APPLICATION FORM RELEASE
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms under the Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996
Send by post to: Environmental Protection Authority, PO Box 131, Wellington 6140 OR email to: [email protected]
Application number
APP201171
Applicant
Northland Regional Council Private Bag 9021 Whāngārei Mail Centre Whāngārei 0148 (09) 438 4639
Key contact
Don McKenzie, Senior Biosecurity Programme Manager
www.epa.govt.nz 2
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms Important
This application form is to seek approval to import for release or release from containment new organisms (including genetically modified organisms). The application form is also to be used when applying to import for release or release from containment new organisms that are or are contained within a human or veterinary medicine. Applications may undergo rapid assessment at the Authority‟s discretion if they fulfil specific criteria. This application will be publicly notified unless the Authority undertakes a rapid assessment of the application. This application form will be made publicly available so any confidential information must be collated in a separate labelled appendix. The fee for this application can be found on our website at www.epa.govt.nz. If you need help to complete this form, please look at our website (www.epa.govt.nz) or email us at [email protected]. This form was approved on 21 September 2011.
September 2011 EPA0059 3
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms
1. Brief application description
Provide a short description (approximately 30 words) of what you are applying to do.
This application seeks approval to import and release isolates of two rust fungi; Puccinia lantanae and Prospodium tuberculatum, as biological control agents for the weed Lantana camara.
2. Summary of application
Provide a plain English, non-technical description of what you are applying to do and why you want to do it.
A collective comprising 13 regional councils and the Department of Conservation (DOC) has determined that biological control is the most likely means of achieving environmentally acceptable and cost-effective management for the weed lantana (Lantana camara) in New Zealand. Northland Regional Council makes this application on their behalf. The application has been prepared with the assistance of Landcare Research.
The Northland Regional Council (NRC) undertakes pest management to further the present and future social, economic, environmental and cultural well-being of its communities. It also carries out devolved functions where best placed to achieve national outcomes. The objectives of Northland‟s Regional Pest Management Strategy 2010–2015 (RPMS) are to avoid, remedy or mitigate the adverse effects of pest plants on the use of land, including effects on primary production and natural ecosystems, and to maintain Northland‟s biodiversity.
Under the RPMS we identify lantana (Lantana camara) as a „containment plant‟‟. Containment plants are generally those pests that are not widespread, but are too abundant or widely distributed to allow eradication. The intention is to prevent the spread of these species beyond a defined containment area. Currently we regulate lantana by prohibiting its sale, transport and ownership, and by requiring landowners to manage any infestation. Biological control is an alternative tactic for that purpose.
Lantana forms dense impenetrable thickets. It invades bush edges, pasture, roadsides, and wasteland where it displaces other vegetation. It is sometimes poisonous to stock and humans. Lantana is a major weed of both natural and agricultural ecosystems overseas and poses a future threat here. The heaviest infestations are located near old settlement areas around the Hokianga and Whangaroa harbours (e.g. Hill & Seawright 1983) and Houhora. Small infestations occur elsewhere in the Northland Region but are not well recorded. Ming & Albrecht (2004) modelled the invasion biology of lantana in the Hokianga and highlighted the importance of managing such small founder-sites at an early stage. NRC plans to contain lantana within the heavily infested area, and to apply early intervention to limit future invasion from small, poorly-known sites. Key tactics are:
Free removal of infestations notified to NRC
September 2011 EPA0059 4
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms
Management of lantana populations north of Kaitaia to zero density (NRC 2005)
Introduction of self-dispersing biological control to limit lantana fitness in as yet unknown sites region-wide
Biological control introduces and establishes safe natural enemies that prey on and harm pest populations. Because these natural enemies are established in the environment, their effects are widespread and persist from year to year. This application proposes the introduction of Puccinia lantanae and Prospodium tuberculatum, two host-specific disease-causing organisms that will reduce the vigour and survival of the weed lantana wherever it occurs. The L. camara forms growing in New Zealand are susceptible to both Pu. lantanae (Ellison & Cortat 2011) and Pr. tuberculatum (Riding & Day 2006) and there are no climatic barriers to establishment (Section 3). With slightly different performance optima, the two rusts should complement each other, causing partial or complete defoliation of all lantana plants in Northland. In the glasshouse the rusts can co-exist on the same L. camara leaf (Sarah Thomas, CABI, pers. comm.). Defoliation by rusts is expected to reduce the growth rate of the weed and reduce fruit production. In addition, Pu. lantanae is expected to become systemic, causing dieback and probably plant deaths.
Biological control could permanently regulate lantana, and help to rebalance affected ecosystems.
The expected positive effects of biological control of lantana include:
Reduced invasion of uninfested land
Reduced damage to native ecosystems
Reduced control costs to farms businesses and communities
Reduced incidence of stock and human poisoning
Improved allocation of resources to maintain biodiversity values
Introduced natural enemies must be safe if this is to be an environmentally acceptable solution. Significant adverse effects on the environment or on productive values would occur if these rusts significantly damaged valued non- target plants. Tests assessed the risk that these two rust fungi pose to New Zealand plants. These were conducted by CSIRO (in Australia) and by CABI (in the UK) using methods consistent with international best practice. Large numbers of viable spores were applied to the foliage of test plants. After approximately six weeks the test plants were closely examined for signs of infection. Susceptible lantana plants inoculated with either rust became heavily infected whereas, with one exception relevant to New Zealand, non-target test plants did not. The application presents evidence that Pr. tuberculatum will not damage plants other than Lantana camara. The only non-target plant growing in cultivation or in the wild in New Zealand that is slightly susceptible to P. lantanae is Verbena officinalis. This plant is not native and is not an economically significant species here. We conclude that the risk to valued native and economic plants in New Zealand is insignificant.
September 2011 EPA0059 5
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms
No significant adverse environmental or economic effects are likely. As NRC is targeting lantana before it generates significant environmental and economic costs here, estimates of the potential environmental and economic benefits of biological control based on existing effects are modest.
3. Describe the background and aims of the application
This section is intended to put the new organism(s) in perspective of how they will be used. You may use more technical language but please make sure that any technical words used are included in a glossary.
