1.6 Fire Ecology of the Recent Anthropocene Keynote Lecture by

Johann G. Goldammer Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Biogeochemistry Department, and Global Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC), UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) 1

Preamble economic and environmental costs. Given that fire is also an important natural Fire has the capacity to make or break process in many ecosystems, and that sustainable environments. Today some people have traditionally used fire for places suffer from too much fire, some millennia as a land-management tool, the from too little or the wrong kind, but challenge is to develop informed policy everywhere fire disasters appear to be that recognizes both the beneficial and increasing in terms of both severity and traditional roles of fire, while reducing the damages, with serious threats to public incidence and extent of uncontrolled health, economic well being, and burning and its adverse impacts. ecological values (Pyne 2001). Thus, fire ecology in the recent Anthropocene has This paper aims to highlight the recent evolved to a science of the biosphere with changes of fire regimes at global level. strong multi-disciplinary Supported by members of the Working interconnectedness between natural Group on Wildland Fire of the United sciences – notably ecology, Nations International Strategy for Disaster biogeochemistry, atmospheric chemistry, Reduction (UN-ISDR), Inter-Agency Task meteorology and climatology – and the Force for Disaster Reduction, this paper humanities – anthropology, cultural intends to create awareness among the fire history, sociology, and political sciences. science community and those who need to apply the fundamental knowledge of fire Abstract science, the fire managers and policy makers. The increasing incidence, extent and severity of uncontrolled burning globally, together with its many adverse 1 Introduction consequences, has brought fire into the international environmental policy arena, Fire is a prominent disturbance factor in with growing calls for international action most vegetation zones across the world. In leading to greater control of burning, many ecosystems it is an essential and especially in tropical countries. Despite ecologically significant force - organizing this concern, there is a paucity of accurate physical and biological attributes, shaping and timely information on the numbers of landscape patterns and diversity, and fires, area burned and phytomass influencing energy flows and consumed annually at national, regional biogeochemical cycles, particularly the and global scales, and on the social, global carbon cycle. In some ecosystems,

1 This keynote address has been supported by and reflects the views of the members of the UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR), Inter-Agency Task Force for Disaster Reduction, Working Group on Wildland Fire. Main inputs were provided by Brian J. Stocks (Canadian Forest Service), Dietrich Schwela (World Health Organization), Meinrat O. Andreae (Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, Biogeochemistry Department, Germany), Stephen J. Pyne (Arizona State University, U.S.A.), Christopher O. Justice (University of Maryland, U.S.A.), and Peter G.H. Frost (University of Zimbabwe). however, fire is an uncommon or even and impacts of fires in such cases; and unnatural process that severely damages what might be the relative costs and the vegetation and can lead to long-term benefits of different options for reducing degradation. Such ecosystems, particularly adverse impacts? The elaborations in this in the tropics, are becoming increasingly paper reflect the rationale and the scope of vulnerable to fire due to growing work of the Working Group on Wildland population, economic and land-use Fire of the United Nations International pressures. Moreover, the use of fire as a Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) land-management tool is deeply embedded (Working Group on Wildland Fire 2002a), in the culture and traditions of many in association with international wildland societies, particularly in the developing fire research programmes of the world. Given the rapidly changing social, International Geosphere-Biosphere economic and environmental conditions Programme (IGBP) and other research occurring in developing countries, marked organizations. changes in fire regimes can be expected, with uncertain local, regional, and global consequences. Even in regions where fire 2 Extent, Impacts and Significance is natural (e.g., the boreal zone), more of Wildland Fire at the Global Scale frequent severe fire weather conditions have created recurrent major fire problems 2.1 Global Wildland Fire Assessments in recent years. The incidence of extreme wildfire events is also increasing elsewhere The Forest Resources Assessment 2000 the world, with adverse impacts on conducted by the Food and Agriculture economies, livelihoods, and human health Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and safety that are comparable to those provided an opportunity to review the associated with other natural disasters such global effects of fires on forests as a part of as earthquakes, floods, droughts and the forest assessment that is undertaken volcanic eruptions. Despite the prominence every ten years. The Global Forest Fire of these events, current estimates of the Assessment 1990-2000 (FAO 2001), extent and impact of vegetation fires prepared in cooperation with the Global globally are far from complete. Several Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC), revealed hundred million hectares of forest and strengths and weaknesses associated with other vegetation types burn annually adequate data collection and compilation, throughout the world, but most of these and with sustaining the health and fires are not monitored or documented. productivity of the world's forests when Informed policy and decision-making threatened by drought, wildfires and an clearly requires timely quantification of increasing demand for natural resources. fire activity and its impacts nationally, regionally and globally. Such information Much of the materials for the Global is currently largely unavailable. Forest Fire Assessment had been taken from the Global Fire Monitoring Center The primary concerns of policy makers (GFMC) database or recruited through the focus on questions regarding the regional GFMC global fire network. Beginning in and global impacts of excessive and the late 1980s the GFMC began to uncontrolled burning, broad-scale trends systematically collect worldwide fire over time, and the options for instituting information (statistical data, narratives), protocols that will lead to greater control. and published these materials in FAO-ECE Other key questions involve determining International Forest Fire News (IFFN) and under what circumstances fires poses a on the GFMC website (GFMC 2002). sufficiently serious problem to require Together with the ECE fire database the action; what factors govern the incidence GFMC fire statistical information represents a unique source that includes means to survey wildland fire occurrence also information on fires occurring in other impacts. On the other hand the area non-forest vegetation types (e.g., savanna burned, as derived from the spaceborne fires and agricultural burning). instrument, also does not provide information on the environmental, However, the format and completeness of economic or humanitarian impacts of fire. wildland fire statistics collected are not An appropriate interpretation of satellite- consistent. Statistical datasets providing generated fire information requires number of fires and area burned do not additional information layers, particularly begin to meet the level of information on ecosystem vulnerability and recovery required to assess the environmental and potential; that are not yet available at a economic consequences of wildland fires. global level. For example, currently formats for fire statistics collection do not include Summarizing this state-of-the-knowledge parameters that would permit conclusions review for the last decade of the 20th on economic damages or impacts of century the Global Forest Fire Assessment emissions on the atmosphere or human came to the following conclusions: health. Considering the complexity of pathways of regeneration of vegetation ? Wildfires during drought years after fire, including the cumulative impacts continue to cause serious impacts of anthropogenic and environmental to natural resources, public health, stresses, it is not possible at this time to transportation, navigation and air conclude from existing statistical data quality over large areas. Tropical whether long-term changes can be rain forests and cloud forests that expected in terms of site degradation and typically do not burn on a large reduction of carrying capacity of fire- scale were devastated by wildfires affected