DOCSLIB.ORG

The Legacy of Unjust and Illegal Treatment of Unangan During World War II and Its Place in Unangan History

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Legacy of Unjust and Illegal Treatment of Unangan During World War II and Its Place in Unangan History The Legacy of Unjust and Illegal Treatment of Unangan During World War II and Its Place in Unangan History © 2011 Carlene Arnold Submitted to the graduate degree program in Global Indigenous Nations Studies and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. ________________________________ John Hoopes, Chair ________________________________ Jay T. Johnson ________________________________ Dixie West Date Defended: October 21, 2011 The Thesis Committee for Carlene Arnold certifies that this is the approved version of the following thesis: The Legacy of Unjust and Illegal Treatment of Unangan During World War II and Its Place in Unangan History ________________________________ Chairperson John W. Hoopes Date approved: December 16, 2011 ii Abstract This thesis discusses the relocation of Unangan during World War II, and the effect that it had on them. It uses personal interviews and secondary sources to provide the Native American and scientific communities with historical information about the Unangax prior to WWII. I hope to offer the school systems new ideas for educating Unangan and other students about the Unangan past and present. At the same time, telling my story about reconstructing my roots may provide inspiration for others like me to find their roots. In 1942, Japan bombed and invaded the Aleutian Islands in Alaska as a diversionary tactic. After the Japanese took control of Attu and Kiska, they took the people of Attu to Hokkaido, Japan as prisoners. Within days after the invasion, other Unangan were taken from their homes and relocated to canneries, mining camps and a Civilian Conservation Corps site in Southeast Alaska, under the orders of United States government officials. Japanese-Americans had been taken to internment camps in the Western states that same year. What makes the case of the Aleuts similar to that of the Japanese is that both represent forcible internment of legal residents of the U.S. and its territories during wartime. The Japanese-Americans were thought to have a posed a threat to the U.S. and were said to have been interned for security reasons. The Unangax, on the other hand, were said to have been interned for their protection. The internment began a story of the Unangan removal and relocation that remains largely unknown to most of the world. This sad incident resulted in the death of approximately ten percent of the Unangan population. The government seems to have ignored the Unangan basic human rights, causing them to suffer from lack of food, heat, plumbing, and medical attention. Prior to their internment, the Russian Orthodox Church had played a big part in the Unangan everyday life; however, those who were interned had to leave their churches behind. Only a few communities managed to bring their sacred icons with them to Southeast Alaska. iii When Unangan returned to their villages, they discovered their homes and churches had been ransacked by the American military or non-Unangan civilians. The Unangax found themselves refugees on their own land, struggling to reestablish the lives they had before the internment. It was not until several years later that the Unangax decided to bring suit against the U.S. government for the unjust treatment that they had received. While the damage caused by Japanese-American internment is well-documented, the internments of the Unangax had even more profound effects on the families, culture, and consciousness of these Alaska Natives and their descendants. This multidisciplinary thesis will draw upon official government and military documents, journals, books, documentary films, oral histories, and personal interviews. It will benefit from perspectives offered by the Unangax themselves in the context of accounts by government officials, attorneys, historians, filmmakers, sociologists, psychologists, anthropologists, and others. Each chapter will be organized in a historical sequence in order to better illustrate the significance of the ordeal that the Unangax endured. The thesis will address the significance of World War II internment in Unangan history, giving special attention to how it is regarded by the Unangan internees and their descendants today. iv Table of Contents List of Figures iii List of Appendices iv Dedication ix Acknowledgements x Preface 1 Introduction 8 Chapter One: The Aleutians and Their People 12 Introduction 12 Geography 12 Language 14 Climate and Environment 15 Traditional Unangan Culture 16 Social Customs and Social Complexity 18 Religion and Politics 19 Rites of Passage 20 Unangan Adaptation 22 Chapter Two: Invasion 24 Introduction 24 Russian Occupation 24 Post-Russian Unangan Affairs 29 Government Attitudes toward the Unangax and the Decision to Relocate Them 32 The Japanese and World War II 34 Chapter Three: Conditions in and the Effects of the Unangan