1. CONSTITUTION OF THE TEMPLE (DECEMBER 1 1, 18171.

THE NEW ISRAELITE TEMPLE ASSOCIATION

Þ &gl Çince public worship has for some time been NOTES w neglected by so aIl *J many, because of the ever decreas- 1. The New Israelite Temple Association of Hamburg ing knowledge gc of the language in which alone it has instituted the first systematic Reform worship services; now been ar until conducted, and also because of many it was founded by sixty-six Jews, led by Eduard Kley SC other shortcomings which have crept in at the same (1789-1867), Meyer Israel Bresselau (1785-1839) and to time-the undersigned, convinced of the necessity Seckel Isaak Fraenkel (1765-1835)-all of them lay- to restore public worship to its deserving dignity men. The l-Iamburg Temple was dedicated on October yc and importance, have joined together to follow the 18, 1818, the anniversary of the Battle of Leipzig, which rh example of several Israelite congregations, especially marked the liberation of from Napoleonic dc the one in Berlin.2 They plan to arrange in this city rule. Some historians see an ideological motive not gL also, for themselves as well as others who think as only in this gesture but also behind the Reformers' w{ they do, a dignified and well-ordered ritual accord- naming their a "temple," That is, that by ir ing to which the worship service shall be conducted adopting the designation traditionally reserved for the sh on the Sabbath and holy days and on other solemn fallen Temple of , the Reformers symboli m occasions, and which shall be observed in their own cally relinquished the hope of Israel's restoration and frt templq to be erected especially for this purpose. declared Hamburg their Jerusalem. Other historians CS Specifically, there shall be introduced at such services ascribe to the Reformers the more innocent motive of bt In a Cerman sermon, and choral singing to the accom- simply wishing to distinguish their house of worship paniment of an organ. from, the traditional synagogue of Hamburg. oJ Feast of Weeks (Shauuot) in the year 1815, Incidentally, the above-mentioned ritual shall 2. On the Israel (1768- 1B2B)-the father of German Reform, y( not be confined to services in the temple; rather it Jacobson the founder of a Reform temple in Sessen, Westphalia- shall apply to all those religious customs and acts of inaugurated a "privafe" Reform worship sewice in his p( daily life which are sanctified by the church3 or by Berlin home. Later the services moved to the home of tit their own nature. Outstanding amongst these are the Iacob Herz-Beer, a wealthy Berlin banke¡. Due to the hr entrance of the newly-born into the covenant the of opposition of the conservative Prussian govemment, fathers, weddings, and the like. Also, a religious cer- the Reform synagogue of Berlin was closed down in "T emony shall be introduced in which the children of 1817. Eduard Kley had served as a preacher in Beer's rh both sexes, after having received adequate schooling s)¡na8o8ue. fir in the teachings of the faith, shall be accepted as con- 3. This word was intended to underscore the purely reli- ol firmants of the Mosaic religion. gious character of the Hamburg Temple. br

C¿ (c CI

Source: W. Cunther Plart, The Rise of Reform ludaism: A Sourceboolz of Its European Orlglns (New York: World Union for Progressive , òc 1963), pp. 31ff. Reprinted by permission of the World Union for Progressive Judaism. th 182 Tñ Emerging Patterns of Religious Adjustment: Reform, Conservatiue, Neo-Orthodox, and Ultra-Orthodox ludaism 187 It i i']l ;r.-ü :ìi Jewish Intellectual History, ed. A. Altmann, Philip W. period. Constituting the supreme authority in mat- Lown Institute of Advanced Judaic Studies, Brandeis ters of religious practice and law it was considered University [Cambridge Mass.: Harvard University the link between the prophets and the first of the rab- Press, 19641, vol. 2, p. 65). bis. This body is said to have established the main L5 The author supports this position by citing a long text of the traditional liturgy. passage from the Babylonian , tractate 17. PsaÌms 137:5. Berakhot 3a. 18. Deut. 4:6. 16. The Great Assembly is the hnesset hagdolah-the insti- 19. See , Commentary on ¿h¿ Mishnah, tution that embodied the spiritual leadership of the Sanhedrin 1:11. See also Maimonides, Guide to the fewish people at the beginning of the Second Temple Perplexed, 2:11; 3:31.

3. THESE ARE THE WORDS OF THE COVENANT (1819)1

THE HAMBURG RABBINICAL COURT

ffhese are the words of the covenant with Iacob, a is our duty to praise [the Lord of alll";z and all the E law unto Israel, an etemal covenanû the word of more so [is it prohibited] to make any deletions in God is one forever and ever. [These words are uttered] the traditional liturgy. in accordance with the Torah and by judgment of the 2. It is forbidden to pray in any language other rabbinical court of the holycommunity of Hamburg- than the Holy Tongue. Every prayer-book that is may the Lord bless it well-with the support of the printed improperly and not in accordance with our leading men of learning in Germany, Poland, France, [traditional] practice is invalid, and it is forbidden to Italy, Bohemia, Moravia and Hungary. All of them join pray from it. together, in an edict decreed by the angels and a judg- 3. It is prohibited to play a musical instrument ment proclaimed by the holy ones, to abolish a nsw in the synagogue on the Sabbath and on the festivals law (whichwas fabricated by several ignorant individ- even when it is played by a non-few uals unversed in the Torah) instituting practices which Happyis the manwho heeds the decree ofthe sages are not in keeping with the Law of Moses and of Israel. of the court of justice and the words of the learned, Therefore these pious, learned, holy and distinguished pious and holy. Happy is the man who does not have risen to render the Law secure [against remove himself from the congregation, in order that such infractionsl. They have discovered a breach [of he may walk in the way of the good. He who desires the Law] and have sought to contain it with prescrip- the integrity of his soul will take utmost care lest he tions forbidding the three cardinal sins [of Reform]: transgress, Heaven forbid, the words of the learned 1. It is forbidden to change the worship that is contained in this volume, as the sages of the Talmud, customary in Israel from Morning Benedictions to "lt may their memory be blessed, said: "Pay heed to their

Source: Eleh diwei habrit (Altona, 1S19), pp. 1, 3-5. Trans. by S. Fischer and S. Weinstein, 188 'rHtì tEw IN'I'l{li Mr

l I ! in affirming that the r legaq." Who is the man who fears the Lord and will prophets have been unanimous i not fear the words of the forry pious, exalted and holy God of our fathers would gather our scattered ones, I men who have affixed their signatures to this book, and this is our hope throughout our Exile. This belief from the honor of Their Majesties sparing [thereby] himself and his household? in no way detracts By Order of the Court of Justice of the Holy the kings and ministers under whom we find protec- Community of Hamburg. tion, for it is common knowledge that we believe in messiah and the ingathering of the . . . Behold, we had hoped that these men [who have the coming of the introduced Reform] would have attended to our words exiles. No one has ever dared to object to this belief and listened to the voice of their teachers, who alone are of ours, because they know that we are obligated to fit to express an opinion on matters conceming what is seek the well-being of the peoples who have brought permitted and what is prohibited. In former times the us under their protection. They have bestowed much men of our proud city have listened to the voice of their good and kindness upon us, may God grant them teachers, who told them the path theywere to take. We success in all their actions and works. Our opinion had thought that our judgment would be honored and here corresponds to that which the learned men of that they would not dare to disobey our utterance, for our time, may their light shine, have elaborated in ourstrength now is as it was formerly. their letters. Ile who rejects this belief denies [one ofi But we hoped in vain, for these men disobeyed the fundamental tenets of our religion. Woe to the the counsel [of their teachers] and sank into sin. ears that have heard that men have arisen in Israel to They quickly built for themselves a house of prayeç do violence to the foundations of our holy faith. which they called a temple, and published a prayer- Yet with all this they are not content, for their book for Sabbaths and festivals, which has caused hands are still outstretched and they continue to do great sorrow and brought tears to our eyes over the evil. At the dedication of their house of prayer men destruction ofour people. For they have added to and and women sang together at the opening of the ark, deleted from the text of the prayers according to their in contradiction to the law set out in the Talmud and hearts' desires. They have eliminated the Morning in the Codes: "a woman's voice is indecent."6 Such Benedictions and the blessing for the Torah and have [an abomination] is not done in our house of prayer, discarded Psalm 145, as well as other psalms from which has replaced the Temple, throughout the entire the morning prayers. They have set their hands upon Diaspora of the sanctified ones of Israel. Who has the text of the recitation of "Hear, O Israel," and in heard or seen such a thing? In addition, they play a the wickedness of their hearts have deleted the texts musical instrument (an organ) on the holy Sabbath of "To God who rested," "God the Lord," "True and and have abolished the silent prayer. They have even firm" and "There is none to be compared to Thee."3 abolished the reading of a selection from the Prophets Moreover, they have printed most of the prayers in on the Sabbath [after the reading of the weekly por- German rather than in Hebrew Worst of all, they tion from the Pentateuch] as well as the reading of have perpetrated a sore evil by removing all refer- the four portions [of the Pentateuch read in addition ences to the belief in the Ingathering of the Exiles. to the weekly portion on the four Sabbaths preced- the [Their deletions include] the text "Lead us with an ing Passover]. On Purim the congregation recited upright bearing to our land" in the benediction prayer "Grant us discernment" instead of the Eighteen "With great Iove,"a the text "Who will raise us up in Benedictions, and in the evening they read the Book printed text than ioy to our land?" in the Additional Seruice lMusaflfor of Esther in German from a [rather the Sabbath and the texts "Bring us in jubilation to from a handwritten Hebrew scrolll. Lack of space pre- {; Zion your city" and "Gather our scattered ones from vents the inclus,ion of all their pernicious customs and lt.. the Service for fes- practices by means of which they have chosen to dis- :,Ìl among the nations" in Additional ji;: obey the Holy One of Israel and to defy the holy sages tl:l tivals. They have thereby testified concerning them- selves that they do not believe at all in the promise of blessed memory the court of their city and the vast of our teacher Moses, may he rest in peace: "lf any majority of our community who are God-fearing and of thine that are dispersed be in the uttermost parts faithful and fulfill the commandments of God. of heaven, from thence will the Lord thy God gather Thus we have resolved that this is not the time to thee, and from thence will He fetch thee."s This belief place our hands over our mouths and to be silent. is one of the maior tenets of our holy Torah. All the Were we to remain silent we would be commiting lV c Emerging Patterns of Religious Adjustment: Reform, Consentatiue, Neo-Oîthodox, and LJltra- 1g9

a sin, for [the Reformers] would say the rabbis are counsels of the perverse who walk upon a crooked silent and [their] silence [is to be consrrued] as con- parh. sent. With honeyed words they would lead astray rhe God-fearing and the faithful who in rìeir innocence NOTES would follow them. [The Reformers] would say ro them: "Behold, the path upon which we walk is good. 1. In response to Liebermann's Nogah hazedeh and Or Come, let us join together and be one people." And so nogah, the rabbinic courr of Hamburg published this the Torah, Heaven forbid, would disappear. Brethren, volume of responsa (halakhic opinions) on the admissi- the Children of Israel, it shall not be; Israel has not bility of Reform, solicited from Europe's foremost rab- yet been abandoned. There are still judges in the land bis, including inter alios Eger of posen, prussia who are zealous for God's sake and who will rend the (1761-1837), Moses Sofer of Pressburg, Hungary arm, and even crack the skull, of him who pursues (1763-1839) and Mordecai Benet, chief rabbi of Moravia (1253-1829). The the sin [of Reformers]. To these judges we shall has- appearance of this vol_ ume, which comprised ten for aid. They will rise up and help us abolish the twenty-two responsat "may be said to mark the beginning coalescence of an Orthodox [wicked] counsel [of the Reformers] and strengthen party opposed to all tampering with tradition,, (W. our religion. Accordingly, we have girded our loins and Gunther Plaut, The Rße of Reþrm A Sourcebooh written to the famous leamed men of the holy com- ludaism: of Its European Origins [New York: Worìd Union for munities of Germany, Poland, Bohemia, Moravia and Progressive Judaism, 19631, p. 3a). Italy. We have sent them our legal judgment, which 2. Prayer appearing at the end of the evening sewices as we mentioned above, and we asked them if after close well as the morning services. and careful study by means of their clear and pure rea- 3. These prayers are part of the morning service for son they would confirm judgment all that is in our Sabbaths and lestivals. as being proper. In this way we can make public the 4. Prayer appearing before the recitation of "Hear, abomination that has been committed in Israel. Every O Is¡ael ..." in the morning service for weekdays, pious man who fears the word of God will pay heed Sabbaths and festivals. to the words of the learned men of our time, may their 5. Deut.30:4. light shine, and to our words. He shall nor follow the 6. Tälmud, tractate Berahhot 24a and tractate Ki ddushin Z 0a.

