-18.3 x 10(-9) m(2)/s), and a significant difference was shown. However, Fick's diffusion equation was shown only to predict drying time and not drying rate. The results of this research showed that proper parameter evaluation did not solve the problem of accurately predicting moisture transfer. Therefore a new model needed to be developed to predict moisture transfer. We hypothesized that during isothermal drying of hygroscopic porous material evaporation is the governing moisture loss mechanism, and Fick's second law was unable to predict moisture loss when this mechanism occurs.

Robinson, D. A., J. D. Cooper, et al. (2002). "Modelling the relative permittivity of soils using soil hygroscopic water content." Journal of Hydrology 255(1-4): 39-49. ://000172800400004 A model describing the increase in the relative permittivity of water with distance from the soil mineral surface is presented. The model assumes an exponential increase in the value of permittivity with increasing distance from the mineral surface; arguments are presented supporting this approach. The volume of bound water (within the bandwidth of time domain reflectometry, (TDR) 0.01-1 GHz) is considered to be equivalent to the soil hygroscopic water content. The refractive index mixing equation is used as a geometric base into which the model is incorporated. The new equation is tested using measurements of permittivity collected from two drying undisturbed soil cores that contained similar to 10% hygroscopic water. The RMSE of predicted permittivity as a function of water content was found to decrease from similar to 3.5 to less than 1. The model was further tested on data previously presented in the literature and found to correspond reasonably well. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Robinson, R. J. and C. P. Yu (1998). "Theoretical analysis of hygroscopic growth rate of mainstream and sidestream cigarette smoke particles in the human respiratory tract." Aerosol Science and Technology 28(1): 21-32. ://000071343000002 The deposition of cigarette smoke particles (CSP) in the human respiratory tract is difficult to predict theoretically due to the uncertainties in the characterization of these particles. Measured deposition efficiencies for CSP do not agree with those for typical particles of similar size. One explanation of this discrepancy is the hygroscopic growth of CSP once inside the respiratory tract. However, a minimum of experimental data exists and no theoretical study was done to explain the hygroscopic nature of CSP. In this paper, hygroscopic growth of mainstream and sidestream CSP is determined theoretically for conditions simulating the human respiratory tract. Good agreement is found between calculated growth and experimental growth reported in Li [Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Chemistry, Clarkson University, NY, (1993)] and Kousaka et al. [J. Chem. Eng. Jpn. 15: 75-76, (1982)]. Growth ratios ranging from 0 to 1.52 were found for mainstream CSP with initial sizes ranging from 0.03 to 0.6 mu m. Growth ratios ranging from 0 to 1.35 were found for sidestream CSP with initial sizes ranging from 0.03 to 0.3 mu m. CSP ranging from 0.03 to 0.6 mu m reach their equilibrium diameters in less than 0.1 s. Further calculations indicated that CSP do not grow in subsaturated conditions less than 95% which agrees with results reported in Chen et al. [Aerosol Sci. Technol. 12: 364-375 (1990)] and Ishizu et al. [Beitr. zur Tabakforschung 10: 161-168 (1980)]. The hygroscopicity of CSP was found to be significantly less than a salt particle and the resulting growth rates were not large enough to explain the discrepancy between expected and measured deposition efficiencies. (C) 1998 American Association for Aerosol Research.

Roelfsema, M. R. G. and R. Hedrich (2005). "In the light of stomatal opening: new insights into 'the Watergate'." New Phytologist 167(3): 665- 691. ://WOS:000230995000005 Stomata can be regarded as hydraulically driven valves in the leaf surface, which open to allow CO2 uptake and close to prevent excessive loss of water. Movement of these 'Watergates' is regulated by environmental conditions, such as light, CO2 and humidity. Guard cells can sense environmental conditions and function as motor cells within the stomatal complex. Stomatal movement results from the transport of K+ salts across the guard cell membranes. In this review, we discuss the biophysical principles and mechanisms of stomatal movement and relate these to ion transport at the plasma membrane and vacuolar membrane. Studies with isolated guard cells, combined with recordings on single guard cells in intact plants, revealed that light stimulates stomatal opening via blue light-specific and photosynthetic-active radiation-dependent pathways. In addition, guard cells sense changes in air humidity and the water status of distant tissues via the stress hormone abscisic acid (ABA). Guard cells thus provide an excellent system to study cross-talk, as multiple signaling pathways induce both short- and long-term responses in these sensory cells.

Romanov, N. P., A. S. Drofa, et al. (2006). "On the use of poorly soluble hygroscopic substances for modification of warm clouds and fogs." Izvestiya Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics 42(1): 74-83. ://000245703300007 From analysis of the relationships between the equilibrium state of condensation nuclei and the relative humidity, a conclusion is made concerning the preferred use of poorly soluble substances for the generation of artificial condensation nuclei (ACN) designed for modification of warm clouds and fogs with the purpose of their dissipation and precipitation formation. The advantage of poorly soluble substances over commonly used soluble salts is that the finely dispersed part of the spectrum of the poorly soluble ACN does not deliquesce and so is not involved in the formation of cloud droplets. For experimental testing of the conclusions, preference was given to cement, whose main soluble substance is calcium oxide with a solubility of about 1 g/l. The spectrum of dispersed cement particles was measured and compared with the spectra of pyrotechnic flares widely used for modification at present. The process of formation of the cloud droplet spectra was simulated in the aerosol chamber of the Institute of Experimental Meteorology by decreasing the preliminarily generated excess pressure. It was found in these experiments that, compared to the spectra of particles formed on background condensation nuclei, the introduction of dispersed cement leads to the broadening of spectra and to a decrease in the concentration of droplets. Even at the early stage of condensation, droplets with radii of similar to 20 mu m appear. In this case, no "overseeding" phenomenon is observed, which, for soluble substances, manifests itself in an increase in the concentration of cloud droplets with a large ACN concentration. These effects indicate that, according to the existing concepts about the mechanism of warm-cloud modification with hygroscopic substances, the introduction of poorly soluble ACN (in particular, dispersed cement) below the base of cumulus clouds should stimulate coagulation processes and accelerate rain-formation processes. Considerations are given that the introduction of poorly soluble ACN into the already existing cumulus or stratocumulus clouds or fogs should also result in the acceleration of precipitation-formation processes or cloud dispersal. Comparison of cement powder with the well-known means of warm-cloud and fog modification is carried out.

Roos, K. D., J. E. Shottafer, et al. (1990). "THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELECTED MECHANICAL-PROPERTIES AND AGE IN QUAKING ASPEN." Forest Products Journal 40(7-8): 54-56. ://WOS:A1990DT99700012

Ros, R. M., J. Guerra, et al. (1996). "A new point of view on the taxonomy of Pottia starckeana agg (Musci, Pottiaceae)." Plant Systematics and Evolution 199(3-4): 153-165. ://A1996TZ18400002 A new taxonomic treatment is proposed for the Pottia starckeana species complex. The peristome development is not considered to be a useful feature to separate the taxa. On the basis of spore morphology only two species are accepted: P. starckeana, with spores wavy in outline, and P. davalliana, with variously-shaped and developed processes on the spores. Pottia starckeana var. brachyoda is reduced to synonymy with P. starckeana; P. conica and P. commutata are treated as synonyms of P. davalliana. The species P. mutica, P. affinis, P. salina, P. microphylla, P. texana, and P. arizonica (included var. mucronulata) are considered taxa of doubtful affinity, as they have spore features intermediate between the two spore types established for the group. The identity of P. appertii and P. recurvifolia has not been elucidated because the type material has been destroyed.

Rosenthal, M., A. Wagenfuhr, et al. (2007). "Design and development of a bio-inspired, three-dimensional deformable veneer." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology a-Molecular & Integrative Physiology 146(4): DOI 10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.01.276|36. ://WOS:000245748600226

Roveri, N., A. Ripamonti, et al. (1980). "MECHANICAL-BEHAVIOR OF AORTIC TISSUE AS A FUNCTION OF COLLAGEN ORIENTATION." Makromolekulare Chemie-Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics 181(9): 1999-2007. ://WOS:A1980KH73500019

Ru Gang, C. (2006). "Simultaneous heat and moisture transfer investigation for a packed agricultural particle pile bed." JSME International Journal, Series B (Fluids and Thermal Engineering): 1226-32. ://INSPEC:9519472 As one kind of hygroscopic salts, bulk potash particle easily absorbs water vapor during storage and transportation process to form serious caking. The accumulation and movement of moisture is demonstrated to change with temperature. In this paper, a set of appropriate equations has been presented to formulate a mathematical model of coupled moisture and heat migration in thin pile beds of storage potash particle, assuming moisture diffusion and heat conduction as dominant transport mechanism. The numerical model is validated by comparison of numerical simulation results with experimental data from literature. Then the model is used as a reliable predictive tool to explore the moisture and heat migration for a packed potash bed with average particle size 3.66 mm. The sensitivity analysis presents the influence of the variation of effective thermal conductivity and effective diffusion coefficient.

Rueggeberg, M., T. Speck, et al. (2007). "Fibre-matrix interfaces in plants as model systems for technical composites." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology a-Molecular & Integrative Physiology 146 Part A(4): S129-S141. ://WOS:000245748600202

Ruggeberg, M., I. Burgert, et al. (2010). "Structural and mechanical design of tissue interfaces in the giant reed Arundo donax." Journal of the Royal Society Interface 7(44): 499-506. ://WOS:000273880500011 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Hygroscop/Rueggeberg-Structural-Mechanical-Arundo-2010.pdf The culms of the giant reed Arundo donax represent slender tube-like structures. Several nodes along the culm, a ring of sclerenchymatous fibres in the periphery of the culm wall and numerous isolated vascular bundles enclosed by fibre rings in the culm wall function as stiffening elements. The bundles are embedded in lignified parenchyma. Micromechanical analysis indicated differences in stiffness between the individual tissues of more than one order of magnitude. In case of abrupt transitions in stiffness at the interfaces, stress discontinuities arise under dynamic loads. This eventually leads to critical shear stresses at cell ends, and culm failure may be initiated at these points. Pronounced mechanical differences between individual tissues can be compromised by gradual transitions at their interfaces. Ultrastructural and spectroscopic investigations with high spatial resolution revealed a gradual transition of cell parameters (cell wall area fraction and cell length). However, cell wall parameters (cellulose microfibril angle and lignin content) showed abrupt transitions or remained almost constant across the interfaces between various tissues. The design principles found at the interfaces between tissues in the culm walls of A. donax are discussed as an adaptation strategy to mechanical loads at different levels of hierarchy.

Ruggeberg, M., T. Speck, et al. (2009). "Structure-function relationships of different vascular bundle types in the stem of the Mexican fanpalm (Washingtonia robusta)." New Phytologist 182(2): 443-450. ://WOS:000264635400017 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Rueggeberg-Structure-Function-Washingtonia- 2009.pdf Structure and mechanics of fibre caps of different types of vascular bundles were studied at a certain height in the trunk of the palm Washingtonia robusta. By correlating these features with the distribution of the different bundle types across the trunk, possible strategies to cope with mechanical loads were elucidated. Micromechanical properties, cell parameters, microfibril orientation and lignification were studied using micromechanical testing, image analysis, synchrotron X-ray diffraction and UV- microspectrophotometry. The adjustment of stiffness followed a common principle in the fibre caps of all bundle types. Gradients in stiffness appeared across the caps in the centre of the trunk whereas stiffness remained high across the caps in the periphery of the trunk. The difference in stiffness profiles was interpreted as an adaptation to different mechanical constraints arising across the trunk. The gradual transition in stiffness prevents high local stress discontinuities between cap fibres and parenchyma and might be beneficial for trunk damping. At the periphery, the fibre caps without stiffness gradients contribute to a high flexural stiffness of the trunk as this has to be exclusively maintained by the material properties because geometric adjustments through increasing trunk diameter hardly occur in monocotyledonous palms.

Ruggeberg, M., T. Speck, et al. (2008). "Stiffness gradients in vascular bundles of the palm Washingtonia robusta." Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences 275(1648): 2221-2229. ://WOS:000258440500007 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Rueggeberg-Stiffness-Gradients-Washingtonia- 2008.pdf Palms can grow at sites exposed to high winds experiencing large dynamic wind and gust loads. Their stems represent a system of stiff fibrous elements embedded in the soft parenchymatous tissue. The proper design of the interface of the stiffening elements and the parenchyma is crucial for the functioning of the stem. The strategy of the palm to compromise between stiff fibre caps and the soft parenchymatous tissue may serve as a model system for avoiding stress discontinuities in inhomogeneous and anisotropic fibre-reinforced composite materials. We investigated the mechanical, structural and biochemical properties of the fibre caps of the palm Washingtonia robusta at different levels of hierarchy with high spatial resolution. A gradual decrease in stiffness across the fibre cap towards the surrounding parenchymatous tissue was observed. Structural adaptations at the tissue level were found in terms of changes in cell cross sections and cell wall thickness. At the cell wall level, gradients across the fibre cap were found in the degree of orientation of the microfibrils and in the lignin level and composition. The impact of these structural variations in the local material stiffness distribution is discussed.

Rutishauser, R. (1999). "Polymerous leaf whorls in vascular plants: Developmental morphology and fuzziness of organ identities." International Journal of Plant Sciences 160(6): S81-S103. ://000084853500007 In vascular plants there are at least eight ways to develop polymerous whorls, i.e., whorls with four or more leaves. Six ways are presented and compared with literature to estimate organ identity (morphological significance) of the leaflike whorl members. New shoots (also seedlings) may start with dimerous or trimerous whorls. Then leaf number per whorl rises as follows: (1) Many taxa add more leaves per whorl continuously with increasing size of the apical meristem (e.g., Equisetum, Hippuris). (2) Taxa provided with interpetiolar stipules replace their stipules by leaves (e.g., Galium and allies). (3) Taxa with the capacity to form compound leaves shift basal leaflets around the whole node (e.g., Limnophila, probably also Ceratophyllum), Various whorled plants start shoot development with leaf inception along a helix, which is continued into the whorled region. Then polymerous whorls develop as follows: (4) Acacia longipedunculata forms helically arranged fascicles instead of single leaves before the production of complete whorls. (5) Acacia baueri and Acacia verticillata add supernumerary leaves between a first series of helically arranged leaves. (6) Hydrothrix produces an annular bulge around the node of each first-formed leaf. All additional leaves of a whorl arise on this annular bulge. Leaf identity of whorl members cannot be defined unequivocally in whorls with asynchronous (i.e., nonsimultaneous) development, dorsoventral distribution of lateral buds, and/or fewer vascular traces than leaves per node. It is heuristically stimulating to accept structural categories (e.g., shoot, leaf, leaflet, stipule) as fuzzy concepts, as developmental pathways that may overlap to some degree, leading to developmental mosaics (intermediates). For example, the whorled leaves of Utricularia purpurea resemble whole shoots, corroborating Arber's partial-shoot theory.

Rywosch, S. (1925). "Examination of the swelling procedures in hygroscopic movement." Biochemische Zeitschrift 166: 24-46. ://WOS:000200720700002 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Rywosch-Untersuchungen-Quellung-1926.pdf

Sailaja, G. S., K. Sreenivasan, et al. (2009). "Bioinspired mineralization and cell adhesion on surface functionalized poly(vinyl alcohol) films." Acta Biomaterialia 5(5): 1647-1655. ://WOS:000266506800027 Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) films, when surface functionalized by phosphorylation, induced biomimetic nucleation and growth of calcium phosphate in a simulated physiological environment. The surface phosphorylation on PVA was ensured by attenuated total reflectance infrared spectroscopy. The morphology of the calcium phosphate phase grown on surface-phosphorylated PVA (PPVA) was analysed using scanning electron microscopy coupled with an energy-dispersive X-ray detector. The primary nucleation of calcium phosphate occurs in 3 days and secondary nucleation occurs after 10 days. The energy-dispersive X-ray analysis shows that the Ca/P ratio of the coating increases with time of exposure to the simulated physiological fluid and reaches 1.67 at 10 days. The PPVA supports in vitro cell adhesion and promotes in vitro biomineralization in the presence of cells, evaluated using human osteosarcoma cells. (C) 2008 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Saito, N., Y. Inoue, et al. (2006). "Materials synthesis via biomimetic processing." Oyo Buturi 75(2): 196-201. ://INSPEC:9033665 Biomimetic materials processing is important in the production of new materials and devices because of recent concerns regarding environmental pollution and energy minimization. In this paper, we report on biomimetic materials processing. In particular, we focus on biological structures, bioprocesses, and biofunctions. The following subjects are introduced in this paper; (1) ultra-water- repellent film and (2) microstructured self-assembled monolayers

Saito, Y., S. Takahashi, et al. (2004). "Change of Hygroscopicity and dynamic Young's modulus of wood by high temperature heat-treatment." Mokuzai Gakkaishi 50(3): 139-145. ://000222790200009 This report deals with changes in physical properties of wood by high temperature heat-treatment proximate to charring and discusses mechanism of property manifestation. After the heat treatment of spruce specimens at 200-300degreesC in vacuo, the hygroscopicities, the dymamical Young's moduli and the moduli of shearing elasticity were investigated. These values generally decreased with increase of temperature and time duration of the heat treatment. The properties of water absorbance and the change of dynamical Young's moduli of the samples treated at above 260degreesC showed apparently different tendencies comparing with those treated at below 230degreesC; The sample treated at above 260degreesC showed higher absorption-rate and smaller absorbency in humid air than those treated at below 230degreesC. The rate change of Young's modulus by thermal degradation was more anisotropic when the samples were treated at above 260degreesC than the case when the samples were treated at below 230degreesC. The thermally changed components at around 260degreesC seem to be critical for the property of wood.

Sakamaki, Y. and Y. Ino (2004). "Response of non-structural carbohydrate content of belowground parts in Equisetum arvense according to the irradiance change during a growing season." Journal of Plant Research 117(5): 385-391. ://000224761200007 Effects of shading on the growth of Equisetum arvense during the growing season were studied in terms of the dynamics of non- structural carbohydrates (starch, sucrose, glucose). Tubers of 0.04 g dry mass were planted in pots. Plants were cultivated under different radiation conditions (100%, 3%, 100%-->3%, and 100%-->3%-->4100%). The carbohydrate concentration in belowground parts responded sharply to the irradiance conditions. Under 3% relative photon flux density (PFD), they could not grow beyond the initial mass and decayed. Dry mass per length of rhizomes was highly correlated with the starch concentration, which was correlated with the mass of current tubers. The rhizomes of low starch concentration did not form current tubers. The carbohydrate concentration of rhizomes increased when the plants were transferred from 3% relative PFD to 100% irradiance conditions. After ca. 2 months of improved PFD, they had the same content of non-structural carbohydrates as the 100% PFD plants.

Saleh, R. and A. Shihadeh (2007). "Hygroscopic growth and evaporation in an aerosol with boundary heat and mass transfer." Journal of Aerosol Science 38(1): 1-16. ://000243655300001 This study demonstrates an experimental method for using temperature measurements as a means for validating computations of particle size distribution in a growing or evaporating high-concentration aerosol flowing in a tube with wall heat and mass transfer. The method is based on the premise that aggregate growth or condensation from an ensemble of aerosol droplets can be inferred by comparing temperature evolution of an aerosol-laden and aerosol-free flow through a heated or cooled tube. The difference in bulk temperature is used as an indicator of latent heat effect which is directly related to condensational and evaporative particle size changes. Dimensional analysis is used to derive the conditions under which such an approach can be used. Two parameters, the "coupling number" and the dimensionless mass concentration are found to govern the sensitivity of continuous phase temperature to aggregate evaporation or condensation of the droplet ensemble, and the sensitivity of temperature to droplet diameter changes, respectively. Experimental data for an aqueous saline aerosol flowing through a heated, constant wall temperature tube are presented and compared to predictions derived using a Lagrangian plug-flow model with a fully moving particle bin structure. Measured and predicted bulk phase temperatures agree to within 3%. Using sensitivity analysis, it is shown that hygroscopic particle diameter changes will be at least as accurate. (C) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Salmen, L. and I. Burgert (2009). "Cell wall features with regard to mechanical performance. A review COST Action E35 2004-2008: Wood machining - micromechanics and fracture." Holzforschung 63(2): 121-129. ://WOS:000263932200002 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Salmen-Cell-Wall-Features-2009.pdf The mechanical performance of wood and wood products is highly dependent on the structural arrangement and properties of the polymers within the fibre cell wall. To improve utilisation and manufacture of wood materials, there is an increasing need for a more detailed knowledge regarding structure/property relations at the micro- or nanostructural level. In this article, recent developments regarding our understanding of the wood cell wall structure and its mechanical performance are summarised. The new results are interpreted in relation to property performances of wood fibres and wood tissues. Suggestions are made for future requirements for research in this field.

Sane, S. P. and M. J. McHenry (2009). "The biomechanics of sensory organs." Integrative and Comparative Biology 49(6): i8-i23. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/content/49/6/i8.abstract Studies of mechanosensory systems have largely focused on the filter characteristics of their neural components in relation to their ultimate function. Less attention has focused on the role of the physical structure of the sensory organ which also acts as a mechanical filter of the sensory input. This biomechanical filtering is readily apparent in the case of several mechanosensory systems that transduce information about the deformations of the sensory organs in response to external forces. Because these deformations critically depend on the geometry and material properties of the mechanosensory organs, it is necessary to conduct focused studies on the biomechanical characteristics of these organs when studying the encoding properties of the mechanosensory system. Modern experimental tools such as Laser Doppler Vibrometry and computational tools such as Computational Fluid Dynamics and Finite Element Analysis provide the means for determining the sensory pre-filtering properties of small-scale mechanosensory structures. In all the cases covered in this review, the physical properties of the sensory organs play a central role in determining the signals received by the nervous system.

Sanson, G. (2006). "The biomechanics of browsing and grazing." Am. J. Bot. 93(10): 1531-1545. http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/10/1531 Terrestrial plant leaves are complex structures of composite materials. Resistance to fracture is achieved by a number of mechanisms, which operate at the molecular, cell, tissue, and structural levels. Leaves of dicots have different venation patterns and cell wall volume fractions from those of grasses, and consequently, they potentially resist fracture in different ways. Animals mechanically process plants in order to rupture the cell wall in preparation for enzymic hydrolysis, for which the imperative is to maximize new surface area and/or to expedite access to cell contents, ideally by promoting elastic fracture. The two different plant types are fed on by two different groups of organisms of very different sizes, digestive physiologies, mechanical processing abilities and properties, and nutritional requirements. Small insects can feed in or on parts of leaves, while larger mammals generally have to feed on the whole leaf. The scale of feeding also differs for the two groups of herbivores, but how this interacts with the scale of the mechanical properties of the leaf is not well understood. Plant leaves are attacked at all scales and probably can only produce generalized responses to specialized herbivores. In addition, the opportunities that these different scales of interactions open for the different herbivores remain unexplored.

Santulli, C., T. J. Finn, et al. (2006). "Scanning LDV for vibration measurement of filiform hairs in crickets in response to induced airflow - art. no. 63450E." Seventh International Conference on Vibration Measurements by Laser Techniques: Advances and Applications 6345: E3450-E3450. ://WOS:000239926800014 Cercal hairs represent in cricket a wind sensitive escape system, able to detect the airflow generated from predating species. These sensors have been studied as a biomimetic concept to allow the development of MEMS for biomedical use. In particular, the behaviour of the hairs, including airflow response, resonant frequency and damping, has been investigated up to a frequency of 20 kHz. The microscopic nature of the hairs, the complex vibrations of excited hairs and the high damping of the system suggested that the use of Laser Doppler vibrometry could possibly improve the test performance. Two types of tests were performed: in the first case the hairs were indirectly excited using the signal obtained from a vibrating aluminium plate, whilst in the second case the hairs were directly excited using a white noise chirp. The results from the first experiment indicated that the hairs move in-phase with the exciting signal up to frequencies in the order of 10 kHz, responding to the vibration modes of the plate with a signal attenuation of 12 to 20 dB. The chirp experiment revealed the presence of rotational resonant modes at 6850 and 11300 Hz. No clear effect of hair length was perceivable on the vibration response of the filiform sensors. The obtained results proved promising to support the mechanical and vibration characterisation of the hairs and suggest that scanning Laser vibrometry can be used extensively on highly dampened biological materials.

Santulli, C., M. Janssen, et al. (2005). "Partial replacement of E-glass fibers with flax fibers in composites and effect on falling weight impact performance." Journal of Materials Science 40(13): 3581-3585. ://WOS:000230560300043

Santulli, C., G. Jeronimidis, et al. (2009). "Mechanical and falling weight impact properties of unidirectional phormium fibre/epoxy laminates." Express Polymer Letters 3(10): 650-656. ://WOS:000270304900007 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Santulli-Mechanical-Falling-2009.pdf The falling weight impact properties of composites obtained by introducing 16 wt% of phormium tenax fibres extracted with two different methods i.e., either manually or by paddocking and scutching and in both cases chemically treated with a 1% solution of sodium hydroxide, have been investigated. The effect of the two extraction methods on fibre characteristics is compared by the tensile properties of the fibres and the flexural properties, fracture modes and hysteresis cycles parameters (impact energy partition, linear stiffness and normalised penetration energy) of final laminates. Laminates obtained using paddocked and scutched fibres are clearly superior to those manufactured using the manually extracted fibres: this is due to the more effective fibre impregnation in the former case than in the latter, which results in an improved dissipation of energy during the damping phase of the impact event. It is noteworthy, however, that the low volume of fibres introduced in the laminate with the manufacturing method adopted does not allow obtaining properties comparable with other semi-structural plant fibre composites, such as e.g., hemp fibre reinforced laminates.