Internment Camps 38 Introduction 38 Leaving the islands and the Arrival in the Internment Camps 38 Returning the Unangax to their Villages 42 The Return to the Islands 44 The Four Abandoned Villages 45 The Impact of the Evacuation and Subsequent Internment of the Unangax 47 Geographic Dispersion after the Evacuation 48 The Japanese Internees 50 Chapter Four: Taking a Stand 53 Introduction 53 Understanding Mistreatment of the Unangax 53 Taking a Stand 55 Today 59 Chapter Five: Lost Villages 62 Introduction 62 The Lost Villages Project 62 The 2010 Lost Villages Trip to Kashega and Biorka 65 The Trip to Kashega 67 The Trip to Biorka 70 Post Trip 75 Grandparents 77 v Epilogue 78 Anchorage Interviews 85 Chapter Six: Presentation of Unangan History in Schools 89 Bibliography 93 vi List of Figures Fig. 1.1. Map of Aleutian Islands 12 Fig. 1.2. Women making baskets 17 Fig. 5.1. Kashega before WWII 68 Fig. 5.2. Survivors, Descendants Exploring Kashega 69 Fig. 5.3. George Gordaoff Directs Placement of Cross 69 Fig. 5.4. Biorka before WWII 72 Fig. 5.5. Kathy Dirks by Grandfather‘s House (Andrew Makarin) 73 Fig. 5.6. Inside of Andrew Makarin‘s House 74 Fig. 5.7. Group Photo at Dutch Harbor 74 Fig. 5.8. Evonne Mason, Mary Diakanoff 79 Fig. 5.9. Tiĝlax crew, Mary Diakanoff, George Gordaoff 80 Fig. 5.10. Descendants exploring Kashega 81 Fig. 5.11. Former site of church at Biorka 82 Fig. 5.12. Ceremony Biorka 83 Fig. 5.13. Departing Tiĝlax Dutch Harbor 84 Fig. 5.14. Nellie Yatchminoff Grave Unalaska 84 Fig. 5.15. Peter Yatchminoff Grave Unalaska 84 Fig. 5.16. Alice Petrivelli 86 vii List of Appendices Appendix A Adult Informed Consent Statement 96 Appendix B Interview Questions 100 Appendix C Statement of Interviews 103 Appendix D Interview George Gordaoff 104 Appendix E Interview Alice Petrivelli 126 Appendix F Interview Mary Diakanoff 151 Appendix G Interview Nick G. Golodoff 166 Appendix H Drawn Map of Kashega 178 Appendix I Kashega before Evacuation 179 Appendix J Mausoleum List 180 Appendix K Mausoleum Diagram 184 Appendix L Nick Golodoff and Mr. Kamani 186 Appendix M Mr. Kamani and Nick Golodoff 187 viii Dedication To those who were interned in Southeast Alaska, to my ancestors (who were with me throughout my research), and for the future generations of the Unangax. ix Acknowledgements This thesis has helped me to realize why my mother was the way she was. She really did not disclose this part of her life to her family or at least to her children. I had no idea that these events in the history of the Unangax had taken place, not to mention that my mother‘s family was a part of them. I now know why I did not get a chance to know my mother‘s side of the family. The diaspora of the Unangax and my family after World War II made it difficult to know or understand why people chose to leave these memories or experiences to themselves. I hope that this thesis will help others to understand the Unangan elders and maybe why there was such a diaspora of families after the war, also to let others know of this history of the Unangax. I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my committee chair, Professor John Hoopes, without whose guidance and persistent help completion of thesis would have not been possible. His direction is very much appreciated. I know that my writing was poor, his patience and assistance in finding ways to improve my writing was a bigger task for him than the content. Thank you for your great patience with me. I would like to thank committee member Dr. Dixie West, who had knowledge of and worked with the Unangax. She also gave me ideas about whom I could contact for my thesis. This was very beneficial to my research. In addition, her direction in the writing of my thesis was very helpful. Thank you for your input and for assisting and sending me information that was pertinent for my thesis. I would also like to thank committee member Professor Jay Johnson for helping me with maps and for his input to my thesis. I would further like to thank Professor Margaret Pearce for her advice on maps. I am also grateful to Professor Michael Crawford for his assistance with my research. x I owe my deepest gratitude to Debbie Corbett and Rachel Mason, for without their great support and their assistance I could not have completed this research. Both have gone out of their way to assist me with my research. I cannot express my appreciation for all that both of them have done for me. I thank them for their time and effort with my trip to Alaska and for including me in on the Lost Villages Project. Thank you, Debbie, for letting me stay in your home and for driving me around Anchorage for my research.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Glacial Change on Baranof Island: Quantifying Local-Level Impact of Climate Change