4. A REPLY CONCERNING THE OUESTION OF REFORM (181911

HATAM SOFER

L îT.ll- the Rabbi of GreatLearningand Renown, Your fletter] has reached me and has shocked and venerable'lþacher Rabbi \oclÄi,"t, Moses Sofer, May overwhelmed me with its bitter tidings. For it brings preserve him, president tx of the [Rabbinic] Court the news that men who do not submit to the yoke ?ressburg ro rhe r'otnmunitl [Rabbinic] Court of thã Holy of heaven have lately appeared, seeking to nullify of Hamburg. the covenant through devious schemes against the

Source: Eleharrrnr Ho 190 THD tDw IN THIì M(

Hanasi], the compiler of the Mishnah'7 Not one of religion of our forefathers. One of their innovations is these ságes is mentioned either in the Mishnah or in thaf their house of prayer should be tightly closed on a very few of them were mentioned on the Sabbath' Would that the Beraìta.8 Only weekdays and only open commentary on for they have in Maimonides' introduction to his even then its doors would be closed, out of received the tractate Zeraim of the Talmud'e Moreoveç altered the text of the prayers which we have all their sayings only a small number of the shorter from the men of the Great Assembly,'?the sages of the have been mentioned. Without doubt it would Talmud, and our hallowed fathers' They have added ones have been possible to make a great book out of the to and deleted from the liturgy, substituting texts of of ãach of the sages and their disciples' in invention. exarnple,] they have elimi- sayings their own IFor the Mishnah as well as both which are explained .o-påriro.t with which nated the Morning Benedictions, appear the Babylonian and Jerusalem would in chapter 3 of the tractate Beral¿hot [of the Mishnah]' to be minor works containing only a small amount und they have also discarded [the benediction for] of wisdom. The reason [for the limited number of the flourishing of the House of David, our messiah' extant sayings] is that the sages winnowed and sifted and for the rebuilding of Jerusalem the Holy City' their words to extract the choicest wheat' Concerning Moreover, they have appointed a non-Jew to play this Rabbi Simon stated at the end of chapter 6 of the a musical instrument in their presence on the holy Gittin: "My sons, learn my rules [lit- which is forbidden us' and signif- Talmudic tractate Sabbath, [a matter] of the cream l,ìr.r erally "measures"], for they are the cream icantly the majority of their Prayers are in Cerman' I which I of Rabbi Akiba.'/r0 Afterwards, the choicest statements l This is a concise summary of the letter were set down in the Mishnah and the Talmud' have received this evening from your glorious excel- Now these statements issued from the mouths of You have requested me to affiliate myself with lencies. men, whose minds were full of time, who repair the wise and discerning the lions, the learned men of our profound opin- knowledge and ideas and who possessed a breaches of our generation, and to express my :li understanding of all the sciences' Over the centuries jl: ion whether the iruth is with you or not' What shall these ideas have been recurrently clarified by thou- I reply? Is it not well known that in exile the delight- For nearly two thousand years they "kneeled upon his knees three times a day' sands of sages. ful bániel Israel and no one has dared as he did have been in and prayed, and gave thanks before his God' "Átubli.h"dmouth to protest them] ' But now this it is explained that even "afoÍe- to open his [against aforåtiÁe."t From breach the walls decreed insiinificant foxes have risen up to time," [that is to say] before the Chaldeans and-destroy the fence [that has been erected around their eàict Jewish prayer], he would pray [forbidding to change the texts the prayers] not only on the Sabbath'a In the the Law]. Tirey seek [of three times daily and and and thetenedictions and to alter the hours times tractate Berahhot our sages of blessed memory inter- have been appointed [for their recitation]' preted "aforetime" to mean even when the Temple that Regarding matters of iudgment, one court cannot was in existence, as is stated there, "Was it only in the ruling of another court unless it is greater this began]?"s abolish captivity [that the reason the the Second in numbers and wisdom. Even if [for . . .lt is known that in the days of the regulation is not voided' This is Israel dwelt in its land' wielding rulingl is invalid Commonwealth of the liturgy that is in usage and honor for sev- so in the case the mler's scepter with greatness in throughóut"rp"aâtty Israel. Even though variant texts exist eral hundred years. [During that period] there were ,.u"r^i places, liturgy] is nevertheless considered among them great sages, whose sole occupation [the *idesprËad throughout Israel, since from the with the Torah. They and their students num- to be was was established solely for the They had great and excel- beginning one version bered tens of thousands. without now being RsËk"nurim, and disseminated among them lent academies similar to [universities] among They dissent, while another version was established established by all the rulers in their big cities' the Sephardim and disseminated among them with- also had a Sanhedrin6 which set up protective fences the Law], enacted decrees and maintained out dissent.. '. [around Reformers] stand up and After them came tens of Therefore let them [the àrr"tyttti"g in goád order. the be counted with the sages of our generation; may thoúsands of their disciples and the disciples of their grace of the Lord be upon them! These men cannot disciples, who preceded our hallowed rabbi [ludah lv c Emerging Patterns of Religious Adjustment: Reform, Conseruatiue, Neo-Orthodox, and Uhra-Orthodox ludaism 1g'l

choice remove make the to themselyes from the con- for the Lord repays with kindness those who do good. If they gregation. will say: "we do not accept the sages Nevertheless, no harm is done if we long to return to Tälmud of the and their authority," they shall bear our patrimony. From this good that the Lord bestows burden of the words the of Maimonides: "He who upon us the nations of the world will also benefit. ... the Oral Law .. repudiates . is classed with atheists The nations [knew all this regarding our beließ] and any person has a right to put to death],,,l1 [whom were nevervexed. But perhaps these men [the Reformers] more Nothing [need be said]. neither anticipate nor believe at all in the words of our if someone [Whatj will claim that the reason for prophets conceming the building of the praying for the flourishing of the glory of the Messiah and the coming of the messiah. Nor do they seem to of David and for Son the restoration of worship [in believe all that is said by our sages of blessed memory Temple] is in any the case invalid, since we are dwell_ regarding these matters. If this is so, then retum to the peace ing in and tranquility among Their Majesties words of Maimonides mentioned above.... the kings of the nations? This is not so, for as I have With respect to the fact that [the Reformers,] com- already written abovg even in the days of the kings munal prayer is [conducted] in a language other than of the Second Commonwealth prayers were recited the Holy Tongue, this is completely reprehensibte. . . . for the rule of the House David, of for when that If the reason for this [practice] is that the common comes to pass we [all humanity] will all be around people do not understand the Holy Tongue, it would to behold the goodness of the Lord. We do not need be better if it were arranged to have each one learn to eat the fruits and be sated with the goodness [of the meaning of the prayers and recite them in Hebrew an easy and tranquil life among the nations. Were than to arrange for them to pray in another language. this so] one could then make the blasphemous One does act in such a fashion before a king of flesh claim: "Have we not found tranquility and goodness and blood. He who speaks with the king must speak among the Gentiles, so what need have we for the the language of the king it is not proper that the king ?" Heaven forbidl We do not pour out speak the language of the [common] people, even our hearts and wait in anticipation all our days for though he understands it. Nachmanides writes in the an illusory material tranquility. Rather our hope is to beginning of his commentary to the portionKi tisaht3 dwell in rhe presence of God there [in the land of that the Holy One, Blessed be He speaks with His Israell, the place designated for His service and for prophets in Hebrew. Our sages of blessed memory the observance of His Torah. This does depre- not said that the world was created in Hebrew. . . . cate the king and ministers under whose protection If this is so, then this is the language of the Floly we live. Nehemia the son of Hakhaliyah was viceroy One, Blessed be He in which He gave us His Torah to fhe king, enjoying honor and riches. [yet] he was and it is inconceivable to speak before Him in our saddened by the fact that the city, the place of the everyday language. Rather, we should speak the spe- tombs of his fathers [Ierusalem], lay in waste, its gates cial language befitting His holy words. This is rhe consumed with fire.12 The king [granted his request to opinion of the men of the Great Assembly who estab- return ro lerusaleml and did nor do evil by replying, lished the texts of the prayers and benedictions in the Have you not riches and all good things in my ser_ Holy Tongue. He who deviates [from this practiceÌ 'i vice? Why do you make this request?,, foieach people is in the wrong, while he who upholds the words of rl. rollows the r.1i service of its God. our sages of blessed memory and the customs of our Behold, we are as prisoners the 1ti' - of war of the forefathers, has the advantage. He shall perform i:il destrucdon the [of the Second Temple]. In the abun- will of his Creator and be blessed by God. dance of FIis mercy and the righteousness of our Therefore you have acted in accordance cltspersion, with the the Lord had us find favor in the eyes Torah when you declared in your holy synagogue that of the kings and ministers of the nations, for whose it is forbidden to pray from the German prayerbooks well-being we are obligated to entreat and for whose of the Reformers and that one may pray [only] in we :afery are ro pray. [We do so] not rhat we mighr Hebrew according to the versions contained in tradi- repay them with evil, Heaven forbid, for they hãve tional prayerbooks. Your prohibition of the playing of uestowed great many kindnesses upon us in the past a musical instmmenr (organ) in the holy synagogue, two thousand years. Their reward will surely be gieat, especially on the holy Sabbath, is also proper. May 192 THE JEw IN THE MoDERN woRt'D

God be with you' J. Dan.6:11. our hands be strengthened and may that 4. In the Book of Daniel, chapter 6, it is related the There is no doubt that all the learned men' the sages plotters against Daniel persuaded the Chaldean king time, will concur with this prohibition' They of our to promulgate a decree forbidding anyone to address agree in forbidding every soul in Israel agree and I a petition to anyone but himself for thirry days, thus detail of all that is said above' prayer' tã change ot" effectively, they thought, proscribing |ewish "* be saved from all evil and io merit the We will"thus 5. See Talmud, tractate Berakhot 3la' rebuilding of the TemPIe. An assembly of seventy-one ordained rabbinic sages Moon of the 6. tuesdãy, Second day of the New functioning both as supreme court and legislature' (5579)' month of Tevet, Hannukah 1819 See chapter 3, document 15' Hanasi 7. Collection of oral laws compiìed by Iudah in NOTES the third century c.e' These laws together with com- the Talmud' as Hatam mentaries on them, the Gemara, form 1. Moses Sofer (1762-1839)' Popularly known he "External teaching"; oral laws of the Mishnaic period Sofer, he was bom in Frankfurt am Main' In 1806 8. the which were not included in the Mishnah' was appointed rabbi of Pressburg at the time introduction, the famed philosopher and most important Jewish community in Hungary' where 9. In this his scholar Maimonides (1135-1204) actually presents a he remained for. the rest of his life' Celebrated for of the Oral Law from Moses until his own day' Talmudic erudition and his religious virtue' he was the history Europe' Talmud, tractate Cittin 67a' recognized leader oftraditional fewry in Central 10. The Code of Maimonides' book Talmudic academy (yeshiuah) served as the 11. "Book of fudges," His iamed Yale move- 14, trans. Abraham Hershman (New Haven: center of Orthodoxy's struggle againstthe Reform press, 1949), ch' 3, par' 7' p' L43' ment. His adamant opposition to modemism in any University 2:5. form is eloquently expressed in his ethical testâment' 12. See Neh. reference is Exod. 31' Nachmanides or Moses published numerous times and still popular among the 13. The ben Nachman (1194-1270), a Spanish rabbi inter alia ultra-Orthodox. See this chapteç document 6' noted for his halakhic and biblical commentaries' 2. See document 2, note 16 in this chapter'

5. THE SWORD WHICH AVENGES THE COVENANT (1819)1

MEYER ISRAEL BRESSELAU

and reproach also' They see false visions spread slander2 authors of "These for shame Those who [the gathered unto them wofth- have recounted and divine lies; ttrey have I ffi:ffi;ijr äi in" covenant"l to less and reckless people, brutish men' skillful that which they have neither seen nor heard. The destroy, every mafrthat is-mad and maketh himself Lord hath not spoken to them yet they presume to a prophet'3 'These are the words of the covenant speak in His name, not for heli or for benefit, but "

ffihamberit(Hamburg,1819).Trans.inDona1dB.Rossoff,AnAnnotatødTîanslationofHereunokemet1981)' Reprinted by permission of Hebrew uãion cáttege-lewish Institute of Religion, neham berit(rabbinical ordinarion disserration, Donald B. Rossoff. 200 'fHrì IEw IN Tf{D MoDlìRN woRLD

prac- contravene his ruling? In any event, it is evident that Hatam Sofer would also preach' Now it was his he considered Mendelssohn a heretic, and his book tice never to recite a verse from Scripture by heart' heretical work. That is why he had no compunc: and he visited my community] he requested a [when Heidenheim's translation of the Torah; a piinted Humashs containing the appropriate tions about I it was specifically Mendelssohn's translation and *"Ëny reading. At the time, I owned three printed commentaries that he interdicted' He would not editions of thã Torah. One was an Amsterdam edi- touch them, he kept them at a distance, for they tion with the standard Targumsa and commentaries' had the status of heretical works (see Babylonian That edition I used to keep in the synagogue over Talmud, Sabbath 11 6a-b). But we never heard that, the Sabbath, so that it would not be necessary for if perchance a volume of Mendelssohn's Biur came me to carry it on the Sabbath' [It, therefore' was not inio his hands, he cast it to the ground'e available in my home.] Another edition-printed in illl Vienna-belonged to my wife, the Rebbeøin's and it, too, was kepl in the synagogue over the Sabbath NOTES the only one I kept 1879), known as the Maharam, for her use. The third edition, 1 . Rabbi Moses Schick (d. in the house, contained Mendelssohn's translation was a close disciple of Hatam Sofer and rabbi and printed (yeshiuøh) of and Biur.When the Hatam Sofer requested a headmaster of the rabbinical academy called Hust' This Humash, and those who were providing for his needs Vergin, a town near Pressburg, then fo a responsum (on a matter knew that it was his practice not to use the edition document is a postscripL to Rabbi Hillel Lichtenstein with Mendelssohn's Biur, he was informed that they of rabbinic law) addressed 1865, the is a reply to a could not locate a printed Humash' Given the circum- (d. 1891). Dated PostscriPt Lichentstein's son-in-law, Joseph stances, he proceeded to preach and cited the verses query by (d. 1922) as to whether it is true that Torah] ùy heart. He was astounded, however' that Schlesinger [the despised Mendelssohn's Biør that he not be located in the Rabbi's house! Hatam Sofer so à Humashcould The significance of Torah in my home' once tossed a copy ofit to the Sround' After the exchange of words vehement of Rabbi Schick's reply is that it confirms the the pious and righteous Rabbi Hirsch Tyrnau' who obiection to the Mendelssohn Bir'¿r as embodying to his as a member of the Hatam Sofer's family' was ireated ethos of the Hashalah' he was staying' mind the assimilatory went to visit him at the home where is based Gaon, Hebrew meaning "excellency" or "pnde"' queried him about the shortage of 2. The Hatam Sofer as Psalm 47"5: "He chose our Tyrnau on such biblical passages the Rabbi's house' Rabbi Hirsch He loved'" Humashimin heritage for us, the pride (Gaon) of Jacob whom to the Hatam Sofer what had really by then explained This purely honorific title is given to Talmudic scholars occurred. their disciPles. i at arrived for the Minhah sewice6 fwe' Humash ís one rìllr When I 3. Derived from the Hebrew word for lrl. Sofer was staying' the home where the Hatam of the Hebrew terms for the Five Books of Moses' also from 'lrl , rebuked me for reading and studying or Torah' rti he known as the Pentateuch that a respected refer- :lil Mendelssoh n'sBiur.l informed him 4. Targum is the Hebrew fo¡ translation; here the colleague, who was considered a righteous Jew even i, to translations of the Bible from Hebrew into the by the" Hatam Sofer, testified before me that "rlãanother language especially Aramaic' One of these' well-known Gaon tsedto study tlrre Biur' especially Targum from the 2nd century c'B'' is deemed of the the book of Leviticus. The Hatam Sofer responded mo-st authe.rtic and is printed in most editions that, in truth, the Gaon did not do well in this mat- Humash. that given to the wife of a ter. I also excused myself by informing him 5. Rebbetzin is the Yiddish title I had read through the entire Biur' and did not rabbi. sessions of daily find anything that even smacked of heresy or a Minhah is the second of three passage that was suspect in any way! The Hatam prayers. lTh" in Deuteronomy is lacking in the Sofer responded: "See the Biur to Deuteronomy' 7. ou., reference version of R. Schick's ïesponsum' The origi- chapter so and so,7 and you will find a heretical published however, referred to Mendelssohn's transla- cornment." Although the passage he cited is not ,rat t""t, tion and to Deuteronomy 2:lo-2l" necessarily decisive, nonetheless, the Hatam Sofer [of] [commentary] who would (translator's note). has ruled ithat the Biur isheretical] and lV o Emerging Patterns of Retigious Adjustment: Ret'orm, Consentatiue, Neo-Orthodox, and Ultra-Orthodox ludaism 2O1

Wolf Heidenheim (1757-1832) was a Judaica scholar 9. "Rabbi Moses Schick's denial was to no avail. Schlesinger and publisher, especially known for his elegant and found other witnesses who testified that the Hatam scholarly editions of the Hebrew littrrgy. His German Sofer had at least on one occasion cast Mendelssohn's translation of the Pentateuch, with a commentary, Biur fo the ground" (translator's note). appeared in 181B-1821.