The aim of this project is to reduce the ability of lantana to grow, shade out desirable plants, produce seeds that can be spread by birds, and invade new sites. Lantana is a sprawling, smelly, prickly shrub that grows up to 3 m tall, with clusters of yellow and pink or orange flowers. It forms dense thickets that overtop and shade out shorter vegetation in habitats such as forest margins, native scrub and plantations. Lantana can form the dominant subcanopy of manuka/kanuka shrublands. It is thought to be allelopathic, chemically suppressing underlying vegetation and modifying ecosystem processes at all trophic levels (ISSG 2006). This weed is abundant in parts of Northland, and is an emerging weed in the Auckland, Bay of Plenty and Wellington regions. It threatens the values of reserved land managed by DOC and regional councils (Appendix 1), particularly vulnerable island and coastal habitats (e.g. M Sheehan, Ririwha Restoration Trust, Appendix 1). Thickets restrict movement of stock and people, and some varieties of lantana can poison grazing stock. It invades pastoral land, reducing the productivity of some Northland farms. Lantana fruits heavily, and seeds are spread widely by birds. Plants sucker from shallow roots, and it is difficult to control either by herbicides or by any other means. Although heavy infestations are restricted to Northland, further south the management of this emerging weed is a growing cost to regional councils and DOC (Appendix 1).
Pure spores of Puccinia lantanae will be imported from CABI Europe-UK. Pure spores of Prospodium tuberculatum will be imported from Australia. Once MAF Biosecurity clearance has been obtained these spores will be used to infect plants in the laboratory, and these plants will be transferred to release sites in Northland. We plan to release each of the rusts in at least six sites. Pu. lantanae and Pr. tuberculatum are functionally different (Section 4), and will perform slightly different roles in lantana management. Pu. lantanae is a damaging pathogen of leaves, petioles and stems. It is likely to cause stem dieback and produce areas of dead tissue in stems and leaf stalks. Field observations in South America suggest that this species will prefer, and may be restricted to, warmer wet areas in the far north. Pr. tuberculatum is predominantly a leaf pathogen, causing leaf-death and defoliation. It is a subtropical rust and we expect it to be less dependent on high humidity and/or high rainfall than Pu. Lantanae and to thrive in the more southern parts of lantana‟s range within New Zealand.
Lantana camara is a weed in at least 47 pan tropical countries worldwide, and is generally acknowledged to be one of the world‟s ten worst weeds (ISSG 2006; Swarbrick et al. 1995). Biological control has been applied many countries, but lantana has proved to be a difficult target for biological control. The first insect agents were released against it over 100 years ago and since then 36 insect species have been released against it in 33 countries, with
September 2011 EPA0059 6
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms great success in some places and no success in others (Swarbrick et al. 1995; Thomas & Ellison 2000). The main reason for variation in success is that the weed is genetically diverse as a result of deliberate crossing of different Lantana species and subspecies for ornamental purposes. A key step in the current project has been to ensure that New Zealand populations of lantana are susceptible to the proposed control agents.
4. Information about the new organism(s)
Provide a taxonomic description of the new organism(s) (if the organism is a genetically modified organism, provide a taxonomic description of the host organism(s) and details of the genetic modification).
Describe the biology and main features of the organism including if it has inseparable organisms.
Describe if the organism has affinities (e.g. close taxonomic relationships) with other organisms in New Zealand.
Could the organism form an undesirable self-sustaining population? If not, why not?
What is the ease with which the organism could be eradicated if it established an undesirable self-sustaining population?
4.1 Provide a taxonomic description of the new organisms Puccinia lantanae Farl. is a rust fungus in the order Pucciniales, family Pucciniaceae. Rust fungi have complex life- cycles that include between 1 and 5 different spore states. Pu. lantanae produces only two types of spores: teliospores and basidiospores. The teliospores of this species are usually one-celled, but occasionally two-celled (Barreto et al. 1995). Both spore types are produced on the target weed Lantana camara. The isolate discussed here (IMI 398849) was sourced from Peru.
Prospodium tuberculatum (Speg.) Arthur is also a rust fungus of the order Pucciniales but is in the family Uropyxidaceae. It produces three spore types: teliospores, basidiospores and urediniospores. Teliospores are two- celled, urediniospores and basidiospores are single-celled (Barreto et al. 1995; Ellison et al. 2000). All three spore types are produced on the target weed L. camara. The isolate discussed here (IMI 383461) was sourced from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
4.2 Describe the biology and main features of the organism including if it has inseparable organisms Puccinia lantanae
When basidiospores of Pu. lantanae infect leaves, petioles and/or stems of L. camara the affected tissues become chlorotic (yellow) and then teliospores form under the plant‟s epidermis (outer layer). The epidermis then ruptures allowing the teliospores to emerge. The teliospores germinate and under conditions of high humidity a fine layer of
September 2011 EPA0059 7
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms basidiospores forms on their surface. Basidiospores are moved between plants mostly by air currents and gravity. Basidiospores that land on actively growing tissues of L. camara germinate to form a germ tube, which penetrates the plant‟s epidermis. Fungal tissues grow into the host plant causing disease. As the disease progresses, leaves drop off the plant and stems die back and accumulate areas of dead tissue (cankers) (Thomas & Ellison 2000). Consequently, Pu. lantanae can cause significant damage to L. camara. The rust is able to infect lantana plants at temperatures from 12 to 27°C, but is most effective at 17–22°C. It requires at least 5 hours of leaf wetness from rain or dew to infect plant tissues, but greater exposure increases infection (Ellison & Cortat 2011).
Some rusts have alternate plant hosts for some spore states, and others don‟t. Some rusts have also evolved to complete their life cycles without requiring all five spore states. Since the basidiospores of Pu. lantanae infect L. camara resulting in the formation of teliospores, it is clear that this particular rust is autoecious; it has one main host and no other. Also, it is a microcyclic rust - only teliospores and basidiospores are needed to complete the rust life cycle (Ellison & Cortat 2011).