    Glacial Change on Baranof Island: Quantifying Local-level Impact of Climate Change Jonathan Kreiss-Tomkins, Chandler Kemp, Eli Bildner Overview The glaciers of Baranof Island – the only glaciated island in Southeast Alaska – are small, disparate, and sensitive to climatic change due to the temperate climate in which they are situated. We propose to quantify the change in area of a selection of Baranof Island glaciers over recent history by gathering geospatial data, calculating the perimeter and surface area of the glaciers, using a model to estimate glacial volume, and then comparing our findings against the historical record – historical USGS field measurements, historical aerial photographs, tree core data, and geomorphological indicators such as terminal moraines and trim lines. We will then quantify historical change of surface area and perimeter, and if sufficient historical data points are available, we will also calculate a rate of change (both for surface area and extent of the terminus) and predict future glacial advance or retreat. Methodology Targeted Glaciers We will gather data for two subsets of glaciers, one subset from mid-Baranof Island, one subset from the South Baranof Wilderness Area. The first subset of glaciers will consist of two glaciers from mid-Baranof Island, both on or near the Cross-Baranof Island Trail and well known by users of the Sitka Community Use Area. These glaciers are indicated in map attachment 1 – a small valley glacier north of Glacier Lake and a modest icefield north of the Baranof River valley. The second subset of glaciers will consist of three smaller hanging and cirque glaciers from the South Baranof Wilderness Area (see map attachment 2).
    [Show full text]
  • Bibliography of Alaskan Geology
    BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ALASKAN GEOLOGY , ,. SPECIAL REPORT 22 ..... Compiled by: CRAWFORD E. FRITTS and MILDRED E. BROWN State of Alaska Department of Hat ural Resources OIVISIOH OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY College, Alaska 187 1 STATE OF ALASKA William A. Egan - Governor DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES Charles F. Herbert - Commissioner DIVISION OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY William C. Fackler - Assistant Commissioner for Minerals BIBLIOGWHY OF ALASKAN GEOLOGY, 1919-1949 Compiled by Crawford E. Fritrs and Mildred E. Brown College, Alaska 1971 CONTENTS Page Introduction ................................ 1 Purpose. source and format .......,............... 1 Serial publications ........................... 2 Other publishing media .........................ll Miscellaneous abbreviations ....................... 13 Bibliography ................................ 15 Index .................. Arealgeology ............. Earthquakes .............. Economic geology ........... Engineering geology .......... General subjects ........... Geomorphology [or physiography] .... Geophysical surveys .......... Glacial geology ............ Historical geology .......... Maps. geologic ............ Mineralogy .............. Paleoclimatology ........... Paleontology ............. Petrology ............... Physical geology ........... Sedimentation or sedimentary petrology Stratigraphy ............. Structural geology .......... Volcanism and volcanology ....... ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1 . Quadrangles and major geographic divisions of Alaska referred to in this report .......................
    [Show full text]
  • Cuban Antifascism and the Spanish Civil War: Transnational Activism, Networks, and Solidarity in the 1930S
    Cuban Antifascism and the Spanish Civil War: Transnational Activism, Networks, and Solidarity in the 1930s Ariel Mae Lambe Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 2014 © 2014 Ariel Mae Lambe All rights reserved ABSTRACT Cuban Antifascism and the Spanish Civil War: Transnational Activism, Networks, and Solidarity in the 1930s Ariel Mae Lambe This dissertation shows that during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) diverse Cubans organized to support the Spanish Second Republic, overcoming differences to coalesce around a movement they defined as antifascism. Hundreds of Cuban volunteers—more than from any other Latin American country—traveled to Spain to fight for the Republic in both the International Brigades and the regular Republican forces, to provide medical care, and to serve in other support roles; children, women, and men back home worked together to raise substantial monetary and material aid for Spanish children during the war; and longstanding groups on the island including black associations, Freemasons, anarchists, and the Communist Party leveraged organizational and publishing resources to raise awareness, garner support, fund, and otherwise assist the cause. The dissertation studies Cuban antifascist individuals, campaigns, organizations, and networks operating transnationally to help the Spanish Republic, contextualizing these efforts in Cuba’s internal struggles of the 1930s. It argues that both transnational solidarity and domestic concerns defined Cuban antifascism. First, Cubans confronting crises of democracy at home and in Spain believed fascism threatened them directly. Citing examples in Ethiopia, China, Europe, and Latin America, Cuban antifascists—like many others—feared a worldwide menace posed by fascism’s spread.