8. THE OUESTION OF PATRIOTISM (JUNE 184411

THE REFORM RABBINICAL CONFERENCE AT BRUNSWICK

*fenth Session, Iune 18, 1844. Continuation of Hrnscs:5 Differentiating between love for the N the committee report regarding Philippson's'? fatherland and love for mankind, he proposes an proposal [to endorse the position of the French answer analogous to that of the Parisian notables. Sanhedrin on lewish patriotisml. Holru¡tr'.r:6 He traces the commandment of rec- Question 4 [addressed to the Sanhedrin]: Do ognition and love for fellow countrymen back to the Jews consider Frenchmen as their brethren or as the Pentateuch, where the love of the Israelite for strangers? Answer [of the Sanhedrin]: French Jews are the Israelite does not refer to their common reli- the brethren of Frenchmen. gion, but to their common peoplehood. What was The committee recommended that [the present once a commandment for the Israelite with regard assembly adopt the following statementl: The Jew to his fellow Israelite, must also oblige us with regard considers members of the people with whom he lives to our contemporary compatriots-to the Germans. his brethren. The doctrine of Judaism is thus, flrst your compa- Plenum discussion. A. A-ulan:3 He wants it to be triots fVaterlandsgenossel then your co-religionists said that the Jews consider not only the people with lGlaubensgenossel. whom they live as brethren, but all mankind. Do A. Aoln& therefore, suggests the following pro- not all men, according to the prophets, have but one posal: The Jew achnowledges euery man as his brother. be one Father?. . . But he acknowledges his fellow counhTman to FR¡¡xruRrER:a This is quite right. It is, however, not with whom he is connected by a particular bond, a bond a question of ethics, but of politics. For Judaism, the forged by the effort to realize common political pur- principle of human dignity is cosmopolitan, but I poses [Sraafseweckel.... would like to put proper emphasis on the love for the NOTES particular people Iamongwhom we live] and its indi- vidual members. As men, we love all mankind, but 1. It was graduaÌly realized that unless the nascent movement as Germans, we love the Germans as the children of of Reform ceased to be merely the desultory effort of iso- our fatherland. We are, and ought to be, patriots, not lated congregations it would never obtain the authority to challenge the supremacy of Orthodox-Judaism' Abraham merely cosmopolitans. . . .

Source: Protoholle der ersten Rabbiner-Versammlung... (Braunschweig, 1844), pp.74-76. Trans. by ). Flessing. 2O2 rHD tttw IN THI M(

(1811-1889), rabbi and preachei Geiget the most eminent figure in early Reform, argued Ludwig Philippson Supporting a of moder¿¡s: that the necessary authority could be obtained only if rab- at Magdeburg. Program he to steer a middle course between radi- bis supportingreligious changewould confer and establish Reform, tried He was founder and editor common principles and a common program for lìeform' cal Reform and Orthodoxy. circulated publication of In August 1837 Geiger initiated a largely stillbom confer- of the most widely Iewish the Zeitung des ]udentums; the newspaper ence of like-minded rabbis in Wiesbaden, Germany The t\me, Allgemeine the struggle for emancipation first organizationally successful rabbinical conference on was prominent in Iewish against antisemitism. Reform took place fiom the twelfth to the nineteenth of and in the f,ght Abraham Adler (1S13-1856), rabbi atWorms; \q June 1844. Twenty-five rabbis fiom throughout Cermany 3. Iacob of radical Reform' attended. The above document is extracted fiom the pro- was an exponent (1S10-1866), from 1840 to l866 tocol of the conference. 4. Naphtali Frankfurter Reform temple in Hamburg; identifred At the session of June fourteenth, Ludwig Philippson preacher at the moved that the conference endorse the patriotism with the most radical wing of Reform. (1S15- 1889), chief rabbi in Luxembourg expressed by the Parisian Sanhedrin in response to 5. Samuel Hirsch to the United the fourth question posed by Napoleon regarding from 1843 to 1866; he then eurigrated where he was rabbi of Congregation Keneseth the Jews'sentiments toward their fellow countrymen' States, 1BBB Opposed to the Philippson's motion was referred to a committee, Israel in Philadelphia until by radical lay groups, he upheld which, at the session of June eighteenth, submitted unsystematic reforms and the use of Hebrew in the its recommendation to accept the motion. "By basing the rite of circumcision was the first rabbi to advo- itself upon the French Sanhedrin, the first gathering public prayer service; yet, he the transfer of the Sabbath to Sunday, and he car- of Iewish representatives resulting from the changes cate superinduced by the political emancipation of the ried this out in the United States. 6. Samuel Holdheim (1806-1860), rabbi of the province Jews. . ., the conference, whether consciously or uncon- from 1840 to 1846' In 1847 sciously, declared itself the official voice of the modern of Mecklenburg-Schwerin to serve as the rabbi of the spirit" (D. Philippson, The Reþrm Mouement in ludaism' he accepted an invitation founded Reform congregation of Berlin, which rev. ed. [New York Ktav Publishing House, 1967], newly guidance became a center of radical Reform' pp. 159ff.). See chapter 3, documents 15 and 16' under his

9. HEBREW AS THE LANGUAGE OF JEWISH PRAYER (1845)1

THE REFORM RABBINICAL CONFERENCE AT FRANKFURT

for the dme ffhird Session, morning, fuly 16, 1845-..'The not necessary is its retention advisable ! President moves that it would seem desirable to being? With respect to question discuss the report [of the Commission on Liturgy] Report of the committee: not in every instance immediately. one, the is necessary for the service, nor does the Question 1: To what degree is the Hebrew lan- objectiuely prescribe it' But guage necessary for the public prayer service and, if Talmud, with very minor exceptions,

am Main, 1845), pp. 1'8ff 32tr' Trans' by I Hessing' Source: protokolle und Ahtenstueche der zweiten Rabbíner-versammlung. .. (Frankfurt ' IV . Emerging Patterns of Religious Adjustment: Refonn, Consettatiue, Neo-Orthodox, and Ult¡a-Orthodox ludaism 2O3

since a large part of the Israelites in contemporary The reform of Judaism, moreover, is not a reform Germany seem to feel a subjective necessity for it, the of faith, but one of religious commandments. These committee considers the use of the Hebrew language still live within the people and exert their influence. advisable for typical parts of the liturgy: the barechu,2 We are not called upon to weaken, but rather to the parshat shema,3 the three first and three last bene- strengthen this influence. We must not consider the dictions of the liturgy and the blessings upon read- individuals who do not abide by them; we are not a ing of the Torah, should be recited in Hebrew; all party and must therefore take care of the whole. Now other parts of the liturgy may be recited in a German it is necessary to conserve the things which are truly adaPtation. sacred to the entire people, to prevent any schism The PnusrotNr, in accordance with the proposal in Israel. Rather than creating new parties, we must of the committee, now poses the question: Is pray- make peace between the existing ones... . ing in the Hebrew language objectiuely, legally necessary Fourth Session, afternoon, luly I 6, 1 I 45. . . . G¡.lceRs

s e expression of lob j ehtiu ge etz,li ch n o tw n di gl? demands a strict adherence to the FnaNxeLa takes the floor. He deems the occasion the problem as consisting of the following two important enough to begin with a few general obser- questions: vations. This rabbinical conference consists of the 1. Is the complete exclusion of the Hebrew lan- guides and teachers of the people. They are familiar guage from the liturgy in general desirable? with the people's needs and sorrow; it is their duty 2. Are there momentary considerations in favour to satist/ these needs, to alleviate these sorrows, and of a provisional solution? to prevent any discord [among the people]. It is the duty of the rabbinical conference to show and to Both questions, howeve! overlap and cannot be attest that it is moved by serious and sacred aspira- strictly separated in the debate. The speaker consid- tions. Its spokesmen, therefore, have to begin by stat- ers it desirable to pray in the mother tongue, which ing their principles.lt is the pride of Judaism that no is the language of the soul. Our deepest emotions person, and no social class, may presume authority, and feelings, our most sacred relationships, our but that every decision must evolve organically from most sublime thoughts find their expression in it. He principles and derive its validity therefrom. Points of feels compelled to admit that as regards himself- view may be stated and put to the vote, but without although Hebrew is his first mother tongue which he principles they are merely private opinions. First of has ìearnt before other languages, and a language he all, therefore, the people are entitled to an exposition knows thoroughly-a German prayer strikes a deeper

of our principles. . . . chord than a Hebrew prayer. The speaker now explains his principles: He stands The Hebrew language he continues, has ceased to for a positive, historical Judaism. [This approach pos- be alive for the peoplq and the language of flewish] its thatl in order to understand Judaism in the pre- prayer is certainly not the language of the Scripture sent one must look back and investigate its past. any more. It is obvious, moreover, that even a reading The positive forms of Judaism are deeply rooted from the Torah tires a large part of the community. within its innermost being and must not be discarded The introduction of the vernacular into the ser- coldly and heartlessly. Where would we be if we were vice, it is claimed, effects the disappearance of the to tear apart our inner life and let a new life spring Hebrew language and thus undermines the founda- ri : forth from our head as Minerva sprang forth from tions of Iudaism.lb this objection the speaker replies the head of lupiter. We cannot return to the letter of that anyone who imagines Iudaism to be walking on Scripture.The gap [between it and us] is roo wide to be the crutches of a language deeply offends it. By con- b,ridged. Even a new exegesis of the Bible is subject to sidering Hebrew as being of central importance to changing phases of schãlarship and could not serve Iudaism, moreover, one would define it as a national as a foundation of a firm edifice. Should we allow any religion, because a separate language is a characteris- influence ' of the Zeitgeist, of the spirit of the time? But tic element of a separate nation. But no member of Íhe Zeitgeistis as fickle as the times. Besides, it is cold. this conferenca the speaker concluded, would wish lt : Tuy seem reasonable, but it will never satisry, con- to link Judaism to a particular nation.... t?1" and calm the soul; Iudaism, on the other hand, Fifth Session, morning, lrsly 17 , 1 845. . . . FRa¡lxal , u'*ut. i, inspires and fills the soul with bliss. [takes the floor]. The ongoing debate, far from offering tuLil. 2O4 THE IEw IN THD MoDERN woRLD new ideas, has rather confirmed [Frankel's] point of priests, and Samuel among them that call upon His view. Geiger considers a language to be the mark of name. . . " [Ps. 99:6; cited in Hebrew], and theTalmud a separate nationalify and claims that the retention rightly remarks, "samuel is equivalent to Moses and of Hebrew would testify to our national aspirations; Aaron."10 If the original texts of the Scripture were to this point, however, is not essential to the question become the exclusive properry of a separate class of under consideration. The cause of emancipation has rabbis we should soon have a separation of priests nothing to do with religion, and no religious aspect and laymen again. But all of us object to the estab- should be sacrificed for it. Everything pertaining to Iishment of a caste of priests and wish to obliterate religion must be retained, and if our nationality were all memory of it. That is why our youth has to be religious, then we should openly confess to it. instructed in the Hebrew language so that it may In countries [that have granted the fews full] understand the service and the Scripture. emancipation,G such as Holland and France, he con- The speaker adds, however, that it is necessary to tinues, experience has fortunately shown that the conduct part of the service in German; but Hebrew Hebrew language does not prevent the Jews from must prevail. The language of revelation, in which being genuine patriots and from fulfilling all duties God has spoken to Moses, must act as an edi$'ing towards the state. One has to be very careful with stimulus. Hebrew in fact, is so essential to our ser- such expressions; our meetings are public, therefore vice that its use should have been secured by [halakhic] "O Sages, be careful with your words."t law; had anyone ever thought of abandoning the If Geiger goes on to claim that a German prayer Hebrew language, such a law would certainly have strikes a deeper chord in him than a Hebrew one, he been passed. The sages allowed another language makes a purely subjective statement. Most speakers besides Hebrew in the service [i.e., Aramaic]tt merely of Hebrew will feel differently, because this language out of consideration for the weak who could not find is a stronger expression of religious emotions; as wit- their peace of mind in a Hebrew prayer. They never nesses, the speaker calls upon the maiority of Rabbis thought of excluding the Hebrew language from the assembled here, who are familiar with the Hebrew TÞmple.... language. PnrLlppso¡t: All extremes are to be avoided, and Hebrew the speaker argues, is the language of according to the general consensus neither Hebrew our Scripture which contains every ingredient of nor German should be excluded from the service. The our religion. Religion must provide not only an question, then, is one of proportions. We do not work abstract but also an external bond between us and for the moment and for individual communities; we the deity, this being the reason for precepts such as work for the future and for the whole [of lewry]. The the tefilin\ and the mezuzahf in like mannet the use Hebrew and the German elements must be organi- of Hebrew in the prayers serves as an external bond. cally melted into one another. The language of the Scripture is a constant reminder We shall have to distinguish between prayer and of our Covenant with God. These various bonds and public seruices. A prayer is the expression of the par- reminders resemble the sheaf of arrows in the follow- ticular states and emotions of the soul, of happiness ing parable: As long as they remain bound together a and unhappiness, of ioy and of suffering, of sorrow sheaf of arrows is unbreakable, but as soon as single repentance and penance; here, a full understanding is arrows are removed from the sheaf it will quickly fall necessary and a foreign language utterly useless. The apart. Many characteristic elements of Judaism have public prayer seryices, on the other hand, do not refer been effaced by now, it is time to halt the process. to the individuallper sø]; public prayer is intended to There is another aspect to be considered as well. stimulate, to teach and to express the confession. The Bible has been given to the Jews as a pledge to be The Hebrew language certainly serves as a stim- safeguarded; they were called upon to carry it through ulus. In it, for the first time, the shema f"Hear, O the world for thousands of years. Mind you, not the Israel," Deut. 6:41, theunity of God was expressed; the priests of Israel alone were called upon to do so, but principle of pure love for mankind, "Thou shalt love all of Israel. Samuel already, by establishing schools thy neighbor as thyself" [Lev. 19:18; cited in Hebrew]; for prophets, undermined the hierarchy; it is there- the sentence of the equality of all men before the law fore written of him, "Moses and Aaron among his "one law and one ordinance" [Num. 15:16; cited o IV Emerging Patterns of Religious Adjustment: Reþrm, Consentatiue, Neo-orthodox, and Llln'a-orthotlox ludaism 2os

in Hebrewl; Moses spoke to God in Hebrew, "O We should not have any religious element wrested Lord God, Thou has begun to show Thy servant Thy from us. Granted. But we must first concur regard- greatness . . . " [Deut, 3:24]. God had begun to reveal ing the nature of religious elements. Language is not Himself to him. By using the original expressions, one of them. The shema l"Hear, O Israel"l sounds therefore, the public prayer service acts as a powerful much more religious to the German when spoken in stimulus. German, and much more ediSring to the Englishman When the Torah is read the Hebrew language will when spoken in English, than when spoken in also act as a teacher. This reading must not be abol- unintelligible Hebrew. With the elimination of the ished, otherwise the people would lose all contact Hebrew language [from the liturgy], then, nothing with the Scripture. . . would really be lost.... I vote for the introduction of