sites. Thus, a new system for fire during the 1990s. data collection that would meet the ? Many countries, and regions, have requirements of a growing number of a well-developed system for different users is urgently needed. documenting, reporting and evaluating wildfire statistics in a The recently published Global Burned systematic manner. However, many Area Product 2000 derived from a fire statistics do not provide spaceborne sensing system (SPOT sufficient information on the Vegetation) is the first important step damaging and beneficial effects of towards obtaining prototype baseline data wildland fires. on the extent of global wildland fires for ? Satellite systems have been used the year 2000 (JRC 2002). The dataset effectively to map active fires and indicates that approximately 351 million burned areas, especially in remote hectares globally were affected by fire in areas where other damage the year 2000. Looking at individual assessment capabilities are not countries the datasets differ considerably available. from the numbers provided by responsible ? Some countries still do not have a national agencies. This fact that can be system in place to annually report explained easily because statistical datasets number of fires and area burned in of national agencies in many countries a well-maintained database, often primarily include fire incidences in because other issues like food managed forests; with only a few countries security and poverty are more providing fire statistics that cover non- pressing. forest ecosystems. Furthermore most ? Even those countries supporting countries do not have in place appropriate highly financed fire management organizations are not exempt from emissions, climate change and the ravages of wildfires in drought public health. years. When wildland fuels have ? Numerous examples were present accumulated to high levels, no in the 1990s of unprecedented amount of firefighting resources levels of inter-sectoral and can make much of a difference international cooperation in helping until the weather moderates (as to lessen the impact of wildfires on observed in the United States in the people, property and natural 2000 fire season). resources. ? Uncontrolled use of fire for forest ? Institutions like the Global Fire conversion, agricultural and Monitoring Center have been pastoral purposes continues to instrumental in bringing the world's cause a serious loss of forest fire situation to the attention of a resources, especially in tropical global audience via the Internet. areas. ? Some countries are beginning to In reviewing the global fire situation, it is realize that inter-sectoral apparent that a continued emphasis on the coordination of land use policies emergency response side of the wildfire and practices is an essential problem will not address current needs and element in reducing wildfire losses. will only result in a continuation of the ? Examples exist where sustainable current trend towards large and damaging land use practices and the fires in the future.. The way out of the participation of local communities emergency response dilemma is to couple in integrated forest fire emergency preparedness and response management systems are being programmes with more sustainable land employed to reduce resource losses use policies and practices. Only when from wildfires. sustainable land use practices and ? In some countries, volunteer rural emergency preparedness measures fire brigades are successful in complement each other will long-term responding quickly and efficiently natural resource benefits for society be to wildfires within their home realized.. range; and residents are taking more responsibility to ensure that In the following sections an updated review homes will survive wildfires. is provided on the changing fires regimes in ? Although prescribed burning is the most important vegetation zones, the being used in many countries to northern boreal forest, temperate forests, reduce wildfire hazards and achieve tropical rainforest and tropical / subtropical resource benefits, other countries savanna regions. have prohibitions against the use of prescribed fire. ? Fire ecology principles and fire 2.1.1 The Fire Situation in Boreal regime classification systems are Forests being used effectively as an integral part of resource The global boreal forest zone, covering management and fire management approximately 12 million square planning. kilometres, stretches in two broad ? Fire research scientists have been transcontinental bands across Eurasia and conducting cooperative research North America, with two-thirds in Russia projects on a global scale to and Scandinavia and the remainder in improve understanding of fire Canada and Alaska. With extensive tracts behaviour, fire effects, fire of coniferous forest that have adapted to, and become dependent upon, periodic fire sophisticated and well-funded fire for their physiognomy and sustainable management programs in North America existence, and that provide a vital natural suppress the vast majority of fires while and economic resource for northern small, the 3% of the fires that grow larger circumpolar countries, boreal forests are than 200 hectares in size account for 97% estimated to contain ~37% of the world’s of the total area burned. There is little terrestrial carbon. These forests have likelihood of improving suppression become increasingly accessible to human effectiveness since the law of diminishing activities, including natural resource returns applies here – the 3% of fires that exploitation and recreation, over the past grow larger do so because they occur century, with the export value of forest under extreme fire danger conditions products from global boreal forests and/or in such numbers that suppression accounting for 47% of the world total. resources are overwhelmed, and applying more funding would have no effect. In The largest boreal forest fires are addition, Canada and Alaska have vast extremely high-intensity events, with very northern areas which are largely fast spread rates and high levels of fuel unpopulated and with no merchantable consumption, particularly in the deep timber, and where fires are monitored but organic forest floor layer. High intensity suppression is unwarranted and not levels are often sustained over long practiced, allowing natural fire where burning periods, creating towering possible. Combining the current high convection columns that can reach the levels of fire activity across the North upper troposphere and lower stratosphere, American boreal zone, with restricted making long range smoke transport suppression effectiveness and a recognition common. In addition, the area burned of the need for natural fire, it is all but annually by boreal fires is highly episodic, certain that climate change will greatly often varying by an order of magnitude exacerbate the situation, and the only between years. option will be adaptation to increasing fire regimes. For many reasons boreal forests and boreal fires have increased in significance in a The fire problem in Eurasia's boreal forests wide range of global change science issues – mainly in the Russian Federation –is in recent years. Climate change is foremost similar in some ways to the North among these issues, and the impacts of American situation, but there are climate change are expected to be most significant differences (Goldammer and significant at northern latitudes. Forest Furyaev 1996, Goldammer and Stocks fires can be expected to increase sharply in 2000, Shvidenko and Goldammer 2001). both incidence and severity if climate The Eurasian boreal zone is close to twice change projections for the boreal zone as large as its North American counterpart, prove accurate, acting as a catalyst to a stretching across eleven time zones, with a wide range of processes controlling boreal wide diversity of forest types, growing forest carbon storage, causing shifting conditions, structure and productivity, and vegetation, altering the age class structure anthropogenic impacts that define different towards younger stands, and resulting in a types of fires and their impacts. For direct loss of terrestrial carbon to the example, surface fires are much more atmosphere. common in the Eurasian boreal zone than in North America where stand-replacing Over the past two decades forest fires in crown fires dominate the area burned, and boreal North America (Canada and many Russian tree species have adapted to Alaska) have burned an average of 3 low-intensity fires. While Canada has a million hectares annually. While strong continental climate in the boreal region of west-central Canada, where most In recent years there has been an increase large fire activity occurs, Eurasia has much in the occurrence of wildfires under stronger continentality over a much larger extreme drought conditions (e.g. the Trans- land base. The climate of the major land Baikal Region in 1987 and the Far East in area of the Russian Federation is 1998, Yakutia in 2002, Chita and Buryatia characterized by low annual precipitation in 2003), and the severity of these fires and/or frequent droughts during the fire will greatly disturb natural recovery cycles. season, and more extreme fire danger There is growing concern that fires on conditions over a much larger area. In permafrost sites will lead to the addition, large areas of the Eurasian boreal degradation or disappearance of eastern zone are not protected or monitored, so fire Siberian larch forests. Russia has close to activity is not recorded for these regions. 