Prospodium tuberculatum
Prospodium tuberculatum is predominantly a leaf pathogen, only occasionally infecting petiole and stem tissue in glasshouse experiments (Thomas & Ellison 2000). In its native range the rust mostly forms urediniospores and can persist through this type of spore alone (Ellison et al. 2006). Teliospores are only found in high-altitude areas in the native range (Ellison et al. 2006) and in areas with low temperatures in Australia (Michael Day, Biosecurity Queensland, DEEDI, pers. comm.). In such adverse conditions this type of “resting spore” may improve the ability of the rust to survive. Under laboratory conditions it was not possible to induce Pr. tuberculatum to produce teliospores. Field collected teliospores did germinate to form basidiospores in the laboratory, but they did not infect lantana plants to produce more spores. Hence, it did not prove possible to confirm that the rust is autoecious (Ellison et al. 2006). When urediniospores land on L. camara leaves they germinate and grow into the plant. Infected areas turn yellow after 2 weeks and after 3 weeks pustules of new urediniospores erupt through the plant‟s epidermis, damaging the leaves. New urediniospores continue to be formed in these pustules for at least 48 days. The leaves die and fall from the plant. This rust has a wide geographical and altitudinal distribution in South America, which suggests it can adapt to a range of subtropical climates (Barreto et al. 1995). Laboratory tests confirm it can tolerate temperatures of 17–30°C, performing best at 19–22°C, and requires at least 9 hours of moisture available to allow infection. There is no increase in infection beyond 15 hours of wetness (Ellison et al. 2006).
Although Ellison et al. (2006) could not prove that Pr. tuberculatum has a single host, they observed that, except possibly at high elevations where teliospores were found on lantana, the rust is able to cycle solely through urediniospores. They concluded that the alternative hypothesis, that the rust has an alternate host in South America in addition to lantana, is very unlikely. Note that the genus Prospodium includes about 70 species and that all of them are autoecious; having an alternate host is simply not a characteristic of rusts of this genus.
September 2011 EPA0059 8
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms
All 70 species occur on plants in either the Verbenaceae family or the very closely related Bignoniaceae family.
We conclude there is no significant risk that Pr. tuberulatum has an unknown alternate host which could be harmed in New Zealand.
The temperature and moisture requirements of these two rust species are different, but in both cases are typical of those prevailing in lantana habitats in New Zealand.
No inseparable organisms have been recorded for these species. Populations will be examined for associated micro-organisms before clearance for release is sought from MAF. Only New Zealand born captive-grown rust spores will be released.
4.3 Describe if the organism has affinities (e.g. close taxonomic relationships) with other organisms in New Zealand McKenzie (1998) recorded 234 species of rusts in New Zealand. None of these are in the genus Prospodium so Pr. tuberculatum would have no close relatives here. Puccinia is the largest genus of rust fungi and there are at least 119 species in New Zealand. Of these, 53 are adventive (not native), 21 are indigenous (native, but not limited to New Zealand) and 45 are endemic (native and occurring only in NZ) (McKenzie 1998). None of these Puccinia species, nor any other species of rusts, have been recorded on Lantana camara, or any other plants in the Verbenaceae family in New Zealand (Landcare Research 2001–2011; Waipara et al. 2009). Consequently, there would be no meaningful interaction between Pu. lantanae and its closest relatives in New Zealand.
4.4 Could the organism form an undesirable self-sustaining population? If not, why not? No populations of Puccinia lantanae and Prospodium tuberculatum established in New Zealand are expected to be undesirable. Both species are specific to Lantana camara, an acknowledged plant pest under the National Pest Plant Accord (Biosecurity New Zealand no date). The object of introducing these rusts is to establish desirable self- sustaining populations contributing to the suppression of lantana populations and/or the maintenance of control. Although initial releases will be made in the Northland Region, the climates in their countries of origin suggest that one or other of the rusts should be able to colonise lantana populations wherever these occur in New Zealand.
4.5 What is the ease with which the organism could be eradicated if it established an undesirable self- sustaining population? Not Applicable
5. Detail of Māori engagement (if any)
September 2011 EPA0059 9
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms
Discuss any engagement or consultation with Māori undertaken and summarise the outcomes.
A total of 169 iwi, hapū, and Māori organisations and individuals making up the EPA Māori National Network were contacted on 29 June 2011 and invited to enter dialogue on the proposal to introduce Prospodium tuberculatum and Puccinia lantanae. The proposal was presented to an ad hoc meeting of the Tai Tokerau Iwi Technical Committee and discussed during the Māori Environmental Management Hui at Pipitea Marae in July 2011. Email or written responses were received from seven sources and extracts can be found in Appendix 1. Several submissions supported the proposal. None opposed it outright but several urged caution. Key concerns identified were:
Risk of direct impact on native plants (addressed in Section 6)
Risk of indirect interactions with native flora (e.g. influence of mycoparasites, competition with native fungi, addressed in Section 6)
Are there native species that could fill the role? (see below)
The prospect of agents becoming future pests (addressed in Section 8)
Efficacy – what can these agents achieve? (see below)
Uncertainty over the impact on Māori resources (see below)
A survey of the natural enemies of lantana conducted before this project began showed that there are no species resident in New Zealand capable of exerting biological control of this weed (Waipara et al. 2009).
The risks of hybridisation and future expansion of host range in these rusts are addressed in Section 8. No natural enemies released for biological control of weeds in New Zealand in the last 80 years have damaged non-target plant populations. Paynter et al. (2004) surveyed 20 control agents established in New Zealand since the 1920s. Two had host ranges slightly wider than predicted before release but were not damaging. These ranges would have been predicted by modern best-practice. The remainder had behaved as predicted. Twenty-eight pathogens have been released for biological control of weeds worldwide, and none have been recorded attacking unpredicted hosts (Barton 2011).
Uncertainty about future efficacy is characteristic of most biological control projects. The efficacy of these two rust species in New Zealand will depend on the levels of infection that develop here. It is thought that the virulence of Pr. tuberculatum in Australia is limited by lack of moisture, and the species is expected to perform better here. Pu. lantanae is very damaging to plants in the laboratory (Carol Ellison, CABI Europe-UK; Appendix 1).
History shows that biological control of weeds can succeed in New Zealand (Fowler et al. 2000). For example, mist flower was recently completely controlled by a host-specific disease introduced from Hawai'i, resulting in an exceptional restoration of the native flora (Fowler 2007).
September 2011 EPA0059 10
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms
Biological control changes relationships between species in ecosystems, and affects their mauri. Lantana is having an increasingly adverse effect on natural ecosystems. Similarly, invasion of a weed like lantana into Māori-owned lands diminishes the ability of owners to exert kaitiakitanga over their own resources. Biological control aims to restore those ecosystems or to protect them from future degradation. The likely influences of these rusts on the physical components of ecosystems are noted in Section 6. These rusts have been selected to have the smallest possible impacts on other components of ecosystems.