As a centÊr of the confessions the Hebrew language a purely German service. . . is indispensable. The German )ews are Germans, they Lo¡we¡rcaR¡:la It was said: "We are Germans and feel and think in German and wish to live and act as want to be Cermans | " If this statement has any polit- patriots. But Judaism is not German, it is universal. ical implications I should like to remind you rhat we The Diaspora of the Jews is not tantamount to the are not yet emancipated. (Disapproual from all sides. Diaspora of fudaism; the lattet on the contrary must The speaker explains that he merely wants to heep all keep its unified character. The content of this char- political aspects out of the debate, because their intro- acter is fhe confession; its form is represented in the duction only causes misunderstanding.) From the reli- Hebrew languøge. gious point of view a distinction was made between As citizens, we all strive towards unity with our prayer and service; this was correct. The reading fellow countrymen; as members of a religion, how- from the Torah, for instance, is meant to demon- ever, we are allowed, and even obliged, to retain that strate the unity of Israel established by the Torah, as which distinguishes us. Facing an immense majority, it is expressed in 'And this is the law which Moses the minority needs some distinguishing features. The set before the children of Israel."ls Instruction [in Hebrew language fulfills this purpose. the Torahl could be managed without this pub- The Hebrew language moreove1 is neither poor lic reading, because [printed] Bibles are available nor dead, as it is claimed. Masterpieces of unperishable in sufficient numbers now. As a demonstration [of value have been written in it, and as a language of reli- Jewish unityl, however, it should be sufficient to gion it has remained fully alive. To repeat, the Hebrew read selections from the Hebrew Pentateuch [at the language must be retained, but at the same time it must public service but not also the traditional passages be organically united with the German element. from the prophetsl. Kauu:l2 I am only speaking from an objective point of view. I cerrainly wish to retain the Hebrew NOTES language for the time being, but we must gratefully acknowledge that its use for our prayers is nowhere 1. With thirty rabbis in attendance, this conference prescribed. took place in Frankfurt Our ideal, therefore, should be the estab- arn Main July 15-18, 1845. I ishm The Frankfurt conference was devoted to the consid- ent of a purely G erman sewrce, because language Dy eration of the report of the Commission on Liturgy itself does not constitute a religious element. established at the previous conference at Brunswick. Our schools ought to teach in Hebrew; the service, , As a consequence ofthe new cultural and political nowever, aims at edification, elevation, instruction; sit- it uatiorì of the Jews, two distinct problems emerged with should not be turned into a means for the preser- regard to the continued use ofHebrew as the language vation of the Hebrew language. of Jewish public worship: First, with the neglect of tra- It is claimed that the Hebrew expression Adonai (i.e.,.. ditional Iewish learning, Hebrew was increasingly unin- God) sounds more solemn than the German wo.rd telligible to many Jews, and second, it was feared that GoÛ. To this, differentiation I must seriously o.bject, the use of the "national language of the ancient com- because it would cast a heavy doubt on our monwealth of Is¡ael" would seem to vitiate the Jews' ti"r] oath.13 The i name Goút is as sacred to me as Adonai, patriotic affiliation to the country of their residence. I hope | 1".d that everybody, here will agree wirh me on Accordingly, the Commission on Liturgy was requested tnrs. (General I and loud consent.) to reevaluate the place of Hebrew in the liturgy.

å l!lliîI|' I :' j ,l ì 206 TnD rEw rN Tt-lE MoDERN woRLD

Part of the daily service, the barechu ("Praise the 6. 'I-he Jews of Germany, of course, did not at this time Lord who is to be praised...") calls the congrega- enioy full civil and political rights. tion to prayer and affirms the belief in Creation as 7 . Mishnah, Ethics of the Fathers 1: 11, cited in Hebrew. divine providence. It is followed by pørshat shema (see B. Phylacteries, two small black boxes containing four nore 3). portions of the Pentateuch written on parchment )- Consisting of th,e shema (Deut. 6:4-9) and accompa- (Exod. 13:1-16; Deut.6:4-9 and li:13-21). Fastened nying blessings (largely drawn from Deut. 11:13-21, to leather straps, they are bound ("laid") on the arr¡ and Num. 15:37 -41), tlr,e parshat shema, recited dalIy, and the head of the male Jew during the morning proclaims Israel's acceptance of God's sovereignty and prayers. the yoke of His Commandments; it links this proc- 9. Parchment scroll placed in a container and fixecl to lamation with the doctrines of Creation, Revelation the doorpost of the Jew's abode. On the scroll are and Redemption. inscribed portions from Deut. 6:4-9 and lI:I3-2L 4. Zecharias Frankel (1801-1875). At the time of the 10. Mishna, tractate Berahhot 31b; cited in Hebrew confe¡ence he was the chief rabbi of Dresden and the 11. Aramaic: a cognate of Hebrew that was for many centu- founding editor of the Zeischrift fuer die wligioesen ries the vernacular of Palestine. Biblical readings were Interessen des ludenthum.s [lournal for the Religious translated into Aramaic in the synagogue for the ben- Interests of ]udaism], published from 1844 fo 1847. efit of congregants who did not understand Hebrew. An exponent of "moderate Reform," as he put it, Some of the prayers of the traditional liturgy are still Frankel criticized the Brunswick conference (which in Aramaic, most notably the doxology known as the he declined to attend) for appropriating the author- kaddish. joseph ity of an ecclesiastical rynod, when in fact it was no t2. Kahn (1809-1875). He was the chiefrabbi of more than a consultative body. Furtheç he charged Trier, where he officiated for more than thirty years. that the conference demonstrated a single lack of def- 13. In the Middle Ages a practice was instituted that erence to the regnant sentiments of the Jewish people. required the Jews to make a special oafh (More He decided to attend the Frankfurt conference in order Judaico) when testifring before a non-Jewish court. to assure that his colleagues would not exceed their Assuming that the Jews did not resPect Christian prerogatives. jurisprudence, these oaths bound the Jew's testimony 5. Abraham Geiger (1810-7874). At the time of the under rabbinic law. The oaths were accompanied by conference he was chief rabbi of Breslau and the self-imposed curses, delineating the punishment, founding editor of the Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift often in gruesome detail, if the testimony was falsely by humili- fuer juedische Theologie [Scientific Journal for Jewish made; sometimes they were accomPanied Theology], 6 vols., 1835-1847. Considered the guid- ating rites, such as standing on a sow's skin, In France ing spirit of the first rabbinical conferences, Geiger fhe more judalco was abolished only in 1846, in parts emerged as the leading theoretician and spokesman of Germany not until the second half of the nine- of Reform in Germany. He sought to ground the teenth century it was still administered in Rumania study of Judaism in a scholarly, historical approach as late as 1904. The Duchy of Brunswick abrogated (see chapter 5, document B) that would validate the practice in 1845. Reform's conception of Judaism as an ongoing evo- 14. |oseph Loewengard, rabbi ofLehren Steinfels. lutionary process. 15. De:ut. 4:44; cited in Hebrew. 1 0. TH E OU ESTTON OF M ESS|AN tSM (1 845)1

THE REFORM RABBINICAL CONFERENCE AT FRANKFURT

ffiighth Session, IuIy 20,1845. Agenda: Discussion earlier approach restricted divine guidance to the land L*¡f qusslions pertaining to cult. Question 2: To [of Israel] and the people; the deiry it was believed, what degree must the dogma of the Messiah, and enjoyed bloody sacrifices, and priests were needed for an¡hing pertaining to it, be taken into consideration penance. With increasingzeal, the prophets spoke up in the liturgy? against this restricted view. Everybody knows the pas- Before opening the debate, the President2 consid- sage: "lt hath been told thee, O man, what is good, ers it necessary to remark that we are not concerned and what the Lord doth require of thee; only to do with the establishment of a certain doctrine of the justly, and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with Messiah, and that such doctrines will not be put to thy God" [Micah 6:8, cited in Hebrew]. The decline the vote; we are only concerned with how the existing of Israel's political independence was at one time liturgy should be evaluated in this respect, or perhaps deplored, but in reality it was not a misfortune, but a conveniently changed. Points of view may differ sub- mark of progress; not a degradation, but an elevation jectively, but it is hoped that a version acceptable to all of our religion, through which Israel has come closer will emerge. The numerous speakers, especially those to fulfilling its vocation. The place of the sacrifices who are ardent believers in traditional messianism, has been taken by sacred devotion. From the land of should beware of creating any doubt concerning their Israel, the word of Cod had to be carried to the four allegiance to the state. Such contrasts and seeming comers of the earth, and new religions have helped contradictions are easily resolved within the mind in carrying out the task. Only the Talmud moves in of the believer. Here we are only concerned with the circles; we, however, favor progress. demands of truthfulness, lest we pray for something At one time I took the concept of the Messiah to that does not coincide with our convictions. be a substitute for the idea of immortaliry but now The committee report reads as follows: The con- I no longer think so. I rather consider it as a hope cept of the Messiah must continue to occupy a promi- of both worldly and heavenly salvation. Neither this nent place in the liturgy, but all political and national idea nor the concept of the Chosen People contain implications should be avoided. anything reprehensible. The concept of the Chosen EINHoRN:3 The concept of the Messiah is closely People, in fact, offers the undeniable advantage, for linked to the entire ceremonial law The believer in it creates a beneficial self-consciousness in the face of the Talmud finds his salvation only in the reconstitu- the ruling church. tion of the state, the return of the people, the resump- I vote for the renunciation of all petitions for the tion of sacrifices, etc. Here lies the cause for all our restoration of the sacrifices and our political indepen- lamentations over the destruction of the Temple and dence. I should prefer our prayers for the Messiah to our yearnings for the ruins of the altar. Ardent belief express a hope for a spiritual renaissance and the unifi- and unshakable courage were expressed in these cation of all human beings in faith and in love through hopes, uttered forth from the dark caves of our mis- the agency of Israel. erable streets. Hess:a In discussing the concept of the Messiah we But now our concepts have changed. There is no run the greatest risk of losing ourseives in diffuse the- need any more for an extended ceremonial law. The ories. The question is simply whether one wishes to

Source: Protoholle und Aktenstueche der zweiten Rabbiner-Versammlung. . .(Frankfurt am Main, 1 845), pp 37 -77 , l1.ff.Trans. by I. Hessing. 207 f, I ,l !

I 2OA rHE IEw lN rHE M l

of the father- interpret the Scripture in spirit, or literally; whether fewry into the political constellations conception of religion ca¡ one conceives of messianism as an ideal, or as the land. Only an enlightened idea of our religious independence, unattainable displace a dulled one. Those, however, who believe without the full political equality of the Israelites; that religion demands a political restoration must not the best of circum- whether, moreovet one sees it as a bond with our renounce this belief even under religion will content brethren living under oppressive rulers. Let us there- stances Iin the Diaspora], because the complete satisfaction fore hold on to the fact that the concept of a personal itself with nothing less than difference between strict and political Messiah is dead for German )ewry and of its demands. This is the approach fronr that we must not petition God for that which we no Orthodoxy and Reform: Both ]udaism but while the former aims at a longer believe. . .. a religious standpoint; political order the interest of HoLpuEINa:s Two points of misunderstanding must restoration of the old [in at the closest possible union be clarified: religionl, the latter aims of 1. The hope for a national restoration contra- with the political and national constellations tleir dicts our feeling for the fatherland; some speakers times [as the demand of religion].... to pin down the have claimed, on the other hand, that the two may WncHsren:6 As soon as we try immediately disap- coexist. "how" of our hope, the hope our messianism, but 2. We are warned not to emphasize the national pears. We ought not to vivisect with our element, lest there be misinterpretations; but it was to shape the existing prayers in accordance the masses. If rightly remarked, on the other hand, that we should consciousness. We must not disregard prayers, the situation would not pay attention to misinterpretations. we had to compose new The main point, however, is this: We merely be different. existence should represent the religious, not the political interest of Therefore, everything already in counter to the community. The latter is sufficiently represented be admitted as long as it does not run . andnattonal do not by other spokesmen. Our nationality is now only commonly accepted truth Political any'way. ls the People expressed in religious concepts and institutions. It is seem to be the right expressions, political term? If it were so the said: Our original nationality has developed towards of Israel a national or a in religion. But this is erroneous; such a development word People should not be used, and all passages should be deleted' is unnatural. One must not mistake a national for a the liturgy containing the word prayer for our religious phenomenon, otherwise many abuses could The question only concerns the its consequences. be justifred. return to Palestine and all prayerbook The wish to return to Palestine in order to cre- In all contemporary additions to the may clearly ate there a political empire for those who are still our modern conception of the Messiah confession that our newly oppressed because of their religion is superfluous' be stated, including the a partial fulfill- The wish should rather be for a termination of the gained status as citizens constitutes oppression; which would improve their lot as it has ment of our messianic hoPes. . . . maiority: The messi- improved ours. The wish, moreover, is inadmissible. Resolution adopted by the prominent mention in the It turns the messianic hope from a religious into a sec- anic idea should receive for our return to the land of ular one, which is gladly given up as soon as the polit- prayers, but all petitions of a state ical situation changes for the better. But messianic our fathers and for the restoration Jewish liturgy. . . .7 hope, truly understood, is religious. It expresses either should be eliminated from the a hope for redemption and liberation from spiritual deprivation and the realization of a Kingdom of God NOTES on earth, or for a political restoration of the Mosaic 1. The traditional Jewish liturgy gives prominent expres- theocracy where Jews could live according to the law sion to the millennial yearning for a personal Messiah of Moses. This latter religious hope can be renounced from the royal House of David who will herald "the only by those who have a more sublime conception ingathering of the exiles" of Israel to thei¡ ancestral prayers of Judaism, and who believe that the fulfillment of homeland. The national sentiments of these reformers to cast doubt Judaism's mission is not dependent on tlìe estab- were considered by some the country of their lishment of a Jewish state, but rather by a merging of on the Jews' identification with IV . Emeîging Pa.tterns of Religious Adjusunent: Reform, Consentative, Neo-Orthodox, and Llltra-Orthodox ludaism 2O9

residence and citizenship. The Commission on Liturgy of the Philanthropin in Frankfurt, a Jewish elementary was charged with reevaluating the place of messianism and high school fashioned in the spirit of the haskalah. within the prayerbook. 5. Samuel Holdheim, see documents B and 1i in this ') Leopold Stein (1810-1882). From 7844 to 1862 he chapter. was a rabbi at Frankfurt am Main. 6. Bernhard Wechsler (d. 1874). In 1841 he succeeded chief rabbi of Oldenburg. 3. (1809-1379). In 1842 hewas appointed as rabbi ofHoppstaedten and chiefrabbi ofthe principal- 7. The conference unanimously approved the removal of ity of Birkenfeld. In 1855 he emigrated to the United the traditional petitions for the restoration of the sac- States, where he became a leader of the radical wing of rificial cult f¡om the liturgy. The maiority of the con- the Reform movement there. ference, however, voted that provided they were recited sac- 4. Michael Hess (1782-1860). An advocate ofthoroughgo- only in Hebrew, the Torah passages concerning the ing reform, from 1806 to 1855 he served as headmaster rifrce should remain in the liturgy.