Santulli, C., S. I. Patel, et al. (2005). "Development of smart variable stiffness actuators using polymer hydrogels." Smart Materials & Structures 14(2): 434-440. ://WOS:000228421300018 In this work, compliant actuators are developed by coupling braided structures and polymer gels, able to produce work by controlled gel swelling in the presence of water. A number of aspects related to the engineering of gel actuators were studied, including gel selection, modelling and experimentation of constant force and constant displacement behaviour, and response time. The actuator was intended for use as vibration neutralizer: with this aim, generation of a force of 10 N in a time not exceeding a second was needed. Results were promising in terms of force generation, although response time was still longer than required. In addition, the easiest way to obtain the reversibility of the effect is still under discussion: possible routes for improvement are suggested and will be the object of future work.

Schadler, N. and W. Kast (1987). "A COMPLETE MODEL OF THE DRYING CURVE FOR POROUS BODIES - EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL- STUDIES." International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 30(10): 2031-2044. ://WOS:A1987L012000005

Schnepf, E., U. Stein, et al. (1978). "STRUCTURE, FUNCTION, AND DEVELOPMENT OF PERISTOME OF MOSS, RHACOPILUM-TOMENTOSUM, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PROBLEM OF MICROFIBRIL ORIENTATION BY MICROTUBULES." Protoplasma 97(2-3): 221-240. ://WOS:A1978GB33000010

Schopfer, P. (2006). "Biomechanics of plant growth." Am. J. Bot. 93(10): 1415-1425. http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/10/1415 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Schopfer-Biomechanics- 2006.pdf Growth of turgid cells, defined as an irreversible increase in cell volume and surface area, can be regarded as a physical process governed by the mechanical properties of the cell wall and the osmotic properties of the protoplast. Irreversible cell expansion is produced by creating a driving force for water uptake by decreasing the turgor through stress relaxation in the cell wall. This mechano-hydraulic process thus depends on and can be controlled by the mechanical properties of the wall, which in turn are subject to modification by wall loosening and wall stiffening reactions. The biochemical mechanisms of these changes in mechanical wall properties and their regulation by internal signals (e.g., hormones) or external signals (e.g., light, drought stress) are at present incompletely understood and subject to intensive research. These signals act on walls that have the properties of composite materials in which the molecular structure and spatial organization of polymers rather than the distribution of mechanical stresses dictate the allometry of cell and organ growth and thus cell and organ shape. The significance of cell wall architecture for allometric growth can be demonstrated by disturbing the oriented deposition of wall polymers with microtubule-interfering drugs such as colchicine. Elongating organs (e.g., cylindrical stems or coleoptiles) composed of different tissues with different mechanical properties exhibit longitudinal tissue tensions resulting in the transfer of wall stress from inner to peripheral cell layers that adopt control over organ growth. For physically analyzing the growth process leading to seed germination, the same mechanical and hydraulic parameters as in normal growth are principally appropriate. However, for covering the influences of the tissues that restrain embryo expansion (seed coat, endosperm), an additional force and a water permeability term must be considered.

Schreiber, N., N. Gierlinger, et al. (2010). "G-fibres in storage roots of Trifolium pratense (Fabaceae): tensile stress generators for contraction." Plant Journal 61(5): 854-861. ://WOS:000274805600011 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Hygroscop/Schreiber-G-fibres-Trifolium-2010.pdf P>Root contraction has been described for many species within the plant kingdom for over a century, and many suggestions have been made for mechanisms behind these contractions. To move the foliage buds deeper into the soil, the proximal part of the storage root of Trifolium pratense contracts by up to 30%. Anatomical studies have shown undeformed fibres next to strongly deformed tissues. Raman imaging revealed that these fibres are chemically and structurally very similar to poplar (Populus) tension wood fibres, which are known to generate high tensile stresses and bend leaning stems or branches upright. Analogously, an almost pure cellulosic layer is laid down in the lumen of certain root fibres, on a thin lignified secondary cell wall layer. To reveal its stress generation capacities, the thick cellulosic layer, reminiscent of a gelatinous layer (G-layer) in tension wood, was selectively removed by enzymatic treatment. A substantial change in the dimensions of the isolated wood fibre bundles was observed. This high stress relaxation indicates the presence of high tensile stress for root contraction. These findings indicate a mechanism of root contraction in T. pratense (red clover) actuated via tension wood fibres, which follows the same principle known for poplar tension wood.

Schubert, B., C. Majidi, et al. (2007). "Towards friction and adhesion from high modulus microfiber arrays." Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology 21: 1297-1315. ://WOS:000251189400009 Unlike traditional pressure sensitive adhesives, the natural setal arrays of gecko lizards achieve dry adhesion with stiff, keratinous material. This remarkable property has inspired a new class of adhesive and high friction microstructures composed of stiff materials that, like natural setae, have an elastic modulus greater than 1 GPa. In contrast to softer materials, such as rubber and low molecular weight acrylates, stiff materials have the advantage of wear and creep resistance and represent a wide range of polymers, metals, and ceramics that include materials that are also temperature resistant and biocompatible. This work presents progress in the design and fabrication of synthetic gecko adhesives with particular attention to the principles of contact mechanics and elasticity that are essential in formulating accurate design criteria.

Schultz, J. C. (2002). "Shared Signals and the Potential for Phylogenetic Espionage Between Plants and Animals." Integrative and Comparative Biology 42(3): 454-462. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/content/42/3/454.abstract Until recently, the study and understanding of plant and animal signalling and response mechanisms have developed independently. Recent biochemical and molecular work is producing a growing list of elements involved in responses to biotic and abiotic stimuli that are very similar across kingdoms. Some of the more interesting examples of these include prostaglandin/octadecanoid- mediated responses to wounding, steroid-based signalling systems, and pathogen-recognition mechanisms. Some of these similarities probably represent evolutionary convergence; others may be ancestral to plants and animals. Ecological and evolutionary implications of such overlaps include the existence of pathogens that can cause disease in plants and animals, the ability of herbivores to manipulate plant responses, usurpation of microbial mechanisms and genes by herbivorous animals and plants, evolution of plant defenses exploiting shared signals in animals, and the medicinal use of plants by humans. Comparative study of the signalling and response mechanisms used by plants, animals, and microbes provides novel and useful insights to the ecology and evolution of interactions across kingdoms.

Schulz, D. and W. Schmidt (1974). "PERISTOME DEVELOPMENT IN FUNARIA-HYGROMETRICA." Flora 163(6): 451-465. ://WOS:A1974V279800001

Schwartz, O. M. (1994). "THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERISTOME-FORMING LAYERS IN THE FUNARIACEAE." International Journal of Plant Sciences 155(6): 640-657. ://WOS:A1994QC41700005 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Schwartz-Development-Peristome-Forming- 1994.pdf The development of the peristomial region of the capsule in the Funariales was investigated for species of the genera Funaria, Physcomitrium, Aphanorrhegma, Ephemerum, Splachnum, and Tetraplodon. A six-layer amphithecium is formed in Funaria, and the peristome differentiates from the three innermost layers. Pn Physcomitrium, Aphanorrhegma, and Ephemerum, the amphithecium is composed of five, four, and three layers, respectively, but no peristome is formed. The developmental pattern is nearly identical among all taxa examined. The cell-division sequence appears to be truncated in the more reduced taxa, Ephemerum and Aphanorrhegma. In the more distal regions of the capsule the entire division sequence is not completed, demonstrating the need to make comparisons at the level of the annulus. At the completion of development, cells of the primary peristomial layer swell slightly, but insufficiently to cause displacement of aligned cell walls. In all of the taxa examined, excluding Aphanorrhegma, a 4 : 2 : 4 aligned peristomial formula was observed at some point in development. These data support the systematic placement of the Ephemeraceae and Splachnaceae within the Funariales.

Schwartz, O. M. (1997). "Apical cell segmentation and its relationship to the peristome-forming layers in the Funariaceae." International Journal of Plant Sciences 158(3): 236-248. ://A1997XJ93100002 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Schwartz-Apial-Cell-Segmentation-1997.pdf Six taxa in the Funariaceae were examined to compare development and cell division patterns in moss capsules with and without peristome teeth. The peristome differentiates from a series of apical cell segments that are found to develop by a similar pattern of cell divisions. The youngest apical cell segments do not complete the entire developmental sequence observed in the more proximal segments. Few differences in development were found among the taxa, other than in the timing of transverse cell divisions. Segments in the gymnostomous taxa (Ephemerum, Aphanorrhegma) do not complete the entire sequence of divisions, with only three amphithecial Layers present in the mature capsule. Spiraling of the peristome teeth of Funaria is suggested to be the result of differential cell expansion during the course of development of the distal apical cell segments, although oblique division of the apical cell might also be responsible for the spiraling of the cell files. Moss sporophytes are bilaterally symmetrical in their development although forming a radially symmetrical capsule. Because peristome teeth differentiate from several different levels in several different segments, cell position as well as cell lineage obviously is responsible for guiding differentiation.

Seidel, R., A. Gourrier, et al. (2008). "Mapping fibre orientation in complex-shaped biological systems with micrometre resolution by scanning X-ray microdiffraction." Micron 39(2): 198-205. ://WOS:000254786500018 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Seidel-Mapping-Fibre-Orientation-2008.pdf A fully automated procedure to extract and to image local fibre orientation in biological tissues from scanning X-ray diffraction is presented. The preferred chitin fibre orientation in the flow sensing system of crickets is determined with high spatial resolution by applying synchrotron radiation based X-ray microbeam diffraction in conjunction with advanced sample sectioning using a UV micro- laser. The data analysis is based on an automated detection of azimuthal diffraction maxima after 2D convolution filtering (smoothing) of the 2D diffraction patterns. Under the assumption of crystallographic fibre symmetry around the morphological fibre axis, the evaluation method allows mapping the three-dimensional orientation of the fibre axes in space. The resulting two- dimensional maps of the local fibre orientations - together with the complex shape of the flow sensing system - may be useful for a better understanding of the mechanical optimization of such tissues. (C) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Seppelt, R. D. (1996). "A re-examination of Ditrichum immersum van Zanten." Journal of Bryology 19: 267-277. ://A1996WK00800006 An amended description of Ditrichum immersum, incorporating details of peristome and spore morphology, is given. Vegetative morphology, peristome features and spore morphology are compared to D. strictum, to which it appears closely related. The unusual occurrence of polysety is reported in a specimen of D. immersum from Heard Island.

Shaw, A. J. (2000). "Schizymenium shevockii (Bryaceae), a new species of moss from California, based on morphological and molecular evidence." Systematic Botany 25(2): 188-196. ://000087514400004 A new moss species, Schizymenium shevockii, is described from Fresno County California Schizymenium shevockii is distinguished from North American species of. Mielichhoferia by a single endostomial peristome, and from Mexican species of Schizymenium by dioicous sexuality, poorly developed endostome segments, and the complete absence of exostome teeth. The new species can also be distinguished from S. pontevedrensis (the only European species of that genus), Mielichhoferia mielichhoferiana, and Mielichhoferia elongata by the presence of 38 and 29 nucleotide (nt) deletions in the ITS1 region of nuclear ribosomal DNA, and a nine nt insertion in the ITS2 region. Four additional insertions and/or deletions distinguish S, shevockii from M, elongata and/or M, mielichhoferiana. Moreover, Mielichhoferia elongata and M, mielichhoferiana share 34 nucleotide substitutions that distinguish them (as a monophyletic group) from S, shevockii and S. pontevedrensis. A survey of California populations using primers designed to take advantage of molecular differences between S. shevockii and morphologically similar but sterile plants of Mielichhoferia in elongata revealed plants of S. shevockii at three sites. At one such site, S, shevockii was sympatric with M. elongata. All samples of S. shevockii had identical ITS sequences.

Shaw, A. J., B. Allen, et al. (1998). "New species of Bryaceae (Mielichhoferia, Brachymenium) from Costa Rica and Reunion." Bryologist 101(4): 600-604. ://000078065800012 Mielichhoferia paroica Shaw di Alien is described from Costa Rica. The plants are very small, paroicous, and have a double peristome that consists of Id Ions, papillose exostome teeth and a rudimentary basal membrane that barely reaches above the capsule I im. Mielichhoferia paroica is the only known species of Mielichhoferia that is not dioicous. Brachymenium gemmifarum Shaw & Buck is described from Reunion. plants of this species are extremely slender, and have red capsules with a double peristome consisting of long exostome teeth and a high endostomial membrane but no well-defined segments. It differs from all other species of Brachymenium in having axillary, obconic gemmae.

Shaw, A. J. and S. M. Bartow (1992). "Genetic-Structure and Phenotypic Plasticity in Proximate Populations of the Moss, Funaria- Hygrometrica." Systematic Botany 17(2): 257-271. ://A1992HN53900006 Phenotypic differences in morphology, growth rates, and metal tolerance were investigated in proximate populations of Funaria hygrometrica growing on metal-contaminated tailings of an abandoned copper mine. Most of the mine site populations have a peristome structure and spore size that is intermediate between typical F. hygrometrica and F. flavicans and these populations are highly variable in 12 out of 13 morphological characters that were measured. However, the results of an experiment including 36 families of gametophytic plants from four of the mine populations grown on a series of soil types suggested very low levels of genetic variability. Morphological characters were relatively stable on potting soil and intermediate mixtures, but were strongly modified on metal-contaminated soil from the mine. This pattern suggests inherent homeostatic mechanisms that maintain morphological stability until a threshold is surpassed. Unlike morphological characters, biomass formation was strongly affected even by the intermediate soil types. There was little evidence of genetically based variation in growth rates or tolerance of the contaminated mine soils either within or between populations. Moreover, in spite of tremendous morphological plasticity induced by different soil types, the patterns and amounts of phenotypic plasticity exhibited by different populations, and families within populations, were experimentally indistinguishable. These results suggest very low levels of genetic variability within and among these proximate populations of F. hygrometrica. The lack of genetically based variability among mine site plants does not support a recent hybrid origin for plants of intermediate morphology.

Shaw, A. J., J. C. Cymon, et al. (2005). "Global Patterns of Moss Diversity: Taxonomic and Molecular Inferences." Taxon 54(2): 337-352. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25065362 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Shaw-Global-Patterns-Moss-Diversity-2005.pdf Taxonomic and molecular data were utilized to test the hypothesis that moss diversity is greatest near the equator. Species richness estimates from 86 taxonomic checklists representing global moss diversity do not support the hypothesis that, in general, mosses are more species-rich in the tropics than at higher latitudes. A significant latitudinal gradient was, however, detected for North, Central, and South American samples when analyzed alone. Taxonomic estimates of biodiversity patterns were compared to molecular estimates based on standing nucleotide diversity, and on phylogenetic diversity, the latter taking into account the historical information contained in a molecular phylogenetic tree for the mosses. Molecular estimates suggest that moss diversity is highest in the Southern Hemisphere and lowest in the Northern Hemisphere, with the tropics having an intermediate level. The differences, however, are slight, and analyses of molecular variance (AMOVA) indicate that there is virtually no generalized differentiation between major latitudinal zones. These results reflect the fact that virtually all moss lineages have representatives in all three latitudinal zones. At the nucleotide level, mosses best fit the pattern of "everything is everywhere".

Shaw, J. (1984). "A Reinterpretation of Peristome Structure in Pseudoditrichum mirabile Steere & Iwats. (Pseudoditrichaceae)." The Bryologist 87(4): 314-318. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3242950 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Shaw-Reinterpretation-Pseudotrichium-1984.pdf Cellular patterns of the dorsal and ventral endostomial surfaces provide the best means for distinguishing peristomes of the Funariales and from those of other diplolepideous orders. Fusion of cilia to one another and to parts of adjacent segments can result in endostomes that appear to have opposite segments, even when they actually alternate with the exostome teeth. The segments in Pseudoditrichum mirabile alternate with the exostome teeth and the Pseudoditrichaceae is accordingly shifted from the Funariales into the Bryales, near the Bryaceae.

Shaw, J. (1985). "PERISTOME STRUCTURE IN THE BRYACEAE, SUBFAMILY MIELICHHOFERIOIDEAE." American Journal of Botany 72(6): 796-797. ://WOS:A1985ALY7500022

Shaw, J. (1985). "PERISTOME STRUCTURE IN THE MITTENIALES (ORD NOV, MUSCI), A NEGLECTED NOVELTY." Systematic Botany 10(2): 224-233. ://WOS:A1985AHY3900011 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Shaw-Peristome-Structure-Mitteniales-1985.pdf

Shaw, J. (1985). "Peristome Structure in the Mitteniales (ord. nov.: Musci), a Neglected Novelty." Systematic Botany 10(2): 224-233. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2418348 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Shaw-Peristome-Structure-Mitteniales-1985.pdf Cellular patterns on the peristome of Mittenia plumula (Mitt.) Lindb., as revealed by scanning electron microscopy, support the interpretation made by Ilma Stone in 1961 that the peristome of this species is neither haplolepideous nor diplolepideous. The outer peristome teeth of Mittenia are homologous to the endostome of diplolepideous mosses, and to the single peristome of haplolepideous mosses. There is no other peristomial structure known in mosses that is homologous to the inner peristome of Mittenia. The Mitteniaceae are removed from the Bryales, and a new order, the Mitteniales, is recognized. The Sorapillaceae and Eustichiaceae, traditionally placed near the Mitteniaceae, have peristomes that are probably derived from the haplolepideous type.

Shaw, J. and B. H. Allen (1985). "Anatomy and Morphology of the Peristome in Discelium-Nudum (Musci, Disceliaceae)." Bryologist 88(3): 263- 267. ://A1985AYC5500011 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Shaw-Anatomy-Morphology-Peristome-Discelium- 1985.pdf

Shaw, J. and L. E. Anderson (1986). "Morphology and Homology of the Peristome Teeth in Hymenodon and Hymenodontopsis (Rhizogoniaceae, Musci)." Systematic Botany 11(3): 446-454. ://A1986D408200007 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Shaw-Morphology-Peristome-Hymenodon-1986.pdf

Shaw, J. and L. E. Anderson (1988). "PERISTOME DEVELOPMENT IN MOSSES IN RELATION TO SYSTEMATICS AND EVOLUTION .2. TETRAPHIS- PELLUCIDA (TETRAPHIDACEAE)." American Journal of Botany 75(7): 1019-1032. ://WOS:A1988P472300012 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Shaw-PeristomeDevelopment-Tetraphis-1988.pdf

Shaw, J. and L. E. Anderson (1988). "Peristome Development in Mosses in Relation to Systematics and Evolution. II. Tetraphis pellucida (Tetraphidaceae)." American Journal of Botany 75(7): 1019-1032. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2443770 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Shaw-PeristomeDevelopment-Tetraphis-1988.pdf The Tetraphidae is a small subclass of mosses with a nematodontous peristome that has frequently been interpreted as primitive among the true mosses. The developmental cell sequence leading to the formation of the four peristome teeth of Tetraphis pellucida is described for the first time. Comparisons are made with sequences known for other nematodontous and arthrodontous mosses. Peristome development in T. pellucida is more like that described previously for arthrodontous peristomes than to published developmental sequences for nematodontous peristomes of species in the Polytrichaceae. On the other hand, our observations confirm a basic uniformity of the earliest developmental stages in all mosses studied thus far, regardless of their systematic position.

Shaw, J., L. E. Anderson, et al. (1989). "PERISTOME DEVELOPMENT IN MOSSES IN RELATION TO SYSTEMATICS AND EVOLUTION .3. FUNARIA- HYGROMETRICA, BRYUM-PSEUDOCAPILLARE, AND BRYUM-BICOLOR." Systematic Botany 14(1): 24-36. ://WOS:A1989R796500005 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Shaw-Peristome-Development-III-Funaria- 1989.pdf

Shaw, J., B. D. Mishler, et al. (1989). "PERISTOME DEVELOPMENT IN MOSSES IN RELATION TO SYSTEMATICS AND EVOLUTION .4. HAPLOLEPIDEAE, DITRICHACEAE AND DICRANACEAE." Bryologist 92(3): 314-325. ://WOS:A1989AQ40600009 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Shaw-Peristome-IV-Haplolepidae-1989.pdf

Shaw, J., B. D. Mishler, et al. (1989). "Peristome Development in Mosses in Relation to Systematics and Evolution. IV. Haplolepideae: Ditrichaceae and Dicranaceae." The Bryologist 92(3): 314-325. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3243400 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Shaw-Peristome-Development-Mosses-1989.pdf The classification of mosses into subclasses and orders is based to a large extent on the morphology of the peristome teeth, yet little information exists on development of peristomes. In this paper we describe the sequences of cell divisions leading to peristome formation in six species of mosses representing two families with haplolepideous peristome structure. The earliest developmental stages conform to the pattern documented in other mosses and highlight the uniformity of these early stages among mosses of diverse relationship. Peristome development in haplolepideous mosses diverges from the pattern found in diplolepideous species when each of eight cells in the Inner Peristomial Layer undergoes anticlinal divisions. Haplolepideous species share a pattern of peristome development that appears to be unique to this group of mosses. Similarities in the arrangement of cells comprising mature haplolepideous peristomes and early stages of Bryum-type diplolepideous peristomes may indicate a relationship between these peristome types, or may be due in part to evolutionary convergence. Developmental evidence suggests that haplolepideous peristome teeth are homologous to the cilia of Bryum-type peristomes rather than to the endostome segments, as is commonly thought.

Shaw, J. and K. Renzaglia (2004). "Phylogeny and diversification of bryophytes." American Journal of Botany 91(10): 1557-1581. ://000224817600008 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Shaw-Phylogeny-2004.pdf The bryophytes comprise three phyla of that are well established to occupy the first nodes among extant lineages in the land-plant tree of life. The three bryophyte groups (hornworts, liverworts, mosses) may not form a monophyletic clade, but they share life history features including dominant free-living gametophytes and matrotrophic monosporangiate sporophytes. Because of their unique vegetative and reproductive innovations and their critical position in phylogeny, studies of bryophytes are crucial to understanding the evolution of land plant morphology and genomes. This review focuses on phylogenetic relationships within each of the. three divisions of bryophytes and relates morphological diversity to new insights about those relationships. Most previous work has been on the mosses, but progress on understanding the phylogeny of hornworts and liverworts is advancing at a rapid pace. Multilocus multigenome studies have been successful at resolving deep relationships within the mosses and liverworts, whereas single-gene analyses have advanced understanding of hornwort evolution.

Sheldon, J. C. and F. M. Burrows (1973). "THE DISPERSAL EFFECTIVENESS OF THE ACHENE–PAPPUS UNITS OF SELECTED COMPOSITAE IN STEADY WINDS WITH CONVECTION." New Phytologist 72(3): 665-675. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.1973.tb04415.x AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Sheldon-Dispersal-Effectiveness- 1973.pdf SUMMARY The role of the involucral bracts of the Compositae capitulum in fruit dispersal, the behaviour of the pappus of composite fruits to changes in humidity, and the presentation of the achene-pappus units for wind dispersal, are briefly reviewed. Arguments put forward in the literature for and against the effectiveness of the pappus in facilitating wind dispersal are presented. A method is described for comparing the dispersal efficiency of achene-pappus units of selected composites. The computed trajectories for fruits of selected species under the independent effects of wind speed and plant height, wind speed and boundary layer, and the combination of these with convection velocity are given. It is shown that the efficiency of dispersal is determined more by the fine details of the pappus geometry, which directly affects its aerodynamic properties, than by the size ratio of pappus to achene. Under steady horizontal winds, increased height of fruit release increases dispersal distance. Reported patterns of wind dispersal are discussed in terms of air movement, flight path interference by neighbouring plants and, for some species, the fruit dissemination mechanism. While increased wind velocities increase the trajectory distance, dispersal of many composites is hampered by the pappus response to humidity. Increased dispersal distances are given by steady convection currents, whereas turbulence may either curtail or prolong transportation. The apparent inefficiency of wind dispersal reported under field conditions is explained by the combined effects of these various environmental factors upon the dispersal units during the period of dissemination.

Shepard, R. K. and J. E. Shottafer (1979). "EFFECTS OF FERTILIZATION ON SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND GROWTH-RATE OF RED SPRUCE (PICEA- RUBENS SARG)." Wood Science 12(2): 100-102. ://WOS:A1979HU45700007

Shepard, R. K. and J. E. Shottafer (1990). "EFFECT OF EARLY RELEASE ON SPECIFIC-GRAVITY AND WOOD YIELD OF BLACK SPRUCE." Forest Products Journal 40(1): 18-20. ://WOS:A1990CH72800004

Shepard, R. K. and J. E. Shottafer (1992). "SPECIFIC-GRAVITY AND MECHANICAL PROPERTY-AGE RELATIONSHIPS IN RED PINE." Forest Products Journal 42(7-8): 60-66. ://WOS:A1992JF52300012 This study examined changes in specific gravity (SG), modulus of rupture (MOR), and modulus of elasticity (MOE) with age for two plantations and a natural stand, using microbending specimens. The mature period for SG and MOR began at an average age of 39 years; for MOE it began at age 40. Average mature wood values were 22 percent greater for SG, 68 percent greater for MOR, and 90 percent greater for MOE. Mean wood property values for both the juvenile and mature periods in the two plantations were generally equal to or greater than those for the natural stand.