65% of the global boreal forest, an economically and ecologically important Official Russian fire statistics for the past area that represents the largest five decades typically report annual areas undeveloped forested area of the globe. burned between 0.5 and 1.5 million With the vast quantities of carbon stored in hectares, with very little inter-annual these forests, Russian forests play a critical variability. In fact, as Russian fire role in the global climate system and managers agree, these numbers are a gross global carbon cycling. Projected increases underestimation of the actual extent of in the severity of the continental climate in boreal fire in Russia. There are two reasons Russia suggest longer fire seasons and for this: a lack of monitoring and much higher levels of fire danger. The documentation of fires occurring in vast inevitable result will be an increase in the unprotected regions of Siberia, and the fact number, size, and severity of boreal fires, that the Russian reporting structure with huge impacts on the global carbon emphasized under-reporting of actual area cycle and the Russian economy. burned to reward the fire suppression organization. In recent years, with the At the same time, recent political and advent of international satellite coverage of economic changes in Russia have led to an Russian fires in collaboration with Russian extreme reduction in their fire suppression fire scientists, more realistic area burned capability, with the State Forest Service estimates are being generated. For showing a huge debt, and the outlook for example, during the 2002 fire season future funding increases bleak. As a result, satellite imagery revealed that about 12 Avialesookhrana, the aerial fire protection million hectares of forest and non-forest division of the Forest Service, has been land had been affected by fire in Russia, forced to reduce aerial fire detection and while official sources report 1.2 million suppression levels, with operational hectares forest land and 0.5 million ha non- aircraft flying hours and firefighter forest land burned in the protected area of numbers now less than 50% of 1980s 690 million hectares (Goldammer 2003a, levels. Consequently, the occurrence of Davidenko and Eritsov 2003, Sukhinin et larger fires is increasing, and the areas al. 2003). During the early summer of being burned annually are unprecedented 2003 remote sensing data indicate a total in recent memory. vegetated area affected by fire in Russia exceeding 22 million hectares (GFMC Increasing fire risks in the boreal forests of 2003). Based on recent remote sensing Russia are a major threat to the global data, it appears that the annual area burned carbon budget, and this requires significant in Russia can vary between 2 and 15 national and international attention (Kajii million hectares/year. et al. 2003). Management and protection of these vital resources should not be given solely to the private sector or delegated to regional levels. The establishment and as the trend towards living in fire-prone strengthening of a central institution to environments grows, and the wildland protect forests must be a priority supported urban interface is expanding. by Russia and the international community. The Mediterranean Basin and the Balkans

2.1.2 The Fire Situation in Temperate Within the Mediterranean Basin fire is the Forests most important natural threat to forests and wooded areas. Mediterranean countries In recent years fires have been increasing have a relatively long dry season, lasting in number and severity across the between one and three months on the temperate zone, with significant fire events French and Italian coasts in the north of the becoming more common in the United Mediterranean, and more than seven States, the Mediterranean Basin, and months on the Libyan and Egyptian coasts Mongolia for example. to the south. Currently, approximately 50,000 fires burn throughout the Temperate North America: The Mediterranean Basin, and burn over an United States annual average of 600,000 hectares; both statistics are at a level twice that of the Over most of the past century the United 1970s. In countries where data is States has made a huge investment in continuous since the 1950s, fire occurrence wildland fire management, developing a and area burned levels have shown large sophisticated fire suppression capability. increases since the 1970s in Spain, Italy, As the 1900s progressed, the United States and Greece. Human-caused fires dominate became increasingly effective in excluding in the Mediterranean Basin, with only 1- fire from much of the landscape. Despite 5% of fires caused by lightning. Arson numerous human-caused and lightning fires are also quite prevalent. fires the area burned was greatly reduced from the early 1900s. However, the price Paradoxically, the fundamental cause of an for successful fire exclusion has proven to increasing vulnerability of the vegetation be twofold. The most obvious price was of the Southern European countries the huge cost of developing and bordering the Mediterranean Basin is maintaining fire management linked to increased standards of living organizations that were increasingly among the local populations (Alexandrian requiring higher budgets to keep fire losses et al. 2000). Far-reaching social and at an acceptable level. The second cost, economic changes in Western Europe have hidden for decades, is now apparent, as the led to a transfer of population from the policy emphasis on fire exclusion has led countryside to the cities, a considerable to the build-up of unnatural accumulations deceleration of the demographic growth, of fuels within fire-dependent ecosystems, an abandonment of arable lands and a with the result that recent fires burn with disinterest in the forest resource as a greater intensity and have proven much source of energy. This has resulted in the more difficult to control. Despite extensive expansion of wooded areas, erosion of the cooperation from other countries, and huge financial value of the wooded lands, a loss budget expenditures, intense droughts in of inhabitants with a sense of responsibility 2000 and 2002 contributed to widespread for the forest with a resultant increase in wildfires in the western United States that the amount of available fuel. burned between 2.5 and 3 million hectares in each year. Losses from these fires now The demographic, socio-economic and include substantial destruction of homes, political changes in many countries of Southeast Europe and the neighbouring Mongolia, only 50-60 forest fires and 80- nations on the Balkan have resulted in an 100 steppe fires occur annually on average. increase of wildfire occurrence, The underlying causes of the majority of destabilization of fire management wildfires are due to the fact that urban capabilities and increased vulnerability of people are seeking a livelihood in the ecosystems and human populations. The forests because of the collapse of the main reasons for this development include industrial sector. During the 1996 to 1998 the transition from centrally planned to period, when winter and spring seasons market economies, national to regional were particularly dry, Mongolia conflicts, creation of new nations involving experienced large-scale forest and steppe political tensions and war, land-use fires that burned over 26.3 million hectares changes, and regional climate change of forest and steppe vegetation, including towards an increase in the frequency of pasture lands, causing significant losses of extreme droughts. New solutions are life, property and infrastructure. The loss required to address the increasing fire of forest land in Mongolia is increasing, threat on the Balkans. Regional with severe economic consequences, and a cooperation in the Mediterranean Region growing realization that a precious and the Balkans must address the ecological resource which contains underlying causes of changing fire regimes virtually all rivers, protects soils and and a more economic trans-national use of rangelands, and provides essential wildlife fire management resources (Goldammer habitat is at risk. 2003b). The Fire Continent Australia: Transition from Temperate New Vulnerabilities Steppes to Boreal Forests: Mongolia Australia's fire problems are currently a growing focus of fire managers and policy With an area of 1.5 million