11. THIS lS OUR TASK (1853)1

SAMUEL HOLDHEIM

!t is the destiny of Judaism to pour the light of its of the earth should express their innermost thoughts I thoughts, the fire of its sentiments, the fervor of its and feelings with the same words, is neither the task feelings upon all souls and hearts on earth. Then all nor the content of Judaism. From the beginning it of these peoples and nations, each according to its expressed its decisive disapproval of the building of soil and historic characteristics, will, by accepting our the tower of Babel, that is to say, of the desire to bind teachings, kindle their own lights, which will then men to a single tongue and a single mode of speech shine independently and warm their souls. Iudaism and to extinguish their individuality and singularity. shall be the seed-bed of the nations frlled with the Judaism wants to purify the languages of the nations, blessing and promise, but not a fully grown matured but leave to each people its own tongue. It wishes for tree with roots and trunk, crowned with branches one heart and one soul, but not for one sound and and twigs, with blossoms and fruit-a tree which is one tone. It does not desire to destroy the particular merely to be transplanted into a foreign soil. characteristics of the nations. It does not wish to stul- Already 2000 years ago |udaism began to face its tify the directions of spirit and sentiment which their historic task and in this manner it must continue to history has brought forth. It does not wish that all face it. All these unnumbered peoples and nations should be absorbed and encompassed by the charac- which were once governed by paganism were con- teristics of the Jewish people. Least of all does it wish vened to ways of thinking which are based-who to extinguish the characteristics of the Jewish people can deny it-upon the principles of ancient Judaism, and to eliminate those expressions of the living spirit which gave them their singular color and form. A which were created through the union and spirit of forced egalitarianism, which desires that all peoples the lewish faith.

Source: W. Gunther Plat, The Rise of Reþrm ludaism: A Sourcebooh of l* European Onglns (New York: World Union for Progressive Judaism, 1963), pp. 138ff. Reprinted by permission of the world union for Progressive Judaism. 21O rHE rEw lN THD MoDtìRN woRLD

As a mere philosophical idea, denuded of its his_ Iudaism amongst the nations; to protect the sense toric characteristics q¡ and forms, Iudaism can never Iewish unity and life and faith without diminishin. become the common property of mankind. Our the sense of unity with all men; to nourish the ancient lovå |ewish sages correctly understood this impor_ for ludaism without diminishing rhe love of tant question of the relationship -u.,. Wà of Judaism to man_ pray that God may give us further strength to ."u..h kind and expressed it felicitously, even though they out the way of truth and not to stray from the path had a much more limited view concerning that which of love! should be the norm for the internal aspects of our faith. Regarding the peoples of the earth, they spoke NOTES of the seven Noachide duties,2 the fundamental rules 1. Samuel Holdheim (1806-1860). This sermon of faith and morals, but reserved the whole Mosaic is from 1853. The national, particularistic aspects of traditional law for Israel exclusively. We must spr eadthe Noachide Judaism, as we have noted, were problematic to laws to all nations, but we must safeguard the Torah the Reform movement. To soÍìen these aspects the univer- aÍe co as our exclusive possession. To be sure, we do not fol_ sal task or mission of Israel was emphasized; here inspi_ and li low the letter of our sages'pronouncements slavishly, ration was drawn from prophets like Isaiah (42:6_Z): due e yet we must not fail to acknowledge their spiritual . "I the Lord have called thee in righteousness. ... For foretgt meaning and substance. a Translating their words into light of the nations...." "mission w ,,It The theory,,viewed will our more purified expression, we would say: is the the diaspora not as a tragic exile but rather as a sublime its fals Messianic task of Israel to make the pure knowledge occasion to transcend the concerns of political exis_ show of God and the pure law of morality of Judaism the tence and thereby illumine spiritual and moral ideals tial ad common possession of blessing of all the peoples of relevant to all mankind. IsraeÌ, according to this theory our n( the earth. We do not expect of the nations that, by was a faith community defined mainly by this univer_ ages, a accepting these teachings, they would give up their sal mission. See also document B, note 6. for the historic characteristics in order to accept those of our 2. The Seven Commandments of the Sons of Noah, resist ¡ people; and, similarly, we shall not permit the Iewish which the Talmud holds to be binding upon all man_ thougl people to give up its innate holy powers and senti_ kind, are derived from the early chapters of Genesis or ign< ments so that it might be assimilated amongst the (e.g., 9:a-7). Six of these Commandments are nega_ seemir nations. " tive: the prohibition of idolatry, blasphemy, murde¡ accom adultery Thus, my friends, we shall safeguard our posi_ robbery and the eating of flesh taken from a tell yo living animal. The tion internally and externally. What the ancient sages establishmenr of courts of justice is lic se¡ the only positive called the seven Noachide duicies in their universal Commandment. Maimonides gave attenti, these Commandments a decidedly human application, we now call the Jewish idea of liberal emphasis nestly when he related them to the God and the Jewish ethical Weltanschauung. What Talmudic dictum that exert h the "righteous people of all nations have they considered the whole Mosaic ceremonial law as [Gentiles] ruin in a part in the world to come" (Hilhhot melakhim B:tI). the eternal and exclusive heritage of Israel, we call the that in This interpretation, which became the authoritative inextinguishable historic characteristic of the Jewish devoul view of /udaism, was frequently cited by Mendelssohn peoplq the singular spiritual life of ludaism. and other Iewish thinkers in the modern period as This, then, is our task: to maintain /udaism within evidence of a tolerant and the people benign attitude towa¡d Iewish and at the same time to spread non-fews.

Source: I n. 112. R, 14. ON CHANGES ¡N JUDAISM (1845)1

ZECHARIAS FRAN KEL

aintaining the integrity of Judaism simulta- individual, with the result that the faith becomes the neously with progress, this is the essential common property of every follower. problem of the present. Can we deny the difficulty Thus we have reached fhe starting point for the con- of a satisfactory solution? Where is the point where sideration of the current parties in Judaism. The view- the two apparent contrâries can meet? What ought point of the Orthodox party is clear. It has grown up to be our point of departure in the attempt to rec- in pious activity; to it the performance of precepts is oncile essential Judaism and progress and what type inseparable from faifh, for to it, the two are closely and of opposition may we expect to encounter? How can inwardly connected. Were it to tear itself away fiom we assure rest for the soul so that it shall not be torn observance and give up the precepts, then itwould find apart or be numbed by severe doubts while search- itself estranged fiom its own self and feel as though ing for the warm ray of faith, and yet allot to reason plunged into an abyss. Given this viewpoint, the direc- its right, and enable it to lend strength and lucidity tion and emphasis of the Orthodoxpartyis dear. Where to the religious feeling which springs from the emo- else, save in the combination of faith and meticulous tions? The opposing elements which so seldom are in observance of the precepts, can it find that complete balance must be united and this is our task. . .. satisfaction which it has enjoyed in the heritage of the Judaism is a religion which has a direct influence fathers? When it will reject that which it has so long on life's activity. It is a religion of action, demanding kept holy and inviolable? No-that is unthinkable. the performance of precepts which either directly aim Against this party there has arisen of late another at ennobling man or, by reminding man of the divine, one [Reform] which finds its aim in the opposite strengthen his feelings of dependence on God. And direction. This party sees salvation in overcoming because of this trait neither pure abstract contemplation the past, in carrying progress to the limit, in reject- nor dark mysticism could ever strike root in Judaism. ing religious forms and returning merely to the sim- This, in turn, guaranteed that the lofty religious ideas ple original idea. In fact, we can hardly call it a party ; were maintained in their purity, with the result that in Judaism, though its adherents still bear the name ; even today the divine light shines in ludaism. Jew and are considered as such in social and political By emphasizing religious activity, Judaism is life, and do not belong to another faith. They do not, completely tied to life and becomes the property of however, belong wholly to Iudaism, for by limiting every individual Jew. A religion of pure ideas belongs Judaism to some principles of faith, they place them- primarily to the theologians; the masses who are not selves partly outside the limits of Judaism. ,ì.iadapted to such conceptions concern themselves lit- We will now turn to a third parrywhich has arisen ir tlç with the particulars of such religions because they from, the first party, and not only stands within the have little ràlationship to life. On the orher hand, bound of ludaism, but is also filled with real zea! fot a religion of action is always present, demanding its preservation and endeavors to hand it over to the ctice in activity and an expression of will, and descendants and make it the common good of all demands are reflected in the manifold life of the times.

"DieSymptome derZeit," Zeitschriftfuer juedischereligioeselnteressen2(1845), pp. 1-21. MordecaiWaxman, ed. andtrans',Tladition permission of the .Change: The Deuelopment of Conseruatiue Judaism (New York: Burning Bush Press, 1958), pp. 44, 46-50. Reprinted by Assembly of America 2't7 woRLD 218 THD tDw IN Tl-lD MoDDRN

ihat which was adopted ThispartybaSeSitSeIfuponrational.faithandrec-intendedasaguardianatldprotectoragainstunduechanges' ;;ã;;t follows: is religious ;;t;, accepted ognizes ttrat the t^rr. ãi J-,i¿airm .o-r'unity of Israel and was that this acrion shall nor b" ;;t;i 1n" of its life' cannot be but it demands fr the people"rr,ir" and became a part u"come merely t""Ënâ^i by soirit and rhat ir *nuri'rroi .t,"t]g"a by any authority'2 in the r"r*. lt'i^ì'"ir" there lies a living .al, itself *uirry ttris'funâamental statement ""pressing activity it'"lf ;;;;" r" reached rhe view ,tt",'r"iigious

r',-;t;i::::::",,',i:;,*TT*:tåï:åTä*å:;U*i¡*ltl.ÏJiî:;:,ö'T"l'i::äXJTil':iboth against the manYmeanlngswl needed.t'ã"s"t and can be employed stagnatron' Fuñhermore,itholdsthatwemustomi,."rr^i"ì"*- destructive reform and against ,rot inherently ;;;ä helps to make clear porranr actions *rri.ir^ur" This fundamental statement ideas or with the ,"rigir"", iãrÃ, and how either with the high to t" *rt* trtt"ges in Iudaism' are lustified ,"uJ"ã i"*r. w" must, it;;;;' ;;ñ demands religious delineated by,tr" tt'"y tu" t" ìl¡i"a'True' Judaism opposition between iaith and mere clay to into consideration the urrt "ttr" people is altogether i.rue faith, due ," ääì"* ^not and scholars' conditions of the time. ".,irrity,t",{rg"äJv-tit" *'r of theologians as th"-"bÌ";p;;;; life' it narure, is above time, and iust 9"t'' religioi.-;.tiuiti"'' as in those of ordinary subiected to time, so does faith ;J;"t" was conceded by )udaism man is not decides i- iit"rr' This right which issued rro- ttr" Inãrrtt an earlier religious all dme, and the word to the p;;pi" At such ti*"t ut in eternity. But time t'"' tià'|" the entire community of God is rooted ""¿ or¿inurr.-""i* not accepted by u"ì'u^r.ä u.rorrrr, or. rnere is then when a new might which _rrr, of lrru"l, it was given t'p'-cottt"q11ently' in which faith and ,i-" ;;; it was necessary creared a dualism ""Ão, ordinance *u' ubout to be enacted .hoor", to live u"yorrJti-" find acceptance by the peo- other, and -"r, to see ;ù'h"t it would "ittr",,tti"ri that the Iew practices to fall to be subiec,"¿ ,o i . r,iì" ""tion pr.. wrr"., irr" people allows cerrain cannot escape,t år to exist' There frnds himself today; he "i"ä"ä"." ir,,o d;;";1hä" ihe practices cease theconditionsofrhetimeandyetwhelrh;;;;;ã, of faithbringhimto oppositionwiththe:;;ii;f : ry,'i.;i;i;'"riî,ï:tlïi'*tiiffi];"ï1 its call-find-the'n" time, it is hoped tr'^i't'" will heed ::::lTi] r"ä ãi *rigiositv warns against mo,"';';; p,u.,i.", r,o,,,'*r'i.r, it i' entirerv *rtittt yield.it no satisfaction will be i;h.;;ruilr.*îlffJåïl'Tî"Täï;"ii'-:"äü;value and his- for all time. It affrrms both the divine "*ru,tgåa';"¿ and, rherefo,", o:;J''äiü: raith and reri. roricar basis of ludaism {'¡,y;i::t*l*::,:::ur*"v' a srear ffii"J":ff'":J'$;tund or i:*Ë,*"î utu'"t.'"1 ;î',:1,::n,::,,îT:îri:;lii'Tlii;'.riliiiiïiJ.or,¿itio,lr"#lÏ: t';iá'¿ sãcuritv """ asreement with the .;;;',; ";¿ ä,o,ä::å"it 1"-: *"w";;";, in regard to ûme. then, reached a decisive point conception of what changes must come from In order to have a changes, namely' that they must ask ourselves moderate ,t orri¿ and can be introduced' we of the entire community any changes in any ilËñ;n¿",h^,ttreiitt lit- q*tii."-does Judaism allow this rule alone may accomplish ä" all of them *"i,ãäi¿". still, ,"ngi.us forms? Does it consider äi-ii, enteritg tle.Thewholecommunityisaheavyunharmonious or can they be altered? Without to recognize' It comes to iÀ*"i"¡f", Uã¿y its will is difficult pro and-con' we may find a way il; ,h; citation of authorities ""ã only after manyyears' we must allow changes' ;;;"r*ï"" prili^."i,rtat ludaism does indeed thu"g"s in the proper,manner' and ch.anged the lit- ;'.;;;.rráh The early teachers, by interpretation' ù. ¿on. by thã nelp of the schoÌars'3 Judaism later scholars that of irttìî^ít nor does it eral meaning of the Sc'iptur"s; priests of faith scholars that has no ä; Mtth;"ñ, the iost-Talmudic "' spiìitual'"p'"t""àtives sanctimoniousness in its ""d interpretations-were not ;";*" Ç".i^r not the share ;i,h; Talmud' AII these The power to represent it is addressed themselves ;;;k;r-;". to son' i",""ã"¿ as speculation' They o"" famiþ nor does it pass from father such studies' ludaism ältf the sanc- ;;"1ìf;-;t".epts. Thanks to and mastery of the law supply estrangement lrroít"ag" statilization and avoided utt"ined bv everyb.odv' ln lewish peri- ,ü;;;il*t" .",t b" ".tri"*åthe conditions of the time in various ability ultimately took from was iiiå, roun""l and intellectual äãt....iirt" rabbisl established a rule which IV ' Emerging Patterns of Religious Adjustment: Reform, Conse:atiue, Neo-Orthodox, and IJhra-Orthodox Judaism z,lg

