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Cloet Quincy Truth Seekers or Power Brokers? The League of Nations and its Commissions of Inquiry Submitted in fulfilment for the requirement of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Quincy R. Cloet Department of International Politics Aberystwyth University February 2019 Word Count of thesis: 94 727 DECLARATION This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Signed ……………………………………………………….. Date ……………………………………………………….. STATEMENT 1 This thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. Where *correction services have been used, the extent and nature of the correction is clearly marked in a footnote(s). Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. A bibliography is appended. [*this refers to the extent to which the text has been corrected by others] Signed ……………………………………………………….. Date ……………………………………………………….. STATEMENT 2 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter- library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed ……………………………………………………….. Date ……………………………………………………….. Summary During its lifetime, the League of Nations aspired to gather reliable facts and produce accurate knowledge that could transform the conduct of international politics. Inquiry was one of many techniques the League actively deployed to find more rational means in which diplomacy was conducted and political decisions were made in Geneva. Truth Seekers or Power Brokers investigates the purpose and significance of international inquiry commissions in the inter-war years and asks to what extent they lived up to the high expectations of impartial knowledge created in a politicised environment. The thesis takes four thematically different case studies, concerning opium production in Persia, slavery and forced labour in Liberia, the Manchurian crisis that took East Asia by surprise, and the territorial dispute that emerged between Bolivia and Paraguay over the Chaco Boreal, to argue there is both coherence and reason behind the League’s repeated reliance on the inquiry technique. The thesis situates international inquiry and the League ‘experiment’ in a wider frame of imperial internationalism, which aids to explore a scientific cosmology of developmentalism underscoring the various fact-finding methods, as well as a civilisational lens and imperial modes, idioms and repertoires that are prevalent in the case study material. The imperial internationalist framework is explored by means of three dimensions, namely the ad hoc institutional setting in which inquiry was embedded, the multi-level context of competing powers, contestation and rivalry in which investigations took place, and the myriad manifestations of personal and state agency, by way of truth seeking, technical innovation and the defence of national sovereignty, against attempts of foreign tutelage and territorial expansion. The thesis explains how inquiry, as a technique, brought about a softer face of empire in the inter-war years, through Western expertise and assistance, but equally was meant to preserve and reinvigorate the imperial hierarchies that underscored the post-war international system. Keywords League of Nations · inquiry · knowledge production · empire · internationalism iii Acknowledgements I take this as an opportune moment to retrace the steps that have brought me to the ‘League experiment’, five years ago only a distant dream, most of all to thank all the people who have been instrumental in researching and writing the thesis. After all this time, I can brightly recall the first time I spoke to Patrick Finney over the phone to discuss my doctoral aspirations – long before he became my primary supervisor. Patrick’s wide range of interests related to international history, our shared passion for the League of Nations, his kind attitude and openness towards my ideas were perhaps the crucial ingredients that brought me to Aberystwyth in the autumn of 2015. At the Department of International Politics, I also had the fortune of working closely together with Alistair Shepherd in his capacity of secondary supervisor and a thoughtful reader of my drafts. Together, Patrick and Alistair have been the perfect support team and helped me to see the thesis to its end. The fact that I encountered few obstacles along the way, I can inscribe to their personal dedication and terrific guidance all throughout my research project. Although I had set my mind on researching the League of Nations, it was a confluence of occasion and encounters that brought the idea of inquiry commissions on my radar. Aberystwyth University’s excellent documentary collections introduced me to a wide range of League publications and helped me to discern the importance of studying the League from the broadest perspective possible, beyond the boundaries of a single region or theme. A presentation delivered by Berit Bliesemann de Guevara at our Department, on the subject of first-hand knowledge and on-site visits, made me reflect on the central role the League had assigned to fact-finding and impartial inquiry on the ground. Andrew Linklater’s role as discussant in my third-year departmental presentation and his ruminations about scientific detachment and the civilisational standard were fundamental in construing the conceptual fabric of the thesis. Truth Seekers or Power Brokers was impossible to conceive without these helpful inputs. During several years, my research project has given me the chance to visit many different libraries and archives, as well as share my initial insights with open-minded and receptive colleagues. First and foremost, I am grateful for the logistical (and friendly) support received by the people of the Hugh Owen Library of Aberystwyth University, who facilitated my access to many primary sources. I am particularly thankful to Val Fletcher, Lucy O’Donnell and James Woolley. In addition, I would like to thank Jacques Oberson (League of Nations Archives), Jill Campbell (Knebworth House), Stefania Ruggeri (Archivio Storico Diplomatico) and their colleagues, for guiding me through a plethora of valuable documents. Many scholars have been instrumental in shaping my thoughts on inquiry commissions and the context in which these investigations took place, iv however, special acknowledgement go to the following individuals: Lori Allen, Karen Gram- Skjoldager, David Macfadyen, Patricia Clavin, David Jorge, Corinne Pernet, Davide Rodogno, Steffen Rimner, Simon Ball, Patrick Jackson, Laure Humbert, Fred van der Kraaij, Elisabetta Tollardo, Amalia Ribi Forclaz and Michael Wintle. Finally, I am grateful to several institutions that have been kind enough to host and provide me with the means to conduct research, most notably the Graduate Institute in Geneva, Collegium Civitas and the College of Europe (Natolin), both located in Warsaw. Finally, there are an innumerable number of people which have made the thesis a pleasant and enriching journey to undertake; they lifted my spirits, enjoyed my cooking, and made the entire process a meaningful one. In Aberystwyth, I’m thankful to my closest friends Matt, Ben, Dylan, Jana, Sylvia, Zak, Marta, Bleddyn and Swiatosława, with whom I shared wonderful moments in a remarkable environment. Diolch. They made the windy and rainy days more bearable. I’m also grateful to the remarkable people I befriended through my involvement with UACES: my gratitude goes to Emily, Helen, Josh and Helena for giving me pleasant memories all across the UK. Mersi to Anca and Sielke for making me feel part of the research community in Geneva. My frequent visits and eventual return to Warsaw have been of tremendous value and personal significance, which would not have been possible without the kindness and hospitality offered by my close friends Andrzej and Paulina. Dzięki. Also, sincere thanks to Kerry, who made me consider Aberystwyth and has been the greatest source of professional and emotional support for the last years. To my parents: ik dank jullie voor een onvoorwaardelijke steun en de warmte waarmee ik thuis altijd verwelkomd word. And most of all, heartfelt gratitude to Ewa, bez ciebie jestem niepełny, jak czegoś ćwierć albo pół. Quincy R. Cloet Warsaw, February 2019 v Table of Contents Summary ........................................................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................................... vi List of Abbreviations and Tables ........................................................................................................... viii 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 1 Rational aspirations .................................................................................................................................................... 2 Imperial internationalism ........................................................................................................................................ 6 Structure and aim of the thesis .............................................................................................................................
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