Shepard, R. K., J. E. Shottafer, et al. (1980). "KRAFT PULP YIELDS AND WOOD PROPERTIES OF FERTILIZED RED SPRUCE." Canadian Journal of Forest Research-Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere 10(2): 183-189. ://WOS:A1980KD95300010

Shi, S. Q. and D. J. Gardner (2006). "Effect of density and polymer content on the hygroscopic thickness swelling rate of compression molded wood fiber/polymer composites." Wood and Fiber Science 38(3): 520-526. ://000239347900014 The effects of polymer content and board density on the hygroscopic thickness swelling rate of compression-molded wood fiber/polymer composites were investigated in this study. A swelling model developed by Shi and Gardner (2005) was used to study the thickness swelling process of wood fiber/ polymer composites exposed to water vapor conditions in which a parameter, K-SR, was used for the comparison of the swelling rates. The polymer materials used to process the wood fiber/polymer composites were from a reclaimed automobile plastic mixture, also called polymer fluff. Polymeric diphenylmethane diisocyanate (pMDI) resin was used as a binder. Six polymer contents (0, 15, 30, 45, 60, and 100%) and four target specific gravities (0.55, 0.75, 0.90, and 1.00) were evaluated in the experiments using the swelling model. It was shown that the swelling model successfully fit the empirical swelling rate data as impacted by different board densities and polymer contents. Board density has a significant effect on the swelling rate of the composites. The swelling rate increased linearly as board density decreased. The effect of polymer content on the swelling rate depends partially on board density. Polymer content did not show a significant effect on swelling rate at an oven- dry density of 900 kg/m(3). It was also confirmed from this study that the accuracy of the swelling model prediction is a function of the magnitude of the swelling rate parameter. The lower the thickness swelling rate of the composites, the more accurate the prediction obtained from the swelling model.

Shin, T. and T. Muroya (1965). "Electron-microscopical observations of the peristome and spores of mosses: ii." Hikobia 4: pp.178-180 : ill. Signatur p241.

Shin, Y. S., L. Q. Wang, et al. (2005). "Hygroscopic growth of self-assembled layered surfactant molecules at the interface between air and organic salts." Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 284(1): 278-281. ://000227819700038 We report here the self-assembly of surfactant molecules at the interface of air and the hygroscopic quaternary ammonium salt tetrabuty-lammonium acetate (TBAAc). Homogeneously dissolved surfactant molecules at 100 degrees C self-assemble upon contacting air due to high moisture adsorption by the organic salt when cooling down. Highly ordered lamellar phases with different lattice spacings have been observed when surfactants with various lengths of alkyl chains were used. C(n)TMAB/TBAAc systems showed all-trans conformation of interior methylene carbons and interdigited bilayers with an average CH2 increment of 0.119 nm, while CnNH2/TBAAc systems showed trans/gauche mixed conformations of interior methylene carbons and bilayers with an average CH2 increment of 0.247 nm. C(n)NH(2)s in CnNH2/TBAAc formed bilayers through water-mediated intermolecular hydrogen bonds with a water layer thickness of 0.51-0.61 nm. In C(n)TAB/TBAAc, as the head group of C(n)TAB is bigger, the interdigited bilayer thickness (d-spacing) is smaller, because the bigger head groups accommodate enough space for alkyl tails to come in between them. (c) 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Shope, J. C., D. Peak, et al. (2008). "Stomatal responses to humidity in isolated epidermes." Plant Cell and Environment 31(9): 1290-1298. ://WOS:000258410600008 The ability of guard cells to hydrate and dehydrate from the surrounding air was investigated using isolated epidermes of Tradescantia pallida and Vicia faba. Stomata were found to respond to the water vapour pressure on the outside and inside of the epidermis, but the response was more sensitive to the inside vapour pressure, and occurred in the presence or absence of living, turgid epidermal cells. Experiments using helium-oxygen air showed that guard cells hydrated and dehydrated entirely from water vapour, suggesting that there was no significant transfer of water from the epidermal tissue to the guard cells. The stomatal aperture achieved at any given vapour pressure was shown to be consistent with water potential equilibrium between the guard cells and the air near the bottom of the stomatal pore, and water vapour exchange through the external cuticle appeared to be unimportant for the responses. Although stomatal responses to humidity in isolated epidermes are the result of water potential equilibrium between the guard cells and the air near the bottom of the stomatal pore, stomatal responses to humidity in leaves are unlikely to be the result of a similar equilibrium.

Shottafer, J. E. and C. E. Shuler (1974). "ESTIMATING HEAT CONSUMPTION IN KILN DRYING LUMBER." Technical Bulletin Life Science and Agriculture Experiment Station 73: 1-29. http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Shotafer-Estimeting-Heat-1974.pdf

Shuler, C. E. (1980). "RESPONSE OF EASTERN SPRUCE FINGER JOINTS TO VARIATION IN ASSEMBLY TIME AND MOISTURE-CONTENT." Wood and Fiber 12(4): 227-232. ://WOS:A1980KY04800003

Shuler, C. E. (1984). "MECHANICAL TESTS OF FULL-SIZED POLYMER IMPREGNATED TIMBERS." Forest Products Journal 34(6): 26-28. ://WOS:A1984SY28500004

Shuler, C. E. (1985). "A BOUQUET OF DIAMONDS." Wood and Fiber Science 17(3): 299-299. ://WOS:A1985AMT6300001

Shuler, C. E., D. A. Grant, et al. (1979). "EVALUATION OF GLUED LAMINATED BEAMS OF EASTERN SPRUCE AND EASTERN HEMLOCK." Forest Products Journal 29(7): 23-28. ://WOS:A1979HF22700002

Shuler, C. E. and R. A. Kelly (1976). "EFFECT OF FLAKE GEOMETRY ON MECHANICAL-PROPERTIES OF EASTERN SPRUCE FLAKE-TYPE PARTICLEBOARD." Forest Products Journal 26(6): 24-28. ://WOS:A1976CE90500005

Shuler, C. E. and B. J. Kotek (1976). "AVAILABILITY OF WOOD RESIDUE FROM PROCESSING PLANTS IN MAINE." Maine Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin(734): 3-12. ://WOS:A1976EC67300001

Simoes, J. A., A. T. Marques, et al. (2000). "Design of a controlled-stiffness composite proximal femoral prosthesis." Composites Science and Technology 60(4): 559-567. ://WOS:000085676400008 The design and prototype manufacture of a controlled-stiffness composite femoral prosthesis is described. The prosthesis is composed of a cobalt-chrome core surrounded by a flexible composite outer layer. By varying the composite layer thickness it was possible to control the prosthesis stiffness. The new design was critically assessed by means of finite-element method and its predicted performance compared with those of conventional, single-modulus prostheses. A simple model based on composite beam theory was used to determine the optimum thickness of the composite material. The composite was made of an epoxy resin reinforced with braided hybrid carbon-glass pre-forms. A prototype incorporating the novel concept design was manufactured by using the compression moulding technique. (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Simoes, J. A. O., M. Taylor, et al. (1998). "Preliminary investigation of a novel controlled stiffness proximal femoral prosthesis." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part H-Journal of Engineering in Medicine 212(H3): 165-175. ://WOS:000074938400003 Previous studies have suggested that a controlled stiffness prosthesis is required to address the conflicting requirements of minimizing stress shielding and micromotion. The design for a controlled stiffness prosthesis is proposed and a preliminary analytical investigation performed to assess its predicted performance before fabrication of a prototype component. The novel prosthesis consisted of a cobalt-chrome core and a flexible composite outer layer. Varying the composite layer thickness allowed the prosthesis stiffness to be controlled. Three variants of the controlled stiffness prosthesis were critically assessed using the finite element method and their predicted performance compared with those of conventional prosthesis designs. The potential for stress shielding was assessed by examining the periosteal strain energy and the potential for migration assessed by examining the endosteal minimum principal cancellous bone stresses. Both the conventional and controlled stiffness implants performed poorly as press-fit prostheses. All the press-fit prostheses generated high cancellous bone stresses, suggesting that excessive migration of these implants would be likely. The controlled stiffness implants performed better than the conventional implants when bonded to the surrounding bone. Although the controlled stiffness implants did not eliminate stress shielding of the calcar, they produced higher strain energies than the conventional designs. The findings of this study are that osseointegrated controlled stiffness implants may perform better than current osseointegrated cementless prostheses and therefore it is worth while progressing to the next stage, of prototyping an implant.

Simon, P., R. Ramlau, et al. (2003). "Electron microscopy of biomimetic solid composites." Microscopy and Microanalysis 9, suppl.3: 464-5. ://INSPEC:8129927 This paper deals with a gelatin-fluorapatite composite which is grown biomimetically in a gelatin matrix and started with an elongated hexagonal prismatic seed with about 5 mu m in diameter and 20 mu m in length. At both ends of the seeds branching and fractal growth takes place ending up with spherical aggregates. The main purpose of our investigations is to find out where the biological part is situated within the composite material. By means of holography it is possible to detect the shape and size of porosities in biominerals. The phase images of the reconstructed holograms display a highly porous composite material with pore diameters at the nanometer scale. Element-mapping by electron energy loss spectroscopy revealed the complementary elemental constitution of the sample. The fluorapatite distribution is monitored by detecting the calcium edge whereas the gelatin domains is assigned to the carbon energy loss. We also find small areas of organic material inside the thin cuts and elongated fibre structures at the edges indicating different preferred intergrowth directions

Skolunov, A. V. (1998). "Dimorphism of water at 0 degrees C. Refinement of the cluster-hygroscopic microstructure of water." Fibre Chemistry 30(6): 404-407. ://000081636000014 The structural and physical behavior of water in rile temperature range from 0 to 35 degrees C teas examined The possible enantiotropic mechanism of formation of two morphological modifications of (H2O)(8) clusters at 0 degrees C (dimorphism of water) was demonstrated: liquid phase - body-centered cubic packing of the water molecules (bcc packing), ice - double tetrahedral (diamond) packing. The partial density of ice clusters at 0 degrees C is equal to 838 g/liter; and the maximum density of water is observed when (H2O)(6) clusters predominate in the water.

Skordos, A., P. H. Chan, et al. (2002). "A novel strain sensor based on the campaniform sensillum of insects." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series a-Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences 360(1791): 239-253. ://WOS:000173869100007 The functional design of the campaniform sensillum was modelled as a hole in a plate using two- and three-dimensional finite- element modelling. Different shapes of opening in a fibrous composite plate amplify differently the global strains imposed on the plate, and different configurations of reinforcement also have an effect. In this paper, the main objective is to study the strain and displacement fields associated with circular or elliptical openings in laminated plates in order to investigate their potential for integrated strain sensors. Since we axe therefore primarily interested with the detection of displacement, the detailed stress concentration levels associated with these openings are not of primary concern. However, strain energy density levels associated with different hole and fibre configurations have been used to assess the relative likely strength reduction effect of the openings. To compare the relative strain amplification effect of drilled and formed holes of the same size in loaded plates, we have used the relative change in length of diameters (circular) or semi-axes (elliptical) in directions parallel and normal to the load. Various techniques which could sense this deformation were investigated, in particular, the coupling mechanism of a campaniform sensillum of Calliphora vicina. This mechanism was resolved into discrete components: a cap surrounded by a collar, a joint membrane and an annulus-shaped socket septum with a spongy compliant zone. The coupling mechanism is a mechanical linkage which transforms the stimulus into two deformations in different directions: monoaxial transverse compression of the dendritic tip and vertical displacement of the cap. The mechanism is insensitive to change of the material properties of the socket septum, the cuticular cap and the spongy cuticle. The joint membrane may serve as a gap filler. The material properties of the collar have a substantial influence on the coupling mechanism's output. A 30% change of stiffness of the collar causes 45% change in the output of the coupling mechanism. The collar may be able to tune the sensitivity of the sensillum by changing its elastic properties.

Skordos, A., P. H. Chan, et al. (2002). "A Novel Strain Sensor Based on the Campaniform Sensillum of Insects." Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 360(1791): 239-253. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3066304 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Scordos-Novel-Strain-Sensor-2002.pdf The functional design of the campaniform sensillum was modelled as a hole in a plate using two- and three-dimensional finite- element modelling. Different shapes of opening in a fibrous composite plate amplify differently the global strains imposed on the plate, and different configurations of reinforcement also have an effect. In this paper, the main objective is to study the strain and displacement fields associated with circular or elliptical openings in laminated plates in order to investigate their potential for integrated strain sensors. Since we are therefore primarily interested with the detection of displacement, the detailed stress concentration levels associated with these openings are not of primary concern. However, strain energy density levels associated with different hole and fibre configurations have been used to assess the relative likely strength reduction effect of the openings. To compare the relative strain amplification effect of drilled and formed holes of the same size in loaded plates, we have used the relative change in length of diameters (circular) or semi-axes (elliptical) in directions parallel and normal to the load. Various techniques which could sense this deformation were investigated, in particular, the coupling mechanism of a campaniform sensillum of Calliphora vicina. This mechanism was resolved into discrete components: a cap surrounded by a collar, a joint membrane and an annulus-shaped socket septum with a spongy compliant zone. The coupling mechanism is a mechanical linkage which transforms the stimulus into two deformations in different directions: monoaxial transverse compression of the dendritic tip and vertical displacement of the cap. The mechanism is insensitive to change of the material properties of the socket septum, the cuticular cap and the spongy cuticle. The joint membrane may serve as a gap filler. The material properties of the collar have a substantial influence on the coupling mechanism's output. A 30% change of stiffness of the collar causes 45% change in the output of the coupling mechanism. The collar may be able to tune the sensitivity of the sensillum by changing its elastic properties.

Smirnov, A., L. Murokh, et al. (2009). "Bio-mimicking rotary nanomotors." Proceedings of the SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering: 73640D (8 pp.). ://INSPEC:10720627 We propose a simple design of a rotary nanomotor comprised of three quantum dots attached to the rotating ring (rotor) in the presence of an in-plane dc electric field. The quantum dots (sites) can be coupled to or decoupled from source and drain carrier reservoirs, depending on the relative positions of the leads and the dots. We derive equations for the site populations and solve these equations numerically jointly with the Langevin-type equation for the rotational angle. It is shown that the synchronous loading and unloading of the sites results in unidirectional rotation of the nanomotor. The corresponding particle current, torque, and energy conversion efficiency are determined. Our studies are applicable both to biologically-inspired rotary nanomotors, the F/sub 0/ motor of ATP synthase and the bacterial flagellar motor, which use protons as carriers, and to novel artificial semiconductor systems using electrons. The efficiency of this semiconductor analog of the rotary biomotors is up to 85% at room temperature.

Smith, C. W. and J. F. V. Vincent (2002). "Introduction." Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 360(1791): 155-157. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3066298

Smith, G. M. (1953). Cryptogamic Botany, Bryophyptes and Pteridohytes. New York and London.

Smulders, F. (2006). Get Synchronized ! Bridging the Gap Between Design and Volume Production. Faculty of Industrial Design, Dept. of Dept. of Product Innovation Management. Delft, Delft University of Technology: 221.

Solga, A., Z. Cerman, et al. (2007). "The dream of staying clean: Lotus and biomimetic surfaces." Bioinspiration & Biomimetics 2(4): S126-S134. ://WOS:000207170600003 The Lotus has been the symbol of purity for thousands of years; contaminations and pathogens are washed off the surfaces of Lotus and some other plants with rain or even dew. After the introduction of scanning electron microscopy, we were able to resolve the mechanism behind this phenomenon. It took some further decades before in-depth studies on self-cleaning with plants were conducted and the effect could be understood in detail. We identified extreme water-repellency ('superhydrophobicity'), characterized by very high contact angles and low sliding angles, as the prerequisite for self-cleaning properties. We could show that the combination of two factors is necessary for obtaining a high degree of water-repellency: (1) low energy surfaces being hydrophobic and (2) surface structures that significantly increase hydrophobicity. It is suggested that this mechanism plays an important role in the protection of plants against pathogens. Our technological application of this effect has resulted in the development of successful, eco-friendly and sustainable industrial products. Another interesting property was found with superhydrophobic surfaces of certain aquatic and semi-aquatic plants and animals: here a layer of air under water is retained. We present a new approach of using this feature for creating structured, air-retaining surfaces for technical underwater applications. It is proposed that such surfaces can reduce significantly the drag of large ships. We conclude that basic biological research is of particular importance for true innovation. Our research on superhydrophobic self-cleaning biological surfaces and the development of similar engineered materials suggests that biomimicry is a matter of multi-stage processes rather than a simple copying of biological developments.

Spahn, G., H. Plettenberg, et al. (2006). "Karl Fischer titration and coulometry for measurement of water content in small cartilage specimens." Biomedizinische Technik 51(5-6): 355-359. ://WOS:000243178900013 This study evaluated the efficiency of Karl Fischer titration and coulometry for measurement of water content in small intact and defective cartilage specimens. Cartilage from the main weight-bearing zone of the medial condyle of 38 fresh sheep knees was used. Of these, 20 condyles had an intact cartilage, while defects (14 grade 1 and 4 grade 11) were found in the rest. The mechanical hardness was determined as Shore A. Cartilage specimens of approximately 5 mg were analyzed in special devices for moisture measurement and then continuously heated up to 105 degrees C. The actual measurement was performed in an electric cell (coulometry). An electrode was laminated with hygroscopic phosphorus pentoxide. In the electrochemical reaction, H and 0 are liberated from the electrode. The requirement for electric energy correlates with the amount of water in the specimen. The water content in intact cartilage was 66.9%. Grade 1 (72.6%) and grade 11 (77.8%) defects had significantly higher water content. Significantly higher and faster spontaneous evaporation was observed in cartilage defects at room temperature. The water content and spontaneous water evaporation correlated with significantly lower mechanical hardness. The experimental design (combined method of thermo-gravimetry, Karl Fischer titration, and coulometry) was sufficient for evaluating the water content in small cartilage specimens. It is also possible to measure the temperature-dependent water liberation from cartilage specimens.

Spatz, H. C. and A. Emanns (2004). "The mechanical role of the endodermis in Equisetum plant stems." American Journal of Botany 91(11): 1936-1938. ://000225242500020 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Spatz-Mechanical-2004.pdf The endodermis of different species of the genus Equisetum has different configurations, two or one continuous layers or a sheath only around the vascular bundles. The question whether the endodermis contributes to the mechanical stability of the aerial shoots is investigated in two ways: In a direct approach, the endodermis of segments of E. hyemale was dissected longitudinally and the mechanical stability against ovalization measured as a function of the orientation of the cuts with respect to the forces applied. A comparative approach tested the mechanical stability of eight different species of Equisetum against ovalization of the cross-section for samples, which were either fully turgescent or had reduced turgor pressure. The double-layer endodermis substantially contributed,finis and E. hyemale. Equisetum arvense, E. pratense, E. sylvaticum, and E. telmateja are mechan-to the mechanical stability of E. affically stabilized by their single layer of endodermis at least under conditions of low turgor pressure.

Spatz, H. C., L. Kohler, et al. (1998). "Biomechanics and functional anatomy of hollow-stemmed sphenopsids. I. Equisetum giganteum (Equisetaceae)." American Journal of Botany 85(3): 305-314. ://000072809900002 The hollow stem of Equisetum giganteum owes its mechanical stability to an outer ring of strengthening tissue, which provides stiffness and strength in the longitudinal direction, but also to an inner lining of turgid parenchyma, which lends resistance to local buckling. With a height >2.5 m isolated stems are mechanically unstable. However, in dense stands individual stems support each other by interlacing with their side branches, the typical growth habit of semi-self-supporters.

Spatz, H. C., N. Rowe, et al. (1998). "Biomechanics of hollow stemmed sphenopsids: II. Calamites - to have or not to have secondary xylem." Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 102(1-2): 63-77. ://000074764700005 Biomechanical properties of the Palaeozoic genus Calamites are investigated from 18 anatomically preserved segments of axes from varying ontogenetic stages, a range of parameters based on morphometric measurements of compression fossils and mechanical properties of extant plant tissues. The anatomical sections from isolated fossils (general data) were used to reconstruct a range of possible side-branch lengths (hypothetical positional data) under certain assumptions of tapering, based on the constraints caused by their own weight or by wind loads. Side branch maximal length was then used to estimate the sail-area of a Calamites and the maximal height of the Calamites stem depending on wind speeds and wind profile. The estimate is compared with the Euler buckling length calculated for the stem. Analysed solely on the basis of mechanical constraints, the maximal height of a solitary Calamites would have been limited by wind loads, at least if wind speeds larger than 25 m/s were experienced. In a dense surrounding vegetation canopy, the height of the stem is more Likely to have been limited by Euler buckling, The cylinder of secondary xylem would have enabled the plant to survive mechanical failure during periods of water stress when the parenchyma of the stem and branches would not have been fully turgescent and thus conferred certain mechanical advantages over the organisation observed in one of the largest-bodied extant sphenopsids Equisetum giganteum, which tends not to be self-supporting. (C) 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Speck, T., M. Milwich, et al. (2009). "Arborescent monocots as role models for biomimetic fibre-reinforced composites with gradient structure." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology a-Molecular & Integrative Physiology 153A(2): S116-S116. ://WOS:000267520700220 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Hygroscop/Speck-Arundo-Abstract-2009.pdf

Sperry, J. S., U. G. Hacke, et al. (2006). "Size and function in conifer tracheids and angiosperm vessels." Am. J. Bot. 93(10): 1490-1500. http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/10/1490 The wide size range of conifer tracheids and angiosperm vessels has important consequences for function. In both conduit types, bigger is better for conducting efficiency. The gain in efficiency with size is maximized by the control of conduit shape, which balances end-wall and lumen resistances. Although vessels are an order of magnitude longer than tracheids of the same diameter, they are not necessarily more efficient because they lack the low end-wall resistance of tracheids with torus-margo pits. Instead, vessels gain conducting efficiency over tracheids by achieving wider maximum diameters. End-walls contributed 56-64% to total xylem resistance in both conduit types, indicating that length limits conducting efficiency. Tracheid dimensions may be more limited by unicellularity and the need to supply strength to homoxylous wood than by the need to protect against cavitation. In contrast, the greater size of the multicellular vessel is facilitated by fibers that strengthen heteroxylous wood. Vessel dimensions may be most limited by the need to restrict intervessel pitting and cavitation by air-seeding. Stressful habitats that promote narrow vessels should favor coexistence of conifers and angiosperms. The evolution of vessels in angiosperm wood may have required early angiosperms to survive a phase of mechanic and hydraulic instability.

Srajer, J., B. Y. Majlis, et al. (2009). "Microfluidic simulation of a colonial diatom chain reveals oscillatory movement." Acta Botanica Croatica 68(2): 431-441. ://WOS:000271400100020 Diatoms are single-celled organisms with rigid parts in relative motion at the micro-and nanometer length scales. Some diatom species form colonies comprising many cells. In this Manuscript, the results of a two-dimensional finite element Computer model are presented. This model was established to discover if diatom colonies start to exhibit some kind of "pumping" behaviour when subjected to water flow. To analyze this computationally, a model diatom colony with continuously repeated units of ten cells is investigated in a fluid dynamic simulation. In this first simple model, undisturbed fluid flow is allowed for between the single cells. The cells do not move actively, and are solely moved by the water. The initial fluid velocity is assumed between 0.01 m s(-1) and 1 m s(-1). A computational result that does not change any more with time is called it steady state solution. Such a steady state solution is reached in all calculations performed. The steady state for a chain where initially all diatoms are spaced equally (equidistant spacing) has forces that encourage the formation of cell pairs with less distance between one another. These forces result from the flow of the surrounding fluid. The steady state for a chain with initially paired cells shows the opposite effect: the pairs tend to un- pair and head for the equidistant state again. The Mutual change in forces between these two states, i.e., paired and un-paired formations, suggests that these two steady states lead into each other: The computer simulations suggest that a diatom colony Subjected to water flow exhibits some kind of oscillatory movement. Such movement might facilitate nutrient uptake of the diatom colony.

Srinivasan, A. V. (1995). "ARE BIOLOGICAL STRUCTURES SMART." Active Materials and Smart Structures 2427: 163-171. ://WOS:A1995BC58P00011

Stamp, N. E. (1989). "Efficacy of Explosive Vs Hygroscopic Seed Dispersal by an Annual Grassland Species." American Journal of Botany 76(4): 555-561. ://A1989U487800008 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Hygroscop/Stamp-Efficacy-Seed-1989.pdf

Steinbrink, O. (1897). "Der Hygroskopische Mechanismus des Laubmoos-Peristoms." Flora 84: 131-158. NOT IN EBZ, NEBIS, GOOGLE

Stephenson, G. A., J. G. Stowell, et al. (1997). "Solid-state investigations of erythromycin A dihydrate: Structure, NMR spectroscopy, and hygroscopicity." Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 86(11): 1239-1244. ://000071619300010 The crystal structures of the commercially available form of erythromycin A dihydrate and clarithromycin anhydrate, in addition to the structure of erythromycin B dihydrate, are reported in this paper. In light of the crystallographic data, analysis of the structural information provides insight into the physical properties of these pharmaceuticals. The propensity of these pharmaceuticals to form solvated structures is discussed and the hygroscopicity of erythromycin A dihydrate is investigated. Solid-state C-13 NMR was used to monitor changes that occur when the dihydrate form of erythromycin A is stored under conditions of low relative humidity. Although erythromycin A dihydrate retains its crystallographic order at low humidity, as indicated by its X-ray powder diffraction pattern, the local chemical environment is dramatically influenced by the loss of the water molecules and results in dramatic changes in its solid-state C-13 NMR spectrum.