the place of the former priesthood which, even in been established for adhering to Jewish pracrices. early times, was limited in its function primarily to And if the people then cease to practice some unim- the sacrificial cult. Even in early days, |udaism rec- portant customs and forms of observances it will not ognized the will of the people as a great force and be a matter of great concern. And it will not as recent because of this recognition a great religious activity changes havq lead some Jews into shock and hope- being. came into But this activity, in turn was trans- lessness. They will no longer see all such changes as lated into a living force by the teachers of the people leading to the disappearance of our faith and lan- through the use of original ordinances and through guage, [and] as their pusillanimity leads them to interpretation of the Scriptures. At times these actions believe, the end of the existence of ludaism. of the sages lightened the amount of observance; at times they increased it. That the results of the stud- NOTES ies and research of the teachers found acceptance 1. Zecha¡ias Frankeì (1801-tSZ5). He attended the among the people proves, on the one hand, that the Reform Rabbinical Conference at Frankfurt with grave teachers knew the character of their time, and, on the doubts regarding his colleagues' commitment to the other hand, that the people had confidence in them place of Hebrew in the liturgy. On the third day of the and that they considered them true representatives of deliberations he submitted a letter of resignation from their faith. the conference in which he stated: "The preservation of Should Jewish theologians and scholars of our Iudaism is the innermost core of my life and the aim time succeed in acquiring such a confidence, then of all my endeavors. I am ready to make any sacrifice they will attain influence with the introduction of for this cause and shall always resist any tendency to whatever changes may be necessary. The will of the the contrary." To his profound distress the attitude of community of Israel will then find its representatives the conference to Hebrew was indicative of such a ten- and knowledge will be its proper exercise. denry. Subsequently, he endeavored without success, to The scholars thus have an important duty in call a conference of all rabbis committed both to the order to make their work effective. It is to guard the adjustment of |udaism to the spirit of the times and sense of piety of the people and to raise their spirit to the preservation of "positive historical Iudaism." In to the heighr of the great ideas. For this they need the his attempt to develop a middle position-articulated confidence of the people. Opposition to the views in the essay presented here-Frankel was opposed of people, from both Reform and Orthodox quarters. The pain at .the such as some reformers display, is this failure was assuaged when in 1854 unholy and fruitless. The teacher thereby loses the he was named power the director of the to make the essence of faith effective, for in Juedisch-Theologisches Seminar at place Breslau; a position that Ceigeç who was instrumental of that confidence which is the basis in cor- rect in establishing the institution, desired. Under Frankel's relations between teacher and community there comes directorship the seminar became the prototype of the mistrust and an unwillingness to follow. The modern rabbinical seminary. The seminary's curriculum truths of faith must be brought r"ur", to the people aimed so that to teach a "positive historical )udaism," which they may learn to understand the divine con- tent in this context meant a positive attitude to the practical within them and thus come to understand the spiritual precepts of Judaism and a critical "historical" inquiry nature and inner worth of the forms which into the Jewish past, including biblical criricism. these rruths. -tTfo¿y Once the people are sarurated 2. Talmud, tractate Auodah zarah 36a. with an awareness of the essential truths and the 3. Here Frankel means the scholar of the modern mode to torrns which embody them, a firm ground will have be developed at the Breslau seminary. 11",f

ì

(1854)1 15. RELIGION ALLIED TO PROGRESS SAMSON RAPHAEL HIRSCH

Ieft a void, and at the end they were ashamed "ffiTî:î " had låi:Jå *nìt" the brilliance of modern life to be T"if 'iî å::î,""ï .'iÏ:l;:':i; felt restless walking""ioying inå without religion; they ,togrn] in scintillating colours on-to the ban- ""ttft litri, that the and miserable. of o",r, pr"r"rrt-day religious struggles' message i", But behold! The prophet of the new "p.ogrersi,,"" sons and daughters of the into their midst with the cry of "religion aìlied "árr."t"¿ to this new flag of the prophet came ug. mighirally he filled the blank' pacified their con- ""* unhindered' How leaderless io progr"rr"; uärr"rr." with it out their shame' With this magic "nd of prophets before this ,ciånce" and wiped was this new congregation irreligion into Godliness' apostasy new message of salva- word he umed .r"* *"rr"ng", *ittt this merit' frivolity into virtue' beginning into priesthood, sin into tion appear"d u*o,tg them! Since the into pro- weakness into strength, thoughtlessness ."rrt rry the ancient religion had been to of the By this one magic phrase he distilled the it no longer fitted into the society fundity. them-ancient; wórld-ranging spirit of the Torah into a sin- of the new age with their ancient of the sons and daughters droplf perfi'rme so fragrant that in the evening dresses' In club and frater- situtot"u,i. frock coats and party dress they could carry it round paraf' at concerts and äLrt the ball and supper "t"gunt pockets without being ", was in the with them in their waistcoat "i,V,in salons-everywhere ihe old Judaism of the pon- ashamed. By means of it, he carved out seemed so completely out of olace' And -"y rock-hewn Tablets of the Law ornamen- "rrd and in the offrce' in the derous old errãn in the counting-house that people gladly found room for on board ship and in åingrrr"t so tiny .o.r*roo- and at tÈe easel, in drawing-rooms and lightning irr"ttio" smart dressinf tables' the train-throughout the steam-driven he so uuiitoo-t. By means of this one magic phrase new age the old Judaism acted as a activity of the the rigid bonds of law with march of progress' Above rf.iff"ffv loosened the 9l! brake on the hurrying that the Divine Word which in the race for i , or¡ iocks and chainsã all it seemed to be the only obstacle prohibited many a desire without hes- untit then had infle,ribly emancipation. No wonder then that became and demanded many a sacrifice' henceforth they shook off the old obstructive religion mtion heavenly manna which merely reflected every- the arms of "progress'" And in the the and hunied into echoed their own thoughts' sanc- emancipation was to body's own ãesires, political market-place where said to each one: "Be be iin"â,n"i, own aspirations and prrr.hu."d, thà modern sons of Judah could what L" yotr are, eniòy what you fancy' aspire to offering to exchange the old *h", seen in every corner you may be you are always reli- case it had you iill, whatever for something else, since in any continue Judaism gious, *haterrer you may do-all is religion; lost all its value for their own use' the further you aloft io progr"r., for ihe more you progress a decade modern Jewry thus soared For many w ay, andthe more you cast off and tasted free- move from the ancient like dust on the wings of a butterfly and accepGble felt old Iewish customs the more religious dom in the unwonted airy heights; and yet they of religion to God will You be.. " a pain in their hearts where the absence

emitdemFortschritt,,(1s54).IudaismEtemal:.SeIectødEssays.fomtheWritíngsof tníáí, ttÃ',2, pp'224-38' copyright 1956 by the Soncino rrans. L Grunfeld soncino n**, Rabbi samson Raphael Hirsch,ed. and a;;ã."' Press. Reprinted bY Permission' 220 o lV Emerging Patterns of Religious Adjustment: Reþnn, Conseruatiue, Neo-Orthodox, and Ultra-orthodox ludaism 221

All this would of itself worry us who are of dif- The claim of religion is therefore not absolute but is ferent mind very little. We allow everyone his own valid only by permission of "progress." What, then, peace and bliss and also his fame if only he would is this higher authority to which religion is therefore be fair enough to leave us-not indeed o1rÍ "fame" not absolute but is valid only by permission of "pro- (to which we lay no claim), nor indeed our "bliss" gress"? What, then, is this higher authority to which (which cannot be impaired by human opinion)-but religion has to appeal in order to gain admission? at least our peace and quiet. What is this "progress"? Evidently not progress in But the eulogist of "religion allied to progress" the sphere of religion, for then the expression would and its prophet has found it necessary to enhance amount to "religion allied to itself" which is non- the brightness of his cause by painting its opposite sense. It means, then, progress in every sphere other in the blackest colours. He therefore describes us, than religion. Speaking frankly, therefore, it means; [we the so-called proponents of Orthodoxy] who do religion as long as it does not hinder progress, reli- believe in the not mission of the new prophet, as the gion as long as it is not onerous or inconvenient. . . . "black opponents of progress and civilisation. " . . . The subordination of religion to any other factor May one of these "fools and obscurantists" be per- means the denial of religion: for if the Torah is to mitted in the face of such provocation, afew carefully you the Law of God how dare you place another law considered and objective remarks, for the purpose of above it and go along with God and His Law only stating fully and placing in rheir true light rhe facrs as long as you thereby "progress" in other respects at which certain people are so glad to call "religious the same time? You must admit it; it is only because confusions" (because they fear lest they might be "religion" does not mean to you the word of God, cleared up) and so take the first step towards resolv- because in your heart you deny Divine Revelation, ing them?... because you believe not in Revelation given fo man point [First] a of facç it was not "Orthodox" Jews but in Revelation from man, that you can give man who introduced the word "orthodoxy" into Jewish the right to lay down conditions to religion. discussion. It was the modern "progressive,, |ews "Religion allied to progress"-do you know, dear who first applied this name to "oId," "backward,, reader, what that means? Virtue allied to sensual Iews as a derogatory term. This name was at first enjoyment, rectitude allied to advancement, upright- resented ,,Orthodox,, by "old" ]ews. And rightly so. ness allied to succ€ss. It means a religion and a moral- Judaism does not know any varieties of Iudaism. It ity which can be preached also in the haunts of vice conceives ludaism as one and indivisible. It does not and iniquity. It means sacrificing religion and moral- know a Mosaic, prophetic and rabbinic ludaism, nor ity to every man's momentary whim. It allows every Orthodox and Liberal iudaism. It only knows ludaism man to fix his own goal and progress in any direction and non-Judaism. It does not know Orthodox and he pleases and to accept from religion only that part liberal lews. It does indeed know conscientious and which does not hinder his "progress" or even assist it. indifferent lews, good Jews, bad Jews or baptised Jews; It is the cardinal sin which Moses of old described as all, nevertheless, fews with a mission which they can- "a casual walking with God."3 not.cast off. They are only distinguished accordingly Civilisation and culture-we all treasure those as they fulfill or reject their missión. . . . glorious and inalienable possessions of mankind. Now what about the principlq the much-vaunted, We all desire that the good and the rrue, all that world-redeeming ;religion principle of allied to pro- is attainable by human thought gress"? and human will- If it is to be a principle-something more power, should be the common heritage of all men. than an empry phrase meant for show-it must have But to make religion-which is the mother and a definable content and we must be permitted to try father of all civilisation and culture-dependent it. In the expression "religion allied to pro- upon the progress of this same civilisation and cul- brtròs,l:jq'ry progress is evidently intended to qualilz reli- ture would mean throwing it into the melting-pot of 8ton. Indeed, ,,idea,,, this is the very essence of the civilisation; it would mean turning the root into the not religion by itself, bur religion only ro the exrenr blossom; it would mean crowning the human edi- and in so far as it can co-exist with progress, in so far fice with that which should be as one its foundation and does not have to sacrifice progress to religion. cornerstone. ... 222 Ttru ,Dw IN TllD MoDllRN woRLD

culture or refinement, even though they do ¡q1 Now what is it that we want? Are the only alter- in all smoke their cigars on the Sabbath, even though they natives either to abandon religion or to renounce do not seek the pleasures of the table in foods forbid- progress with all the glorious and noble. gifts which by God, even though they do not desecrate the .irril"irution and education offer mankind? Is the den for the sake of profit and enjoyment' religion really of such a nature that its faith- Sabbath Jewish we are short-sighted enough to believe be the enemies of civilisation and Indeed, ful adherents must the scoffing that that the Jew who remains steadfast amidst . . . We declare before heaven and earth progress? of the easy-going world around if olr religion demanded that we should renounce and the enticements obey him, who remains strong enough to sacrifice to God's what is called civilisation and progress we would will profit, inclination and the respect and applause unquestioningly, because our religion is for us truly fellows, displays far greater moral strength and reliiion, the word of God before which every other of hii thus a higher degree of real culture than the frivolous con"sideration has to give way' We declare' equally' "modern whose principles melt away before the that we would prefer to be branded as fools and do Jew" first contemptuous glance or at the slightest prospect without all the honour and glory that civilisation and of profit, and who is unfaithful to the word of God progress might confer on us rather than be guilty of teachings of his fathers in order to satis$/ the iheionc"it"á mock-wisdom which the spokesman of anå the whim of the moment.... a religion allied to progress here displays' Our aims also include the conscientious promo- For behold whither a religion allied to progress tion of education and culture, and we have clearly leadsl Behold how void it is of all piety and human- this in the motto of our Congregation: An ity and into what blunders the conceited' Torah- expressed thing is the study of the Torah combined .iiti.iring spirit leads. Here you have a protagonist excellent of the world Talmud torah im of progress. See how he dances on with the ways lYafeh of this tãligiott on the same founda- he drags out their derekh erezla-thereby building the graves of yorlt forefathers, how of and tions as those which were laid by our sages old- corp"ses from their graves, Iaughs in their faces what is it that separates us from the adherents e"ciuims to you: "Your fathers were crude and uncivi- [then] of "religion allied to Progress"? lised; they deserved the contempt in which they were Ãere trifle! They aim at religion allied to held. Follow me, so that you may become civilised a progress-and we have seen that this principle and deserve res'ect!" call religion-while we which grows on the tree of ,r"gãt"t the truth of what they Such is the craziness progress is uiri at progress allied to religion' To them' knowledge of this "religion allied to progress"! absoluie and religion is governed by it; to us' reli- If our choice were only between such craziness the gion is the absolute. For them, religion is valid only and simple ignorance, again we say we would remain the extent that it does not interfere with progress; ignorani alltur life-long rather than be thus god- Io for us, progress is valid only to the extent that it does lessly educated even for one moment' not intlrfeie with religion. That is all the difference' There is, however, no such dilemma' Judaism never But this difference is abYsmal' remained aloof from true civilisation and progress; in as it has come down to us from our forefa- almost every era its adherents were fully abreast of Judaism thers is for us the gift and the word of God, an untouch- contemporary learning and very often excelled their which must not be subjected to human .orrt"-por"ries. If in recent centuries German Jews able sanctuary judgment nor subordinated to human considerations' remained more or less aloof from European civilisa- it ir"tlr" ideal given by God to all the generations of the tion the fault lay not in their religion but in the tyr- of never yet attained and to be striven conûned them by force within the walls House Jacob, anny which is the great edifice for intercourse with for unto the distant future, It of tleir ghettoes and denied them at which all and Jewesses are bom to live and die' the outside world. And, thank goodness' even now Jews all times and in every situation' It is the great Divine our sons and daughters can compare favourably in revelation which should infuse all our sentiments' ius- cultural and moral worth with the children of those all our resolutions and give all our actions their families who have forsaken the religion of their tify strength and stability, foundation and direction' forefathers for the sake of imagined progress' They Cãmparisons are futile' Judaism is not a reli- need not shun the light of publicity or the critical gion, the synaSogue is not a church, and the rabbi is eye of their contemporaries' They have lost nothing o IV Emerging Patterns of Religious Adiustment: Reþrm, consentatiue, Neo-orthodox, anil Ultra-orthodox Judaism zzg