    [Show full text]
  • GAO-13-121, Regional Alaska Native Corporations: Status 40 Years After Establishment, and Future Considerations
    United States Government Accountability Office Report to Congressional Requesters GAO December 2012 REGIONAL ALASKA NATIVE CORPORATIONS Status 40 Years after Establishment, and Future Considerations GAO-13-121 December 2012 REGIONAL ALASKA NATIVE CORPORATIONS Status 40 Years after Establishment, and Future Considerations Highlights of GAO-13-121, a report to congressional requesters Why GAO Did This Study What GAO Found In 1971, the Alaska Native Claims Incorporated under Alaska state law, regional Alaska Native corporations share Settlement Act was enacted to resolve fundamental characteristics, although they have chosen a variety of governance long-standing aboriginal land claims practices. Like other Alaska corporations, the regional corporations are subject to and to foster economic development the state’s corporate laws (with limited exceptions) and are run by an elected for Alaska Natives. This federal law board of directors. Nevertheless, each regional corporation has chosen its own directed that corporations be created organization and governance approach in terms of board operations, executive under Alaska state law, which were to and board compensation, board elections, and shareholder involvement. be the vehicles for distributing the settlement. As directed by the act, Alaska Native corporations are subject to some financial reporting requirements 12 for-profit regional corporations were under federal and state law, but oversight of the reporting is limited. The Alaska established, representing geographical Native Claims Settlement Act generally exempts the corporations from complying regions in the state. Later, a with federal securities laws while requiring them to annually provide a report to 13th regional corporation was formed their shareholders that contains “substantially all the information” required to be to represent Alaska Natives residing included in an annual report to shareholders by U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • 45 YEARS of REGIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT We
    ANCSA 1971-2016 ................................. CELEBRATING 45 YEARS OF REGIONAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT We................................... Are ANCSA ANCSA Regional Corporations, as unique as the people we represent. Arctic Slope NANA Doyon Bering Straits Calista Ahtna Chugach CIRI Bristol Bay Sealaska Koniag Aleut 2016 ANCSA Economic Report Message from ANCSA Regional Association.......................................04 Board of Directors..................................................................05 Building Sustainable Futures Celebrating 45 Years of ANCSA....................................................06 What Everyone Should Know About ANCSA Corporations. 08 Financial Results for 2011-2015.....................................................11 Alaska Regional Corporations • Mission and Business Activities Ahtna, Incorporated................................................................17 Aleut Corporation..................................................................18 Arctic Slope Regional Corporation.................................................19 Bering Straits Native Corporation..................................................20 Bristol Bay Native Corporation.....................................................21 Calista Corporation.................................................................22 Chugach Alaska Corporation.......................................................23 CIRI................................................................................24 Doyon, Limited.....................................................................25
    [Show full text]
  • Aleuts: an Outline of the Ethnic History
    i Aleuts: An Outline of the Ethnic History Roza G. Lyapunova Translated by Richard L. Bland ii As the nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has re- sponsibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural and cultural resources. This includes fostering the wisest use of our land and water resources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places, and providing for enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Shared Beringian Heritage Program at the National Park Service is an international program that rec- ognizes and celebrates the natural resources and cultural heritage shared by the United States and Russia on both sides of the Bering Strait. The program seeks local, national, and international participation in the preservation and understanding of natural resources and protected lands and works to sustain and protect the cultural traditions and subsistence lifestyle of the Native peoples of the Beringia region. Aleuts: An Outline of the Ethnic History Author: Roza G. Lyapunova English translation by Richard L. Bland 2017 ISBN-13: 978-0-9965837-1-8 This book’s publication and translations were funded by the National Park Service, Shared Beringian Heritage Program. The book is provided without charge by the National Park Service. To order additional copies, please contact the Shared Beringian Heritage Program ([email protected]). National Park Service Shared Beringian Heritage Program © The Russian text of Aleuts: An Outline of the Ethnic History by Roza G. Lyapunova (Leningrad: Izdatel’stvo “Nauka” leningradskoe otdelenie, 1987), was translated into English by Richard L.