square makers in the Australasian region. The kilometres and a population of 2.3 million, continent is facing a dilemma: On the one Mongolia is one of the least populated hand Australia's wildlands have evolved countries in the world, yet significant fire with fire and thus are extremely well problems exist there. With an extremely adapted to fire. In the late 1990s more than continental climate, poor soil fertility and a 345,000 wildfires burned an average of ca. lack of surface water, wildfires in 50 million hectares of different vegetation Mongolia have become a major factor in types every year. In many of Australia's determining the spatial and temporal wildlands frequent fires of moderate dynamics of forest ecosystems. Of a total intensity and severity are important to of 17 million hectares of forests, 4 million maintain properties and functioning of hectares are estimated to be disturbed, ecosystems and to reduce the accumulation primarily by fire (95%) and logging (5%). of highly flammable fuels. Thus, it is Forests are declining in Mongolia as generally accepted that fire protection (fire continual degradation by wildfire turns exclusion) in Australia's wildlands will former forests into steppe vegetation. The lead to fuel accumulation and, inevitably, highest fire hazard occurs in the to uncontrollable wildfires of extreme submontane coniferous forests of eastern behaviour, intensity and severity. These Mongolia, where highly flammable fuels, ecosystems need to be burned by natural long droughts, and economic activity are sources or by prescribed fire. most common. In recent years fire activity in Mongolia has increased significantly, On the other hand there is a trend towards due to economic activity on lands once the building of homes and infrastructure in highly controlled or restricted. In the wildlands around Australian cities. This exurban settlement trend has created disasters in tropical rainforests during the new vulnerabilities and conflicts 1980s and 1990s. concerning the use of fire as a management tool. The extended wildfires occurring in Tropical rainforests cover ~45% of Latin the Southeast of Australia (New South America and the Caribbean. Between 1980 Wales, A.C.T., Victoria) in 2002 and 2003 and 1990, when the first reliable estimates did not harm the vegetation but had a were made, the region lost close to 61 significant impact on values at risk at the million hectares of forest, 6% of the total wildland-residential interface. forested area. During the 1990-1995 period a further 30 million hectares were lost. The highest rates of deforestation occurred in 2.1.3 Tropical Rainforests Central America (2.1% per year) but Bolivia, Ecuador, Paraguay and Venezuela Fires in tropical evergreen forests, until also had deforestation rates above 1% per recently, were considered either impossible year, while Brazil lost 15 million hectares or inconsequential. In recent decades, due of forest between 1988 and 1997. to population growth and economic necessity, rainforest conversion to non- Landscape fragmentation and land cover sustainable rangeland and agricultural change associated with this massive systems has proliferated throughout the deforestation combine to expose more tropics (Mueller-Dombois and Goldammer forest to the risk of wildfire, and fires are 1990, UNEP 2002). The slash-and-burn increasing in severity and frequency, practices involve cutting rainforests to resulting in widespread forest degradation. harvest valuable timber, and burning the This change in tropical fire regimes will remaining biomass repeatedly to likely result in the replacement of permanently convert landscapes into rainforests with less diverse and more fire- grasslands that flourish for a while due to tolerant vegetation types. Although ash fertilization, but eventually are quantitative area burned estimates are abandoned as non-sustainable, or to sporadic at best, it is estimated that the convert rainforest to valuable plantations. 1997-1998 El Niño-driven wildfires Beyond this intentional deforestation there burned more than 20 million hectares in is a further, more recent problem, as Latin America and Southeast Asia. The wildfires are growing in frequency and widespread tropical rainforest wildfires of severity across the tropics. Fires now 1998 have changed the landscape of Latin continually erode fragmented rainforest America’s tropical evergreen forests by edges and have become an ecological damaging vast forested areas adjacent to disturbance leading to degradation of vast fire-maintained ecosystems, such that fires regions of standing forest, with huge will likely become more severe in the near ecological, environmental, and economic future, a fact not yet appreciated by consequences. It is clear that, in tropical resident populations, fire managers, and rainforest environments, selective logging policy makers. The Latin American and leads to an increased susceptibility of Indonesian problems have much in forests to fire, and that the problem is most common, and indicate the problems in severe in recently logged forests. Small tropical rainforests worldwide. clearings associated with selective logging permit rapid desiccation of vegetation and Smoke pollution from tropical rainforest soils increase this susceptibility to fire. fires, as is the case in many other fire Droughts triggered by the El Niño- regions of the world, greatly affects the Southern Oscillation (ENSO) have health of humans regionally, with exacerbated this problem, and were largely countless short- and long-term respiratory responsible for significant wildfire and cardiovascular problems resulting from the lingering smoke and smog These widespread fires, all caused by episodes associated with massive wildfires. humans involved in land speculation and large-scale forest conversion, caused dense The environmental impacts from tropical haze across Southeast Asia for an extended forest fires range from local to global. period. Severe respiratory health problems Local/regional impacts include soil resulted, along with widespread transport degradation, with increased risks of disruption, and overall costs were flooding and drought, along with a reduced estimated at 9.3 billion US dollars. Carbon abundance of wildlife and plants, and an losses were particularly severe due to high increased risk of recurrent fires. Global levels of fuel consumption, particularly in impacts include the release of large peatlands. amounts of greenhouse gases, a net loss of carbon to the atmosphere, and meteorological effects including reduced 2.1.4 Southern African Savannas and precipitation and increased lightning. A Grasslands loss of biodiversity and extinction of species is also a major concern. Fire is a widespread seasonal phenomena in Africa (van Wilgen et al. 1997). South The economic costs of tropical forest fires of the equator, approximately 168 million are unknown, largely due to a lack of data, hectares burn annually, nearly 17% of a but also attributable to the complications of total land base of 1014 million hectares, cause and effect: negative political accounting for 37% of the dry matter implications definitely discourage full burned globally. Savanna burning accounts disclosure. These can include medical for 50% of this total, with the remainder costs, transportation disruptions, and caused by the burning of fuelwood, timber and erosion losses. They can also, agricultural residues, and slash from land in the post-Kyoto era, include lost carbon clearing. Fires are started both by lightning costs which, in the case of the 1998 fires in and humans, but the relative share of fires Latin America, can be crudely estimated at caused by human intervention is rapidly 10-15 billion US dollars. increasing. Pastoralists use fire to stimulate grass growth for livestock, while The driving force behind the devastating subsistence agriculturalists use fire to Indonesian fires of 1982-1983 and 1997- remove unwanted biomass while clearing 1998 was droughts associated with ENSO, agricultural lands, and to eliminate unused in combination with the exposure of agricultural residues after harvest. In rainforest areas to drought as a result of addition, fires fuel by wood, charcoal or selective logging. It has been estimated agricultural residues are the main source of that the overall land area affected by the domestic energy for cooking and heating. 