not a priest. Iudaism is not a mere adjunct to life: it pillar of the fire of His light or the pillar comprises all of life. of the cloud To be a /ew is not a mere part, of His grace. it is the sum total of our task in life. To be a Iew In truth, if only most Jews were truly Iews, most of in rhe synagogue and the kitchen, in the field and the factors would disappear which today bar many the warehouse, in the office and an the pulpit, as father avenue of activity to them. motheç as and servant and master, as man and as If only all /ews who travel or who are engaged citizen, with one's thoughts, in word and in deed, in business observed their lewish duties, the nãed in enjoyment and privation, with the needle and the would-as always-produce its own remedy. The graving-tool, with the pen and the chisel_that is Jew would everywhere find the food demanded by what it means ro be a Iew. An entire life supported by his religion; it would be but little sacrifice for him the Divine Idea and lived and brought to fulfilment to refrain from business on the Sabbath; according to the Divine Will. and even in the regulations laid down by state and public bodies It is foolish, therefore, to believe_or to pretend to enlightened governments would gladly pay believe-that it is the wording respecr to of a prayeç the notes a display of conscientiousness of a synagogue which would in itself tune, or the order ofã special service, be a not inconsiderable contribution made by Iewish which form the abyss between us. It is not the so_called citizens to the society in which they live. Divine Service which separates us. It is the theory_ I_t is only through "the principle" unfaithfulness of the major_ as you call it_which throws ludaism ity that the into loyalty of the minority becomes a duty a corner for use onìy on Sabbaths and Festivals, demanding so much sacrifice, though the crown b¡ removing flom Iewish souls 1d that have strayed which it wins is all the more glorious?or from their Divine the rhorns Destiny the consciousness of their which our guilt brethren strew in our path.... robs them also of their last hope of penitence. The more, indeed, Iudaism comprisás the whole of man and NOTES extends its declared mission to the salva_ tion of the whole of mankind,s the less it is possible 1. Samson to confine Raphael Hirsch (1B0B_188S). Hirsch was its outlook to the four cubits of u ,yr,"_ born gogue in Hamburg where his family belonged to the and the four walls of a study. The more the traditionalist opponents of the Refo¡m temple of Jew is a ]ew the more universalist will his views and that city. After completing his rabbinic studies he aspirations be the less aloof will he be from any_ attended the where he befriended thing that is noble and good, true and upright, in his future adversary Abraham Geiger. From 1830 to aft or science, in culture or education; the more joy_ 1841 he served as the chief rabbi of the principality fully will he applaud whenever he sees truth and jus_ of Oldenbu¡g. During this period he published his ttce and peace and the ennoblement of man prevail two most famous works: Nln¿úeen Letters and on ludaism become dominant in human (1836) and Horeb: joyfully society; the more Essays on Israel,s Duties in the will he seize Diaspora every opportunity to give proof (tB3Z). Addressed to the perplexed fewry of his mission of as a Iew the task of his fudaism, on his day, both these works seek to demonstrate the unrrodden ground; rhe more joyfully will viability of traditional Iudaism in the modern world. Irelli."O devote Hirsch did, himself to all true progress in civilisation however, recognize the need to revise cer_ and,culture-provided, tain "exte¡nal" that is, that he will not only aspects of ludaism_viz., aesthetic not have ro forms of the public worship sacrifice his Judaism but will also be able service_in order to facil_ ¡s bring itate the few's adjustment to it to more perfect fulfilment. He will ever the modern sensibility. progress, On the other hand, he emphatically ;,::lT bur onty in ailiance with religion. He rejected Reform "vttr tìot want and any changes affecting the principÌes and to accomplish anything that he can_ content ac:omplish of halakhic ludaism. Hirsch,s response ::t as a few. Any step whìch takes him to Reform away from may be summarized as agreeing to revision Judaism is not for him a step forward, of the ls.not externals but allowing no refo¡m of the progress. He exercises this self_control principles of with_ Judaism. He for he added to this formula an endorsement l.|,t_. qi"*, does nor wish to accomplish his "rytt wlll of secular education and patriotic affection to the on earth but labours in the service of God. {( Knows country of one's citizenship. In 1851 he was that wherever the called rnarch Ark of his God does not to serve as the rabbi ahead of the traditional congregation of him he is not accompanied by the of Frankfurt am Main, Adas yeshurun_a position he 224 TIIÐ IDW IN TI.IE MODERN WORLD

mission, which Hirsch contends has become mo¡g held for thirty-seven years. Under Hirsch's guidance 5' This urgent in modern times, is concisely stated in one of this congregation and its allied educational institu- his previous works: tions became the paradigm of his vision of a "Neo- Orthodox Judaism," or halakhic Judaism in harmony Because men had eliminated God from life, with the modern world. nay, even from nature, and found the basis This essay was prompted by the argument of Reform of life in possessions and its aim in enioy- that the rabbinic tradition prevents Jews from frnd- ment, deeming life the product of the mul- ing their place in contemPorary German society' not titude of human desires, iust as they looked orrly be.uu.e of the traditional Jew's distinctive dress upon nature as the product of a multitude and manner of prayer-which Hirsch agreed mrrst be of gods, therefore it became necessary that a revised-but also because of the practical precepts of people be introduced into the ranks of the halakhah which were allegedly difficult to perform in a nations which, through its history and life, secular environment. should declare God the only creative cause of According to the Talmud (tractate Mahot 23b)' there existence, fulfillment of His will the only aim a¡e 613 àivine mizuot or precepts in the Pentateuch' of life; and which should bear the revelation Popularly, obedience to the "613 mizuot" refers to will, rejuvenated and renewed for its halakhah. of His adherence to the motive if ye walk sake, unto all parts of the world as the J. In his interpretation of I'ev. 26:2lff'-"and and incentive of its coherence (The Nineteen contrary unto Me..."-Hirsch substitutes "casually" Letters on Judaism, trans. S. Drachman [New for "contrary." York, 1899], seventh letteç pp' 66-67)' 4. Mishnah, Ethics of the Fathers 2:2'

1ó.THEMANIFEsTooFULTRA-oRTHoDoXY (18ó5)1

rHE RABBINrcAL oro.J:t^ji&t tnE MrcHALowcE

wicked man, shall die for iniquity' but -l-he says, "t appoint you watchman for the life-he, the Torah for his blood from you" I Ho,rt. of Israel" (Ezekiel 3:17)' "lf I say to a I will require a reckoning (Ezekiel 3:18). wicked man, 'You shall die [for your iniquity]/ and "[With no one pursuing them,] they shall stum' you do not warn him-you do not speak to warn the another before the sword]" (Leviticus íi.t"¿ man of his wicked course in order to save his ble over one [as

by Dov weiss The rabbis who composed this rabbinic decree Karl 1 866). Translated and annotated source: Pesaq Beit Din(ungvár: Jaeger, the full text fashion, on the assumption that the readers would know cited biblical and rabbinical texts in a partiat und frugrnentary often poftions of the original text+^-+ Similarlv'ei-ilarh¡ thefhâ sourcesañrrraes rranslator has provided ir îq,rr.. brackets the omitted :Ï:ïtff"i'r"J:illJt"iitt" phrases added to rr" given by the ttunslatoii" parentheses' as are occasional for most ofthe citations are not given in the documen,. in"y enhance the conceptual clarity of the document' IV o Emerging Patterns of Religious Adjustment: Reform, Consentotiue, Neo-Orthodox, and 1lltra-Orthodox 1udaism zzs

26:37)-rhe rabbis expound this to mean "a man And they built and are building altars to uproot will stumble because of the sins of his brother,, and to destroy, to replace and to change the form Talmud, (Babylonian Sanhedrin 27b). and image of the synagogue building by mak- "The Lord will bring this charge against the elders ing of a towerT (by changing the position) of the and officers of His peoples" (Isaiah 3:14)-rhe rab- bimah,E by [modifying] the mechitzah (partition) bis expound this to mean "elders who did not pro- between the women's and men's section,t by plac- sinful rest lthe actions of] the officers" (Babylonian ing the wedding chupah [in the synagogue],lo by Talmud, 54b, 55a). donning the cantor with a robe, by a notoriously vac- "And I will appoint them as your heads,, uous youth choir, by changing synagogue ritual and (Deuteronomy 1:13) should be read as "and their prayer melodies that have been practicçd amongst shall be on your sin heads"3-the sins of Israel hang the entire Jewish Diaspora since ancient times. judges upon the heads of the (Sifre to Deuteronomy, It undoubtedly appears that the intention of the Piska 13). evil inclination and its messengers, "a band of deadly "Cursed be he who does not uphold [the terms messengers" (Psalms Z8:49), is only to imitate join of this teaching and observe theml" (Deuteronomy and intermingle with other religious practices of the 27:26). As the explains, if one has nations of the world, and to weaken and pproot, God learned to teach (the precepts oftheTorah), and he is forbid, the Jewish religion-as one can seerfrom what able to do so, but does not, such a person is deemed happened in several places (in Central Europerl) "cursed" (lerusalem Talmud, 7:4). some years ago. What they were and wþat they are And if is this how the Torah warns an individual now: How have they descended ten degrçes lower! person (who has committed) a personal transgres_ "De$zing His majestic glance" (lsaiah and the sion, which þ:8) causes and brings about a breach and warning of the Torah in regard to all of these things a destruction of the Torah in its totality-and one (formulated) with a few "do not dos" (that is, nega- which has become known ro rhe lewish public- tive commandments): "You shall not copy their prac- then one should not sray in the shador, sit idly tices" (Leviticus 1B:3) [or] "beware of being lured by. But rather anyone has "rrà who the fear of truth in [into their waysl . . . ! Do not inquire about their gods, his heart ,,and i should gird his hips like a warrior saying "How did those nations worship their gods[?],' gir9 his loins" (1 Kings 18:46), ,,whoever I and say (Deuteronomy 12:30). For by [violating these injunc- ts-for the Lord (and ¡ His Torah), come here. [And tionsl the existence of Torah, Heaven forbid, wilt be aìl Levires I rallied to him] (Exoáus 32:26),,-as the destroyed. "And afterwards he afflicted her more griev- Midrash (claims)-those (Levites) who earnestly ously" (Isaiah 8:23)-for rhey conducted I wanted themselves to escorr the children (of God) to God such that the name and language of Israel would i (Genesis no ! Rabbah ZI: ).a And whà are they? Those longer be remembered. say, for rhe sake of loving God and acring for Woe to their í ntm,Tl" "to eyes, the eyes of the enligþtened, for I his father and mother 'I consider them they see how far this "malignant no.li leprosy" (Leviticus his brothers he disregarded ignored his 13:51) and "great i children', [and] fire" (Deuteronomy 5:21) have ¡ (Deureronomy 33:9). spread to several countries. 1b repair the breaches of Torah and to build a What is I .rence [good it] for us ro mention (these coun- around its ruins-lest there will arise another tries12) by name? Our hearts Iache] for the victims who ]ansgressor-we find ourselves obligated in this "before them the land was like the Garden of Eden, Ii mafter. i aÍter them, a desolare waste" (loel2:3), Due (they) who i _, to our great sins, we see that these are burned and uprooted the foundations ofTorah times, and that "new ones, who come bur larely,, i (ueuteronomy32:12),;i. awe [of God]. And even in Hungary in several places, and,,newoneswitholdones,, [their destructive ways] have left their mark. Who 7:I4),who,,ruinthevineyards,, i :rï*ofsongs (Song knows to what extent will destruction] reach? 2:1S)-vineyards ,,in [the Ë ;:!uttgs of God, time of tumul_ And there is nothing leÍÌ for us but to arouse and strife in [ ;:^:t Israel,, (ludges 5:2),s [and] those who excite the hearts of the masses towards God and the their crearor å ;':i-"'raw have breached and transgressed Words of Torah taught in the sermons-and and intend [yet] F to rebel against Him.6 even these are given over to the hand of the evil þ ç 226 THE ,Ew IN THE MoDERN woRLD