Steven-Fountain, A. J., A. G. Atkins, et al. (2002). "The effect of flexible substrates on pressure-sensitive adhesive performance." International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives 22(6): 423-430. ://WOS:000179712000001 The adhesive fracture energy (fracture toughness) of tapes during globally elastic unpeeling is often calculated from the relation "G = P/b(1 - cos theta)". We show that while this expression is correct for elastic peeling from rigid substrates, it gives misleading results when peeling from reversible flexible substrates. A two-dimensional analysis is presented for peeling from non-linear elastic substrates that give consistent fracture energies from experimental data. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Stromme, M., A. Mihranyan, et al. (2003). "Fractal dimension of cellulose powders analyzed by multilayer BET adsorption of water and nitrogen." Journal of Physical Chemistry B 107(51): 14378-14382. ://000187447200038 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Stromme-Multilayer-BET-2003.pdf The aim of this study was to show that multilayer fractal Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (mfBET) theory can be used as a tool to obtain information about the distribution of water in cellulose powder particles of varying crystallinity. Microcrystalline cellulose, agglomerated micronized cellulose, low-crystallinity cellulose, and cellulose powders from green and brown algae were characterized by scanning electron microscopy and mfBET analysis on water and nitrogen adsorption isotherms. The distribution of water in the cellulose materials was found to be characterized by a fractal dimension smaller than 1.5 for all powders. The results showed that for highly crystalline cellulose materials, such as Cladophora cellulose, the cellulose-water interactions take place mainly on cellulose fibril surfaces adjacent to open pores without causing any significant swelling of the material. For less ordered celluloses the water interaction was found to take place inside the bulk material and the water uptake process caused the pore volume to swell between I and 2 orders in magnitude. For the Cladophora cellulose, the thickness of the adsorbed water layer at the outer cut off of the fractal region was found to coincide very well with the average pore size obtained from nitrogen adsorption measurements. The multilayer fractal BET analysis on nitrogen adsorption isotherms showed that the particles could be characterized by fractal dimensions between 2.13 and 2.50. We conclude that water adsorption has the ability to alter the structure of the studied material and reveal a sorption-induced, "apparent" fractal structure over a relatively narrow length scale interval, while nitrogen adsorption probes the substrate morphology over a wide range of length scales and reveals the "true" fractal structure.

Strumillo, C., P. S. Kuts, et al. (1994). "Hygroscopic properties of biological materials and the binding energy of moisture." Journal of Engineering Physics and Thermophysics 67(5): 1093-1097. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00852729 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Strumillo-Hygroscopic-Energy-1994.pdf The binding energy of moisture with biological materials is determined from sorption isotherms for yeast at different temperatures.

Suematsu, A. and M. Okuma (1989). "Mechanism of Low-Density Particleboard Formation .2. Hot-Pressing Conditions and Hygroscopic Thickness Swelling." Mokuzai Gakkaishi 35(2): 107-115. ://A1989U033100005

Suliman, A. A., D. B. Boyer, et al. (1993). "CUSP MOVEMENT IN PREMOLARS RESULTING FROM COMPOSITE POLYMERIZATION SHRINKAGE." Dental Materials 9(1): 6-10. ://WOS:A1993LJ71500002 This study examined the effect of cavity size, hydration conditions and type of composite on cusp movement following placement of MOD composite restorations in vitro. A microscope with a micrometer stage was used to measure deflection of cusps for 14 days after initiation of curing. The intercuspal width decreased for the first few minutes after the composites were placed, then increased toward the original dimensions. Teeth with small cavities contracted less than those with large cavities, and recovery was complete or nearly complete only in teeth with small cavities. Hydrated teeth and restorations recovered more rapidly and more completely than those that were dry. Differences in deflection of the cusps were observed with two different restorative materials.

Suliman, A. A., D. B. Boyer, et al. (1993). "INTERFEROMETRIC MEASUREMENTS OF CUSP DEFORMATION OF TEETH RESTORED WITH COMPOSITES." Journal of Dental Research 72(11): 1532-1536. ://WOS:A1993MG70600012 A Michelson interferometry apparatus was used for measurement of the displacement of the buccal cusps of premolars after restoration of MOD preparations with composites. The effects of composite type, cavity size, and hydration conditions were examined. Interferometry permitted real-time measurement of cusp movement as it occurred. Contraction occurred very rapidly, about 1/3 of the 60-minute amount within the two-minute period of exposure to the curing light. Cusp movement was smooth rather than interrupted, indicating lack of microfracturing at deformations of 11-46 mum. Contraction, 0.94% for Heliomolar and 1.2% for P-50, was similar to the linear polymerization shrinkage of the resins. Less cusp movement occurred in small cavities than in large cavities. Hydrated teeth had less cusp movement than dehydrated teeth.

Suliman, A. H., D. B. Boyer, et al. (1994). "POLYMERIZATION SHRINKAGE OF COMPOSITE RESINS - COMPARISON WITH TOOTH DEFORMATION." Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry 71(1): 7-12. ://WOS:A1994MQ56800002 Polymerization shrinkage of two posterior composite resin restorative materials was measured by dilatometry. The results were compared with a decrease in cavity width of MOD preparations in extracted premolars restored with the composite resins. A highly filled hybrid composite exhibited greater free shrinkage and cuspal deformation than a hybrid composite with a lower filler content. Deformation of the cusps was less than the unrestricted shrinkage of the composite resins. Hydrated teeth exhibited less deformation than dehydrated teeth because of polymerization shrinkage. Greater cuspal deformations were measured with the microscopic technique than with interferometry because of differences in experimental design.

Sumithra, S. and A. M. Umarji (2005). "Hygroscopicity and bulk thermal expansion Y2W3O12." Materials Research Bulletin 40(1): 167-176. ://000226258300017 Negative thermal expansion material, Y2W3O12 has been synthesized by the solid-state method and bulk thermal expansion of the material has been investigated from 300 to 1100 K. The material reversibly forms a trihydrate composition whose X-ray diffraction pattern can be indexed to an orthorhombic unit cell with a = 10.098(1) Angstrom, b = 13.315(3) Angstrom, c = 9.691(4) Angstrom. The cell volume of the hydrated pattern is 7% smaller than the unhydrated cell volume. According to the dilatometric studies, the material shows a 3-6% increase in the linear strain at about 400 K, which can be attributed to the removal of water. Sintering the material at 1473 K leads to large grain size of > 100 mum, which results in a large hysteresis in the bulk thermal expansion behavior. Hot pressing at 1273 K under a uniaxial pressure of 25 MPa results in a fine-grained (2-5 mum) ceramic. Glazing the ceramic prevents moisture pick up and a linear thermal expansion over the entire temperature range 1100-300 K and an average linear thermal expansion co-efficient of -9.65 x 10(-6)/K is observed. The effect of water on the thermal expansion behavior of this system is discussed. (C) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Sumrall, C. D., W. I. Ausich, et al. (2008). "THE ORIGIN OF LOVEN'S LAW IN GLYPTOCYSTITOID RHOMBIFERANS AND ITS BEARING ON THE PLATE HOMOLOGY AND HETEROCHRONIC EVOLUTION OF THE HEMICOSMITOID PERISTOMIAL BORDER." Echinoderm Paleobiology: 229-246. ://BIOSIS:PREV200900110552

Svenningsson, B., H. C. Hansson, et al. (1997). "Cloud droplet nucleation scavenging in relation to the size and hygroscopic behaviour of aerosol particles." Atmospheric Environment 31(16): 2463-2475. ://A1997XE81600008 The size distributions and hygroscopic growth spectra of aerosol particles were measured during the GCE cloud experiment at Great Dun Fell in the Pennine Hills in northern England. Hygroscopic growth is defined as the particle diameter at 90% RH divided by the particle diameter at 10% RH. The fraction of the aerosol particles scavenged by cloud droplets as a function of particle size was also measured. The general aerosol type was a mixture of marine and aged anthropogenic aerosols. The Aitken and accumulation mode numbers (average +/- 1 S.D.) were 1543 +/- 1078 and 1023 +/- 682 cm(-3), respectively. The mean diameters were in the range 30- 100 nm and 100-330 nm. The hygroscopic growth spectra were bimodal about half the time. The less-hygroscopic particles had average growth factors of 1.06, 1.06, 1.03, 1.03, and 1.03 for particle diameters of 50, 75, 110, 165, and 265 nm, respectively. For the more-hygroscopic particles of the same sizes, the average hygroscopic growth was 1.34, 1.37, 1.43, 1.47, and 1.53. The effects of ageing on the aerosol particle size distribution and on hygroscopic behaviour are discussed. The scavenged fraction of aerosol particles was a strong function of particle diameter. The diameter with 50% scavenging was in the range 90-220 nm. No tail of smaller particles activated to cloud drops was observed. A small tail of larger particles that remained in the interstitial aerosol can be explained by there being a small fraction of less-hygroscopic particles. A weak correlation between the integral dry particle diameter and the diameter with 50% scavenging was seen. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd.

Svenningsson, B., H. C. Hansson, et al. (1994). "Hygroscopic Growth of Aerosol-Particles and Its Influence on Nucleation Scavenging in-Cloud - Experimental Results from Kleiner-Feldberg." Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry 19(1-2): 129-152. ://A1994PZ68400007 The hygroscopic growth of individual aerosol particles has been measured with a Tandem Differential Mobility Analyser. The hygroscopic growth spectra were analysed in terms of diameter change with increasing RH from less than or equal to 20% to 85%. The measurements were carried out during the GCE cloud experiment at Kleiner Feldberg, Taunus, Germany in October and November 1990. Two groups of particles with different hygroscopic growth were observed. The less-hygroscopic group had average growth factors of 1.11, 1.04 and 1.02 for particle diameters of 50, 150 and 300 nm, respectively. The more-hygroscopic group had average growth factors of 1.34, 1.34, and 1.37 for the same particle diameters. The average fraction of less-hygroscopic particles was about 50%. Estimates of the soluble fractions of the particles belonging to the two groups are reported. Hygroscopic growth spectra for total aerosol, interstitial aerosol and cloud drop residuals were measured. A comparison of these hygroscopic growths of individual aerosol particles provides clear evidence for the importance of hygroscopic growth in nucleation scavenging. The measured scavenged fraction of particles as a function of diameter can be explained by the hygroscopic growth spectra.

Svenningsson, B., J. Rissler, et al. (2006). "Hygroscopic growth and critical supersaturations for mixed aerosol particles of inorganic and organic compounds of atmospheric relevance." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 6: 1937-1952. ://000238115500001 The organic fraction of atmospheric aerosols contains a multitude of compounds and usually only a small fraction can be identified and quantified. However, a limited number of representative organic compounds can be used to describe the water-soluble organic fraction. In this work, initiated within the EU 5FP project SMOCC, four mixtures containing various amounts of inorganic salts (ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, and sodium chloride) and three model organic compounds (levoglucosan, succinic acid and fulvic acid) were studied. The interaction between water vapor and aerosol particles was studied at different relative humidities: at subsaturation using a hygroscopic tandem differential mobility analyzer (H-TDMA) and at supersaturation using a cloud condensation nuclei spectrometer (CCN spectrometer). Surface tensions as a function of carbon concentrations were measured using a bubble tensiometer. Parameterizations of water activity as a function of molality, based on hygroscopic growth, are given for the pure organic compounds and for the mixtures, indicating van't Hoff factors around 1 for the organics. The Zdanovskii-Stokes- Robinson (ZSR) mixing rule was tested on the hygroscopic growth of the mixtures and it was found to adequately explain the hygroscopic growth for 3 out of 4 mixtures, when the limited solubility of succinic acid is taken into account. One mixture containing sodium chloride was studied and showed a pronounced deviation from the ZSR mixing rule. Critical supersaturations calculated using the parameterizations of water activity and the measured surface tensions were compared with those determined experimentally.

Svenningsson, I. B., H. C. Hansson, et al. (1992). "Hygroscopic Growth of Aerosol-Particles in the Po Valley." Tellus Series B-Chemical and Physical Meteorology 44(5): 556-569. ://A1992KF60600009 A Tandem Differential Mobility Analyser (TDMA) was used to study the hygroscopic growth of individual ambient aerosol particles in the Po Valley, Italy. The measurements were made during the GCE fog experiment in November 1989. During fog, the interstitial aerosol (D(p)(at ambient relative humidity) < 5 mum) was sampled. Two modes of particles with different hygroscopic growth were found for 0.030 mum < D(p)(dry) < 0.20 mum. On average, the fraction of particles in the two modes were almost equal. The mean growth factor at 85% r.h. was 1.44 +/- 0.14 for the more-hygroscopic mode and 1. 1 +/- 0.07 for the less-hygroscopic mode. The growth factors and the proportion of the particles that were less hygroscopic varied considerably from day to day, but no significant size dependence was seen. Comparison of growth factors for pure salt particles and the measured growth factors indicates that both hygroscopic modes contain a major insoluble part. The effect of the external mixing of hygroscopic properties on the activation of particles to fog droplets is discussed and the fraction of particles that were activated as a function of particle size is predicted. Comparison with the measured scavenging fraction as a function of particle size shows that the hygroscopic properties of the individual particle are as important as the particle size in determining if it will be activated in a fog.

Svrcek-Seiler, W. A., I. C. Gebeshuber, et al. (1998). "Micromechanical models for the Brownian motion of hair cell stereocilia." Journal of Theoretical Biology 193(4): 623-630. ://WOS:000075771300007 Brownian motion of the hairs (stereocilia) of amphibian hair cells has been shown in experiments to be in the range of some nm. Our models of the Brownian motion of coupled harmonic oscillators with mechanical properties of stereocilia lead to similar displacements. Computer simulation shows that stochastic fluctuations enhance the encoding of low level acoustic signals. Stochastic resonance lowers the detection threshold of auditory signals to amplitudes one order of magnitude lower than that of the Brownian motion. (C) 1998 Academic Press.

Swanson, B. O., S. P. Anderson, et al. (2009). "The evolution of complex biomaterial performance: The case of spider silk." Integrative and Comparative Biology 49(1): 21-31. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/content/49/1/21.abstract Spider silk is a high-performance biomaterial with exceptional mechanical properties and over half a century of research into its mechanics, structure, and biology. Recent research demonstrates that it is a highly variable class of materials that differs across species and individuals in complex and interesting ways. Here, we review recent literature on mechanical variation and evolution in spider silk. We then present new data on material properties of silk from nine species of spiders in the Mesothelae and Mygalomorphae, the two basal clades of spiders. Silk from spiders in the Araneomorphae (true spiders where most previous research on silk has focused) is significantly stronger and therefore much tougher than the silk produced by spiders in the basal groups. These data support the hypothesis that the success and diversity seen in araneomorph spiders is associated with the evolution of this high-performance fiber. This comparative approach shows promise as a way to understand complex, high- performance biomaterials.

Swartz, S. M., K. S. Breuer, et al. (2008). "Aeromechanics in aeroecology: flight biology in the aerosphere." Integrative and Comparative Biology 48(1): 85-98. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/content/48/1/85.abstract The physical environment of the aerosphere is both complex and dynamic, and poses many challenges to the locomotor systems of the three extant evolutionary lineages of flying animals. Many features of the aerosphere, operating over spatial and temporal scales of many orders of magnitude, have the potential to be important influences on animal flight, and much as marine ecologists have studied the relationship between physical oceanography and swimming locomotion, a subfield of aeroecology can focus attention on the ways the biology of flight is influenced by these characteristics. Airflows are altered and modulated by motion over and around natural and human-engineered structures, and both vortical flow structures and turbulence are introduced to the aerial environment by technologies such as aircraft and wind farms. Diverse aspects of the biology of flight may be better understood with reference to an aeroecological approach, particularly the mechanics and energetics of flight, the sensing of aerial flows, and the motor control of flight. Moreover, not only does the abiotic world influence the aerospheric conditions in which animals fly, but flying animals also, in turn, change the flow environment in their immediate vicinity, which can include the air through which other animals fly, particularly when animals fly in groups. Flight biologists can offer considerable insight into the ecology of the aerial world, and an aeroecological approach holds great promise for stimulating and enriching the study of the biology of flight.

Swietlicki, E., J. C. Zhou, et al. (2000). "Hygroscopic properties of aerosol particles in the northeastern Atlantic during ACE-2." Tellus Series B- Chemical and Physical Meteorology 52(2): 201-227. ://000087147900007 Measurements of the hygroscopic properties of sub-micrometer atmospheric aerosol particles were performed with hygroscopic tandem differential mobility analysers (H-TDMA) at 5 sites in the subtropical north-eastern Atlantic during the second Aerosol Characterization Experiment (ACE-2) from 16 June to 25 July 1997. Four of the sites were in the marine boundary layer and one was, at least occasionally, in the lower free troposphere. The hygroscopic diameter growth factors of individual aerosol particles in the dry particle diameter range 10-440 nm were generally measured for changes in relative humidity (RH) from <10% to 90%. In the marine boundary layer. growth factors at 90% Rn were dependent on location, air mass type and particle size. The data was dominated by a unimodal growth distribution of more-hygroscopic particles, although a bimodal growth distribution including less- hygroscopic particles was observed at times, most often in the more polluted air masses. In clean marine air masses the more- hygroscopic growth factors ranged from about 1.6 to 1.8 with a consistent increase in growth factor with increasing particle size. There was also a tendency toward higher growth factors as sodium to sulphate molar ratio increased with increasing sea-salt contribution at higher wind speeds. During outbreaks of European pollution in the ACE-2 region, the growth Factors of the largest particles were reduced, but only slightly. Growth factors at all sizes in both clean and polluted air masses were markedly lower at the Sagres, Portugal site due to more proximate continental influences. The frequency of occurrence of less-hygroscopic particles with a growth factor of ca. 1.15 was greatest during polluted conditions at Sagres. The free tropospheric 50 nm particles were predominately less-hygroscopic, with an intermediate growth Factor of 1.4, but more-hygroscopic particles with growth factors of about 1.6 were also frequent. While these particles probably originate from within the marine boundary layer, the less-hygroscopic particles are probably more characteristic of lower free tropospheric air masses. For those occasions when measurements were made at 90% and an intermediate 60% or 70% RH, the growth factor G(RH) of the more-hygroscopic particles could be modelled empirically by a power law expression. For the ubiquitous more-hygroscopic particles, the expressions G(RH) = (1 - RH/100)(-0.210) for 50 nm Aitken mode particles and G(RH) = (1 - RH/100)(-0.233) for 166 nm accumulation mode particles are recommended for clean marine air masses in the north-eastern Atlantic within the range 0 < RH < 95%, and for wind speeds for which the local sea-salt production is small (

Tae Wan, K. and B. Bhushan (2007). "Optimization of biomimetic attachment system contacting with a rough surface." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A (Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films): 1003-12. ://INSPEC:9586885 Several creatures including insects, spiders, and lizards have a unique ability to cling to ceilings and walls utilizing dry adhesion. Their fibrillar structure is the primary source of high adhesion. In the design of fibrillar structures, it is necessary to ensure that the fibrils are compliant enough to easily deform to mating surface's roughness profile, yet rigid enough not to collapse under their own weight. Fiber density is also important to improve the adhesion. In this study, the authors construct the adhesion design database for biomimetic attachment system. A simple idealized fibrillar structure consisting of a single-level array of micro-/nanobeams is modeled. The fibers are assumed as oriented cylindrical cantilever beams with spherical tip. They consider three necessary conditions: buckling, fracture, and sticking of fiber structure, which constrain the allowed geometry. The adhesion analysis is performed for the attachment system in contact with rough surfaces with different sigma values for different main design variables- the fiber radius, the aspect ratio, and the material elastic modulus. For a given applied load, roughness of contacting surface, and fiber material, the procedure to find optimal fiber radius and aspect ratio for the desired adhesion coefficient is developed. Two case studies are conducted to show the usefulness of this approach. These adhesion design databases are useful for understanding biological systems and for guiding of fabrication of the biomimetic attachment system.

Tallman, G. (1992). "THE CHEMIOSMOTIC MODEL OF STOMATAL OPENING REVISITED." Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 11(1): 35-57. ://WOS:A1992JK39300003 Stomata are light-activated biological valves in the otherwise gas-impermeable epidermis of aerial organs of higher plants. Stomata often regulate rates of photosynthesis and transpiration in ways that optimize whole-plant carbon gain against water loss. Each stoma is flanked by a pair of opposing guard cells. Stomatal opening occurs by light-activated increases in the turgor pressure of guard cells. which causes them to change shape so that the stomatal pore between them widens. These increases in turgor pressure oppose increases in cellular osmotic pressure that result from uptake of K+ . K+ uptake occurs by a chemiosmotic mechanism in response to light-activated extrusion of H+ outward across the plasma membrane of the guard cell. The initial changes in cellular membrane potential lead to the opening of inward-rectifying K+ channels, after which K+ is taken up along its electrochemical gradient. Changes in membrane potential resulting from K+ uptake may be balanced by accumulation of Cl- ions by guard cells and/or by synthesis of malic acid within each cell. Malic acid also acts to buffer increases in cytosolic pH caused by H+ extrusion. This review describes how the application of patch-clamp technology to guard cell protoplasts has enabled investigators to elucidate the mechanisms by which H+ is extruded from guard cells, the types of ion channels present in the guard cell plasma membrane, how those ion channels are regulated, and the signal transduction processes that trigger stomatal opening and closing.

Tang, I. N. (1996). "Chemical and size effects of hygroscopic aerosols on light scattering coefficients." Journal of Geophysical Research- Atmospheres 101(D14): 19245-19250. ://A1996VE25800027 The extensive thermodynamic and optical properties recently reported [Tang and Munkelwitz, 1994a] for sulfate and nitrate solution droplets are incorporated into a visibility model for computing light scattering by hygroscopic aerosols. The following aerosol systems are considered: NH4HSO4, (NH4)(2)SO4, (NH4)(3)H(SO4), NaHSO4, Na2SO4, NH4NO3, and NaNO3. In addition, H2SO4 and NaCl are included to represent freshly formed sulfate and background sea-salt aerosols, respectively. Scattering coefficients, based on 1 mu g dry salt per cubic meter of air, are calculated as a function of relative humidity for aerosols of various chemical compositions and lognormal size distributions. For a given size distribution the light scattered by aerosol particles per unit dry-salt mass concentration is only weakly dependent on chemical constituents of the hygroscopic sulfate and nitrate aerosols. Sulfuric acid and sodium chloride aerosols, however, are exceptions and scatter light more efficiently than all other inorganic salt aerosols considered in this study. Both internal and external mixtures exhibit similar light-scattering properties. Thus for common sulfate and nitrate aerosols, since the chemical effect is outweighed by the size effect, it follows that observed light scattering by the ambient aerosol can be approximated, within practical measurement uncertainties, by assuming the aerosol being an external mixture. This has a definite advantage for either visibility degradation or climatic impact modeling calculations, because relevant data are now available for external mixtures but only very scarce for internal mixtures.

Tang, I. N. and H. R. Munkelwitz (1993). "Composition and Temperature-Dependence of the Deliquescence Properties of Hygroscopic Aerosols." Atmospheric Environment Part a-General Topics 27(4): 467-473. ://A1993KU20100001 Thermodynamic considerations are given to the hygroscopicity of inorganic salts comprising most of the ambient aerosols. Equations are derived expressing the deliquescence humidity as a function of composition and temperature for either single-salt or multicomponent aerosols. Experimental results obtained with charged salt particles individually suspended in an electrodynamic cell are compared both with theory and with available literature data on relative humidities over saturated aqueous solutions. The good agreement found between theory and experimental measurements indicates that aerosol deliquescence properties are predictable from the principle of solution thermodynamics. Furthermore, the experimental technique described here is ideally suited for providing data for complex aerosol systems about which no information is yet available.

Tatemoto, Y., M. Tsunekawa, et al. (2005). "Drying characteristics of porous materials in a fluidized bed of hygroscopic porous particles." Journal of Chemical Engineering of Japan 38(12): 976-982. ://000235144900004 The drying characteristics of a porous material immersed in a fluidized bed were examined. Some kinds of porous silica gel heads were used as the fluidizing particles. In a part of experiment, the glass bead (inert particle) was used as the fluidizing particle and the results were compared with the cases of silica gel beads. The numerical calculation of heat and mass transfers in the porous material was also performed. In this calculation, the liquid water transfer from the drying material to the fluidizing particle bed was considered in the cases of silica gel beads. The temperature and mass velocity of the drying gas were changed in experiment. In the cases of silica gel beads, the temperature decrement in drying which is observed in the case of glass bead does not appear. The phenomenon can be expressed by the numerical calculation including the liquid water transfer from the sample to the fluidizing particle bed. The drying time is shorter in the cases of silica gel beads than in the case of glass beads at the same mass velocity of the drying gas. The effects of the mass velocity of the drying gas and the heat transfer coefficient on the drying time are smaller than that of the kinds of fluidizing particles. The effects of the physical properties of the fluidizing particle on the drying time increase as the drying gas temperature becomes lower.

Taylor, A. G. and J. Kwiatkowski (2001). "Polymer film coatings decrease water uptake and water vapour movement into seeds and reduce imbibitional chilling injury." Seed Treatment: Challenges & Opportunities, Proceedings(76): 215-220. ://WOS:000175260400029 Polymer film coatings were explored to alter water movement and alleviate imbibitional chilling injury in Phaseolus vulgaris. Our earlier work (Taylor et al., 1992) illustrated that experimental hydrophobic seed coatings could retard water uptake and enhance germination and stand establishment in cold, wet soils. A commercial film coating formulation was developed recently by Seedbiotics, Caldwell, ID and laboratory investigations were performed at Cornell. A stress test was developed by germinating seeds in saturated rolled towels for 1 d at 5 degreesC, then transferring to 25 degreesC for an additional 7 d, A single lot of 'Nicelo' snap beans was used for all studies. Seeds were coated with the film-coating formulation, 'SB2000', at 0 to 4% weight gains. A weight gain or build-up of 0.5% and greater was found to enhance germination in the stress test. Both hydration rates and sucrose leakage decreased as coating weight gain increased. The coating acted as a physical barrier to both water uptake and water vapour movement into the seeds. When the polymer was applied onto inert polystyrene spheres, the coating showed hydrophilic and hygroscopic characteristics.