Other relevant questions have been raised during consultation on previous applications to introduce biological control agents (Appendix 1):
There will be no significant health effects associated with the introduction of these rusts.
Landcare Research intends to monitor outcomes of biological control if rusts become abundant.
Tangata whenua in Northland will be consulted about tikanga appropriate to the release of these rusts.
If biological control causes the weed to become rare in New Zealand, the control agents will become rare too. Biological control aims to create a dynamic balance between populations of target and agent.
The risk of evolution of a wider host range is discussed in Section 8.
6. Identification and assessment of beneficial (positive) and adverse effects of the new organism(s)
Adverse effects include risks and costs. Beneficial or positive effects are benefits. Identification involves describing the potential effects that you are aware of (what might happen and how it might happen).
Assessment involves considering the magnitude of the effect and the likelihood or probability of the effect being realised.
Consider the adverse or positive effects in the context of this application on the environment (e.g. could the organism cause any significant displacement of any native species within its natural habitat, cause any significant deterioration of natural habitats or cause significant adverse effect to New Zealand‟s inherent genetic diversity, or is the organism likely to cause disease, be parasitic, or become a vector for animal or plant disease?), human health and safety, the relationship of Māori to the environment, the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi, society and the community, the market economy and New Zealand‟s international obligations.
The potential risks, costs and benefits of the proposed introduction to New Zealand of Puccinia lantanae and Prospodium tuberculatum and the possible reduction in the abundance and vigour of lantana were identified by literature review, by public consultation and by formal brainstorming. Those effects not considered to be significant are addressed in Appendix 1. The potentially significant effects are addressed here.
September 2011 EPA0059 11
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms
6.1 Beneficial effects on the environment Biological control of lantana is expected to benefit the environment by:
Reduction in the capacity of lantana to invade sensitive conservation lands by reducing seed set
Reduction in the direct adverse competitive effects of lantana on vulnerable native plants
Improvement in species richness and ecosystem resilience by making lantana less dominant in regenerating forests
Reduction in the costs of managing lantana on reserved lands.
Lantana produces fruits that are attractive to birds, which then spread seeds into uninfested sites distant from the source. This is why lantana is actively spreading in Northland, Tauranga, Opotiki and Waikanae (Appendix 1). Invasion by lantana is regarded as a high risk in Auckland, and eradication is required in rural areas. Heavy infection of rust on lantana foliage would reduce fruit production, reducing the amount of seed distributed to uninfested sites, and the rate of spread of the weed. Reduction in seed production would reduce the threat to high value conservation land in Northland such as the Aupouri Ecological District.
Lantana infestations occupy land in a wide range of habitats in Northland, displacing low stature native plants in forest margins and sensitive habitats such as cliffs and dunes. It is not currently a major threat to values on conservation land (T. McCluggage, DOC; Appendix 1), because the current regional distribution of heavy lantana infestations does not coincide with DOC land at present. Just how lantana competes with native plants in Northland has not been studied formally, but observers report that lantana competes aggressively for light, and is thought to be allelopathic. Biodiversity impacts of lantana overseas that could become problematic here are discussed in Swarbrick et al. (1995) and ISSG (2006). Puccinia lantanae and Prospodium tuberculatum would help to restore conservation values by contributing to:
Defoliation of lantana, increasing the amount of light available to native seedlings growing beneath, and decreasing the production of any allelopathic chemicals from foliage
Reduction in the growth rate of lantana, allowing native vegetation to partially or fully replace L. camara, restoring the biodiversity of infested habitats
Through systemic infection, destruction of a proportion of plants, reducing the monoculture of large lantana plants in forest margins, and allowing replacement with other vegetation
NRC, Auckland Council, DOC and Whāngārei District Council currently allocate resources annually to manage the adverse effects of lantana (Appendix 1). For the most part these costs cannot be easily isolated from other weed management expenditure. NRC allocates an additional $35,000 annually to maintain a strategy to achieve and maintain zero density of lantana north of a line from Mangonui to Ahipara by 2014. Auckland Council expends $15- $27,000 annually.
September 2011 EPA0059 12
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms
6.2 Adverse effects on the environment The two rust fungi would be detrimental to the environment if:
Rust infection reduced the fitness of or reduced populations of non-target native plants
Lantana was replaced with a weed that was more damaging to conservation values
Interactions with mycoparasites adversely affected native rusts
Puccinia lantanae
Within this species there are distinct races or isolates that are capable of attacking only one or a few plant species. These isolates are often specific to a single plant biotype within a species (Ellison & Cortat 2011). The isolate of Pu. lantanae chosen for this application is more damaging to L. camara than others in its native range. We have no data on whether it can attack more, or fewer, L. camara populations than other isolates (Carol Ellison, CABI, pers. comm.). The host range testing described was conducted on this isolate. New Zealand, Australia and South Africa are considering the introduction of Pu. lantanae. Inclusion of test plants from all three countries resulted in comprehensive test results when the host range of this rust was tested by CABI Europe-UK (Ellison & Cortat 2011).
Lantana camara belongs to the order Lamiales family Verbenaceae but there are no New Zealand natives in that family. When Paynter (2007) proposed a list of 24 New Zealand plants to test, his list therefore included:
Native species in other families of the order Lamiales
Naturalised species in the family Verbenaceae
Exotic species in the family Verbenaceae of potential value in New Zealand
Three New Zealand endemic test species could not be sourced in the UK. Instead, closely-related species were tested as surrogates (Tecomanthe hillii for T. speciosa, Saintpaulia ionantha for Rhabdothamnus solandri, and Vitex trifolia for V. lucens). An additional 16 species were tested on behalf of Australia and South Africa. Methods used during host range testing are provided in Ellison & Cortat (2011). No disease symptoms were observed on any of the native species or on surrogates (Ellison & Cortat 2011) and we conclude that no native species are at risk from this rust isolate.
Prospodium tuberculatum
The species Pr. tuberculatum has been recorded on five host species, all in the genus Lantana (Ellison et al. 2000). However, like Pu. lantanae there are many races or isolates within this species, and they tend to be not just
September 2011 EPA0059 13
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms species-specific, but specific to one or a few biotypes within their host species (Thomas et al. 2006). The methods used to test the host range of Pr. tuberculatum were very similar to those used for Pu. lantanae. The selected isolate proved to be highly host specific. It did not cause any macroscopic (visible to the naked eye) disease symptoms on any of the non-target plants tested. In fact, only 15 of the 40 Australian populations of the target weed were fully susceptible to the rust (Thomas et al. 2006). The range of species tested for Australia was compared with the list of 24 New Zealand plants prepared by Paynter (2007). Five of these were included in Australian tests. Six further species tested were considered to be good surrogates for New Zealand plants. None of these 11 plant species developed any disease symptoms in response to inoculation with Pr. tuberculatum. The depth of testing in Australia was sufficient to conclude that the remaining 13 species on Paynter‟s list need not be tested.