    [Show full text]
  • East Baranof Island
    East Baranof Province as the highest peaks on Admiralty Island, but they intercept more moisture and are more heavily glaciated. They also appear more jagged, because regional ice levels were somewhat lower during the Great Ice Age, and therefore a greater proportion of their summits stood free of the rounding effects of ice. The unnamed 5,328-ft (1,625 m) mountain at the head of Baranof River is the tallest peak on any Southeast island, and overlooks an icefield of about 5 mi2 (12 km2), the largest such expanse on the archipelago. Catherine Island is a giant “tombolo;” only during extreme high tides is it actually separated from Baranof Island by salt water. The largest streams and rivers draining the interior glaciated highlands are braided and aggrading where they reach the lowlands. Most deliver their silt burden into lakes before reaching the ocean. Only Glacial River, terminating in the south arm of Kelp Bay, carries glacial silt all the way into estuarine salt marshes, and is unique among all archipelago streams in this regard. The Clear River also enters these marshes, forming an instructive contrast. East Baranof Province is one of the wettest regions of Southeast. Little Port Walter on southeastern Baranof receives FIG 1. East Baranof Province. 221 in (561 cm) of precipitation annually. Over most of the province, precipitous terrain During the Great Ice Age, the tall mountain massif of precludes the growth of large expanses of hemlock- northern Baranof became a center from which glaciers spruce forest, particularly in the southern portion of the radiated, flowing east into Chatham Strait and west to province.
    [Show full text]
  • One Hundred Seventh Congress of the United States of America
    S. 1325 One Hundred Seventh Congress of the United States of America AT THE SECOND SESSION Begun and held at the City of Washington on Wednesday, the twenty-third day of January, two thousand and two An Act To ratify an agreement between The Aleut Corporation and the United States of America to exchange land rights received under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act for certain land interests on Adak Island, and for other purposes. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, SECTION 1. FINDINGS. Congress finds that: (1) Adak Island is an isolated island located 1,200 miles southwest of Anchorage, Alaska, between the Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea. The Island, with its unique physical and biological features, including a deep water harbor and abundant marine-associated wildlife, was recognized early for both its natural and military values. In 1913, Adak Island was reserved and set aside as a Preserve because of its value to seabirds, marine mammals, and fisheries. Withdrawals of portions of Adak Island for various military purposes date back to 1901 and culminated in the 1959 withdrawal of approximately half of the Island for use by the Department of the Navy for military purposes. (2) By 1990, military development on Adak Island sup- ported a community of 6,000 residents. Outside of the Adak Naval Complex, there was no independent community on Adak Island. (3) As a result of the Defense Base Closure and Realign- ment Act of 1990 (104 Stat. 1808), as amended, the Adak Naval Complex has been closed by the Department of Defense.
    [Show full text]
  • A Brief History of the University of Alaska in Sitka: the First Forty Years
    A Brief History of the University of Alaska in Sitka: The First Forty Years Item Type Book Authors Knapp, David R. Publisher University of Alaska Southeast Download date 27/09/2021 09:52:00 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/11122/4594 A Brief History of the University of Alaska in Sitka The First Forty Years By David R. Knapp December 2002 A'-.' University ofAlaska Southeast ~ Juneau • Ketchikan • Sitka January 13, 2003 Enclosed is a copy of a publication titled: A Brief History of the University of Alaska in Sitka; The First Forty Years, by David R. Knapp, December 2002. The UAS-Sitka Campus commissioned Mr. Knapp to document the history of the University of Alaska's involvement in Sitka and theSE Alaska region. It is intended to give new university personnel a brief history of the University's evolution of higher education in Sitka. It will also be valuable for the Sitka campus advisory committee members and interesting for general community readers. As the campus' second full-time director in 1972, Mr. Knapp is particularly qualified to author the document. He has researched a variety of historical communications and has interviewed all past directors, as well as other university and community individuals who have had an historical roll. It is my hope that the university community will find it to be interesting, informative, and entertaining reading. Sincerely, Redacted for Privacy John W. Carnegie Former Sitka Campus Director, 1999-2002 1332 Seward Avenue · Sitka, Alaska 99835-9498 · (907) 747-6653 . FAX: 747-3552 Preface This document is an administrative perspective on the activities of the University of Alaska in the City and Borough of Sitka, Alaska.