Telewski, F. W. (2006). "A unified hypothesis of mechanoperception in plants." Am. J. Bot. 93(10): 1466-1476. http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/10/1466 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Telewski-Unified- Hypothesis-2006.pdf The perception of mechanical stimuli in the environment is crucial to the survival of all living organisms. Recent advances have led to the proposal of a plant-specific mechanosensory network within plant cells that is similar to the previously described network in animal systems. This sensory network is the basis for a unifying hypothesis, which may account for the perception of numerous mechanical signals including gravitropic, thigmomorphic, thigmotropic, self-loading, growth strains, turgor pressure, xylem pressure potential, and sound. The current state of our knowledge of a mechanosensory network in plants is reviewed, and two mechanoreceptor models are considered: a plasmodesmata-based cytoskeleton-plasma membrane-cell wall (CPMCW) network vs. stretch-activated ion channels. Post-mechanosensory physiological responses to mechanical stresses are also reviewed, and future research directions in the area of mechanoperception and response are recommended.

Thies, R. and P. Kleinebudde (1999). "Melt pelletisation of a hygroscopic drug in a high shear mixer Part 1. Influence of process variables." International Journal of Pharmaceutics 188(2): 131-143. ://000083361100001 The applicability of a high shear mixer for melt pelletisation of binary mixtures of sodium valproate and glycerol monostearate was investigated. The effects of binder concentration, impeller speed, jacket temperature and massing time on mean pellet size and size distribution were examined in a 2(4)-factorial design. Binder concentration and impeller speed were found to be the most important variables influencing the mean granule size and size distribution. An increase in each of those accelerated the granule growth. Due to the solubility of the drug in the molten binder very low amounts of binder were necessary for the formation of pellets. The modified high shear mixer was found to be suitable for batch sizes of 1-4 kg; granule growth was delayed with increasing load. A common pellet growth pattern, which can be divided into three phases, was derived and confirmed from all trials. The process was monitored by means of a torque measuring system. The torque-time curve can be used to detect the beginning of the destruction phase. (C) 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Thomachot, L., X. Viviand, et al. (1998). "Comparing two heat and moisture exchangers, one hydrophobic and one hygroscopic, on humidifying efficacy and the rate of nosocomial pneumonia." Chest 114(5): 1383-1389. ://000077001200031 Objective: Many heat and moisture exchangers with filter (HMEF) have been developed. In-house data from companies provide some information about their performances; unfortunately, to our knowledge, no comparative evaluation in clinical conditions has been undertaken of these newer products. The aim of this study was to compare the efficiency of two HMEFs, one hydrophobic and one hygroscopic, on humidifying capacity and the rate of bronchial colonization and ventilator-associated pneumonia in ICU patients. Design: Prospective, randomized study. Setting: ICU of a university hospital. Patients: All patients who required mechanical ventilation for greater than or equal to 24 h during the study period. Interventions: On admission to the ICU, patients were randomly assigned to one of two groups. In one group, the patients were ventilated with a hygroscopic;device (Humid-Vent Filter Light HMEF; Gibeck; Upplands Vaesby, Sweden). The condensation surface was made of paper (Microwell) impregnated with CaCl2. The filter membrane was made of polypropylene. In the other group, the patients were ventilated with a hydrophobic device (Pall BB100 HMEF). The condensation surface was made of a hydrophobic resin with a hydrophylic layer. The filter membrane was made of ceramic fibers. In both groups, HMEFs were changed daily. Measurements and results: Both groups of patients were similar for the tested characteristics, including parameters of mechanical ventilation. Sixty-six patients were ventilated for 11.7 +/- 11 days with the Humid-Vent Filter Light HMEF and 70 patients for 12.2 +/- 12 days with the Pall BE 100. Patients ventilated with the Humid-Vent Filter Light underwent 6.0 +/- 3.0 tracheal aspirations and 1.7 +/- 2.0 instillations per day, and those with the Pall BE 100, 6.0 +/- 3.0 and 1.6 +/- 2.0 per day, respectively (not significant [NS]). Abundance of tracheal secretions, presence of blood, and viscosity, evaluated by semiquantitative scales, were similar in both groups. No difference in the rate of atelectasis was observed between the two groups (7.5% and 7.1%, NS). One episode of tracheal tube occlusion was observed with the Humid-Vent Filter Light HMEF, and one with the other HMEF (NS). One patient in each group (NS) was switched to an active heated humidifier because of very tenacious bronchial secretions despite repeated instillations. Tracheal colonization was observed at a rate of 67% with the Humid- Vent Filter Light and 58% with the Pall BE 100 (NS). A small, but NS difference was observed in the rate of ventilator-associated pneumonia: Humid-Vent Filter Light, 32% (27.1 per 1000 ventilator days); and Pall BE 100, 37% (30.4 per 1000 ventilator days). Bacteria responsible for tracheal colonization and pneumonia were similar in both groups. Three patients in each group;died from their nosocomial pneumonia. Conclusion: Despite differences in their components, the two HMEFs tested achieved similar performances in terms of humidification and heating of inspired gases. Only one episode of endotracheal tube occlusion was detected and very few patients (one in each group) had to be switched to an active heated humidifier. No difference was observed either in the rate of tracheal colonization or of ventilator-associated pneumonia. These data show that the hygroscopic HME (Humid-Vent Filter Light) and the hydrophobic HME (Pall BE 100) are suited for use in ICU patients.

Thygesen, L. G., M. Eder, et al. (2007). "Dislocations in single hemp fibres-investigations into the relationship of structural distortions and tensile properties at the cell wall level." Journal of Materials Science 42(2): 558-564. ://WOS:000243925700018 The relationship between dislocations and mechanical properties of single hemp fibres (Cannabis sativa L. var. Felina) was studied using a microtensile testing setup in a 2-fold approach. In a first investigation the percentage of dislocations was quantified using polarized light microscopy (PLM) prior to microtensile testing of the fibres. In a second approach PLM was used to monitor the dislocations while straining single fibres. The first part of the study comprised 53 hemp fibres with up to 20% of their cell wall consisting of dislocations. For this data set the percentage of dislocations did not affect the mechanical properties. In the second part of the study it was found that dislocations disappeared during tensile testing, and that they did not reappear until several weeks after failure. A strain stiffening effect due to the straightening of the dislocations was not observed. It is possible that the former positions of the dislocations functioned as locations for crack initiation. However, the crack does not propagate transversely all the way trough the dislocation but results in a shear failure between the microfibrils. In rheological studies fibres were strained at constant stress levels, and dislocations that had disappeared did not reappear during that period.

Tietze, D., M. Tischler, et al. (2010). "Development of a Functional cis-Prolyl Bond Biomimetic and Mechanistic Implications for Nickel Superoxide Dismutase." Chemistry-a European Journal 16(25): 7572-7578. ://WOS:000280216400026 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Tietze-Develompment-Biomimetic-2010.pdf During recent years several peptide-based Ni superoxide dismutase (NiSOD) models have been developed. These NiSOD models show an important structural difference compared to the native NiSOD enzyme, which could cause a completely different mechanism of superoxide dismutation. In the native enzyme the peptide bond between Leu4 and Pro5 is cis-configured, while the NiSOD models exhibit a trans-configured peptide bond between these two residues. To shed light on how the configuration of this single peptide bond influences the activity of the NiSOD model peptides, a new cis-prolyl bond surrogate was developed. As surrogate we chose a leucine/alanine-based disubstituted 1,2,3-triazole, which was incorporated into the NiSOD model peptide replacing residues Leu4 and Pro5. The yielded 1,5-disubstituted triazole nickel peptide exhibited high SOD activity, which was approximately the same activity as its parent trans-configured analogue. Hence, the conformation of the prolyl peptide bond apparently has of minor importance for the catalytic activity of the metallopeptides as postulated in literature. Furthermore, it is shown that the triazole metallopeptide is forming a stable cyanide adduct as a substrate analogue model complex.

Tomala, A., I. C. Gebeshuber, et al. (2010). "A comparative AFM study of carbon alloyed Mo-Se-C and W-S-C films for tribological applications." International Journal of Materials Research 101(7): 845-851. ://WOS:000280239000005 Transition metal dichalcogenides have a layered structure and are therefore promising self-lubricating films. They can be considered as potential substitutes for carbon based films in various environmental conditions. In this work, a comparative atomic force microscopy study of co-sputtered Mo-Se-C and W-S-C films is performed to evaluate their nanotribological performances. Both films are alloyed with carbon. The microstructural features of these films are characterised using scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. The hardness and elastic modulus of these films are measured employing nanoindentation. The topography, friction forces and pull off forces of the films are evaluated by means of atomic force microscopy and force spectroscopy. The results show that the roughness parameters of Mo-Se-C films are lower than that of W-S-C films at high carbon content whereas the reverse is true at low carbon content. Adhesion forces of these films based on pull-off force measurements show that Mo-Se-C films have higher pull off forces than W-S-C films. An atomic force microscopy technique is developed to estimate microscopic values of friction coefficients and to characterise the nature of surface changes due to nanotribological experiments. The friction coefficient of Mo-Se- C films is higher than that of W-S-C films at low carbon content and these friction coefficients are comparable at high carbon content.

Tomala, A., W. S. M. Werner, et al. (2009). "Tribochemistry of monomolecular lubricant films of ethanolamine oligomers." Tribology International 42(10): 1513-1518. ://WOS:000270126500015 The aim of present study was to find out the influence of oxygen and nitrogen containing ethanolamine oligomers on the tribological behavior. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was used to obtain insight into the molecular mechanisms leading to the macroscopic lubricity. Monomolecular lubricant films were deposited onto ultra thin copper films sputtered onto silicon wafers. Surfaces covered with the three ethanolamine oligomers were investigated by XPS before and after tribological tests, performed with the translatorily oscillating test machine and Falex micro-tribometer. The structure of the molecular film is elucidated using angular resolved X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy with a prototype preparation chamber, permitting the transfer of samples from liquid to the analysis chamber under Helium protective gas preventing exposure to ambient conditions. Solutions with a concentration of 250 ppm of the respective ethanolamine oligomers in double distilled water were transferred into the adsorption device, which is an extension of the spectrometer. Results show that compounds bond to copper and steel surface by N atom present in ammonia group and hydroxyl group are oriented on the top layer of tribofilm, this highest group influence lubricity properties. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Topping, D. O., G. B. McFiggans, et al. (2005). "A curved multi-component aerosol hygroscopicity model framework: Part 2 - Including organic compounds." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 5: 1223-1242. ://000229382900002 This paper describes the inclusion of organic particulate material within the Aerosol Diameter Dependent Equilibrium Model (ADDEM) framework described in the companion paper applied to inorganic aerosol components. The performance of ADDEM is analysed in terms of its capability to reproduce the behaviour of various organic and mixed inorganic/organic systems using recently published bulk data. Within the modelling architecture already described two separate thermodynamic models are coupled in an additive approach and combined with a method for solving the Kohler equation in order to develop a tool for predicting the water content associated with an aerosol of known inorganic/organic composition and dry size. For development of the organic module, the widely used group contribution method UNIFAC is employed to explicitly deal with the non-ideality in solution. The UNIFAC predictions for components of atmospheric importance were improved considerably by using revised interaction parameters derived from electro-dynamic balance studies. Using such parameters, the model was found to adequately describe mixed systems including 5 - 6 dicarboxylic acids, down to low relative humidity conditions. By comparison with electrodynamic balance data, it was also found that the model was capable of capturing the behaviour of aqueous aerosols containing Suwannee River Fulvic acid, a structure previously used to represent the functionality of complex oxidised macromolecules often found in atmospheric aerosols. The additive approach for modelling mixed inorganic/organic systems worked well for a variety of mixtures. As expected, deviations between model predictions and measurements increase with increasing concentration. Available surface tension models, used in evaluating the Kelvin term, were found to reproduce measured data with varying success. Deviations from experimental data increased with increased organic compound complexity. For components only slightly soluble in water, significant deviations from measured surface tension depression behaviour were predicted with both model formalisms tested. A Sensitivity analysis showed that such variation is likely to lead to predicted growth factors within the measurement uncertainty for growth factor taken in the sub-saturated regime. Greater sensitivity was found for the value of dry density used in the assumed form of the dried out aerosol. Comparison with a coupled thermodynamic approach showed that assumed values for interactions parameters may lead to erroneous results where a simple additive approach may provide more accurate results. However, where available, the use of coupled thermodynamics can better reproduce measured behaviour. Further work ( and laboratory data) is required to assess whether this difference lies within the experimental uncertainty of observed hygroscopic behaviour for a variety of systems.

Tounsi, A. and E. A. A. Bedia (2003). "Some observations on the evolution of transversal hygroscopic stresses in laminated composites plates: effect of anisotropy." Composite Structures 59(4): 445-454. ://000181206400003 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Tounsi-Some-Observations-Evolution-2003.pdf The transient and non-uniform moisture concentration distributions in laminated composite plates give rise to transient and nonuniform stress fields [Composite Structures 30 (1995) 201; Communication au 12(eme) journees nationales sur les composites, JNC12 (in French), 2000, 969; Composite Structures 55 (4) (2002) 393]. It was shown [Composite Structures 30 (1995) 201; Communication au 12(eme) journees nationales sur les composites, JNC12 (in French), 2000, 969; Composite Structures 55 (4) (2002) 3931 that the heterogeneity and the anisotropy of such plate, have an influence on the distribution of transient hygroscopic stresses through the thickness of composite plates. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the effect of anisotropy on the transverse residual stresses and strains in polymer composite systems under long term exposure to hygrothermal environments. The anisotropy is evaluated using the degree of anisotropy introduced from polar representation method of tensors [Communication au 12(eme) journees nationales sur les composites, JNC12 (in French), 2000, p. 969; Composite Structures 55 (4) (2002) 393; Mechanical Behaviour, Design and Application, 1990, p. 29; Computer Aided Design in Composite Material Technology, 1988, p. 243; Proceeding of the seventh International Conference on Composite Materials, 1989, p. 358; Proceedings of the Fifth French Conference on Composite Materials, 1986, p. 267; Eighth International Conference on Composite Materials (ICCM-8), Honolulu (USA), 1991, p. 1; 12th International Conference on Composite Materials (ICCM-12), Paris, 1999; 12th International Conference on Composite Materials (ICCM-12), Paris, 1999; 12th International Conference on Composite Materials (ICCM-12), Paris, 1999; Decouplage et quasi-homogeneite pour les stratifies renforces par tissus equilibres", JNC12, (in French), 2000, p. 265]. The principal objective of this study is to contribute to the understanding and predicting the behaviour of transversal hygroscopic stresses and strains in the studied composites as a function of the degree of anisotropy. The analysis has indicated that: (i) the reduction of degree of anisotropy favours the transversals hygroscopic stresses to be in tensile state, contrary to the thermal stresses where they become in compressive state; (ii) the values of the transverse residual stresses in laminates having the same degree of anisotropy are nearly identical; (iii) from certain value of in-plane degree of anisotropy which is about 38.5% for the used material in this study, the sensibility to the anisotropy is more felt. For inferior values, the transversal residual stresses are nearly identical to those of quasi-isotropic laminates. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Touw, A. (2001). "A review of the (Musci) and a realignment of taxa traditionally accommodated in Thuidium sensu amplo (Thuidium Schimp., Thuidiopsis (Broth.) M.Fleisch., and Pelekium Mitt.), including Aequatoriella gen. nov and Indothuidium gen. nov." Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory(90): 167-209. ://WOS:000170716400003 Based on multi-character analyses of selected species the Thuidiaceae are redefined, and a realignment is presented of the species previously accommodated in Thuidium s. amplo (Thiddium Schimp. sensu Brother-us 1925, Thuidiopsis (Broth.) M. Fleisch., and Pelekium Mitt.), based on a similar analysis of numerous well-known species and additional information from many remaining ones. The family is characterized by a large combination of character states shared by all genera: regularly pinnate ramification; scattered paraphyllia; mostly cordate or triangular, acute to long-acuminate, plicate stem leaves with recurved margins often bearing paraphylloid appendages below; single, strong, often almost percurrent and almost always distally rough costae bearing paraphylloid or pseudoparaphylloid appendages near insertion; narrow, both mammillose and papillose median leaf cells (mostly ornamented at both leaf faces); weakly differentiated basal and apical leaf cells; undifferentiated or poorly defined alar cell groups consisting of cells shorter than the adjacent leaf cells, if differentiated; leaves of ultimate branches markedly different from stem leaves in bipinnate or tripinnate species; tubular perichaetia with inner leaves ending in a straight, flexuose, or twisted acumen; ovoid to cylindrical, inclined capsules (except in many specialized epiphytes); rarely distinctly collenchymatous exothecial cells; superficial stomata; a hypnoid peristome; and almost always cucullate, naked, smooth calyptrae. Included are Abietinella, Actinothuidium, Boulaya, Bryochenea, Bryonoguchia,,Echinophyllum, Haplocladium, Helodium, Hylocomiopsis, Orthothuidium, Pelekium, Rauiella, Thuidiopsis, Thuidium, Aequatoriella gen. nov. (type: Thuidium bifarium Bosch & Sande Lac.), and Indothuidium gen. nov. (type: Thuidium kiasense R. S. Williams). Pelekium sensu Brotherus is judged polyphyletic. Pelekium s. str., consisting of the type species (P velatum) is lumped with Cyrto-hypnum (Thuidium subg. Thuidiella), for which Pelekium is the older name. Inouethuidium is excluded. The genera are briefly discussed. In Appendix I the 2 new genera, Thuidium pseudoglaucinum sp. nov., Bryochenea vestitissima (Besch.) Touw, comb. nov., and 28 new combinations in Pelekium are validated, and heterotypic synonyms are proposed relating to American, European, and Madeiran species. The American Pelekium muricatulum (Hampe) Touw (earlier lumped with Pelekium minutulum) is reinstated.

Townley, M. A., D. T. Bernstein, et al. (1991). "Comparative-Study of Orb Web Hygroscopicity and Adhesive Spiral Composition in 3 Araneid Spiders." Journal of Experimental Zoology 259(2): 154-165. ://A1991GC69300002 Orb web hygroscopicity was examined in three species of araneid spiders, Argiope aurantia, Argiope trifasciata, and Araneus cavaticus. Both whole webs and fractions generated from them (water-soluble and -insoluble fractions; ethanol-soluble and - insoluble subfractions [Et-sol and -insol]) were examined at various relative humidities. In general, the water-soluble fraction, consisting of low molecular weight components (LMW) of the adhesive spiral cover, was more hygroscopic than the water-insoluble (protein) fraction. As the Et-sol of the water extract was typically more hygroscopic than the Et-insol, it appears that organic LMW are more responsible for water adsorption by the adhesive spiral cover than inorganic LMW. Hygroscopicity measurements made on individual synthetic or commercially obtained LMW compounds known to be in the web (both organic and inorganic) agree with this interpretation. As a first attempt toward correlating web hygroscopicity with composition, the water-soluble web fractions from the three species were examined by proton nuclear magnetic resonance (H-1-NMR) spectroscopy and the molar percentages of the organic LMW were estimated. To accomplish this, it was necessary to identify the principal organic LMW in the web of A. trifasciata (since, unlike the situation in other araneids which have been studied, GABamide is not the principal organic LMW in A. trifasciata). Using H-1-NMR and thin layer chromatography this compound was identified as N-acetylputrescine. While considerable interspecific variation in the molar percentages of GABamide, N-acetylputrescine, isethionic acid, and N-acetyltaurine was observed, interspecific differences in Et-sol hygroscopicities were not apparent.

Tsubota, H., E. D. Luna, et al. (2004). "Molecular phylogenetics and ordinal relationships based on analyses of a large-scale data set of 600 rbcL sequences of mosses." Hikobia 14(2): 149-169. ://BIOSIS:PREV200500154662 A phylogenetic study was carried out to investigate the ordinal relationships within mosses based on analysis of a large-scale data set including 601 sequences of mosses of the chloroplast ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase large subunit (rbcL) gene. Results of the present study suggested that: (1) Sphagnales is the most basal lineage within mosses; (2) Andreaeobryales is sister to the remaining mosses and the orders Andreacales, Tetraphidales and Polytrichales, and the family Oedipodiaceae configure a basal clade within mosses, sister to a large clade with all exemplars of the Bryopsida; (3) within Bryopsida, the Buxbaumiaceae (Buxbaumiales), is the most basal lineage and the Diphysciaceae is sister to the large clade of arthrodontous mosses; (4) within the arthrodontous mosses, the Timmiaceae and Gigaspermaceae together form the most basal lineage, and the clade with the orders Funariales and Encalyptales is sister to the haplolepidous and diplolepidous mosses; (5) the Dicranidacincludes exemplars of , Archidiales, , and Pottiales; (6) the Bryidae includes the Bartramiaccae as basal lineage followed by Hedwigiales as sister to the remaining diplolepidous mosses; and (7) a clade that includes Rhizogoniales, Splachnales, and Orthotrichales is sister to the large group of Bryales, Hookeriales, and Hypnales. Character state optimization suggests that diplolepidous-opposite peristome structure maybe ancestral to both Bryidae and Dicranidae.

Turchanin, A., M. Schnietz, et al. (2007). "Fabrication of molecular nanotemplates in self-assembled monolayers by extreme-ultraviolet- induced chemical lithography." Small 3(12): 2114-2119. ://WOS:000251697100021 Extreme-UV interference lithography (EUV-IL) is applied to create chemical nanopatterns in self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of 4'- nitro-1,1'-biphenyl-4-thiol (NBPT) on gold. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy shows that EUV irradiation induces both the conversion of the terminal nitro groups of NBPT into amino gro ups and the lateral crosslinking of the underlying aromatic cores. Large-area (approximate to 2 mm(2)) nitro/amino chemical patterns with periods ranging from 2000 nm to 60 nm can be generated. Regions of pristine NBPT on the exposed samples are exchanged with protein-resistant thiol SAMs of polyethyleneglycol, resulting in the formation of molecular nanotemplates, which can serve as the basis of complex biomimetic surfaces.

Tzivion, S., T. Reisin, et al. (1994). "Numerical-Simulation of Hygroscopic Seeding in a Convective Cloud." Journal of Applied Meteorology 33(2): 252-267. ://A1994MW75000009 An axisymmetrical nonhydrostatic convective cloud model with detailed treatment of warm cloud microphysics is presented. The microphysical processes considered are nucleation on cloud condensation nuclei, condensation/evaporation, collisional coalescence/breakup (Low and List kernel), and sedimentation. An accurate multimoment treatment is implemented in the calculations of the microphysical processes. The results indicate that the collisional breakup process is very important in warm clouds and inhibits the growth of drops to large sizes where spontaneous breakup is significant. This diminishes the importance of the Langmuir chain-reaction mechanism for rain formation. The effects of salt seeding are examined for three different cases: one maritime case and two continental cloud cases. No significant effect followed the injection of up to half a ton of salt particles for the maritime case, while the effect was very significant for the continental clouds. The sensitivity to various seeding parameters was also investigated, including size of seeding particles, quantity of seeding material, timing and duration of seeding, and location of seeding. The size of the seeded particles and the timing of seeding were found to be crucial parameters. Premature seeding could have a negative effect. Up to 71% increase in total rainfall was obtained under optimal seeding conditions.

Underwood, S., A. Afoke, et al. (1999). "The physical properties of a fibrillar fibronectin-fibrinogen material with potential use in tissue engineering." Bioprocess Engineering 20(3): 239-248. ://WOS:000079270900007 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Underwood-Physical-Properties-Fibrillar-1999.pdf Previous work has shown that orientated fibrous fibronectin-based materials can be useful in tissue repair and tissue engineering. The aim here was to characterise the basic material properties of a comparable orientated fibronectin-rich aggregate which is amenable to large scale production. Fine protein cables, diameter 150-200 mu m, consisting of both fibronectin and fibrinogen in an approximately 2:1 molar ratio may be drawn from a cryoprecipitate-derived protein solution. The composition of the cables was found to depend on the ratio of the two proteins in the starting solution. The cable formation was associated with a reduction in the pH of the solution to between 4.0 and 4.5. Scanning electron microscopy of the cables showed that each one was composed of micron-diameter fibrils giving the material ultrastructural orientation. The cables possess moderate tensile strength (61 N/mm(2)) and displayed hygroscopic properties. Due to their natural composition, strict fibre alignment and the cell adhesive properties of fibronectin these cables form an effective template to orientate cells during tissue repair. Their properties and method of formation show promise for the scale-up of production.

Urev, N. B., V. A. Semenov, et al. (1977). "Effect of Addition of Surfactants and of a Solid Highly Dispersed Substance on Moisture Absorption and Structure Formation of Hygroscopic Powders of Kcl and Nh4no3." Colloid Journal of the Ussr 39(4): 733-735. ://A1977EZ36500037

Vakeva, M., K. Hameri, et al. (2002). "Hygroscopic properties of nucleation mode and Aitken mode particles during nucleation bursts and in background air." Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 107(D19). ://000180428300012 [1] The hygroscopic and cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) properties of submicrometer atmospheric aerosol particles were investigated using an Ultrafine Tandem Differential Mobility Analyzer (UF-TDMA) and a CCN counter at the Mace Head Monitoring Station on the west coast of Ireland during the New Particle Formation and Fate in the Coastal Environment (PARFORCE) field campaign in September 1998 and June 1999. These measurements give indirect in situ information on the composition and state of mixing of the aerosol particles. The UF-TDMA was used for monitoring of hygroscopic diameter growth factors of aerosol particles with dry mobility diameters 8-20 nm when taken from dry state to a controlled humid environment (RH 90%). The CCN counter was used to study the activation of aerosol particles when exposed to supersaturated conditions (dry diameters of 15-150 nm). It was seen that in clean marine air masses during the observed particle formation events, the newly formed nucleation mode particles (8 and 10 nm) most often had low growth factors (between 1.0 and 1.1) resulting from low solubility. This indicates that the nucleation mode particles consist of nonsoluble or weakly soluble species, possible accompanied by a small soluble part; however, when nucleation mode particles were observed outside the event periods, the growth factors were higher (about 1.3-1.4). In contrast, the 20 nm particles usually clearly belonged to the Aitken mode (based on number size distribution measurements) and had hygroscopic properties similar to some common salts (growth factors 1.4-1.5).