inclination to be dressed in a gentile dress and to be in a way that enables the men to look at the transformed from being the defender into the prose- women. But rather, you shall make it as was yore. moreover, cutor [of Israel], Heaven forbid!13 practiced in the days of And, i¡ "[Such are the ways of an adulteress]. She eats, it was already built in this way, one shouìd not wipes her mouth, and says, I have done no wrong" enter the slmagogue. (Proverbs 30:20) and in any case many from the 6. It is forbidden to listen to the prayers of a choi¡ multitude of righteous people are ensnared in their and it is certainly forbidden to pray along with control and say "to the guilty, you are innocent" them or respond "Ãmen," even if by conse- (Proverbs 24:24). quence one will be compelledto "sit alone and The Torah warns [us] against [these assimilatory keep silent" (Lamentations 3:28). waysl, and commands us to become there (in the 7. One is forbidden to enter so-called "choir- lands of the gentiles) "a gÍeat and populous nation" ," since they are houses of apikorsut (Deuteronomy 26:5)-thus we learn that Israel main- (heresy), for as it is stated in [the Babylonian tained there its distinctivenessla-and only this pre- Talmudl, Shabbat ll6a, "even if someone is in vented them from not being lost amongst the nations pursuit of him in order to kill him or a snake in Egypt. was running [after him] to bite him, he should And He called out acry "l have separated you from enter a house of idolatryts to save one's self the nations" (l-ev. 20:26) and "there is a people that rêther than to enter the houses of these [lewish dwells apart" (Numbers 23:9)-as [Targum] fonathan hereticsl etc." translates, there "they are not conversant in the prac- 8. It is forbidden to place a chuppah in a syna- tices of the nations." [Alas] "they mingled with the gogue. Rather, it should be under the heavens. nations and learned their ways" (Psalm 106:35). 9. It is forbidden to change any Iewish custom or If we are now idle, and "a future generation, chil- practice in the synagogue¡ since it has already dren yet born" (Psalm 78:6) will arise and say "the been accepted by our fathers and our fathers' Pharisees (the Orthodox authorities) have permitted fathers. this matter" (lerusalem Talmud Sanhedrin, chapter lO, 28:4:2). We are, therefore, obligated to legislate The prohibition on entering the synagogues we with an iron and lead pen-as a memorial for future have noted above holds for both regular days of generations-the following: the year as well as Shabbat, Rosh Hashanah or , and even if this means that because of this 1. It is forbidden to deliver sermons in a language one is to pray alone. of the nations of the world. It is also prohibited [We enact this prohibition] in order to repair the to listen to a sermon delivered in the language breach in the Torah by the multitude of God's nation of the nations of the world. Therefore, every whose hearts are still close to Him and the embers of Israelite who hears that a rabbi or someone Abraham still burns in them, [and] so that they will else is giving a sermon in a foreign language [now] know clearly that all of the customs and ordi- should leave the synagogue forthwith. And the nances of Israel have their "foundation on the holy preacher must preach in the Yiddish language mountains" (Psalms 87:1) and stand at the pinnacle one that is spoken by kosher (sic) Iews of this of the world. country. And who is [so] important or respected in this 2. It is forbidden to enter and pray in a synagogue orphaned generation to [have the right to] change what [that] does not have abimah in the middle. is already established? Did not our rabbis of blessed 3. It is forbidden to construct a synagogue with a memory say: "If the earliest generations [of sages] were tower. sons of angels, we are [mere] human beings, and if the 4. It is forbidden to make special clothes for the later generations merited the appellation of human cantor and other singers in a manner that re- beings, we are like donkeys, and not even like the don- sembles the customs of other religions. keys of Rabbi " (Babylonia Talmud, 5. It is forbidden to make a mechitzah, which Shabbat 112b).16 And now "if sinners entice you, do separates the women's and men's sections, notyield" (Proverbs 1:10). This is the first [point]. IV o Emetging Patterns of Religious Adjustment: Reþrm, Consentatiue, Neo-Orthoàox, and llltra-orthodox Judaism 227

you Second, should know that everything they are idol worshipl in the sancruary of the Lord." For one change doing to the customs of Israel, to imitate [the way or anotheL they will hear the sermon. did those gentilesl-"How nations worshþ their godt' And we made this [proclamaton] openly and pub- 12;30)-tlansgresses (Deuteronomy a few "do not lidy in a gathering and meeting of the great Sages so rhat dos" (negative Torah commandments). It is worse than it will be heard. ,{nd now the fearers of God in many earing porþ both in terms of quantity and quality. communities will no longer need to solicit [rabbinic] Quantitatively: Eating an olive-size piece pork responsa, of [that is], to send offleuers to the rabbis [asking is but a [violation] of one negative commandment, theml what to do in the aforementioned matters. while in changing and substituting customs in order And all the aforementioned [regulations] keep- imitate gentiles], to [the one violates many negative ing a distance [that is], that one is forbidden to imi- commandments. tate [the gentiles] and to practice their customs and And qualitatively: these prohibitions pertain to the to walk in their ways, is only in relation to religion "accessories" ofidolatry and [thus] there is a question and issues of faith. Because the preseruation of our whether they fall within the caregory of "[rather] be Torah and our religion is very far from other religions killed than transgress [them]" (Babylonian Talmud, and since our Torah beseeches only us with regard to Sanhedrin 74a). the 613 mitzuot (commandments)-unlike the other In truth, because of the severity of the issue, it nations who are not so commanded. But aside from would have been appropriate to issue bans of excom- religion, we are beseeched by the Torah, prophets and munications or proclaim to a curse of snakes for the Writings [that is, all three books of the Hebrew which there is no remedy. But we did only this for Scripturesl to honor the gentiles and seek their peace. the sake masses of of God's people who believe in TheTorah states "you shall not abhor an Egyptian, His Torah and desire its fulfillment, and yet there are for you were a stranger in his land" (Deuteronomy some [who] imagine and reason "so what,, concern_ 23:8) and our rabbis say "do not throw a clod of ing the matters mentioned above, and [that] perhaps earth into a well from which you drank" ,,pious (Babylonian [they deem the changes] as merely acts,,, and Talmud Bava Kammag2b). that it is not advisable to create a difference of opin- Now we can make an a fortiori (hal uachomer) ion over this, and, all the more so¡ conflict. argument-if the Egyptians drew Israel close to them Now please know, that these - [prohibitions] are only for their own purposes and, [moreover], they the fundamenrals of Torah and arã included under [the Israelites] experienced painful afflictions there, the category of accessories of idolatry, and [the prohi- as the Torah says, "I have marked well the plight bition of againstl changing one's languãge is included in my people in Egypt" (Exodus 3:Z) "and their the "eighteen [or] matters"rT that were ãrtubtirt with the cry for help from bondage rose up ro God" (Exodus sword (Ierusalem "¿ Tälmud Shabbat 1 :4), and even Elijah, 2:23) andyet, with all of this, the Torah, whose "ways if he would come to nulìifi them-wé wiil not lisren to are pleasant ways" (Proverbs 3:17) still tells us and him (see Babylonian Tälmud, Avoda h Zarah 3 6a). commands us that since you had there a safe haven at ,{nd the great guide, the Rabbi of Israel in the last a time of difficulty "you shall nor abhor an Egyptian', Seneration, the light of the Diaspora, our master and (Deuteronomy 23:8). teacher, the author of the Uatåm Sofeç of blessed memory-may [Then] these nations, among whom we dwell and he abide in paradise, commanded are sheltered by their shade, and gain our livelihood nls congregation ,,that [in his last will and testament] amongst them, and, they, their kings, they should [moreover], not have a preacher who preaches in the ofiûcers, nobles, judges, ranguage representatives, and and all of the nations, but only in the manner as of the inhabitants of the land are upstanding, kind You have heard from me.,, and just peoplq and they are at peace with us and do he (Rabbi Sofer) repeared it again in his not prevent us or cause us to neglect the observance '.!Þons1þ Hoshen Misteat (no. 196)rs wheie he srares, of our Torah and our religion, then all the more "llrorpecrive so rabbi] sÈould nát [deliver sermons we are commanded from the perspective ,f ffurorelgn of the Holy 'rl languages, because it is forbidden torah to receive Torah not to be ungrateful. from such a rabbi's person moutl. [Appointing such a And whoever does not do so, he should be afraid as rabbi] is like setting up unàihrroh[atreefor of the curse of Solomon "eviì will never depart #,T-rl

22A THE igw IN THE M(

Empire, not only in the German-speaking territo- from the house of him who repays good with evil'" ries, but also in the Iüngdom of Hungary' Alarmed (Proverbs 17:13); in the prophets, "[and] seek [or] by these developments, disciples of Hatam Sofer, welfare of the city which I have exiled you] àe [to led by Hillel Lichtenstein (18t4-9t), Haim Sofer in the Writings, "l do obey the (leremiah 29:7), and (1821-86) and Lichtenstein's son-in-law Akiva orders" (Ecclesiastes 8:2) "Fear the Lord' ùing's [or] Yosef Schlesinger 1837-1922) gathered in 1865 ìn the king" (Proverbs 24:21)' my son, and Michalowce (Mihalowitz, Nagy Mihály), a town in emerged from us, the undersigned' This [ruling] northeastern Hungary (today, Slovakia), and issued we conferred and deliberated at a conference where a pesaq din (a rabb\nic decision) reiterating Flatam religionte and, moreover' on the matter according to Sofer's unyielding opposition to all changes in Jewish according to these are matters that are patently clear religious practice and custom, even relatively mild our Holy Torah without any alteration' adjustments in accord with contemporary sensibil- And on thiswe have signed here inthe holycommu- ities introduced by the Neo-Orthodox' Indeed, as nity of Michalowce, God should protect it, on Tuesday Michael Silber points out, their animus was directed Vayßhlach was to the of the Shabbat [where we read] the portionof not so much to the liberal reformers as it (Genesis 32:4-36:43), 5625 I28 November 1 865 l' neo-Orthodox and their intent to embolden the Do not place significance to the order of the vacillating Orthodox who contemplated introduc- maintain signatories. ing merely minor concessions in order to communal harmony. "lt would be a mistake ' ' ' to E[isen]s[taedter], Rabbi of Ungvár Menachem view the pesaq din [of Michalowce] as primarily an Ganzfried, Shlomo fudge attack on Reforms. . . . [ln fact], several of the pro- Shmuel Moskowitz, fudge hibitions were veiled references to innovations I-Iaim Yosef [Gottlieb], Rabbi of Sztropkov which had only recently been introduced in none Avraham Schönfeld, Rabbi of Kurame other than the bastion of Orthodoxy, Pressburg' the Naftali Teckman, fudge seat of the late Hatam Sofer." Michael Silber, "The Shmuel Shmelke [Klein], Rabbi of Szöllös Emergence of Ultra-Orthodoxy: The Invention of a Yosef son of Zalman, fudge Tradition," in The llses of Tradition: Jewish Continuity Zeev Wolf Tannebaum, Rabbi of Verpelet in the Modern Era, ed., Jack Wertheimer (New York: Hillel L[ichten]s[tein], lRabbi of Szikszó] Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1992)' Avraham Yehuda Schwartz, Rabbi ofBeregszâz p. 40. The pesaq din was signed by twenty-five rab- Moshe Heimlich, fudge bis; a few months later, the number of signatories the Sanhedrin (see Shmuel Aryeh Lichtenstein, fudge had reached seventy, the size of and received the added Yehuda E[isen]s[tädter], Rabbi of Szobránc chapter 3, document 15), the document Zvi Hirsh Weiss, Rabbi of LaPos authority of Hasidic leaders. Because be a pesaq din, that is a decision based Yosef Grünwald, Rabbi of Czeczowiø with his purported to law), many of the most promi- rabbinic court onhalakhah (rabbinic authorities in Hungary refused to Yehoshua Aharon Zvi Weinberger, Rabbi of nent OÍhodox sign it. Neveiïheless, fhe þesaq din of Michalowce Margareten served not only to crystallize the Ultra'Orthodox Leibish lolles, Rabbi of Sebes movement, but prompted Hungarian Orthodoxy Yehuda Leib Rabbi of Hummene [Spiro], in general to move more to the right and reject any Abish ShaPiro, Rabbi of Hummene accommodation to modernitY' Aharon Greenberg, Rabbi of Michalowse 2. See Silber, "The Emergence of Ultra-Orthodoxy"' Moshe, Asher, son of Judge pp.39ff. David Eichenbaum, fudge Moshe :. ü-tit reading is based on the linguistic similarity of the Rabbi of Sz[ent] Pét[er] Haim [Sofer], Hebrew word that opens the biblical passage (sim-to place, appoint) to the Hebrew term for guilt or sin NOTES (ashem). associating the Hebrew name Levi with 1. Gradually Liberal and modern Orthodox expres- 4. The rabbis are the term to escort (liuah). sions of Judaism began to take root in the Habsburg lv c Emerging Pattems of Religious Adjustment: Refoïm, Consetvatiue, Neo-Orthodox, and Illtra-orthodox ludaísm 22g

The S. Jewish Publication Society of America,s transla_ 14. Although there are several variations of this mid- tion of the Hebrew Scriptures renders this phrase in an rash, the authors of the pesaq din repeatedly utterly different spirit ,,when as a dedication, locks go referred to a variant in Tana Deurei Eliahu 23:4, untrimmed," although it is traditionally understood wherein the Israelites consciously decided to pre_ as the aurhors of tlrre pesaq din did. serve their identity in "Egypt's Land" by entering See Midrash , ed., 6. Shlomo Buber, Numbers into a covenant to maintain distinctive names, lan_ 11:18. guage, and dress. In preferring this variant reading The suggestion Z. is that by the "building of a rowe[,,, of the midrash, the pesaq din in effect emphasized these synagogues seek to imitate the architectu¡e of the covenantal obligation of the Israelites to enter Christian churches. a sort of social contract to maintain their distinc_ 8. See this chapter, document 6, note 16. tive religious identity. A mechitzah (Hebrew 9. for partition or division; plu_ 15. In this context, houses of idolatry refer to Christian ral mechitzot) is a partition that is used to separate churches. men and women during prayer. The signatories of the 76. Rabbi Pinchas ben Yair's donkeys were said to have rabbinic decree deemed the mechiao¿ of the modern instinctively known not to eat food that was not Orthodox synagogues to provide an insufficient sepa_ properly tithed according to biblical law ration between the sexes, 77. The reference is to eighteen abiding prohibitions 10. Iewish weddings traditionally take place under a chup_ (gezerot) that were legislated just after the destruction pah (Hebrew for covering or canopy), which consists of the TÞmple. They were meant to reinforce social of a cloth or sheet and occasionalìy also,a prayer and cultural distance from the gentile world. The list shawl (øIlit).Traditional pracrice is to conducr a wed_ in the two Talmuds is not at all identical (compare ding outdoors under the heavenly canopy. Hencg the the Babylonian Talmud, Shabbat t3b-tZb, and the tendency of some modern Orthodox (and Liberal) ferusalem Talmud, Shabbat 1:4). The prohibition on congregations to place the wedding canopy inside the "their languages" appears only in the less authorita- synagogue was frowned upon as yet another devia_ tive Jerusalem Talmud. tion from tradition. 18. Hoshen Mishpat (the title means "lights of perfec- 11. Specifically, the reference is to rhe founding of Modern tion"; cf. Exodus 28:30) is one of the books of the Orthodox congregations in Germany, Bohemia, and Shulhan Aruhh, the standard Code of ]ewish Law by nearby Moravia. Joseph Karo of the sixteenth century. See The Responsa 12. The ¡eference is to places that were previously great of Hatam Sofer, volutne 5, no. 792 (not no. 196 as is centers of t¡aditional Judaism and the study of erroneously stated in the pesaq din). Torah. 19. "Religion" (dat) in this conrext is a vague term, 13. This is an allusion to the increasing practice of even apparently employed to avoid explicitly attaching Orthodox rabbis to dress in ceremonial robes and to to these "regulations" the authority of rabbinic law deliver their sermons in either German or Flungarian. (halahhah).