1982-1983 fires, in Borneo alone, was in excess of 5 million hectares. In non-ENSO In most African ecosystems fire is a years fires cover 15,000-25,000 hectares. natural disturbance factor to maintain a The 1997-1998 fire episode exceeded the dynamic equilibrium of vegetation size and impact of the 1982-1983 fires. structure and composition, and to nutrient During 1997 large fires occurred in recycling and distribution. Nevertheless, Sumatra, West and Central Kalimantan, substantial unwarranted and uncontrolled and Irian Jaya / Papua New Guinea. In burning does occur across Africa, and 1998 the greatest fire activity occurred in effective actions to limit this are necessary East Kalimantan. In total, the 1997-1998 to protect life, property, and fire-sensitive fires covered an estimated area in excess of natural resources, and to reduce the current 9.5 million hectares, with 6.5 million burden of emissions on the atmosphere hectares burning in Kalimantan alone. with subsequent adverse effects on the global climate system and human health. result is little or no effective management Major problems arise at the interface and this problem is compounded by between fire savannas, residential areas, excessive sectoralism in many agricultural systems, and those forests governments, leading to uncoordinated which are not adapted to fire. Although policy development, conflicting policies, estimates of the total economic damage of and a duplication of effort and resources. African fires are not available, ecologically As a result of these failures, community- and economically important resources are based natural resource management is now being increasingly destroyed by fires being increasingly widely implemented in crossing borders from a fire-adapted to a Africa, with the recognition that local fire-sensitive environment. Fire is also management is the appropriate scale at contributing to widespread deforestation in which to address the widespread fire many southern African countries. problems in Africa. The major challenge is to create an enabling rather than a Most southern African countries have regulatory framework for effective fire regulations governing the use and control management in Africa, but this is not of fire, although these are seldom enforced currently in place. Community-based because of difficulties in punishing those natural resource management programs, responsible. Some forestry and wildlife with provisions for fire management management agencies within the region through proper infrastructure development, have the basic infrastructure to detect, must be encouraged. More effective prevent and suppress fires, but this planning could also be achieved through capability is rapidly breaking down and the use of currently available remotely becoming obsolete. Traditional controls on sensed satellite products. burning in customary lands are now largely ineffective. Fire control is also greatly These needs must also be considered complicated by the fact that fires in Africa within the context of a myriad of problems occur as hundreds of thousands of widely facing governments and communities in dispersed small events. With continuing Africa, including exploding populations population growth and a lack of economic and health (e.g. the AIDS epidemic). development and alternative employment While unwarranted and uncontrolled opportunities to subsistence agriculture, burning may greatly affect at the local human pressure on the land is increasing, scale, it may not yet be sufficiently and widespread land transformation is important to warrant the concern of policy occurring. Outside densely settled farming makers, and that perception must be areas, the clearance of woodlands for challenged as a first step towards more timber, fuelwood and charcoal production deliberate, controlled and responsible use is resulting in increased grass production, of fire in Africa. which in turn encourages intense dry season fires that suppress tree regeneration 2.1.5 Global Peatlands and increase tree mortality. In short, the trend is toward more fires. The world’s peatlands play a significant role in biodiversity patterns, socio- Budgetary constraints on governments economic development and livelihood, have basically eliminated their capacity to water storage and supply, flood control, regulate from the centre, so there is a trend and climate regulation. Peatlands are towards decentralization. However, the fragile ecosystems vulnerable to fire, and shortage of resources forcing impacted heavily by uncontrolled drainage decentralization means there is little (Parish et al. 2002). The increased capacity for governments to support local conversion of forests on tropical peat lands resource management initiatives. The to agricultural cultivations and the presence of large areas of drained determination of emission factors for peatlands in the boreal zone of is a various fuel types. However, global and growing concern for fire managers. Peat regional emission estimates are still soils can reach a depth of 10 metres or problematic, mostly because of more and thus contain burnable volumes in uncertainties regarding amounts burned. excess of 100,000 cubic metres of biomass Most recent estimates indicate that the per hectare. amount of vegetative biomass burned annually is in the magnitude of 9200 Recent fire episodes in the tropical and Teragram (dry weight), i.e., 9.2 billion tons boreal peat-swamp biomes have revealed (Andreae and Merlet 2001, Andreae 2002). that the combination of extreme droughts, especially in conjunction with the El Niño Vegetation fires produce a range of phenomenon or extended summer droughts emissions that influence the composition in boreal Eurasia, lead to severe and often and functioning of the atmosphere. The irreversible damages of wetland fate of carbon contained in fire-emitted ecosystems, transfer of terrestrial carbon to carbon dioxide (CO2) and other radiatively the atmosphere and to severe smoke active trace gases is climatically relevant pollution affecting human health and only when there is no regrowth of security. vegetation - e.g., deforestation or degradation of sites. Alternatively, NOx, Projected regional climate changes, CO, CH4, and other hydrocarbons are coupled with continuing trends of land-use ingredients of smog chemistry, contribute changes, indicate that the vulnerability of to tropospheric ozone formation and act as peatlands will increase and the loss of "greenhouse gases", while halogenated peatlands by excessive, uncontrolled fire hydrocarbons (e.g. CH3Br) have will accelerate. considerable impact on stratospheric ozone chemistry and contribute to ozone However, there are options to proactively depletion. protect and maintain peatlands. To avoid major fire disasters in peatlands, there is a Fire-emitted aerosols influence climate need to educate land managers in these directly and indirectly. Direct effects areas about best fire management practices include (a) backscattering of sunlight into on peat soils. space, resulting in increased albedo and a cooling effect, and (b) absorption of Peat is a renewable natural resource, which sunlight which leads to cooling of the will regenerate if the burned area is Earth's surface and atmospheric warming. rehabilitated and properly protected, even As a consequence convection and if the re-accumulation of peat is a fairly cloudiness are reduced as well as slow process. evaporation from ocean and downwind rainfall. The key parameter in these effects is the black carbon content of the aerosol 3 Fire-Atmosphere Interactions and its mixing state.

Research efforts under the Biomass Indirect effects of pyrogenic aerosols are Burning Experiment (BIBEX) of the associated with cloud formation. Fire- International Geosphere-Biosphere emitted aerosols lead to an increase of Programme (IGBP), International Global Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN) that are Atmospheric Chemistry (IGAC) Project, functioning as seed for droplet formation. and a large number of other projects in the Given a limited amount of cloud water 1990s were successful in the sampling and content this results in an increase of the quantification of fire emissions, and the number of small droplets. As a first consequence clouds become whiter, reflect management systems designed to detect more sunlight, thus leading to a cooling and suppress unwanted fires quickly and effect. As a second indirect effect of efficiently. Over the past century people "overseeding" the overabundance of CCN throughout northern forest ecosystems coupled with limited amount of cloud have, at times somewhat uneasily, water will reduce the formation of droplets coexisted with this important natural force, that are big enough (radius ~14 µm) to as fire management agencies attempted to produce rain; consequently rainfall is balance public safety concerns and the suppressed. In conclusion it can be stated industrial and recreational use of these that forests, with costs and the need for natural forest cycling through forest fires. ? The fire and atmospheric Canadian, Russian, and American fire science community has made managers have always designated parts of considerable progress in the boreal zone, usually in northern determining emission factors regions, as "lower priority" zones that from vegetation fires receive little or no fire protection, since ? Global and regional emission fires occurring there generally have little or estimates are still problematic, no significant detrimental impact on public mostly because