Vakeva, M., M. Kulmala, et al. (2002). "Field measurements of hygroscopic properties and state of mixing of nucleation mode particles." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 2: 55-66. ://000177877500001 An Ultrafine Tandem Differential Mobility Analyser (UF-TDMA) has been used in several field campaigns over the last few years. The investigations were focused on the origin and properties of nucleation event aerosols, which are observed frequently in various environments. This paper gives a summary of the results of 10 nm and 20 nm particle hygroscopic properties from different measurement sites: an urban site, an urban background site and a forest site in Finland and a coastal site in western Ireland. The data can be classified in four hygroscopic growth classes: hydrofobic, less-hygroscopic, more-hygroscopic and sea-salt. Similar classification has been earlier presented for Aitken and accumulation mode particles. In urban air, the summertime 10 nm particles showed varying less-hygroscopic growth behaviour, while winter time 10 nm and 20 nm particles were externally mixed with two different hygroscopic growth modes. The forest measurements revealed diurnal behaviour of hygroscopic growth, with high growth factors at day time and lower during night. The urban background particles had growth behaviour similar to the urban and forest measurement sites depending on the origin of the observed particles. The coastal measurements were strongly affected by air mass history. Both 10 nm and 20 nm particles were hygroscopic in marine background air. The 10 nm particles produced during clean nucleation burst periods were hydrofobic. Diurnal variation and higher growth factors of 10 nm particles were observed in air affected by other source regions. External mixing was occasionally observed at all the sites, but incidents with more than two growth modes were extremely rare.

Vakiparta, M., A. P. Forsback, et al. (2005). "Biomimetic mineralization of partially bioresorbable glass fiber reinforced composite." Journal of Materials Science-Materials in Medicine 16(9): 873-879. ://WOS:000231673200012 The aim of this study was to investigate the biomimetic mineralization on the surface of a glass fiber reinforced composite with partially resorbable biopolymer matrix. The E-glass fibers were preimpregnated with a novel biopolymer of poly(hydroxyproline) amide, and further impregnated in the monomer system of bis-phenyl glycidyl dimethacrylate (Bis-GMA)-triethylene glycol dimethacrylate (TEGDMA), which formed interpenetrating polymer networks (IPN) with the preimpregnation polymer. After light- initiated polymerization of the monomer system, the rhombic test specimens (n = 6) were immersed in the simulated body fluid (SBF) with the bioactive glass for 24 h, and then the apatite nuclei were allowed to grow for 1, 3, 5 and 7 days in the SBF. The control test specimens (n = 3) were immersed in SBF without the bioactive glass. According to the scanning electron microscope (SEM), a mineral layer was formed on the surface of all the specimens, which were immersed with bioactive glass. The layer was thickened by the prolonged immersion time to a uniform layer. The Ca/P atomic ratio of the mineral varied between 1.30 and 1.54 as analyzed by the energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDXA). The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) spectra gave signals for the mineral, which are characteristic of both bone-like apatite and orthocalciumphosphate. In conclusion, the mineral layer was formed on the surfaces of the specimens by biomimetic mineralization, the mineral being a mixture of bone-like apatite, orthocalciumphosphate and other calcium phosphates. (C) 2005 Springer Science + Business Media, Inc.

Valladares, F. (1994). "Texture and Hygroscopic Features of the Upper Surface of the Thallus in the Lichen Family Umbilicariaceae." Ann Bot 73(5): 493-500. http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/73/5/493 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Valladares-Hygroscop- Umbilicaria-1994.pdf The texture of the upper surface of the thallus and its relationship to certain aspects of water relations were studied in 20 lichen taxa of the family Umbilicariaceae. The anatomy and thickness of the upper cortex were studied by light microscopy of transverse sections and the texture of the upper surface of the thallus was observed by scanning electron microscopy. The hygroscopic features of the upper surface of the thallus were measured with 20 {micro}l drops of a water-soluble ink. Both the maximum surface area covered by the absorbed drop and the time elapsed until its complete absorption were recorded. The degree of wettability was closely related to surface texture but not to cortical thickness. The lichens which possessed the most hygroscopic upper surface (in some cases more so than the filter paper) were those species which usually obtain water as vapour from the air, whereas those species dependent on the substrate for their water had a relatively impermeable upper surface.Copyright 1994, 1999 Academic Press

Varutbangkul, V., F. J. Brechtel, et al. (2006). "Hygroscopicity of secondary organic aerosols formed by oxidation of cycloalkenes, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and related compounds." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 6: 2367-2388. ://000238675600002 A series of experiments has been conducted in the Caltech indoor smog chamber facility to investigate the water uptake properties of aerosol formed by oxidation of various organic precursors. Secondary organic aerosol (SOA) from simple and substituted cycloalkenes (C-5-C-8) is produced in dark ozonolysis experiments in a dry chamber ( RH similar to 5%). Biogenic SOA from monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and oxygenated terpenes is formed by photooxidation in a humid chamber ( similar to 50% RH). Using the hygroscopicity tandem differential mobility analyzer (HTDMA), we measure the diameter-based hygroscopic growth factor (GF) of the SOA as a function of time and relative humidity. All SOA studied is found to be slightly hygroscopic, with smaller water uptake than that of typical inorganic aerosol substances. The aerosol water uptake increases with time early in the experiments for the cycloalkene SOA, but decreases with time for the sesquiterpene SOA. This behavior could indicate competing effects between the formation of more highly oxidized polar compounds ( more hygroscopic), and formation of longer-chained oligomers ( less hygroscopic). All SOA also exhibit a smooth water uptake with RH with no deliquescence or efflorescence. The water uptake curves are found to be fitted well with an empirical three-parameter functional form. The measured pure organic GF values at 85% RH are between 1.09 - 1.16 for SOA from ozonolysis of cycloalkenes, 1.01 - 1.04 for sesquiterpene photooxidation SOA, and 1.06 - 1.10 for the monoterpene and oxygenated terpene SOA. The GF of pure SOA (GF(org)) in experiments in which inorganic seed aerosol is used is determined by assuming volume-weighted water uptake (Zdanovskii-Stokes-Robinson or "ZSR" approach) and using the size- resolved organic mass fraction measured by the Aerodyne Aerosol Mass Spectrometer. Knowing the water content associated with the inorganic fraction yields GF(org) values. However, for each precursor, the GF(org) values computed from different HTDMA- classified diameters agree with each other to varying degrees. Comparing growth factors from different precursors, we find that GF(org) is inversely proportional to the precursor molecular weight and SOA yield, which is likely a result of the fact that higher- molecular weight precursors tend to produce larger and less hygroscopic oxidation products.

Versluis, A., W. H. Douglas, et al. (1996). "Does an incremental filling technique reduce polymerization shrinkage stresses?" Journal of Dental Research 75(3): 871-878. ://WOS:A1996UY93300003 It is widely accepted that volumetric contraction and solidification during the polymerization process of restorative composites in combination with bonding to the hard tissue result in stress transfer and inward deformation of the cavity walls of the restored tooth. Deformation of the walls decreases the size of the cavity during the filling process. This fact has a profound influence on the assumption-raised and discussed in this paper-that an incremental filling technique reduces the stress effect of composite shrinkage on the tooth. Developing stress fields for different incremental filling techniques are simulated in a numerical analysis. The analysis shows that, in a restoration with a well-established bond to the tooth-as is generally desired-incremental filling techniques increase the deformation of the restored tooth. The increase is caused by the incremental deformation of the preparation, which effectively decreases the total amount of composite needed to fill the cavity. This leads to a higher-stressed tooth-composite structure. The study also shows that the assessment of intercuspal distance measurements as well as simplifications based on generalization of the shrinkage stress state cannot be sufficient to characterize the effect of polymerization shrinkage in a tooth-restoration complex. Incremental filling methods may need to be retained for reasons such as densification, adaptation, thoroughness of cure, and bond formation. However, it is very difficult to prove that incrementalization needs to be retained because of the abatement of shrinkage effects.

Viani, M. B., L. I. Pietrasanta, et al. (2000). "Probing protein-protein interactions in real time." Nature Structural Biology 7(8): 644-647. ://WOS:000088548400011 We have used a prototype small cantilever atomic force microscope to observe, in real time, the interactions between individual protein molecules. In particular, we have observed individual molecules of the chaperonin protein GroES binding to and then dissociating from individual GroEL proteins, which were immobilized on a mica support. This work suggests that the small cantilever atomic force microscope is a useful tool for studying protein dynamics at the single molecule level.

Viani, M. B., L. I. Pietrasanta, et al. (2000). "Single molecule studies of chaperonin complex formation and disassociation." Biophysical Journal 78(1): 1589Plat. ://WOS:000084779301571

Villarroel, M., C. Acevedo, et al. (2003). "Functional properties of Sphagnum magellanicum fiber and its direct use in formulation of bakery products." Archivos Latinoamericanos De Nutricion 53(4): 400-407. ://000220709800010 Characterization of functional properties of Sphagnum magellanicum fiber were investigated. Water absortion (WAC) and water retention (WRC) capacities, swelling capacity (SC); organic molecule absortion capacity (OMAC) and cationic interchange capacity (CIC) were evaluated, as well as its incorporation as fiber source to bakery products. Different particles sizes were selected to evaluate their effects on the functional properties of moss fiber: T1(1.4mm); T2(1.0mm); T3(0.42mm); T4(0.18mm). Best results of CAA, CRA; SC and OMRC were obtained with T3, whereas best values of CIC were attained with T1. An optimized formulation of fiber enriched bread was developed analizing simultaneously the effect of four independent variables (yeast, moss fiber, fluffy agent and shortening) on the sensory quality of products. Shelf life studies were carried out by storing samples of fiber enriched breads at 20degreesC and 6degreesC. At the end of the study, refrigerated samples showed better sensory quality stability.

Vincent, J., O. Bogatyreva, et al. (2007). "Towards a theory of biomimetics." Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology a-Molecular & Integrative Physiology 146(4): DOI 10.1016/j.cbpa.2007.01.241|1. ://WOS:000245748600191 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Vincent-Towards-Theory-Biomimetics-2007.pdf

Vincent, J. F., O. Bogatyreva, et al. (2006). "Biology doesn't waste energy - that's really smart - art. no. 616801." Smart Structures and Materials 2006: Electroactive Polymer Actuators and Devices (EAPAD) 6168: 16801-16801. ://WOS:000238445800001 Biology presents us with answers to design problems that we suspect would be very useful if only we could implement them successfully. We use the Russian theory of problem solving - TRIZ - in a novel way to provide a system for analysis and technology transfer. The analysis shows that whereas technology uses energy as the main means of solving technical problems, biology uses information and structure. Biology is also strongly hierarchical. The suggestion is that smart technology in hierarchical structures can help us to design much more efficient technology. TRIZ also suggests that biological design is autonomous and can be defined by the prefix "self-" with any function. This autonomy extends to the control system, so that the sensor is commonly also the actuator, resulting in simpler systems and greater reliability.

Vincent, J. F. V., O. A. Bogatyreva, et al. (2006). "Biomimetics: its practice and theory." Journal of the Royal Society Interface 3(9): 471-482. ://WOS:000244165100001 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Vincent-Biomimetics-Practice-Theory-2006.pdf Biomimetics, a name coined by Otto Schmitt in the 1950s for the transfer of ideas and analogues from biology to technology, has produced some significant and successful devices and concepts in the past 50 years, but is still empirical. We show that TRIZ, the Russian system of problem solving, can be adapted to illuminate and manipulate this process of transfer. Analysis using TRIZ shows that there is only 12% similarity between biology and technology in the principles which solutions to problems illustrate, and while technology solves problems largely by manipulating usage of energy, biology uses information and structure, two factors largely ignored by technology.

Vincent, J. F. V., G. Jeronimidis, et al. (1991). "THE WEDGE FRACTURE TEST A NEW METHOD FOR MEASUREMENT OF FOOD TEXTURE." Journal of Texture Studies 22(1): 45-57. ://WOS:A1991FQ12300005 The fracture properties of foods are relevant to texture but can be difficult to measure because of limitations of size or shape. Many established engineering tests for the measurement of crack growth and unstable propagation of cracks require specific test geometries, sizes and compliances of the specimen. With food materials this is rarely possible. The wedge penetration technique can usefully be adapted to foods to determine fracture parameters of brittle and semi-brittle foods such as moderately hard cheeses and raw and cooked fruits and vegetables.

Vincent, J. F. V. and D. L. Mann (2002). Systematic Technology Transfer from Biology to Engineering, The Royal Society. 360: 159-173. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3066299 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Vincent-Systematic-Technology-2002.pdf

Virkkula, A., R. Van Dingenen, et al. (1999). "Hygroscopic properties of aerosol formed by oxidation of limonene, alpha-pinene, and beta- pinene." Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 104(D3): 3569-3579. ://000078706600012 The hygroscopic properties of aerosol formed by oxidation of three monoterpenes, limonene, alpha-pinene, and beta-pinene, were measured using a tandem differential mobility analyzer (TDMA). The experiments were performed in the European Photoreactor (EUPHORE) in Valencia, Spain. The experiments included ozonolysis and photooxidation with and without ammonium sulfate seed aerosol. Pure organic particles, formed by oxidation of the terpenes in the absence of the seed aerosol, proved to be slightly hygroscopic. The hygroscopic growth factor (G) was close to 1.10 at relative humidity 84% +/- 1%, which is often observed as the G of the less hygroscopic mode of atmospheric aerosol in field measurements. In the experiments with ammonium sulfate seed aerosol G decreased from approximately 1.5 before the start of terpene oxidation to approximately 1.1 as the oxidation products condensed on the particles. G was not proportional to the organic layer thickness but decreased with increasing organic volume fraction. Our analysis shows that in the internally mixed particles, ammonium sulfate and the organic products take up water independently of one another.

Vitacca, M., E. Clini, et al. (1994). "Hygroscopic Condenser Humidifiers in Chronically Tracheostomized Patients Who Breathe Spontaneously." European Respiratory Journal 7(11): 2026-2032. ://A1994PW67100020 The aim of this study was to test the usefulness of hygroscopic condenser humidifiers on secretion and on inspired gas temperature in tracheostomized patients. Forty spontaneously breathing chronically tracheostomized patients were divided into two groups: Group 1 received a hygroscopic condenser humidifier connected to the tracheostomy, 24 h daily for 10 days; Group 2, without any protection system, was chosen as the control group. The daily number of tracheal suctions, quantity of aspirate and thickness and colouring of secretions was evaluated. At baseline, and at days 5 and 10, patients were submitted to blood gas analysis, respiratory function tests and sputum analysis. The temperature of gases breathed was measured at rest and during a hyperventilation test, with and without the hygroscopic condenser humidifier. Statistically significant differences were found in thickness and colouring of secretions between the two groups during the period of 10 days. Group 2 showed a significantly greater trend in number of bacteria than Group 1. The group with hygroscopic condenser humidifier showed respiratory function improvement over time for forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV(1)) and tidal volume (VT), maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP), and maximal voluntary ventilation (MVV) in comparison to the control group, who did not. Significant differences in the temperature between rest and hyperventilation, with and without a hygroscopic condenser humidifier were also found. In conclusion, a hygroscopic condenser humidifier may be useful in chronically tracheostomized patients who breathe spontaneously, improving viscosity and colouring of secretions, preventing further bacterial colonization, heating inspiratory flow, and helping to improve the functional outcome.

Vitt, D. H. (1991). "Rediscovery of Orthotrichum-Holzingeri - Its Morphology and Habitat in Western North-America." Bryologist 94(1): 77-79. ://A1991FB04600018 Collections from west-central Wyoming extend the range of Orthotrichum holzingeri Ren. & Card. in Holz. southward from the Yellowstone area. The species occurs in a unique habitat of periodically inundated rock surfaces near streams in dry, montane forests. It is most closely related to O. laevigatum, differing in calyptra, leaf cells, peristome, and leaf features. Scanning electron micrographs illustrate these morphological differences. The three species of Orthotrichum that occur on periodically inundated rock surfaces have a constant set of features and are found in two separate subgenera of the genus.

Vitt, D. H. (2000). "The classification of mosses: Two-hundred years after Hedwig." Nova Hedwigia 70(1-2): 25-36. ://WOS:000086320000004

Vlasenko, A., S. Sjogren, et al. (2005). "Generation of submicron Arizona test dust aerosol: Chemical and hygroscopic properties." Aerosol Science and Technology 39(5): 452-460. ://000229583300010 This article describes a submicron dust aerosol generation system based on a commercially available dust disperser intended for use in laboratory studies of heterogeneous gas-aerosol interactions. Mineral dust particles are resuspended from Arizona Test Dust (ATD) powder as a case study. The system output in terms of number and surface area is adjustable and stable enough for aerosol flow reactor studies. Particles produced are in the 30-1000 nm size range with a lognormal shape of the number size distribution. The particles are characterized with respect to morphology, electrical properties, hygroscopic properties, and chemical composition. Sub-micron particle elemental composition is found to be similar for the particle surface and bulk as revealed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES), respectively. A significant difference in chemical composition is found between the submicron aerosol and the ATD bulk powder from which it was generated. The anionic composition of the water-soluble fraction of this dust sample is dominated by sulfate. Resuspended dust particles show, as expected, nonhygroscopic behavior in a humid environment. Small hygroscopic growth of about 1% (relative change in mobility diameter) was observed for 100 nm particles when the relative humidity (RH) was changed from 12 to 94%. Particles larger than 100-200 nm shrank about 1% once exposed to RH > 90%. This was interpreted as a restructuring of the larger agglomerates of dust to particles of smaller mobility diameter, under the influence of water vapor.

Vogel, S. (2008). "Modes and scaling in aquatic locomotion." Integrative and Comparative Biology 48(6): 702-712. http://icb.oxfordjournals.org/content/48/6/702.abstract Organisms spanning a 107-fold range in length of the body engage in aquatic propulsion—swimming; they do so with several kinds of propulsors and take advantage of several different fluid mechanical mechanisms. A hierarchical classification of swimming modes can impose some order on this complexity. More difficult are the issues surrounding the different kinds of propulsive devices used by different organisms. These issues can be in part exposed by an examination of how speeds and accelerations scale with changes in body length, both for different lineages of swimmers and for all swimmers collectively. Clearly, fluid mechanical factors impose general rules and constraints; just as clearly, these only roughly anticipate actual scaling. Indeed, collections of data on scaling can serve as useful correctives for assumptions about functional mechanisms. They can also reveal size-dependent constraints on biological designs.

Wahrmund, U., T. Rein, et al. (2009). "Fifty mosses on five trees: comparing phylogenetic information in three types of non-coding mitochondrial DNA and two chloroplast loci." Plant Systematics and Evolution 282(3-4): 241-255. ://WOS:000270343700008 Given the frequent genomic recombinations in plant mitochondrial DNA, intergenic regions of this organelle genome had so far not been considered as loci of potential phylogenetic information. Based on the recent evidence that an evolutionary ancient mitochondrial nad5-nad4 gene continuum is conserved in bryophytes we have compiled a dataset for a phylogenetically wide sampling of 50 mosses covering this intergenic region. The length of the intergenic region was generally in the range of 585 (Diphyscium) to 646 bp (Tomentypnum) with rare exceptions, for example all Polytrichales taxa showing a 200 bp deletion as an apparent synapomorphy of this order. Phylogenetic information in the novel marker sequence was compared with that of a nad5 gene region containing a group I intron and a nad2 gene region containing a group II intron as well as with two widely sampled chloroplast data sets, rbcL and rps4. Indel evolution in the three types of non-coding mitochondrial sequences is obviously more taxon-dependent than locus-dependent, indicating lineage-specific insertion/deletion rates. For example, larger sequence deletions are a general feature in Schistostega and Tetraphis. Although confidence for particular nodes in the phylogeny was found to vary among data sets, gene trees were essentially without conflict with respect to well-supported ones and add up in information towards a reasonably well-resolved moss phylogeny. However, while a consensus on the latter is clearly emerging, sufficient confidence is still lacking for the first dichotomies among the arthrodontous mosses leading into subclasses Bryidae, Dicranidae and and the relative placement of nematodontous mosses (Polytrichales and Tetraphidales) on the backbone of early moss phylogeny.

Walker, I. K. and W. J. Harrison (1975). "Influence of a Boundary-Layer on Diffusion into a Porous Hygroscopic Bulk." New Zealand Journal of Science 18(1): 141-151. ://A1975AG95100014

Wang, F., Y. H. Zhang, et al. (2005). "A strategy for single supersaturated droplet analysis: Confocal Raman investigations on the complicated hygroscopic properties of individual MgSO4 droplets on the quartz substrate." Analytical Chemistry 77(22): 7148-7155. ://000233404200006 We report a new strategy for single supersaturated droplet analysis, i.e., the complicated hygroscopic properties of MgSO4 aerosols under supersaturated state were studied through the micro-Raman observation on an individual MgSO4 droplet deposited on a quartz substrate in a relative-humidity-controlled chamber. Upon reduction of the ambient relative humidity (RH), MgSO4 droplets with tiny volume lost water but did not effloresce. Thus, a detailed spectral evolution of the symmetric stretching vibration band (V- 1-SO42-) from free ions (at similar to 983 cm(-1)) to monodentate (similar to 995 cm(-1)) and then to bidentate contact ion pairs (CIPs) or more complex chain-structural compositions (similar to 1021 cm(-1)) was observed with the high signal-to-noise (S/N) confocal Raman spectra of the droplet with a diameter of similar to 80 microns. Such a transition process could be well-described by the changes of relative intensity at 983, 995, and 1021 cm-1. Four steps, i.e., concentrated step, monodentate CIPs step, bidentate CIPs step, and gel step, were roughly observed in the dehumidifying-humidifying cycle according to the intensity ratios of I-995/I-983 and I-1021/I-983. Even though the area ratio of the O-H stretching band of water molecules to the v(1)-SO42- band seemed reversible in the dehumidifying and humidifying processes, the intensity ratios of 19951 I-983 and I-1021/I-983 showed a hysteresis in the decomposition of CIPs in the humidifying process with the RH < 40%.The O-H stretching envelope of the MgSO4 droplet was also observed to be sensitive to the structural changes of the hydrogen bonding of water molecules in the four steps. The intensity ratio of Raman scattering for the components with strong hydrogen bonds to those with weak ones, i.e., I-3224/I-3431, was used to understand the effects of CIPs on the water structures of the first hydration layer of Mg2+. Good consistency on the hysteresis in the humidifying process was also observed from the ratio Of I-3224/I-3431 changing with RH.

Wang, J. H. C. and B. P. Thampatty (2006). "An introductory review of cell mechanobiology." Biomechanics and Modeling in Mechanobiology 5(1): 1-16. ://000236320900001 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Delft-Hygroscop/Wang-review-2006.pdf Mechanical loads induce changes in the structure, composition, and function of living tissues. Cells in tissues are responsible for these changes, which cause physiological or pathological alterations in the extracellular matrix (ECM). This article provides an introductory review of the mechanobiology of load-sensitive cells in vivo, which include fibroblasts, chondrocytes, osteoblasts, endothelial cells, and smooth muscle cells. Many studies have shown that mechanical loads affect diverse cellular functions, such as cell proliferation, ECM gene and protein expression, and the production of soluble factors. Major cellular components involved in the mechanotransduction mechanisms include the cytoskeleton, integrins, G proteins, receptor tyrosine kinases, mitogen-activated protein kinases, and stretch-activated ion channels. Future research in the area of cell mechanobiology will require novel experimental and theoretical methodologies to determine the type and magnitude of the forces experienced at the cellular and sub- cellular levels and to identify the force sensors/receptors that initiate the cascade of cellular and molecular events.

Wang, S. S. and I. Choi (1982). "Boundary-Layer Hygroscopic Stresses in Angle-Ply Composite Laminates." Aiaa Journal 20(11): 1592-1598. ://A1982PL63200018

Wang, S. S. and I. Choi (1982). "Influence of Fiber Orientation and Ply Thickness on Hygroscopic Boundary-Layer Stresses in Angle-Ply Composite Laminates." Journal of Composite Materials 16(MAY): 244-258. ://A1982PE28600007

Wang, S.-s. and Y.-m. Zhang (2010). "Morphological characters of Erodium oxyrrhynchum diaspore." Shengtaixue Zazhi 29(5): 855-861. ://BIOSIS:PREV201000438332 Erodium oxyrrhynchum is a dominant ephemeral plant in the Gurbantunggut Desert. Its diaspore can successively establish on soil bio-crust. In this paper, a laboratory experiment was conducted under controlled conditions, and scanning electron microscopy was used to observe the morphological changes of the diaspore following hygroscopic absorption. The appending hairs located on the epidermis of the diaspore had four types, playing important roles in the moisture retention and diaspore fixation, and being considered as an adaptation strategy to the dispersion and establishment of E. oxyrrhynchum. There existed transition areas and gaps in the conjunction of fruit and awn. During the process of hygroscopic absorption, the angle between awn and major axis decreased gradually, and the epidermal cells changed in shape, which were the basis of the hygroscopic movement. These morphological changes could promote the mobility of the diaspore on soil surface, and benefit the seed establishment when the habitat was suitable. Our results provided morphological evidences for the further study on the establishment mechanisms of E. oxyrrhynchum.

