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PROSPECTS FOR PEACE IN NORTHERN MALI: THE TOUAREG REBELLION’S CAUSES, CONSEQUENCES, AND PEACEBUILDING PROCESS By Karin Dillon Submitted to the Faculty of the School of International Service of American University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts In International Development Chair: Davi cLHirschmann lean of the School of International Service "7 D e c c-vrY W<- X p x ) "T - Date 2007 American University Washington, DC 20016 AMERICAN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 1-« ° Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 1459163 Copyright 2007 by Dillon, Karin All rights reserved. INFORMATION TO USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleed-through, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. ® UMI UMI Microform 1459163 Copyright 2008 by ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 E. Eisenhower Parkway PO Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ©COPYRIGHT by Karin Dillon 2007 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PROSPECTS FOR PEACE IN NORTHERN MALI: THE TOUAREG REBELLION’S CAUSES, CONSEQUENCES, AND PEACEBUILDING PROCESS BY Karin Dillon ABSTRACT This paper explores the causes of Mali’s Touareg Rebellion (1990-1996) and the peacebuilding that brought it to an end. Using key informant interview data that I collected in 2006 in the Tombouctou region of northern Mali, I find that causes of the rebellion fall into two categories: factors that fostered Touareg grievances with the Malian central government, and factors that ignited these grievances. As frustrations boiled over, an isolated resistance movement in the Kidal region became a full-scale rebellion across the North. After six years of conflict interspersed with negotiation, local and sub-regional successes in peacebuilding and peace implementation have kept northern Mali free from open warfare since 1996. Despite this success, peace is precarious. Root causes not addressed by the Pacte National peace agreement leave open the possibility of a return to conflict. Renewed conflict would not only affect local populations, but would impact sub-regional and global security. ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My sincere thanks go to Charles Call for chairing my thesis and providing me with insightful critiques and suggestion throughout the research and writing process. David Hirschmann, Fantu Cheru, and Andrew Dillon additionally provided valuable comments. Shindouk Mohamed Lamine ould Nagim was a dedicated research assistant. The interview respondents who so graciously gave me their time and attention were an indispensable component of this project. Nouhou Idrissa Maiga and Leila Toure welcomed me into their family for the full duration of the field research. The hospitality of the population of northern Mali additionally facilitated my work. Partial financial support for this project was provided by a Tinker-Walker Fellowship of the International Development Program of the School of International Service at American University. All errors remain the responsibility of the author. Correspondence may be sent to [email protected]. iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT..............................................................................................................................ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...................................................................................................... iii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.................................................................................................. vi Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................1 Significance of Findings Research Questions and Summary of Findings Methodology Outline of Paper 2. BACKGROUND ON NORTHERN MALI AND THE REBELLION ..15 Demography and Characteristics of Northern Mali Brief History of the Rebellion 3. LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................................30 Causes of Civil Conflict Peacebuilding and Peace Implementation 4. CAUSES OF THE TOUAREG REBELLION....................................................44 Introduction Sahel Droughts iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Neglect of the North, Underdevelopment, and Marginalization Changes to Labor Market, Social Relationships, and Class Structure Ethnic Prejudice, Social Exclusion, and Ethnically-Driven Social Manipulation Conclusions on Causes 5. PEACE IMPLEMENTATION AND PEACEBUILDING................................88 Introduction The Peace Process Addressing Root Causes and Implementation of the Pacte Peacebuilding Conclusion 6. CONCLUSION: PROSPECTS FOR PEACE................................................. 113 Appendix 1. INTERVIEW RESPONDENTS’ DEMOGRAPHIC BREAKDOWN........................................................................................................118 2. TIMELINE OF MALIAN HISTORY...................................................................119 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................................. 122 v Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figures 1. WEST AFRICA....................................................................................................... 3 2. MAJOR CITIES OF THE TOMBOUCTOU REGION....................................... 8 3. MAJOR CITIES IN MALI...................................................................................16 4. MALI’S REGIONAL BOUNDARIES.................................................................17 Tables 1. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MALI’S MAJOR ETHNICITIES................................................. .'......................................................... 19 2. INTEGRATION OF EX-COMBATANTS INTO MALIAN ARMED AND CIVIL SERVICES........................................................................................ 99 vi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Despite its reputation as one of the more peaceful nations in West Africa, the Republic of Mali has not been conflict free.1 The northern part of the country has experienced several uprisings including resistance to French colonization at the turn of the century, a 1963 revolt against Mali’s fledgling government in the northern-most region (Kidal), and a civil conflict spanning the years 1990 to 1996. The conflict of the early 1990s was the most significant of these uprisings, engulfing the country’s three northern regions (Tombouctou, Gao, and Kidal - hereinafter, “the North”). This paper sets out to examine this “Touareg Rebellion” of the 1990s.4 I explore the rebellion’s causes, the peacebuilding efforts that brought it to an end and the region’s prospects for continued peace. This introductory chapter presents an overview of the significance of my findings, the research questions and methodology on which I based this work, and an outline of the entire paper. 1 Bureau o f African Affairs, “Background Note: Mali,” U.S. Department o f State, http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ei/bgn/2828.htm (accessed December 3,2007). This background notes states that “Malians enjoy a relative harmony rare in African states.” 2 “Tombouctou” is known to Americans as “Timbuktu.” 3 At the time of the rebellion, Kidal was not formally recognized as a separate region, but within the North, it was viewed as separate from Gao for cultural, historical, and climactic reasons. I discuss this in the body of the text later in the introduction. 4 International news and academic sources describe these events as the “Touareg rebellion,” but Malians refer to it simply as “the rebellion.” In the “Background” chapter o f this paper I explain the origins o f the “Touareg” name, which is not indigenous to Mali. 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2 Significance of Findings There is no significant body of literature on Mali’s Touareg rebellion. The conflict was small by global standards, and occurred in an isolated part of a country that receives little international press, especially in Anglophone news sources.5 Despite its small scale, much stands to be learned from study of this conflict. From an academic perspective, the causes of the Touareg Rebellion are not easily explained by current theories. This paper synthesizes new primary research with literature on the causes of the Touareg Rebellion (herein after “Mali-specific literature”) and generic literature on causes