of uncertainties safety and forest values. regarding amounts of area and vegetative matter burned While humans have had some influence on ? Fire is a significant driver of the extent and impact of boreal fires, fire climate change (as well as a still dominates as a disturbance regime in human health risk) the boreal biome, with an estimated 5-20 ? Fire, climate, and human million hectares burning annually in this actions are highly interactive region. Canada and Alaska, despite ? Some of these interactions may progressive fire management programs, be very costly both still regularly experience significant, economically and ecologically resource-stretching fire problems, with 2-8 million hectares, on average, burning 4 Forest Fires, Climate Change and annually. In contrast, Scandinavian Carbon: The Boreal Forest Example countries do not seem to have major large fire problems, probably due to the easy Growing exploitation of the global boreal access resulting from intensive forest zone cannot be accomplished without a management over virtually all of the reconciliation, and compromise, with the forested area of these countries. Russian fact that the boreal forest is dependent on fire statistics are available over the past periodic natural disturbance (fire, insects, four decades but, until recent years, these disease) in order to exist (Stocks 2001). statistics are considered very unreliable. Forest fire is the dominant disturbance However, based on recent remote sensing regime in boreal forests, and is the primary data, it appears that the annual area burned process which organizes the physical and in Russia can vary between 2 and 15 biological attributes of the boreal biome million hectares/year. over most of its range, shaping landscape diversity and influencing energy flows and Boreal forest fires are, most often, crown biogeochemical cycles, particularly the fires - high-intensity events that combine global carbon cycle since the last Ice Age. high spread rates with significant levels of Human settlement and exploitation of the fuel consumption to generate significant resource-rich boreal zone has been fire intensity and energy release rates. accomplished in conjunction with the When sustained over an extended development of highly efficient forest fire afternoon burning period each day, this results in the development of towering physically and economically impossible to convection columns reaching the upper further reduce the area burned by boreal troposphere/lower stratosphere, with fires, it is also not ecologically desirable, significant long-range transport potential. as fire plays a major and vital role in boreal ecosystem structure and Recent Intergovernmental Panel on maintenance. Given these facts, it would Climate Change (IPCC) reports have appear that, if the climate changes as emphasized the fact that climate change is expected over the next century, northern a current reality, and that significant forest managers will have to constantly impacts can be expected, particularly at adapt to increasing fire activity. The likely northern latitudes, for many decades result would be a change in protection ahead. Model projections of future climate, policies to protect more valuable resources, at both broad and regional scales, are while permitting more natural fire at a consistent in this regard. An increase in landscape scale. boreal forest fire numbers and severity, as a result of a warming climate with increased convective activity, is expected 5 Fire Emissions and Human Health to be an early and significant consequence of climate change. Increased lightning and Smoke from burning of vegetative matter lightning fire occurrence is expected under contains a large and diverse number of a warming climate. Fire seasons are chemicals, many of which have been expected to be longer, with an increase in associated with adverse health impacts the severity and extent of the extreme fire (Goh et al. 1999). Nearly 200 distinct danger conditions that drive major forest organic compounds have been identified in fire events. Increased forest fire activity wood smoke aerosol, including volatile and severity will result in shorter fire organic compounds and polycyclic return intervals, a shift in forest age class aromatic hydrocarbons. Available data distribution towards younger stands, and a indicate high concentrations of inhalable resultant decrease in terrestrial carbon particulate matter in the smoke of storage in the boreal zone. Increased fire vegetation fires. Since particulate matter activity will also likely produce a positive produced by incomplete combustion of feedback to climate change, and will drive biomass are mainly less than 1 vegetation shifting at northern latitudes. micrometers in aerodynamic diameter, The boreal zone is estimated to contain 35- both PM10 and PM2.5 (particles smaller 40% of global terrestrial carbon, and any than 2.5 micrometers in aerodynamic increase in the frequency and severity of diameter) concentrations increase during boreal fires will release carbon to the air pollution episodes caused by vegetation atmosphere at a faster rate than it can be fires. Carbon monoxide and free radicals re-sequestered. This would have global may well play a decisive role in health implications, and must be considered in effects of people who live and/or work post-Kyoto climate change negotiations. close to the fires.

Increased protection of boreal forests from Inhalable and thoracic-suspended particles fire is not a valid option at this time. Fire move further down into the lower management agencies are currently respiratory airways, can remain there for a operating a maximum efficiency, longer period of time, leaving deposits. controlling unwanted fires quite The potential for health impacts in an effectively. There is a law of diminishing exposed population depends on individual effects at work here though, as increasing factors such as age and the pre-existence of efficiency would require huge increases in respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and infrastructure and resources. While it is infections, and on particle size. Gaseous compounds adsorbed or absorbed by implementation of an early air pollution particles can play a role in long-term warning system. health effects (cancer) but short-term health effects are essentially determined through particle size. Quantitative 6 Global Observation and assessment of health impacts of air Monitoring of Wildland Fires pollution associated with vegetation fires in developing countries is often limited by From the changing role of fire in the the availability of baseline morbidity and different vegetation zones described above mortality information. Air pollutant data it can be concluded that fire management are of relatively higher availability and is becoming increasingly important with quality but sometimes even these data are respect to global issues of resource not available or reliable. management, disaster reduction and global change. With this increasing importance Vegetation fire smoke sometimes overlies comes the need for a concerted effort to urban air pollution, and exposure levels are put in place the international global intermediate between ambient air pollution observation and monitoring systems and indoor air pollution from domestic needed to give early warning and identify cooking and heating. Because the effects disastrous fire events, inform policy of fire events are nation- and region-wide, making and to support sustainable resource a “natural” disaster can evolve into a more management and global change research complex emergency, both through (Justice 2001). The observation systems population movement and through its will need to include both ground based and effects on the economy and security of the space based monitoring components. affected countries. The fire and smog Advances in information technology now episodes in South East Asia during the El make it easier to collect and share data Niño of 1997-98, in the Far East of the necessary for emergency response and Russian Federation in 1998, and again in environmental management. Current Moscow Region in 2002, are striking satellite assets are under-utilized for examples. operational monitoring and fire monitoring falls largely in the research domain. The World Health Organization (WHO), in Increasing attention needs to be given to collaboration with the United Nations data availability, data continuity, data Environmental Programme (UNEP) and access and how the data are being used to the World Meteorological Organization provide useful information. (WMO), has issued comprehensive guidelines for Governments and There is no standard in-situ responsible authorities on actions to be measurement/reporting system and taken when their population is exposed to national reporting is too variable and smoke from fires (Schwela et al. 1999). inadequate to provide a regional or global The Guidelines give insights into acute