Prospodium tuberculatum was released in Australia in 2001. It has not been found on any non-target plants in the field since (Michael Day, Biosecurity Queensland, DEEDI, pers. comm.).
The Pr. tuberculatum isolate named in this application was selected over others because it was the only isolate that was found to be pathogenic to L. camara biotypes additional to the one from which it was isolated (Ellison et al. 2000). Any other Pr. tuberculatum isolates could therefore expected to have an equal or a narrower host range. We conclude that Pr. tuberculatum is specific to L. camara, and poses no significant risk to populations of New Zealand plants because:
This rust could only infect some populations of the target in laboratory tests
The rust was sufficiently host specific to be introduced to Australia
It has not been observed on non-target hosts following release in Australia
Tests on 11 New Zealand plants or their surrogates proved negative
New Zealand has no native species in the family Verbenaceae. Given the results of tests, it is highly unlikely that it could infect plants from more distantly related families
Lantana is tall, scrambling, woody, long-lived, spiny, densely leafy, and allelopathic, is spread by birds, and can spread by suckering. Few (if any) other plants have this array of weedy characteristics. There are a wide range of weedy species in Northland that might well take the place of ailing lantana, but these would not be more damaging to native habitats. Lantana often grows with mānuka and kānuka on unmanaged land reverting to forest (Don McKenzie, Doug Foster, pers. comm.; Appendix 1). Biological control would see a shift in dominance towards mānuka in such assemblages, with partial restoration of the species assemblage associated with mānuka scrub.
September 2011 EPA0059 14
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms
Some fungi, known as mycoparasites, can attack rusts. These often have a wide host range and are known to occur in New Zealand. Hypothetically, the introduction of two additional species of rust could increase mycoparasite loads, which in turn could suppress other fungi, including native rusts. However, there are at least 234 recorded species of rust fungi in New Zealand, and rusts are very common and widespread. The introduction of two more taxa specific to a host of limited distribution is not expected to significantly increase the pool of rust spores available to mycoparasites. Both rusts were cultured for many generations, over a number of years under quarantine conditions at CABI Europe – UK. During this time, no mycoparasites were observed on the rusts. Hence, it is highly unlikely that Pu. lantanae will arrive in New Zealand infected with a mycoparasite. Pr. tuberculatum will be introduced from Australia, and since the rust was originally supplied to Australia by CABI, it will not have any mycoparasites from Brazil. Any small risk that it may arrive with generalist mycoparasites picked-up in Australia, can be eliminated before release in NZ. We conclude the risk to native fungi from mycoparasites will not rise significantly.
6.3 Beneficial effects on human health
The ingestion of lantana berries can cause gastrointestinal symptoms of nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. From 1 June 2002 to 15 July 2011, calls were made to the National Poisons Centre concerning 28 human exposures to lantana (Jenni Jones, National Poisons Centre; Appendix 1). Heavy infection of lantana foliage would reduce fruit production, reducing the amount of fruit currently available for human consumption. Without intervention, it is likely that the occurrence of human poisonings will increase as the distribution and abundance of lantana increases. Successful biological control would reduce that risk.
6.4 Beneficial effects on the market economy Biological control of lantana would benefit the market economy by:
Restoration of productive values on infested pastoral land
Limitation of future invasion of pastoral land
Reduction in the incidence of stock poisoning
Mitigation of economic effects in forestry
Reduction in management costs on productive land
Much of the pastoral land in the core infestation around Hokianga and Whangaroa harbours is not highly productive, and conventional lantana control on such land is not cost-effective. As a result, some marginal land is reverting to mixed mānuka/lantana scrub (Don McKenzie, NRC; Appendix 1), losing all productive potential.
September 2011 EPA0059 15
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms
Economic losses to pastoral production caused by lantana are therefore present, but are probably not very great. Successful biological control on such land might change the economics of farming there but this is uncertain.
Heavy infection of lantana foliage with these rusts would reduce fruit production, reducing the amount of seed distributed by birds, and slowing the rate of lantana invasion into pastoral land.
The role of lantana in stock poisoning is not well defined. Bioassay of foliage from the pink-flowered form of lantana indicated that it was not toxic to stock (Hill & Seawright 1983), whereas another bioassay indicated that a red/orange flowered form was (Black & Carter 1985). The berries are presumably toxic to mammals (see above), but the NRC is not aware if lantana poisoning is a frequent event in the region (Don McKenzie, NRC; Appendix 1). While real, the potential economic benefit from reduction in the incidence of lantana-poisoning seems likely to be small.
Lantana is not a universal weed of forestry in Northland (Sam Middlemass, Rayonier Forests; Appendix 1) because of the patchy distribution of heavy infestations. However, it has established deep in maturing forests. While this is unlikely to affect tree growth now, thickets will cause costly delays at harvest, and impose „good neighbour‟ costs on plantation owners. Lantana is expected to be a serious impediment to forest establishment in future rotations (Doug Foster, NRC; Appendix 1).
Lantana grows on the fringes of some high-producing pastoral land, but its impact there can be mitigated by herbicide applications. Successful biological control would reduce the costs of lantana management on productive farms. The economic benefits cannot be estimated because current expenditure is not known.
The distribution and abundance of lantana is increasing in Northland (Ming & Albrecht 2004). Although current management costs are not thought to be large, successful biological control would mitigate the rate at which annual costs go up as lantana becomes more abundant.
In the absence of regional control in the Bay of Plenty, the net present value for projected total regional damage over the next 50 years is $1.09 million (EBOP 2005; John Mather, EBOP; Appendix 1).