    [Show full text]
  • Regulatory Impact Review / Initial Regulatory Flexibility Analysis to Amend Regulations for Participants in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands Regulatory Areas
    Regulatory Impact Review / Initial Regulatory Flexibility Analysis to Amend Regulations for Participants in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands Regulatory Areas. COST RECOVERY FROM AMENDMENT 80, GROUNDFISH AND HALIBUT/SABLEFISH COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT QUOTA, AMERICAN FISHERIES ACT AND ALEUTIAN ISLANDS POLLOCK QUOTA RECIPIENTS, AND THE FREEZER LONGLINE COALITION Second Review Draft September 2013 Lead Agency: National Marine Fisheries Service, Alaska Region National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Responsible Official: James Balsiger, Administrator Alaska Regional Office, National Marine Fisheries Service For further information contact: X, National Marine Fisheries Service, Alaska Region P.O. Box 21668, Juneau, AK 99802 (907) 586-XXXX Abstract: This document is a Regulatory Impact Review/Initial Regulatory Flexibility Analysis analyzing implementation of a cost recovery program from the Amendment 80 program, the groundfish and halibut/sablefish Community Development program, the American Fisheries Act program, and the Freezer Longline Coalition. The measures under consideration would define the fee structure to collect of up to 3 percent of the ex-vessel value of species allocated to participants in these programs. The fee paid by beneficiaries of each program would offset the actual costs agencies incur that are directly related to the management, data collection, and enforcement of each program that would not have been incurred had the program not been implemented. i Executive Summary The proposed actions would, first, implement a Limited Access Permit (LAP) program cost recovery fee for the American Fisheries Act (AFA) and Aleutian Islands (AI) pollock, Amendment 80, Community Development Quota (CDQ) program for halibut and groundfish, and the Freezer Longline Coalition (FLC) for Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands (BSAI) Pacific cod, programs as required under the MSA.
    [Show full text]
  • Honors Thesis
    I give permission for public access to my thesis and for any copying to be done at the discretion of the archives librarian and/or the College librarian. _________________________________________ MOUNT HOLYOKE COLLEGE HEALING THE WOUNDS OF FASCISM: THE AMERICAN MEDICAL BRIGADE AND THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS WITH HONORS DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY BY ASHLEY JOHNSON MAY 1, 2007 SOUTH HADLEY, MASSACHUSSETTS TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………1 CHAPTER ONE Why Spain?..............................................................................................11 CHAPTER TWO Hospital Life: Optimism, Trauma, and the Daily Grind……………..39 CHAPTER THREE The Journey Home………………………………………………………78 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………107 APPENDIX Medical Brigade Photographs………………………………………...111 BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………116 To my mother, Melanie Johnson, for instilling me with a love of history. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the following people, who helped make this project a reality: To the staff of the Tamiment Labor Archives at NYU, for organizing papers, finding audio guides, and suggesting new material. To the History Department of Mount Holyoke College for generously giving me two Almara grants to carry out my research in New York. To Fredericka Martin, for working on a history of the Medical Brigade until her dying day, and for generously leaving all the material to ALBA. To my grandmother, Nanette Campbell, for trekking off to the Palo Alto library to find me microfilmed back issues of the San Francisco Chronicle. To Joy, Jessie, and Leslie, for reading drafts, listening attentively, and at times, taking me out of the library by force. And of course to Professor Daniel Czitrom, an amazing advisor, for handing me my first book about the Abraham Lincoln Brigade my sophomore year, and seeing me through it to the end.
    [Show full text]
  • Sitka's National Historic Landmarks
    U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service Alaska Regional Office SITKA’S NATIONAL HISTORIC LANDMARKS A Window into Alaska’s Past National Historic Landmarks itka is among the most historical and picturesque communities in Alaska, and its residents take S pride in the preservation of this rich heritage. Recognition for Sitka’s historic places includes the listing of more than 20 properties on the National Register of Historic Places.* Eight of these properties which includes individual buildings, sites, and districts are of national significance and are designated National Historic Landmarks (NHLs). NHLs comprise some of our nation’s most important prehistoric and historic cultural resources. The National Park Service administers the NHL Program for the U.S. Secretary of the Interior. The NHL Program focuses attention on historic and archeological resources of exceptional value to the nation by recognizing and promoting the preservation efforts of private organizations, individuals, as well as local, ‡ Russian Bishop’s House NHL window detail. Pho­ state, and federal agencies. Designation of NHLs also furthers the educational objective of the Historic tograph Historic Ameri­ Sites Act of 1935 by increasing public awareness and interest in historic properties. Of the 2,500 NHLs can Buildings Survey. nationwide, 49 are in Alaska. They are an irreplaceable legacy. Artifacts and historic archeological sites are an important part of our national heritage and are protected by federal and state laws. It is illegal to excavate, damage,
    [Show full text]