and assessment. It is also often hard to relate chronic health effects of air pollution due the satellite and in-situ data reporting. to biomass burning, advice on effective Reliable information is needed to inform public communications and mitigation policy and decision making, and measures, and guidance for assessing the management policies should be developed health impacts of vegetation fires. They based in part on a scientific understanding also provide measures on how to reduce of their likely impacts. Fora are needed for the burden of mortality and preventable exchange of information on monitoring disability suffered particularly by the poor, methods, use of appropriate technology, and on the development and policy and management options and solutions. A continued and informed evaluation of existing monitoring systems, used to engage the user community to and a clear articulation of monitoring address regional concerns and issues, requirements and operational prototyping provide a strong voice for regional needs of improved methods, is also required. and foster lateral transfer of technology and methods within and between regions. The Global Observation of Forest Cover / Networks are currently being developed in Global Observation of Land Dynamics Central and Southern Africa, Southeast (GOFC/GOLD) program, a part of the Asia, Russia and the Far East and Central Global Terrestrial Observing System and South America. (GTOS), is designed to provide such a forum. The GTOS, which is sponsored by The GOLD-Fire program has a number of the International Global Observing System stated goals: Partners, has its Secretariat at the FAO in Rome. GOFC/GOLD has its Secretariat in ? To increase user awareness by the Canadian Forest Service. The providing an improved GOFC/GOLD Program is an international understanding of the utility of coordination mechanism to enhance the satellite fire products for resource use of earth-observation information for management and policy within the policy, natural resource management and United Nations and at regional research. It is intended to link data national and local levels. producers to data users, to identify gaps ? To encourage the development and and overlaps in observational programs, testing of standard methods for fire and recommend solutions. The program danger rating suited to different will provide validated information ecosystems and to enhance current products, promote common standards and fire early warning systems. methods for data generation and product ? To establish an operational network validation and stimulate advances in the of fire validation sites and management and distribution of large protocols, providing accuracy volume datasets. Overall it is intended to assessment for operational products advance our ability to obtain and use and a test bed for new or enhanced environmental information on fires and products, leading to standard secure the long-term observation and products of known accuracy. monitoring systems. ? To enhance fire product use and access for example by developing GOFC/GOLD has three implementation operational multi-source fire and teams: fire, land cover and biophysical GIS data and making these characterization. The principal role of available over the Internet. GOFC/GOLD is to act as a coordinating ? To develop an operational global mechanism for national and regional geostationary fire network activities (Justice et al. 2003). To achieve providing observations of active its goals GOFC/GOLD has developed a fires in near real time. number of regional networks of fire data ? To establish operational polar providers, data brokers and data users. orbiters with fire monitoring These networks of resource managers and capability. Providing a) operational scientists provide the key to sustained moderate resolution long-term capability for improving the observing global fire products to meet user systems and ensuring that the data are requirements and distributed being used effectively. GOFC/GOLD ground stations providing enhanced regional networks are being implemented regional products. These products through a series of regional workshops. should include fire danger, fuel These regional network workshops are moisture content, active fire, burned area and fire emissions. b) These fires often occur as consequence of operational high resolution data extreme weather situations, e.g. inter- acquisition allowing fire annual climate variability such as droughts monitoring and post-fire caused by El Niño, coupled with assessments. application of fire in land-use systems that ? To create emissions product suites, escape control. The underlying causes of developed and implemented damaging wildfires are deeply rooted in providing annual and near real-time the problems of rural societies that are emissions estimates with available undergoing rapid demographic changes, input data. experiencing the loss of traditional knowledge and skills due to the trend of It is particularly important to improve the globalisation, and confrontation with quality, scope, and utility of GOFC-Fire external pressure on limited vegetation inputs to the various user communities resources. through: Secondary effects of destructive wildfires ? gaining a better understanding of include the loss of vegetation that protects the range of users of fire data, their the soil. As a consequence the fire-affected needs for information, how they sites are often degraded due to wind and might use such information if it water erosion. Increased water runoff also was available, and with what other leads to disastrous floods and landslides, data sets such information might be affecting drinking water availability and linked; quality, or leading to siltation of reservoirs. ? increasing the awareness of users with respect to the potential utility Community Involvement in Fire of satellite products for global Management change research, fire policy, planning and management; and Wildland fire risk, hazard and danger are based on ongoing interaction with determined by humans (as ignition representatives of the various user sources), ecosystem properties (through communities developing enhanced the presence of fuels that determine fire products. intensity and severity) and weather (by desiccation of dead and living vegetation). Fire prevention at the community level 7 Early Warning of Wildfire and traditionally involves instruments such as Sustainable Development awareness raising, public information and incentive elements (e.g. participation in Sustainable development in rural societies advantages gained by successful in many countries with different natural prevention of destructive fires). vegetation types and land-use systems are often jeopardized by wildfires that Integrated fire management measures devastate valuable vegetation resources includes fuel management, thus enabling (forests, farmlands, pastures, plantations, people to proactively work in fire etc.), in both the short-term (economic prevention. On the other side, weather as losses and humanitarian problems due to the natural driver of fire danger is the only destruction of crops and other values at element that cannot be manipulated. risk) and the long-term (degradation of However, it can be predicted. Early stability and productivity of ecosystems warning systems of fire danger have been and land-use systems). developed for many climate and vegetation types. They are mainly designed or operational at national or regional levels and are of low resolution. Some pilot knowledge and provide training and products have been designed for support. application at the community level. Widespread application or technology The establishment of fire management transfer, however, is still in its infancy networks can be a very effective tool for stages. providing support to local communities. As with the “Fire Management Committees”, Challenges the networks can be at various levels; regional, national, or local groups. The The greatest challenges ahead are transfer network’s purpose will also vary from of knowledge and adapted technologies to assisting with the highly technical use of the grassroot levels of those population remote sensing data and products, to the groups that are dependent on using the application of local fire risk methods for ecologically beneficial effects of fire in communities. their land-use systems, while at the same time becoming increasingly vulnerable to UN and other international organizations the destructive effects of uncontrolled and programmes, such as the FAO, WMO, wildfires. These population groups cannot WHO, NGOs, as well as national take advantage of sophisticated fire government and non-government warning and information systems or the institutions including academic ones, could theories and practical approaches of be actively participating in the networks Integrated Fire Management that are (Working Group on Wildland Fire 2002b). available, but outside their reach.