6.5 Adverse effects on the market economy Biological control of lantana would be detrimental to the market economy if:
Lantana rusts adversely affected non-target plants valued as ornamentals or crops
Lantana was replaced with a weed that was more damaging to productive values
September 2011 EPA0059 16
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms
Puccinia lantanae
Only four of the 40 non-target plants tested showed any symptoms of infection by this rust:
Gmelina leichardtii (Lamiaceae) developed some yellowing in its leaves when first tested, but no further disease symptoms or spores were found (Ellison & Cortat 2011). When this test was repeated, no yellowing or other symptoms were observed (Renteria & Ellison 2004). It is concluded that the symptoms originally observed were not related to inoculation and G. leichardtii is not at risk from infection by Pu. lantanae.
Lippia alba and Phyla canescens (Verbenaceae) developed minor disease symptoms and a small number of teliospores.
Three varieties of Verbena officinalis (Verbenaceae), developed disease symptoms and viable teliospores (Ellison & Cortat 2011).
The first three species do not occur in New Zealand (http://nzflora.landcareresearch.co.nz accessed Nov. 2011).
Verbena officinalis is sometimes grown in New Zealand as an ornamental. Teliospores were produced on V. officinalis in much lower numbers than on Lantana. Further research revealed that not enough teliospores were produced for the rust to persist on this host (i.e. teliospores and basidiospores that develop on V. officinalis did not reinfect this plant to produce more teliospores). However, teliospores from V. officinalis transferred to the preferred host, L. camara, formed new teliospores (Ellison & Cortat 2011). Apparently, the more spores of P. lantanae inoculated onto the weakly susceptible non-target plants , the higher the chances of their infection (Ellison and Cortat 2011). Pu. lantanae might infect V. officinalis in New Zealand, but only in situations where many rust spores could land on that plant simultaneously, that is, where V. officinalis grew very close to infected L. camara. However, even in these situations, the rust is unlikely to persist on V. officinalis. If the rust is successful in controlling lantana then the chances of this “spill-over” effect should reduce with time. V. officinalis plants growing in gardens close to lantana infestations could be protected from the rust via the application of a fungicide. There are seven Verbena species in New Zealand. All are naturalised and potentially weedy. There are no known plantings of Verbena species or other species of the family Verbenaceae for pharmaceutical or other economic purposes (Bruce Smallfield, Plant and Food Research; Appendix 1).
Prospodium tuberculatum
For the reasons already discussed above, we conclude that Pr. tuberculatum is specific to L. camara, and poses no significant risk to New Zealand plants of economic value.
September 2011 EPA0059 17
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms
Other woody weeds such as gorse and mānuka are equally as vigorous and invasive in Northland as lantana is. At least some forms of lantana appear to be poisonous (Black & Carter 1985), suggesting that where those forms grow, lantana would be a worse weed than the alternatives.
7. Could your organism(s) undergo rapid assessment?
7.1. If your application involves a new organism that is or is contained within a veterinary or human medicine, could your organism undergo rapid assessment (s38I of the HSNO Act)? Describe the controls you propose to mitigate potential risks (if any). Discuss what controls may be imposed under the ACVM Act (for veterinary medicines) or the Medicines Act (for human medicines).
Discuss if it is highly improbable (after taking into account controls if any): the doses and routes of administration of the medicine would have significant adverse effects on the health of the public or any valued species; and
the organism could form an undesirable self-sustaining population and have significant adverse effects on the health and safety of the public, any valued species, natural habitats or the environment.
Do not include effects of the medicine or new organism on the person or animal being treated with the medicine.
Not Applicable
7.2. If your application involves a new organism (excluding genetically modified organisms), could your organism undergo rapid assessment (s35 of the HSNO Act)?
Discuss if your organism is an unwanted organism as defined in the Biosecurity Act 1993.
Discuss if it is highly improbable that the organism after release: could form self-sustaining populations anywhere in New Zealand (taking into account the ease of eradication)
could displace or reduce a valued species
could cause deterioration of natural habitats,
will be disease-causing or be a parasite, or be a vector or reservoir for human, animal, or plant disease
will have adverse effects on human health and safety or the environment.
Not Applicable
September 2011 EPA0059 18
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms
8. Other information
Add here any further information you wish to include in this application including if there are any ethical considerations that you are aware of in relation to your application.
There are no ethical considerations to be addressed.
8.1 Section 36 minimum standards This proposal does not contravene the Minimum Standards set out in Section 36 of the HSNO Act 1996.
The risk of displacement of valued species is not significant. Both rust fungi are specific to Lantana camara (Section 6) and therefore will not displace organisms on any other plant. The Landcare Research fungal database records no species from L. camara in New Zealand that could be displaced by either rust fungus (Landcare Research 2001–2011). A survey of the foliar mycoflora revealed that no rust species are present on L. camara in New Zealand (Waipara et al. 2009). Most other species encountered in the survey were cosmopolitan and widespread.
Deterioration of habitats could only occur if lantana was replaced by a significantly more damaging weed. This is not considered a significant risk (see Section 6).
Both candidates for introduction cause diseases of plants. However, both have specialist biology and require living L. camara leaves to grow. Neither rust can successfully form self-sustaining populations on any plant species other than the target host (Section 6).
8.2 Evolution of increased host range Like all living organisms, rust fungi evolve. Host resistance to pathogens is largely genetically determined and a pathogen is more likely to overcome this resistance in a plant that is closely related to its preferred host than in a plant that is distantly related (Barton (née Fröhlich) 2004). Therefore, the best way to predict a “jump” to a new host is to apply the potential biological control agent to close relatives of its main host (i.e. the target weed) and this experiment has been done for these fungi through host range testing (see Section 6). If the strains of Puccinia lantanae or Prospodium tuberculatum that we propose to introduce to New Zealand were to evolve to be able to utilise more hosts, the most likely scenario would be that they would attack one or more populations of Lantana camara that were initially resistant (although none are presently known in New Zealand). Note, however, that even a small widening of host range such as this has never been reported for a biocontrol pathogen. In fact, the only pathogen released as a classical biocontrol agent that appears to have changed its host use over time developed a narrower host range (see discussion of Pu. chondrillina released against Chondrilla juncea in Australia on page 118 of Barton (née Fröhlich) (2004)). In the unlikely event that one or other of them made a bigger “jump” it would
September 2011 EPA0059 19
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms be to another member of the Verbenaceae, and the risks to other members of this family in New Zealand have already been addressed in Section 6.