Wang, S. Y. and C. F. Lian (1998). "Assessment of hygroscopic conditioning performance of interior decorative materials IV: Sorption characteristics of wood under high relative humidity condition." Journal of Wood Science 44(4): 260-266. ://000077897100003 The equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of six wood species under desorption conditions of 20 degrees C and 100% --> 0% relative humidity (RH), and the rate of adsorption at various depths of three wood species blocks under 98% RH at 22.5 degrees C were studied. There were no significant differences among the EMC values for these six wood species over the RH range 40% --> 0%, but there were highly significant differences over the RH range 100% --> 50% at constant 20 degrees C. The amount of moisture absorbed in the wood decreased curvilinearly with the increase of depth in the specimens as sorption time increased, and their relation could be represented by a semilogarithmic equation. Time-dependent adsorption behavior at various depths of the wood specimens could be represented by an exponential equation as a function of the product of the difference between moisture contents at equilibrium and initial conditions and the term (1 - e (-t/r)). The value of I of various wood species was found to increase linearly with the increased depth of the specimen and showed the following trend: hard maple (Acer sp.) > China fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) > Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don).

Wang, W., Z. N. Qi, et al. (1991). "STUDIES ON INTERFACE STRUCTURE AND CRYSTAL TEXTURE OF POLY(ETHER ETHER KETONE) CARBON-FIBER COMPOSITE." Journal of Materials Science 26(21): 5915-5920. ://WOS:A1991GP51800034 The interface structure of poly(ether-ether-ketone) (PEEK)-carbon fibre composite and the crystal texture of PEEK matrix have been studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) after the samples were properly etched by argon plasma. We find that most of the PEEK's crystals are induced by nucleating carbon fibre and then they developed the transcrystalline or spherulite shape, depending on the crystallization conditions. Because the volume fraction of the carbon fibre is 60%, and the space distance between two adjacent carbon fibres is about 10-mu-m-20-mu-m, the crystal size of PEEK matrix is mainly controlled by the space distance between adjacent carbon fibres, and the crystallization temperature has little effect on it. The detail of the oriented crystal growth of the PEEK relative to carbon fibre was first observed by SEM. Our results show that the nucleation process of PEEK-carbon fibre composite is as follows: The first lamella is formed orientationally in the carbon fibre surface in the way that the a crystallographic direction is parallel to the radial direction of carbon fibre, the b direction parallel to the tangent line of cross section of carbon fibre, and the c direction parallel to the axis of the carbon fibre. Therefore, the crystals finally formed are oriented.

Wanga, L. and G. Jeronimidis (2008). "Investigation of the fracture mode for hard and soft wheat endosperm using the loading-unloading bending test." Journal of Cereal Science 48(1): 193-202. ://WOS:000256599400022 Investigation of the fracture mode for hard and soft wheat endosperm was aimed at gaining a better understanding of the fragmentation process. Fracture mechanical characterization was based on the three-point bending test which enables stable crack propagation to take place in small rectangular pieces of wheat endosperm. The crack length can be measured in situ by using an optical microscope with light illumination from the side of the specimen or from the back of the specimen. Two new techniques were developed and used to estimate the fracture toughness of wheat endosperm, a geometric approach and a compliance method. The geometric approach gave average fracture toughness values of 53.10 and 27.0 J m(-2) for hard and soft endosperm, respectively. Fracture toughness estimated using the compliance method gave values of 49.9 and 29.7 J m(-2) for hard and soft endosperm, respectively. Compressive properties of the endosperm in three mutually perpendicular axes revealed that the hard and soft endosperms are isotropic composites. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observation of the fracture surfaces and the energy- time curves of loading-unloading cycles revealed that there was a plastic flow during crack propagation for both the hard and soft endosperms, and confirmed that the fracture mode is significantly related to the adhesion level between starch granules and the protein matrix, (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Webb, A. A. R. and T. A. Mansfield (1992). "HOW DO STOMATA WORK." Journal of Biological Education 26(1): 19-26. ://WOS:A1992JG96600006 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Webb-How-do-Stomata-Work-1992.pdf This paper discusses in detail now theories of the mechanisms of stomatal movements. Recent evidence is presented that suggests that stomata respond to changes in the soil water content, as occur during drought. Such a system requires root-to-shoot communication, and it has been suggested that the plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) is synthesized in the roots in response to drought, and acts as the root-to-shoot messenger. Also discussed are the recent advances that have been made in determining how ABA can induce stomatal closure. The physiology and biochemistry of stomata can be studied at different levels of organization, from the whole plant to the genome. The techniques involved in such studies are described. Reference is made to source material which will allow simple experiments to be carried out in a school laboratory.

Webb, A. A. R. and T. A. Mansfield (1992). "HOW DO STOMATA WORK." Journal of Biological Education 26(1): 19-26. ://WOS:A1992JG96600006 This paper discusses in detail now theories of the mechanisms of stomatal movements. Recent evidence is presented that suggests that stomata respond to changes in the soil water content, as occur during drought. Such a system requires root-to-shoot communication, and it has been suggested that the plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) is synthesized in the roots in response to drought, and acts as the root-to-shoot messenger. Also discussed are the recent advances that have been made in determining how ABA can induce stomatal closure. The physiology and biochemistry of stomata can be studied at different levels of organization, from the whole plant to the genome. The techniques involved in such studies are described. Reference is made to source material which will allow simple experiments to be carried out in a school laboratory.

Wegst, U. G. K. (2006). "Wood for sound." Am. J. Bot. 93(10): 1439-1448. http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/10/1439 AND http://www.botanischergarten.ch/Harmonik/Wegst-Wood-for-Sound-2006.pdf The unique mechanical and acoustical properties of wood and its aesthetic appeal still make it the material of choice for musical instruments and the interior of concert halls. Worldwide, several hundred wood species are available for making wind, string, or percussion instruments. Over generations, first by trial and error and more recently by scientific approach, the most appropriate species were found for each instrument and application. Using material property charts on which acoustic properties such as the speed of sound, the characteristic impedance, the sound radiation coefficient, and the loss coefficient are plotted against one another for woods. We analyze and explain why spruce is the preferred choice for soundboards, why tropical species are favored for xylophone bars and woodwind instruments, why violinists still prefer pernambuco over other species as a bow material, and why hornbeam and birch are used in piano actions.

Wei, W., Q. Zongneng, et al. (1991). "Studies on interface structure and crystal texture of poly(ether-ether-ketone)-carbon fibre composite." Journal of Materials Science|Journal of Materials Science 26(21): 5915-20. ://INSPEC:4017775 The interface structure of poly(ether-ether-ketone) (PEEK)-carbon fibre composite and the crystal texture of PEEK matrix have been studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) after the samples were properly etched by argon plasma. It is found that most of the PEEK crystals are induced by nucleating carbon fibre and then they developed the transcrystalline or spherulite shape, depending on the crystallization conditions. Because the volume fraction of the carbon fibre is 60%, and the space distance between two adjacent carbon fibres is about 10 mu m-20 mu m, the crystal size of PEEK matrix is mainly controlled by the space distance between adjacent carbon fibres, and the crystallization temperature has little effect on it. The detail of the oriented crystal growth of the PEEK relative to carbon fibre was first observed by SEM. The results show that the nucleation process of PEEK-carbon fibre composite is as follows: The first lamella is formed orientationally in the carbon fibre surface in the way that the /b a/ crystallographic direction is parallel to the radial direction of carbon fibre, the /b b/ direction parallel to the tangent line of cross section of carbon fibre, and the /b c/ direction parallel to the axis of the carbon fibre. Therefore, the crystals finally formed are oriented

Weingartner, E., H. Burtscher, et al. (1997). "Hygroscopic properties of carbon and diesel soot particles." Atmospheric Environment 31(15): 2311-2327. ://A1997XE53100014 Laboratory experiments were performed in order to study the hygroscopic properties of freshly produced carbon and diesel soot particles at subsaturations (i.e. at relative humidity < 100%). Wetted carbon aggregates collapsed to a more compact structure. In contrast, the diesel combustion particles exhibited a much smaller restructuring combined with condensational growth. The hygroscopicity of the diesel particles was enhanced when the sulfur content of the fuel was increased or when the particles were subjected to an ozone and UV pre-treatment. By extrapolating the data with a Kohler model critical supersaturations were calculated. Freshly emitted combustion particles are unlikely to act as cloud condensation nuclei whereas an aging of the particles will enhance their nucleation ability. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd.

Weiss, R., J. Alm, et al. (1998). "Modeling moisture retention in peat soils." Soil Science Society of America Journal 62(2): 305-313. ://000073242700002 Soil moisture governs many biogeochemical processes in peatlands. Modeling of those processes relative to climate and anthropogenic influences requires knowledge of the basic hydraulic properties of different peat soils in a function form. Water retention of undisturbed surface peat samples, collected at four depths at each of 38 undrained and drained pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) mire sites, was measured for suction pressures of -0.98, -3.10, -6.19, -9.81, -98.1, and -1554.25 kPa, The obtained data were used to test several well-known water retention models commonly applied to mineral soils, The most suitable model was found to be van Genuchten's model if the residual water content was omitted. Feat characteristics were used to explain the variation in the model's shape parameters. Accounting for the remains of Sphagnum, Carer, Eriophorum, and lignin and the distinction between shallow and deep peat layers considerably improved the moisture retention predictions compared with using bulk density only. The different behavior of the shallow vs. the deep peat layers was mainly attributed to the Sphagnum and lignin residues, but not to the Carer residues. We developed a semiempirical model with only one shape parameter, which was clearly better explained by the peat characteristics than the two shape parameters of the van Genuchten model, We recommend that for statistical investigations or investigations requiring a robust model. the semiempirical model be used. The van Genuchten model is to be preferred in predicting the moisture conditions near saturation.

Welch, K., M. Burza, et al. (2008). "Environment-induced surface dynamics of a biomimetic ionomer studied using in situ second harmonic generation." Journal of Physical Chemistry B 112(37): 11573-11579. ://WOS:000259140600017 The environmental-induced surface dynamics of the biomimetic phosphoryl choline (PC)-functionalized poly(trimethylene carbonate) ionomer has been studied and compared to its unfunctionalized counterpart using in situ second harmonic generation measurements. Whereas the nonpolar liquid n-hexane did not induce any surface dynamic processes in the ionomer under study, the presence of water initiated a Debye-type dynamic reaction at the surface of the PC ionomer, which had no equivalent in the unfunctionalized material. This first-order reaction was attributed to a surface enrichment process of the functionalized ionomer in the hydrophilic environment involving movement of the PC endgroups from aggregates in the bulk to the surface. The time constant of the process was found to be about 6 min, and the corresponding activation energy was 0.4 eV. The dehydration process of the PC- functionalized ionomer in nitrogen gas atmosphere could be described by two time constants, one slightly below I min and the other one just above 13 min. The results presented in this work show that SHG measurements are well suited for the study of polymer surface restructuring dynamics in response to environmental changes. Such information is very important for the successful design and implementation of biomimetic polymers intended for biomedical applications.

Wenge, J., C. Xiaobin, et al. (2009). "Biomimetically triggered inorganic crystal transformation by biomolecules: a new understanding of biomineralization." Journal of Physical Chemistry B: 10838-44. ://INSPEC:11329930 Phase transformation is an important strategy in biomineralization. However, the role of biomolecules in the mineral transition is poorly understood despite the fact that the biomineralization society greatly highlights the organic controls in the formation of the inorganic phase. Here, we report an induced biomimetic phase transformation from brushite (a widely used calcium phosphate precursor in biological cement) to hydroxyapatite (main inorganic composition of skeletal mineral) by citrate (a rich organic component in bone tissue). The transformation in the absence of the organic additive cannot be spontaneously initiated in an aqueous solution with a pH of 8.45 (no phase transition is detected in 4 days), which is explained by a high interfacial energy barrier between brushite-solution and hydroxyapatite-solution interfaces. Citrate can oppositely regulate these two interfaces, which decreases and increases the stabilities of brushite and hydroxyapatite surfaces in the solution, respectively. Thus, the interfacial energy barrier can be greatly reduced in the presence of citrate and the reaction is triggered; e.g., at 1 mM citrate, the total transformation from brushite to hydroxyapatite can be completed within 3 days. The relationship between the transition kinetics and citrate concentration is also studied. The work reveals how the organic components direct solid-solid phase transformation, which can be understood by an energetic control of the interfacial barrier. It is emphasized that the terms of interfacial energy must be taken into account in the studies of phase transformation. We suggest that this biomimetic approach may provide an in-depth understanding of biomineralization.

Wex, H., A. Kiselev, et al. (2006). "Calibration of LACIS as a CCN detector and its use in measuring activation and hygroscopic growth of atmospheric aerosol particles." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 6: 4519-4527. ://000241205500003 A calibration for LACIS (Leipzig Aerosol Cloud Interaction Simulator) for its use as a CCN (cloud condensation nuclei) detector has been developed. For this purpose, sodium chloride and ammonium sulfate particles of known sizes were generated and their grown sizes were detected at the LACIS outlet. From these signals, the effective critical super-saturation was derived as a function of the LACIS wall temperature. With this, LACIS is calibrated for its use as a CCN detector. The applicability of LACIS for measurements of the droplet activation, and also of the hygroscopic growth of atmospheric aerosol particles was tested. The activation of the urban aerosol particles used in the measurements was found to occur at a critical super-saturation of 0.46% for particles with a dry diameter of 75 nm, and at 0.42% for 85 nm, respectively. Hygroscopic growth was measured for atmospheric aerosol particles with dry diameters of 150, 300 and 350 nm at relative humidities of 98 and 99%, and it was found that the larger dry particles contained a larger soluble volume fraction of about 0.85, compared to about 0.6 for the 150 nm particles.

Wexler, A. S. and Z. Z. Ge (1998). "Hydrophobic particles can activate at lower relative humidity than slightly hygroscopic ones: a Kohler theory incorporating surface fixed charge." Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 103(D6): 6083-6088. ://000072737800011 A number of laboratory experiments indicate that hydrophobic carbonaceous particles activate at lower supersaturations than is predicted by Kohler theory. Since a significant fraction of the global energy balance uncertainty is due to the so-called indirect effect, that of clouds, quantifying which particles activate is crucial to accurate prediction of climate. Most material surfaces obtain a fixed charge in water, and this is the case for many materials found in atmospheric aerosols. This fixed charge generates a charge double layer near the material surface which lowers the water activity. In the presence of this surface fixed charge, hydrophobic particles activate at low supersaturations. Since a small number of soluble ions in the particles causes them to only activate at higher supersaturations, surface charge activation is not relevant to activation of particles in the atmosphere. Thus laboratory experiments that measure the growth and activation of hydrophobic particles are measuring an effect, the surface charge effect, that is probably not relevant to the atmosphere.

Whitaker, D. L. and J. Edwards (2010). "Sphagnum Moss Disperses Spores with Vortex Rings." Science 329(5990): 406-. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/329/5990/406 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Whitaker-Sphagnum- Spore-Dispersal-2010.pdf AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Whitaker-Sphagnum-Spore-Dispersal-Supporting- 2010.pdf AND movie 1 http://www.sciencemag.org/content/vol329/issue5990/images/data/406/DC1/1190179s1.mov, AND movie 2: http://www.sciencemag.org/content/vol329/issue5990/images/data/406/DC1/1190179s2.mov AND movie 3 http://www.sciencemag.org/content/vol329/issue5990/images/data/406/DC1/1190179s3.mov AND movie 4 http://www.sciencemag.org/content/vol329/issue5990/images/data/406/DC1/1190179s4.mov Sphagnum spores, which have low terminal velocities, are carried by turbulent wind currents to establish colonies many kilometers away. However, spores that are easily kept aloft are also rapidly decelerated in still air; thus, dispersal range depends strongly on release height. Vascular plants grow tall to lift spores into sufficient wind currents for dispersal, but nonvascular plants such as Sphagnum cannot grow sufficiently high. High-speed videos show that exploding capsules of Sphagnum generate vortex rings to efficiently carry spores high enough to be dispersed by turbulent air currents. Spores launched ballistically at similar speeds through still air would travel a few millimeters and not easily reach turbulent air. Vortex rings are used by animals; here, we report vortex rings generated by plants.

Whitney, S. E. C., E. Wilson, et al. (2006). "Effects of structural variation in xyloglucan polymers on interactions with bacterial cellulose." Am. J. Bot. 93(10): 1402-1414. http://www.amjbot.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/10/1402 A cellulose/xyloglucan framework is considered to form the basis for the mechanical properties of primary plant cell walls and hence to have a major influence on the biomechanical properties of growing, fleshy plant tissues. In this study, structural variants of xyloglucan have been investigated as components of composites with bacterial cellulose as a simplified model for the cellulose/xyloglucan framework of primary plant cell walls. Evidence for molecular binding to cellulose with perturbation of cellulose crystallinity was found for all xyloglucan types. High molecular mass samples gave homogeneous centimeter-scale composites with extensive cross-linking of cellulose with xyloglucan. Lower molecular mass xyloglucans gave heterogeneous composites having a range of microscopic structures with little, if any, cross-linking. Xyloglucans with reduced levels of galactose substitution had evidence of self-association, competitive with cellulose binding. At comparable molecular mass, fucose substitution resulted in a modest promotion of microscopic features characteristic of primary cell walls. Taken together, the data are evidence that galactose substitution of the xyloglucan core structure is a major determinant of cellulose composite formation and properties, with additional fucose substitution acting as a secondary modulator. These conclusions are consistent with reported structural and mechanical properties of Arabidopsis mutants lacking specific fucose and/or galactose residues.

Wiegerink, R. J., A. Floris, et al. (2007). "Biomimetic flow-sensor arrays based on the filiform hairs on the cerci of crickets." IEEE Sensors 2007 Conference: 1073-6. ://INSPEC:9799115 In this paper we report on the latest developments in biomimetic flow-sensors based on the flow sensitive mechano-sensors of crickets. Crickets have one form of acoustic sensing evolved in the form of mechano receptive sensory hairs. These filiform hairs are highly perceptive to low-frequency sound with energy sensitivities close to thermal threshold. Arrays of artificial hair sensors have been fabricated using a surface micromachining technology to form suspended silicon nitride membranes and double-layer SU-8 processing to form 1 mm long hairs. Previously, we have shown that these hairs are sensitive to low-frequency sound, using a laser vibrometer setup to detect the movements of the nitride membranes. We have now realized readout electronics to detect the movements capacitively, using electrodes integrated on the membranes.

Wolcott, M. P., J. F. Philp, et al. (1986). "PREPARATION AND TESTING OF MICROBENDING SPECIMENS." Forest Products Journal 36(11-12): 69- 71. ://WOS:A1986F622000012

Wrobel, D. (2003). "Equisetum telmateia Ehrh. morphotypes related to anthropogenic habitats." Acta Societatis Botanicorum Poloniae 72(2): 161-165. ://000183575400012 The Giant Horsetail (Equisetum telmateia) is the only representative of Equisetum genus included in the list of strictly protected species. In Central and Western Europe the species is found in communities belonging to alliances: Alno-Padion and Calthion. With progressing destruction of these biotopes, one can observe the phenomenon of this species moving to the habitats extremely anthropogenic in character. Frequent and intensive observations of this phenomenon were conducted in the Jaslo-Krosno Dale area in southern Poland in three anthropogenic localities. In these localities three interesting, irregular Equisetum telmateia morphotypes were found: fo. serotinum subfo. proliferum, fo. spiralis and a morphotype with branched shoot, The phenomenon of morphological plasticity of sporophytes is thought to be connected with the action of genes, which regulate the identity of developing plant organs and their distribution. These genes perform a superior part in relation to the system of growth regulators.

Wu, D., Q. D. Chen, et al. (2010). "A simple strategy to realize biomimetic surfaces with controlled anisotropic wetting." Applied Physics Letters 96(5). ://WOS:000274319500121 The study of anisotropic wetting has become one of the most important research areas in biomimicry. However, realization of controlled anisotropic surfaces remains challenging. Here we investigated anisotropic wetting on grooves with different linewidth, period, and height fabricated by laser interference lithography and found that the anisotropy strongly depended on the height. The anisotropy significantly increased from 9 degrees to 48 degrees when the height was changed from 100 nm to 1.3 mu m. This was interpreted by a thermodynamic model as a consequence of the increase of free energy barriers versus the height increase. According to the relationship, controlled anisotropic surfaces were rapidly realized by adjusting the grooves' height that was simply accomplished by changing the resin thickness. Finally, the perpendicular contact angle was further enhanced to 131 degrees +/- 2 degrees by surface modification, which was very close to 135 degrees +/- 3 degrees of a common grass leaf.

Xiaojian, W., L. Yuncang, et al. (2009). "Biomimetic coating on pure titanium submitted to different surface treatments." Materials Science Forum: 311-14. ://INSPEC:11031783 Titanium (Ti) plates were firstly treated to form various types of oxide layers on the surface and then immersed into simulated body fluid (SBF) to evaluate the apatite forming ability. The surface morphology and roughness of the different oxide layers were measured by atomic force microscopy (AFM), and the surface energies were determined based on the Owens-Wendt (OW) methods. It was found that Ti samples after Alkali-Heat treatment (AH) achieved the best apatite formation after soaking in SBF for 3 weeks, compared to those without treatment, thermal or H/sub 2/O/sub 2/ oxidation. Furthermore, contact angle measurement revealed that the oxide layer on the alkali-heat treated Ti samples possessed the highest surface energy. The results indicate that the apatite inducing ability of a titanium oxide layer is linked to its surface energy. Apatite nucleation is easier on a surface with a higher surface energy.

Xiong, J. Q., M. H. Zhong, et al. (1998). "Influence of organic films on the hygroscopicity of ultrafine sulfuric acid aerosol." Environmental Science & Technology 32(22): 3536-3541. ://000076986800013 In ambient air, organic chemicals are common constituents of aerosol particles, and many of them are surface-active. If these compounds are present as surface films on aqueous droplets, mass transfer of gaseous molecules into or out of the droplets could be impeded, and the hygroscopic growth of acidic droplets could be reduced. In this work, the effects of organic films on the hygroscopic growth rate of ultrafine H2SO4 aerosols (40-120 nm) were investigated under relative humidity conditions of 20-85% and over time scales of 6 and 10 s. Lauric (C-12 saturated),stearic(C-18,saturated),and oleic acids were chosen as the film coating materials. The experimental results showed that the presence of monolayer films of some fatty acids retards the hygroscopic growth rate of H2SO4 aerosol due to the obstructive effect of the films on the permeation of water vapor. The retardation effects depend on the original film coating thickness. Molecular structure of the film-forming compounds is an important factor for determining the effectiveness of the film. Linear molecules, such as lauric and stearic acids, have stronger effects on mass transport of water vapor than those of nonlinear molecules, such as oleic acid.

Xu, S. C., T. Cao, et al. (2007). "FUR spectroscopy analysis of mosses with different kinds of peristomes and its systematic significance." Spectroscopy and Spectral Analysis 27: 1710-1714. ://WOS:000249990800013 The spectra of 23 species of mosses belonging to different kinds of peristomes were determined by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Based on comparing the differences in the spectra of five representative species, four ranges of 1 790-1 330 cm(-1), 1 200-960 cm(-1), 895-830 cm(-1) and 725-655 cm(-1) were selected as the characteristic spectra for analysis. The results show that hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and principal components analysis (PCA) using the second derivatives FTIR spectra can effectively identify five kinds of mosses: Sphagnidae, Nematodontae, Acrocarpi-Haplolepideae, Acrocarpi-Diplolepideae, and Pleurocarpi- Diplolepideae, which are well suited for the known moss systems based on peristome structure. Therefore, FTIR spectra combined with chemometrics can be used as a useful tool in systematic research on bryophytes.

Xu, X., G. Jeronimidis, et al. (2004). "Stress relaxation behaviour of frozen sucrose solutions." Journal of Texture Studies 35(1): 11-32. ://WOS:000221564700002 The stress relaxation behaviour of two frozen sucrose solutions (7% and 19%) during indentation in the temperature range of -20C to -40C were investigated. The stress relaxation is similar to that of pure polycrystalline ice, which is controlled by steady-state creep. ne steady state creep rate exponent, m, of 7% and 19% sucrose solutions lies between 2.3 and 3.6. The steady state creep rate constant, B, of 19% sucrose solution is greater than that of 7% sucrose solution. It is suggested that the steady-state creep rate exponent m depends on contributions from the proportions of favourably oriented grains, unfavourably oriented grains and grain boundaries to creep and that these components depend on the value of internal stress which is related to the hardness of samples at the different testing temperatures. The steady-state creep rate constant B depends on the mobility of dislocations in sucrose solutions which, in turn, depends on the temperature and the concentration of sucrose.