Global scale early-warning system for fire 8 The Way Forward occurrence and fire risk already exist and can be accessed and used at that scale by Periods of severe drought were common organizations that have the training and during the 1990s and in the first years of technology. Thus, priority must be given to the Third Millennium, and devastating develop and establish operational early wildfires occurred in almost all regions of warning systems feasible for the use in the world with wide-ranging and long-term economically disadvantaged countries, in impacts on ecosystem sustainability, sub-regional and local areas that require regional economies and environments, and site specific data and local interpretation. on human health. The resulting widespread public, media and political attention Local bodies -- e.g., “Fire Management focused on these wildfires caused decision- Committees” -- entrusted to take makers and resource management agencies responsibility for fire management must be to concentrate on this growing problem, responsible for early warning of wildland and to develop policies and practices to fire. They can range from a strong federal reduce the flammability and vulnerability or national system down to a local, of wild land ecosystems in the future. community-based group. The full range of systems exist and work well in various The challenge is the development of parts of the world. The particular informed policy that recognizes both the organization needed is dependent on the beneficial and traditional roles of fire, local/regional social and political system. while reducing the incidence and extent of Experience for developing such uncontrolled burning and its adverse community-based fire management impacts. Such a challenge clearly has approaches exist but they are not widely major technical, social, economic and applied. What is needed are the resources political elements. In developing countries, to organize the transfer of the technical improved forest and land management techniques are essential to minimize the policymakers can become proactive in risk of uncontrolled fires, and appropriate dealing with wildfire. fire prevention and control strategies must be developed and implemented quickly or ongoing wildfire problems will continue. 8 Conclusions: Policy and Enhanced early warning systems for Wildland Fire Science assessing fire hazard and risk are also essential, along with improvements in The challenge of developing informed regional capacity and infrastructure to use policy that recognizes both the beneficial satellite data quickly. This must be coupled and traditional roles of fire, while reducing with technologies and programs that the incidence and extent of uncontrolled permit rapid detection and response to burning and its adverse impacts, clearly fires. has major technical, social, economic and political elements. In developing countries Policy-makers are beginning to realize that better forest and land management continued emphasis only on emergency techniques are required to minimize the response will do nothing to prevent large risk of uncontrolled fires, and appropriate and damaging wildfires in future years. management strategies for preventing and Emergency preparedness and response controlling fires must be implemented if programs must be coupled with better land measurable progress is to be achieved. In use policies and practices. Actively addition, enhanced early warning systems working towards sustainable forestry for assessing fire hazard and estimating practices with community-level risk are necessary, along with the involvement is a critical strategy for better improvements in regional capacity and conservation of natural resources and infrastructure to use satellite data. This reduced wildfire impacts. must be coupled with technologies and programs that permit rapid detection and A better understanding by policy-makers response to fires. and the general public of the ecological, environmental, socio-cultural, land-use, A better understanding by both policy- and public health issues surrounding makers and the general population of the vegetation fires is also critical. The ecological, environmental, socio-cultural, potential for greater international and land-use and public-health issues regional cooperation in sharing surrounding vegetation fires is essential. information and resources to promote more The potential for greater international and effective fire management must be regional co-operation in sharing explored and implemented. The traditional information and resources to promote more approach of dealing with wildland fires effective fire management also needs to be exclusively under the traditional fire- explored. The recent efforts of many UN exclusion schemes must be replaced by an programmes and organizations are a inter-sectoral and interdisciplinary positive step in this direction, but much approach. The devastating effects of remains to be accomplished. increasing wildfires are an expression of demographic growth, land-use and land- In the spirit and fulfilment of the 1997 use change, the socio-cultural implications Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations of globalisation, and climate variability. Framework Convention on Climate Thus, integrated programs and strategies Change, the Plan of Implementation of the must be developed to address the wildfire World Summit for Sustainable problem at its roots, while at the same time Development (WSSD) and the UN creating an enabling environment where International Strategy for Disaster appropriate tools are developed so that Reduction (ISDR), there is an obvious need for more reliable data on fire Earth and in the co-evolution of the human occurrence and impacts. Remote sensing race and nature. must and should play a major role in meeting this requirement. In addition to the However, at this stage we have to examine obvious need for improved spaceborne the utility of the knowledge that has been fire-observation systems and more generated by a dedicated science effective operational systems capable of community. We have to ask this at a time using information from remote sensing and when it is becoming obvious that fire plays other spaceborne technologies, the remote a major role in the degradation of the sensing community needs to focus its global environment. It follows from the efforts more on the production of useful statement of Pyne (2001) “Fire has the and meaningful products. capacity to make or break sustainable environments. Today some places suffer Finally, it must be underscored that the from too much fire, some from too little or traditional approach in dealing with the wrong kind, but everywhere fire wildland fires exclusively under the disasters appear to be increasing in both traditional forestry schemes must be severity and damages” that we must ask replaced in future by an inter-sectoral and whether wildland fire is becoming a major interdisciplinary approach. The devastating threat at the global level? Does wildland effects of many wildfires are an expression fire at a global scale contribute to an of demographic growth, land-use and land- increase of exposure and vulnerability of use changes, the socio-cultural ecosystems to secondary / associated implications of globalisation, and climate degradation and even catastrophes? variability. Thus, integrated strategies and programmes must be developed to address The regional analyses provided in this the fire problem at its roots, while at the paper reveal that environmental same time creating an enabling destabilization by fire is obviously environment and develop appropriate tools accelerating. This trend goes along with an for policy and decision makers to increasing vulnerability of human proactively act and respond to fire. populations. Conversely, humans are not only affected by fire but are the main What are the implications of these causal agent of destructive fires, through conclusions on fire science? Back in the both accidental, unwanted wildfires, and early 1990s the first major inter- the use of fire as a tool for conversion of disciplinary and international research vegetation and reshaping whole programmes, including inter-continental landscapes. fire-atmosphere research campaigns such as the Southern Tropical Atlantic Regional This trend, however, is not inevitable. Experiment (STARE) with the Southern There are opportunities to do something Africa Fire-Atmosphere Research about global fire because – unlike the Initiative (SAFARI) in the early 1990s majority of the geological and hydro- (JGR 1996), clearly paved the way to meteorological hazards – wildland fires develop visions and models for a represent a natural hazard which in most comprehensive science of the biosphere. regions of the world is primarily human- At the beginning of the 3rd millennium it is made, can be predicted, controlled and, in recognized that progress has been achieved many cases, prevented. in clarifying the fundamental mechanisms of fire in the global environment, including Here is the key for the way forward. the reconstruction of the prehistoric and Wildland fire science has to decide its historic role of fire in the genesis of planet future direction by answering a number of basic questions: What is the future role of fundamental fire science, and the added Global Wildland Fire Network – facilitated value of additional investments? What can through the Global Fire Monitoring Center be done to close the gap between the (GFMC 2003) and supported by the wealth of knowledge, methods and science community. technologies for sustainable fire management and the inability of humans to The UN Working Group also intends to exercise control? develop a proposal for internationally acceptable criteria, with common From the perspective of the author the procedures and guidelines, for the added value of continuing fundamental fire collection of data on fires in a consistent science is marginal. Instead, instruments manner, with the intention of compiling and agreed procedures need to be accurate estimates of wildland fire globally identified to bring existing technologies to that can be used by various user application. Costs and impacts of fire have communities locally, nationally, regionally to be quantified systematically to illustrate and globally. the significance of wildland fire management for sustainable development. The contribution of global wildland fire science to the way forward must lead This implies that scientific focus has to be towards the formulation of national and shifted. The fire domain for a long time international public policies that will be has been governed by inter-disciplinary harmonized with the objectives of natural sciences research. Engineering international conventions, protocols and research has contributed to a high level of other agreements, e.g., the Convention on development in the industrial countries. Biological Diversity (CBD), the Convention What is needed in future is a research to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), focus at the interface between the human United Nations Framework Convention on dimension of fire and the changing global Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the UN environment. The new fire science in the Forum of Forests (UNFF). The wildland fire third millennium must be application- community has begun working on efficient, oriented and understood by policy makers. internationally-agreed-upon solutions to respond to wildland fire disasters through This recommendation is reflected by the international cooperative efforts. The first establishment of a dedicated Working International Wildland Fire Summit Group on Wildland Fire of the United (Sydney, Australia, 8 October 2003) has Nations. The Working Group operates in provided the ground for enhancing the support of the Inter-Agency Task Force for international dialogue on cooperation in Disaster Reduction of the United Nations wildland fire management. International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) and brings together an international consortium of UN agencies References and programmes, representatives from natural sciences, humanities, fire Andreae, M.O. 2002. Assessment of global management agencies and non-government emissions from vegetation fires. 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