8.3 Hybridisation and genetic integrity Intimate contact is required for two rusts to hybridise, and that can only happen if they share a host. There are no Prospodium species in the whole of New Zealand with which Pr. tuberculatum could hybridise (McKenzie 1998) and there are no other Puccinia species on Lantana camara with which Pu. lantanae could hybridise (Waipara et al. 2009).
8.4 Post-release monitoring and measurement of impact Landcare Research will be the organisation that releases these rusts. It is their practice to monitor release sites for the establishment of all biological control agents. If these rusts become abundant, Landcare Research will undertake measurement of their effects. More detailed development of this methodology will be considered only once establishment is confirmed.
9. Appendices(s) and referenced material (if any) and glossary (if required)
REFERENCES
Barreto RW, Evans HC, Ellison CA (1995) The mycobiota of the weed Lantana camara in Brazil, with particular reference to biological control.
Mycological Research 99: 769–782.
Barton (née Fröhlich) J (2004) How good are we at predicting the field host-range of fungal pathogens used for classical biological control of
weeds? Biological Control 31: 99–122.
Barton J (2011).Predictability of pathogen host range in classical biological control of weeds: an update. Biocontrol . DOI 10.1007/s10526-011-
9401-7
Biosecurity New Zealand; (no date) http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/nppa accessed 1/11/2011
Black H, Carter RG (1985) Lantana poisoning of cattle and sheep in New Zealand. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 33: 136–137.
DNR (Department of Natural Resources) (2000) Application to import biological control agents. Queensland Department of Natural Resources. 4
p + 3 appendices.
EBOP (Environment Bay of Plenty) (2005) 2.1.22 Lantana (Lantana camara var aculeata) . A cost benefit analysis to accompany the regional
pest management strategy.
Ellison CA, Cortat G (2011) Assesment of the suitability of the rust fungus Puccinia lantanae for release as a classical biological control agent
against Lantana camara in Australia. Egham, UK: CABI. Report no. CABI ref. VM10038.
September 2011 EPA0059 20
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms
Ellison CA, Thomas SE, Tomley AJ, Barreto RW, Pereira JM (2000) Studies on the rust Prospodium tuberculatum, a potential biological control
agent for Lantana (Lantana camara) in Australia. Queensland, Australia: CABI Bioscience, UK; Natural Resources Queensland,
Australia; and, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Brazil. Report no. A pdf can be found as Appendix 3 of DNR (2000).
Ellison CA, Pereira JM, Thomas SE, Barreto RW, Evans HC (2006) Studies on the rust Prospodium tuberculatum, a new classical biological
control agent released against the invasive alien weed Lantana camara in Australia. 1. Life-cycle and infection parameters. Australasian
Plant Pathology 35: 309–319.
Fowler SV (2007) http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/research/biocons/weeds/book/documents/Mist_Flower_Fungus.pdf .
Fowler SV, Syrett P, Hill RL. (2000) Success and safety in the biological control of environmental weeds in New Zealand. Austral Ecology 25:
553-562.
Hill RL, Seawright AA (1983) The status of lantana in New Zealand. Proceedings of the New Zealand Weed and Pest Control Conf. 38-40.
ISSG (2006) http://www.issg.org/database/species/impact_info.asp?si=56&fr=1&sts=sss&lang=EN) accessed 25/11/2011.
Landcare Research (2001–2011) http://nzfungi.landcareresearch.co.nz/ accessed 14/11/2011
McKenzie EHC (1998) Rust fungi of New Zealand – An introduction, and list of recorded species. New Zealand Journal of Botany 36: 233–271.
Ming P, Albrecht J (2004) Integrated framework for the simulation of biological invasions in a heterogeneous landscape. Transactions in GIS 8:
309–334.
NRC (Northland Regional Council) (2005) Lantana Operational Plan 2010-2015
Paynter Q (2007) Selection of a test plant list for the Lantana rust fungus Prospodium tuberculatum a candidate biological control agent for
Lantana camara L. in New Zealand. Auckland, New Zealand: Landcare Research.
Paynter QE, Fowler SV, Gourlay AH, Haines ML, Harman HM, Hona SR, Peterson PG, Smith LA, Wilson-Davey JRA, Winks CJ, Withers TM
(2004) Safety in New Zealand weed biocontrol: a nationwide survey for impacts on non-target plants. New Zealand Plant Protection 57:
102–107.
Rentería JL, Ellison CA (2004) Potential Biological Control of Lantana camara in the Galapagos using the rust Puccinia lantanae. SIDA 21:
1009–1017.
Riding N, Day M (2006) Report on New Zealand Lantana camara phenotype susceptibility to Prospodium tuberculatum. Sherwood, Queensland,
Australia: Alan Fletcher Research Station.
Swarbrick JT, Willson BW, Hannan-Jones MA (1995) Biology of Australian Weeds 25: Lantana camara L. Plant Protection Quarterly 10: 82–95.
A pdf can be found as Appendix 1 of DNR (2000).
Thomas SE, Ellison CA (2000) A century of classical biological control of Lantana camara: Can pathogens make a significant difference? Pages
97–104 in Spencer NR, ed. X International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds. Bozeman, Montana, USA: Montana State
University.
Thomas SE, Ellison CA, Tomley AJ (2006) Studies on the rust Prospodium tuberculatum, a new classical biological control agent released
against the invasive alien weed Lantana camara in Australia. 2. Host range. Australasian Plant Pathology 35: 321–328.
September 2011 EPA0059 21
Application to import for release or to release from containment new organisms
Waipara NW, Winks CJ, Paynter Q, Riding N, Day MD (2009) Prospects for the biological control of Lantana camara (Verbenaceae) in New
Zealand. New Zealand Plant Protection 62: 50–55.
September 2011 EPA0059
APPENDIX 1. Public consultation and risk assessment for the proposed introduction of Puccinia lantanae and Prospodium tuberculatum as biological control agents for the weed Lantana camara
1. Summary
2. The scope of consultation
3. Responses from iwi, hapū and other Māori organisations
4. Other relevant responses from Māori organisations to previous new organism applications
5. Other responses received:
Risks to valued plant species
The poisonous nature of lantana
The impact of lantana on biodiversity values
The threat of lantana to regional values
The threat of lantana to economic values
6. Identification of beneficial and adverse effects of the proposed introduction
1. SUMMARY This appendix summarises steps taken to consult with Māori nationwide about the proposed biological control programme against lantana and summarises the responses. Significant relevant issues that have been raised by Māori in previous consultations are presented. The distribution of the weed is currently limited to the North Island. Other stakeholders north of Marlborough were consulted and their responses are also summarised. A workshop brainstormed the potential beneficial and adverse effects of the proposal. The issues not considered sufficiently significant to be addressed in the application are tabled and annotated.