Xu, X., G. Jeronimidis, et al. (2004). "Stress relaxation behaviour of frozen sucrose solutions (vol 35, pg 15, 2004)." Journal of Texture Studies 35(2): 223-223. ://WOS:000222511300009

Xu, X., G. Jeronimidis, et al. (2003). "On the yield stress of frozen sucrose solutions." Journal of Materials Science 38(2): 245-253. ://WOS:000179311100008 Measurement or prediction of the mechanical and fracture properties of foods is very important in the design, operation and optimization of processes, as well as for the control of quality of food products. This paper describes the measurement of yield stress of frozen sucrose solutions under indentation tests using a spherical indenter. Effects of composition, temperature and strain rate on yield stress of frozen sucrose solutions have also been investigated. (C) 2003 Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Xu, X., G. Jeronimidis, et al. (2004). "Rate-dependent fracture toughness of pure polycrystalline ice." Journal of Materials Science 39(1): 225- 233. ://WOS:000187179000023 A series of three-point bend tests using single edge notched testpieces of pure polycrystalline ice have been performed at three different temperatures (-20degreesC, -30degreesC and -40degreesC). The displacement rate was varied from 1 mm/min to 100 mm/min, producing the crack tip strain rates from about 10(-3) to 10(-1) s(-1). The results show that (a) the fracture toughness of pure polycrystalline ice given by the critical stress intensity factor (K-IC) is much lower than that measured from the J-integral under identical conditions; (b) from the determination of K-IC, the fracture toughness of pure polycrystalline ice decreases with increasing strain rate and there is good power law relationship between them; (c) from the measurement of the J-integral, a different tendency was appeared: when the crack tip strain rate exceeds a critical value of 6 x 10(-3) s(-1), the fracture toughness is almost constant but when the crack tip strain rate is less than this value, the fracture toughness increases with decreasing crack tip strain rate. Re- examination of the mechanisms of rate-dependent fracture toughness of pure polycrystalline ice shows that the effect of strain rate is related not only to the blunting of crack tips due to plasticity, creep and stress relaxation but also to the nucleation and growth of microcracks in the specimen. (C) 2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Yang, C., U. Tartaglino, et al. (2008). "Nanodroplets on rough hydrophilic and hydrophobic surfaces." European Physical Journal E 25(2): 139- 152. ://WOS:000254406200003 We present results of Molecular Dynamics (MD) calculations on the behavior of liquid nanodroplets on rough hydrophobic and hydrophilic solid surfaces. On hydrophobic surfaces, the contact angle for nanodroplets depends strongly on the root-mean-square roughness amplitude, but it is nearly independent of the fractal dimension of the surface. Since increasing the fractal dimension increases the short-wavelength roughness, while the long-wavelength roughness is almost unchanged, we conclude that for hydrophobic interactions the short-wavelength (atomistic) roughness is not very important. We show that the nanodroplet is in a Cassie-like state. For rough hydrophobic surfaces, there is no contact angle hysteresis due to strong thermal fluctuations, which occur at the liquid-solid interface on the nanoscale. On hydrophilic surfaces, however, there is strong contact angle hysteresis due to higher energy barrier. These findings may be very important for the development of artificially biomimetic superhydrophobic surfaces.

Yang, F., T. J. Pence, et al. (2009). "Large deformation modeling of swelling actuation in conjugated polymer systems." Proceedings of the SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering: 72871O (11 pp.). ://INSPEC:10682502 Conjugated polymer actuators provide delicate solutions in biomimetic robotics and bio/micromanipulation. For these applications, it is highly desirable to have large deformation. Because linear elasticity theory is only valid when the strain is small, this poses significant challenges in the electromechanical modeling. In this paper, we use a nonlinear strain energy function to capture the stored elastic energy under actuation-induced swelling, which further allows us to compute the induced stress. Numerical method is used to obtain the deformation variables by solving the force and bending moment balance equations simultaneously. Experimental results for a trilayer conjugated polymer beam can be predicted by the proposed model better than the linear model. This proposed framework can also be applied to the analysis of large deformations of other electroactive polymers.

Yang, H. M., J. H. Zhang, et al. (2005). "Regulation mechanisms of stomatal oscillation." Journal of Integrative Plant Biology 47(10): 1159-1172. ://WOS:000232340700002 Stomata function as the gates between the plant and the atmospheric environment. Stomatal movement, including stomatal opening and closing, controls CO2 absorption as the raw material for photosynthesis and water loss through transpiration. How to reduce water loss and maintain enough CO2 absorption has been an interesting research topic for some time. Simple stomatal opening may elevate CO2 absorption, but, in the meantime, promote the water loss, whereas simple closing of stomatal pores may reduce both water loss and CO2 absorption, resulting in impairment of plant photosynthesis. Both processes are not economical to the plant. As a special rhythmic stomatal movement that usually occurs at smaller stomatal apertures, stomatal oscillation can keep CO2 absorption at a sufficient level and reduce water loss at the same time, suggesting a potential improvement in water use efficiency. Stomatal oscillation is usually found after a sudden change in one environmental factor in relatively constant environments. Many environmental stimuli can induce stomatal oscillation. It appears that, at the physiological level, feedback controls are involved in stomatal oscillation. At the cellular level, possibly two different patterns exist: (i) a quicker responsive pattern; and (ii) a slower response. Both involve water potential changes and water channel regulation, but the mechanisms of regulation of the two patterns are different. Some evidence suggests that the regulation of water channels may play a vital and primary role in stomatal oscillation. The present review summarizes studies on stomatal oscillation and concludes with some discussion regarding the mechanisms of regulation of stomatal oscillation.

Yi Chang, C., C. Yi Hong, et al. (2005). "Self-assembled biomimetic monolayers using phospholipid-containing disulfides." Biomaterials 26(15): 2313-24. ://INSPEC:8582180 Several phospholipid-based disulfide molecules were synthesized and attached onto the gold-coated silicon wafer using the self- assembling method. The syntheses of these surface-modifying agents were conducted by introducing bromoethylphosphorate (PBr), phosphorylcholine (PC) or phosphorylethanolamine (PE) groups on the terminals of a dialkyl disulfide. After disulfides adsorption onto gold substrate surfaces, the composition, the film thickness, and the conformational order of self-assembled monolayer surfaces were explored and discussed in detail based on reflection-absorption infrared spectroscopy, contact angle measurement, Auger electron spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and so on. The monolayer having the PBr end group could also be converted to a PC surface by treating with trimethylamine. The model functional surfaces of Au-SC11-PC, -PE, -PBr, -OH or corresponding mixed layers were used to mimic biomembrane surfaces. The monolayer having PC groups was found to reduce fibrinogen adsorption as evaluated from protein adsorption experiments using quartz crystal microbalance. It also showed relatively low platelet adherence compare to the glass, PBr and PE surfaces. The cell viability test also revealed that the PC surface displayed lower cytotoxicity than other surfaces. [All rights reserved Elsevier]

Yong Chae, J. and B. Bharat (2010). "Biomimetic structures for fluid drag reduction in laminar and turbulent flows." Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter 22(3): 035104. http://stacks.iop.org/0953-8984/22/i=3/a=035104 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Yong-Biomimetic-structures-2009.pdf Biomimetics allows one to mimic nature to develop materials and devices of commercial interest for engineers. Drag reduction in fluid flow is one of the examples found in nature. In this study, nano, micro, and hierarchical structures found in lotus plant surfaces, as well as shark skin replica and a rib patterned surface to simulate shark skin structure were fabricated. Drag reduction efficiency studies on the surfaces were systematically carried out using water flow. An experimental flow channel was used to measure the pressure drop in laminar and turbulent flows, and the trends were explained in terms of the measured and predicted values by using fluid dynamics models. The slip length for various surfaces in laminar flow was also investigated based on the measured pressure drop. For comparison, the pressure drop for various surfaces was also measured using air flow.

Yoshida, M., T. Hamada, et al. (1997). "On-line estimation of the moisture distribution in granular bed under drying." Kagaku Kogaku Ronbunshu 23(4): 541-547. ://WOS:000073899800012 A new algorithm for on-line estimation of moisture distribution in non-hygroscopic granular materials is presented. The dynamics of moisture movement in granular materials under drying are frequently modeled by non-liner diffusion equations. By application of Kirchhoff transform, the equations are linearized and then approximated to a lumped parameter system (LPS) model by means of the finite integral transform technique. Kalman filter is applied to the LPS model to estimate moisture distribution. The results show that the moisture distribution can be estimated satisfactorily from measurements of surface and average moisture content.

Yoshida, M., M. Legros, et al. (1997). "Approximate isothermal drying curves of hygroscopic porous materials with variable surface concentration." Journal of Chemical Engineering of Japan 30(3): 440-447. ://A1997XG52300010 The governing equations for isothermal drying of slabs of hygroscopic porous material are analyzed to develop a method for the approximate calculation of drying rate curves. Gradual decrease in surface moisture content is incorporated in the model by considering the effect of the desorption isotherm. The proposed method enables one to estimate drying rate curves for any conditions without solving drying equations when the dependence of moisture diffusivity and the desorption isotherm are given as functions of moisture content. Accuracy of the drying rates calculated by the method is examined by comparing with numerical solutions of the drying equations. When one of the internal and superficial mass transfer resistances is dominant, approximate drying rate curves show very good agreement with numerical solutions. When both resistances are comparable, the method underestimates drying rates with errors of less than 6%.

Yoshimura, M., W. L. Suchanek, et al. (2000). "Soft solution processing: A strategy for one-step processing of advanced inorganic materials." Mrs Bulletin 25(9): 17-25. ://WOS:000165470700016

Zabler, S., O. Paris, et al. (2010). "Moisture changes in the plant cell wall force cellulose crystallites to deform." Journal of Structural Biology 171(2): 133-141. ://BIOSIS:PREV201000421021 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Zabler-Moisture-Changes-Force-2010.pdf Nano-crystallite deformation of cellulose microfibrils in the secondary cell wall layer of spruce wood tracheids was observed during de- and rehydration experiments below the fibre saturation point. A quantitative analysis of the (0 0 4), (2 0 0) and the (1 1 0)/(1 (1) over bar 0) doublet X-ray diffraction peaks revealed longitudinal contraction, lateral expansion and changes in the monoclinic angle of the cellulose unit cell during drying of wood fibres. Experiments on unfixed samples as well as the simultaneous application of mechanical tensile and dehydration stress to samples hold at constant length showed two deformation mechanisms of different nature and magnitude. The first mechanism depends on the relative wood moisture content and the second one on the macroscopic tensile stress. These findings imply a new perspective on the role of water adsorption perceiving a hydration-induced structural change of cellulose crystal structure as a major driving force for deformation. (C) 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Zander, R. H. (2006). "The Pottiaceae S. Str. as an evolutionary Lazarus taxon." Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory(100): 581-602. ://000240473700039 Genomic studies have shown that evolution can be based on clusters of genes that may be silenced and reactivated much later. Thus, apparent phylogenetic homoplasy may sometimes represent a one-time developmental response to selection, involving many genes or gene clusters and one or more regulators, and as such may be called homoiology. Evidence for such exaptions (pre- adaptions) in many organisms is cited. Distinctive features of the Pottiaceae (Bryopsida), the complex gametophytic morphology characterized by the pleisiomorphic Timmiella and the twisted peristome of 32 filamentous, spiculose teeth distal to a basal membrane are suggested to be likewise homoiologous. The characteristic peristome may have reappeared in the family four to seven times. Inasmuch as exaptions may skip across cladistic events tracked by non-coding or neutral gene traits, this paper re- evaluates past evolutionary schema in light of an apparent, theoretically acceptable exception to Dollo's Law that complex traits are never re-evolved. An evolutionary diagram based in part on inferred process is offered in place of the usual cladogram based on inferred events of genetic isolation.

Zanten, B. O. V. (1974). "HYGROSCOPIC MOVEMENT OF LEAVES OF DAWSONIA AND SOME OTHER POLYTRICHACEAE." Bulletin De La Societe Botanique De France 121: 63-66. ://WOS:A1974BA86600008

Zbikowski, R. (2002). "On Aerodynamic Modelling of an Insect-like Flapping Wing in Hover for Micro Air Vehicles." Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 360(1791): 273-290. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3066306 This theoretical paper discusses recent advances in the fluid dynamics of insect and micro air vehicle (MAV) flight and considers theoretical analyses necessary for their future development. The main purpose is to propose a new conceptual framework and, within this framework, two analytic approaches to aerodynamic modelling of an insect-like flapping wing in hover in the context of MAVs. The motion involved is periodic and is composed of two half-cycles (downstroke and upstroke) which, in hover, are mirror images of each other. The downstroke begins with the wing in the uppermost and rearmost position and then sweeps forward while pitching up and plunging down. At the end of the half-cycle, the wing flips, so that the leading edge points backwards and the wing's lower surface becomes its upper side. The upstroke then follows by mirroring the downstroke kinematics and executing them in the opposite direction. Phenomenologically, the interpretation of the flow dynamics involved, and adopted here, is based on recent experimental evidence obtained by biologists from insect flight and related mechanical models. It is assumed that the flow is incompressible, has low Reynolds number and is laminar, and that two factors dominate: (i) forces generated by the bound leading- edge vortex, which models flow separation; and (ii) forces due to the attached part of the flow generated by the periodic pitching, plunging and sweeping. The first of these resembles the analogous phenomenon observed on sharp-edged delta wings and is treated as such. The second contribution is similar to the unsteady aerodynamics of attached flow on helicopter rotor blades and is interpreted accordingly. Theoretically, the fluid dynamic description is based on: (i) the superposition of the unsteady contributions of wing pitching, plunging and sweeping; and (ii) adding corrections due to the bound leading-edge vortex and wake distortion. Viscosity is accounted for indirectly by imposing the Kutta condition on the trailing edge and including the influence of the vortical structure on the leading edge. Mathematically, two analytic approaches are proposed. The first derives all the quantities of interest from the notion of circulation and leads to tractable integral equations. This is an application of the von Kármán-Sears unsteady wing theory and its nonlinear extensions due to McCune and Tavares; the latter can account for the bound leading-edge vortex and wake distortion. The second approach uses the velocity potential as the central concept and leads to relatively simple ordinary differential equations. It is a combination of two techniques: (i) unsteady aerodynamic modelling of attached flow on helicopter rotor blades; and (ii) Polhamus's leading-edge suction analogy. The first of these involves both frequency-domain (Theodorsen style) and time-domain (indicial) methods, including the effects of wing sweeping and returning wake. The second is a nonlinear correction accounting for the bound leading-edge vortex. Connections of the proposed framework with control engineering and aeroelasticity are pointed out.

Zenkevich, E. I., C. von Borczyskowski, et al. (2002). "Self-assembled nanoscale photomimetic models: structure and related dynamics." Chemical Physics 275(1-3): 185-209. ://WOS:000173257000013 Using static and time-resolved measurements, dynamics of non-radiative relaxation processes have been studied in self-assembled porphyrin triads of various geometry, containing the main biomimetic components, Zn-porphyrin dimers, free-base extra-ligands (porphyrin, chlorin or tetrahydroporphyrin), and electron acceptors A (quinone or pyromellitimide). The strong quenching of the dimer fluorescence is due to energy and sequential electron transfer (ET) processes to the extra-ligand (similar to0.9-1.7 ps), which are faster than a slower ET (34-135 ps) from the dimer to covalently linked A in toluene at 293 K. The extra-ligand S-1-state decay (tau(s) = 940-2670 ps) is governed by competing processes: a bridge (dimer) mediated long-range (r(DA) = 18-24 Angstrom) superexchange ET to an acceptor, and photoinduced hole transfer from the excited extra-ligand to the dimer followed by possible superexchange ET steps to low-lying charge transfer states of the triads. The subsequent ET steps dimer --> monomer --> A taking place in the triads, mimic the sequence of primary ET reactions in photosynthetic reaction centers in vivo. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Zhang, K., Y. Q. Wang, et al. (1998). "Biomimetic study on helical fiber composites." Journal of Materials Science & Technology 14(1): 29-32. ://WOS:000071825100006 AND http://www.ask-force.org/web/Delft-Hygroscop/Zhang-Biomimetic-Helical-Fiber-1998.pdf The innovative approach imparting strength and toughness to carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites (CFRP) is put forward from the viewpoint of biomimetics. Helical fibers produced by twisting fiber bundle are arranged in the matrix to simulate the unique structure of natural fibers. The results on the CFRP with helical fiber bundles show that, under the same state of strong fiber/matrix interface, the impact fracture toughness can be improved substantially compared to conventional composites with plain fibers. The beneficial effect is attributed to the helical fiber bundles which act as single fibers of huge diameter effectively increasing the fiber elastic energy.

Zhang, S. J., J. Q. Zhao, et al. (2004). "Structure and properties of hygroscopic PA6 - Inorganic salt blend." Journal of Elastomers and Plastics 36(3): 241-250. ://000222696500003 Blends of nylon-6 and inorganic salt (composition range 0-10% by weight) were prepared by melt processing at 230degreesC, forming an intimate blend of the two components. The structure of the blend was investigated by using FTIR and WAXD techniques. The formation of a nitrogen atom-metal ion coordination bond is seen in the FTIR spectrum. X-ray analysis showed the decrease of the nylon-6 crystallinity due to the existence of the coordination bond. The hygroscopicity of the nylon-6 blend increases sharply with the increase in salt addition. The coordination interaction can hinder the internal rotation of nylon-6 molecular chain leading to the increase in the rigidity of the nylon-6 blend and to the decrease in the toughness.

Zhang, Z., C. Kleinstreuer, et al. (2006). "Water vapor transport and its effects on the deposition of hygroscopic droplets in a human upper airway model." Aerosol Science and Technology 40(1): 1-16. ://000233906000003 The fundamentals of 3-D airflow as well as heat and water vapor transport and droplet vaporization ( or hygroscopicity) are described for a human upper airway model under steady laminar-transitional-turbulent inspiratory flow conditions. Water vapor distributions from the mouth to the first four generations of the tracheobronchial tree are given in terms of relative humidity or mass fraction. The mass transfer coefficients of water vapor are correlated as a function of local flow rate and temperature- dependent diffusivity, which can be readily used for estimating the regional water loss or moisture variations in the human upper airways. Furthermore, the dynamics of hygroscopicity and deposition of isotonic saline droplets have been simulated as an example, applying the basic theory. Specifically, droplet evaporation rates and deposition pattern are analyzed and the effects of inhalation flow rates and thermodynamic air properties are discussed.

Zhi-Kang, X., H. Xiao-Jun, et al. (2006). "Biomimetic surface modification on polyacrylonitrile-based asymmetric membranes via direct formation of phospholipid moieties." Polymer 47(9): 3141-9. ://INSPEC:8976116 To improve the antifouling property and biocompatibility for polyacrylonitrile-based asymmetric membranes, phospholipid moieties were directly anchored on the poly(acrylonitrile-/i co/-2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (PANCHEMA) membrane surface through the reaction of hydroxyl groups and 2-chloro-2-oxo-1,3,2-dioxaphospholane (COP) followed by the ring-opening of COP with trimethylamine. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy and water contact angle measurement were employed to confirm the conducted surface modification. Water and protein solution filtration tests plus cell adhesion measurement were used to evaluate the antifouling property and the biocompatibility of the membranes. It was found that the content of the phospholipid moieties on the membrane surface, which can be mainly modulated by the content of reactive hydroxyl groups in PANCHEMA, has a great influence on the performances of the studied membranes. With the increase in the phospholipid moieties content at the modified membrane surface, the hydrophilicity and biocompatibility on the basis of water contact angle and macrophage adhesion can be improved significantly. Furthermore, the modified membranes show higher water and protein solution fluxes, and better flux recovery after cleaning than those of the original PANCHEMA membranes. All these results reveal that the antifouling property and biocompatibility of PANCHEMA membrane could be enhanced obviously by the introduction of phospholipid moieties on the membrane surface. [All rights reserved Elsevier]

Zhou, J. C., E. Swietlicki, et al. (2001). "Hygroscopic properties of aerosol particles over the central Arctic Ocean during summer." Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 106(D23): 32111-32123. ://000173479100036 The hygroscopic properties of submicrometer aerosol particles in the Arctic summer marine boundary layer (MBL) were observed on board the icebreaker Oden during the Arctic Ocean Expedition 1996 (AOE-96). The measurements were performed between July 15 and August 25 1996 and covered the region between longitudes 16degrees-147degreesE and latitudes 70degrees-87.5degreesN, mostly over melting pack ice. The hygroscopic tandem differential mobility analyzer (H-TDMA) was used to determine the hygroscopic diameter growth of aerosol particles at four dry diameters (15, 35, 50, and 165 nm) and three relative humidities (50%, 70%, and 90% RH). The hygroscopic behavior of the aerosol particles over the pack ice showed large temporal variations, in contrast to previous observations in marine boundary layers over warmer oceans. These variations were mostly due to the high degree of vertical atmospheric stratification often observed over the pack ice. However, when comparing the average diameter growth factors of the more hygroscopic particle group, representing an aged aerosol with growth factors between 1.4-1.9 at 90% RH and present in 81-86% of all cases, the agreement between the measurements over the Arctic and the warmer oceans was very good and depended on the average wind speed. The average diameter growth factors of the more hygroscopic particles as a function of relative humidity were modeled empirically by power law expressions. The concentration of cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) estimated from aerosol number size distribution and hygroscopic growth data correlated well with direct measurements but overpredicted the CCN concentrations by about 30%. In 43 cases when the sampled air mass had undergone processing in Arctic Ocean MBL clouds, the minimum CCN diameter was estimated to be 76 +/- 15 nm, corresponding to effective water vapor supersaturations of 0.28 +/- 0.08%.

Zhou, J. C., E. Swietlicki, et al. (2002). "Submicrometer aerosol particle size distribution and hygroscopic growth measured in the Amazon rain forest during the wet season." Journal of Geophysical Research-Atmospheres 107(D20). ://000180466200012 The number-size distribution and hygroscopic growth of submicrometer aerosol particles were measured in central Amazonia during the first Cooperative LBA Airborne Regional Experiment (CLAIRE) wet season experiment in March-April 1998. This was the first time ever that these types of measurements were performed in the Amazon rain forest. A Differential Mobility Particle Sizer (DMPS) was used to measure aerosol number-size distribution with diameters in the range 3-850 nm. The observed total number concentrations were frequently between 300 and 600 cm(-3) with a mean value around 450 cm(-3). Two aerosol particle modes (Aitken and accumulation mode) were always present. The average particle concentrations for those two modes were 239 and 177 cm(-3), with geometric diameters of 68 and 151 nm, respectively. An ultrafine mode had a number concentration and a mean diameter of 92 cm(-3) and 24 nm, respectively, and only occurred at 18% of the time, causing the size distribution to be trimodal instead of bimodal. The hygroscopic growth of aerosol particles was measured in situ with a Hygroscopic Tandem Differential Mobility Analyzer (H- TDMA) at six dry particle diameters between 35 and 265 nm. In contrast to the bimodal hygroscopic behavior found in polluted continental environments, the hygroscopic properties of aerosol particles in the Amazon rain forest is essentially unimodal with average diameter growth factors of 1.16-1.32 from dry to 90% relative humidity (RH). Aerosol soluble volume fractions were, in general, between 0.14 and 0.27, estimated by assuming that only ammonium hydrogen sulphate interacted with water vapour.

Zika, T., I. C. Gebeshuber, et al. (2009). "Surface analysis on rolling bearings after exposure to defined electric stress." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part J-Journal of Engineering Tribology 223(J5): 787-797. ://WOS:000268861500007 This article gives an overview about classical and frequency converter-induced spurious bearing currents in induction machines and discusses typical damage patterns caused by the current passage. To investigate on the electric damage mechanisms, test bearings are operated in a test rig and exposed to specific (classical low-frequency, and high-frequency) bearing currents. The induced damages to the surfaces are analysed visually and with the help of an atomic force microscope, and compared for the different electric regimes applied. Further, the electrically damaged bearing surfaces are characterized by standard roughness parameters. The surface structure observable on certain test bearings shows good correlation to the structure found with a bearing that had failed in the field under similar electric conditions. One of the investigated electric regimes applying high-frequency currents proved capable of generating fluting patterns - as found in real applications - on the test rig. The experiments also indicate that high- frequency bearing currents, although in total dissipating less energy, are more dangerous to a bearing than continuous current flow. The presented method gives a good starting point for further investigation on electric current damage in bearings, especially regarding high-frequency bearing currents, and on bearing/grease lifetime under specific electric regimes.

Zink, A. G., P. J. Pellicane, et al. (1994). "ULTRASTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF SOFTWOOD FRACTURE SURFACES." Wood Science and Technology 28(5): 329-338. ://WOS:A1994NX66600002 The ultrastructural characteristics of fracture surfaces from southern pine and Douglas-fir specimens tested in tension at various angles to grain were examined. The fracture surface morphology was inspected using scanning electron microscopy. Three anatomical failure types were recognized: intercell failure, transwall failure, and intrawall failure. Certain failure characteristics were ascribed as a function of the magnitudes of parallel- and perpendicular-to-grain tension and parallel-to-grain shear present in the specimen. In specimens tested in parallel- and perpendicular-to-grain tension, the thick-walled latewood cells were found to fail in a combination of transwall and intrawall failure. The intrawall failures were usually at the S1-S2 interface. The more thin-walled earlywood cells were more likely to exhibit abrupt, transwall failures. At intermediate angles of load to grain, surfaces indicative of the type found in pure shear tests were predominant. Perpendicular- to-grain tension failures resulted in mostly intercell failures. Ray cells consistently exhibited transwall failures. The failure surface frequently changed planes in all loading modes. This path transfer was inevidably associated with material discontinuities in the wood. When the path did transfer, all three failure types were observed. No significant species effect was observed.

Zufall, M. J., M. H. Bergin, et al. (1998). "Effects of non-equilibrium hygroscopic growth of (NH4)(2)SO4 on dry deposition to water surfaces." Environmental Science & Technology 32(5): 584-590. ://000072307100030 Growth of hygroscopic aerosols near water surfaces is believed to enhance dry deposition rates, which are a strong function of particle size. Previous dry deposition models estimate hygroscopic growth by assuming equilibrium between aerosols and water vapor (Williams, R. M. Atmos. Environ. 1982, 16, 1933-1938). A model is presented here that combines the relative humidity profile above water surfaces with hygroscopic growth rates for (NH4)(2)SO4, assuming cases for a deliquescing and metastable aerosol. Model results show that particles greater than 0.1 mu m in diameter do not grow to their equilibrium size before depositing to a hypothetical water surface. As a consequence, equilibrium models overpredict the effects of hygroscopic growth on deposition velocities by as much as a factor of 5. In addition, model results suggest a significant difference in the deposition velocities of metastable and deliquescing aerosols. Based on measured (NH4)(2)SO4 size distributions, overall deposition velocities calculated from a thermodynamic equilibrium model, a mass transfer limited non-equilibrium model with a deliquescing aerosol, and a mass transfer limited non-equilibrium model with a metastable aerosol are 0.11, 0.055, and 0.040 cm/s, respectively.