2. SCOPE OF CONSULTATION Lantana (Lantana camara) poses a future threat to conservation, amenity and production values in northern New Zealand. The first releases for these agents will occur in the Northland Region but, for the purpose of risk assessment, it is assumed that both rusts will establish wherever lantana populations persist in New Zealand. Currently lantana is naturalised sporadically north of Wellington and is abundant north of Auckland. Sale, propagation or distribution of L. camara is forbidden under the National Pest Plant Accord).
The Northland Regional Council is the nominal applicant, acting on behalf of the National Biocontrol Collective, a consortium of organisations responsible for biosecurity that comprises the Department of Conservation and 13 regional councils. This proposal is sanctioned by their regional pest management strategies (RPMS), which have been prepared in consultation with local communities as required by the
Biosecurity Act 1993. North Island regional councils and Marlborough District Council were asked for comment on this proposal.
A total of 169 iwi, hapū, and Māori organisations and individuals making up the EPA Māori National Network were contacted on 29 June 2011 and invited to enter dialogue on the proposal to introduce Prospodium tuberculatum and Puccinia lantanae. The message described how the applicant intended to assess the risks, costs and benefits surrounding the proposed introductions in the application, and respondents were asked to identify any issues that were inadequately, or not covered in those plans. Recipients were given the option of responding by form letter (a stamped addressed envelope was included), email or by phone.
The responses obtained are summarised below. The main beneficial and adverse effects identified here and in previous consultations are addressed in the application form. All organisations consulted will be informed when the application has been submitted and is open for public submissions. The proposal to introduce these two rusts was discussed with members of the Tai Tokerau Iwi Technical Forum at the annual hui of the EPA Māori National Network.
Other organisations consulted in the course of preparation of this application are:
Federated Farmers
Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society of New Zealand
Department of Conservation staff
QEII National Trust
Any responses have been provided to EPA, or are captured below.
3. RESPONSES FROM IWI, HAPŪ AND OTHER MĀORI ORGANISATIONS Email or written responses were received from the seven sources listed below. The originals of these responses have been supplied to EPA. Two respondents made detailed responses or requested further information.
Te Rūnanga-a-Iwi o Ngāti Kahu
Awatuna Homestead
Tai Tokerau Organic Primary Producers Society (Inc.)
Tanenuiarangi Manawatu Inc.
Ongarahu Environment Care
Raukawa Charitable Trust
Ngāti Whatua o Orakei
The issues abstracted from those submissions are provided below, and are addressed in the application.
‘On a personal level I don‟t mind that biological controls are used to combat such as these. My reservations will be what potential impacts will they have on our native fauna/flora. Are there such already in our indigenous arsenal and if so can we bolster their numbers?‟
„.... does not oppose these applications…but urges caution when introducing foreign organisms; blackberry/gorse, weasels/rabbits etc. come to mind.‟
„We are aware these organisms are put through rigorous tests but sometimes many years pass before these things break out of their natural cycle and become further pests and equally as bad as their host plant.‟
„I do not have a problem with your proposal; there are much worse things happening that I am dealing with.‟
„If Māori resources are affected so are the people – loss of flora and fauna, loss of cultural identity, loss of clothing for Papatuanuku, loss of native vegetation, and increase of runoff if not filtered.‟
„Te Taiao ki au, ki au te Taiao‟
„Ongoing management by Māori of our cultural and natural resources relies on kaitiakitanga/protection. ...We must be certain of the potential impacts on our resources.‟
„We see that both of these plant pests pose a threat to our native ecosystems and are happy for the release to go ahead. Containment or eradication in the north is preferable to actions later in the south.‟
„We appreciate your communication on this matter; however, due to capacity issues we are unable to engage further with you on this issue.‟
„Will the introduced species eradicate their hosts? If so, does this mean the introduced species will eventually die out once their hosts have been eradicated? If not, what will the introduced species achieve?„
4. OTHER RELEVANT RESPONSES FROM MĀORI ORGANISATIONS TO PREVIOUS NEW ORGANISM APPLICATIONS
How do potential ecosystem changes affect the mauri of the ngahere?
Are there native species that could fill the role?
Effects on ongoing management of cultural and natural resources by Māori – kaitiakitanga.... we need all the information in order to make an informed decision.
What happens to the new organism‟s whakapapa when it is taken from its home, where it is a native species?
Protocol to relocate the mauri of an agent
What is the contingency should the population / if the agent looks for other prey?
How will Māori be able to peer-review this work?
Have other forms of intervention been investigated?
What is the impact of not intervening?
I would rather nothing like this was brought into the country.
What is the history and success rate of biocontrols?
Are there human health concerns involved?
Will there be employment opportunities in the introduction?
All introduced species have impact on the native flora and fauna.
Request for reports on monitoring and analysis of this biocontrol.
The benefits of (the target weed) on the landscape must be taken into account.
While we did not bring (the weed) here, it is here now. So we have to address it. We have to think about what is best.
If you don‟t have the money to monitor post-release, then you don‟t have the money for the project.
What happens if at some point in the future we have to bring something else in to control the insects we are introducing?
5. OTHER RESPONSES RECEIVED
5.1 Risks to valued plant species
Carol Ellison, Pathologist, CABI Europe-UK
(in response to the question „which rust should be introduced first?‟) ...we came to the conclusion that in the subtropical climate of Northland, New Zealand, we would expect the Prospodium to do generally better {than the Puccinia} as the prevailing climate is similar to where it was collected in Brazil. ... Similarly in Australia, we would expect the Prospodium to do better in south Queensland and NSW. There have been recent reports that the rust is indeed doing well in these areas. Puccinia, on the other hand, was collected in a more tropical climate area, and so it would be expected to do well in more northern parts of Queensland. However, it is a more damaging pathogen, and all things being equal, I would choose it above the Prospodium. In the native range of the two pathogens, we haven‟t seen them occurring together … I guess what we would predict would be most likely to happen in New Zealand is that the two pathogens would naturally establish in different climatic areas or even „pockets‟ within the same area. However, the two rusts were found not to interact negatively when inoculated together on the same plants in the quarantine glasshouse; they infected the plants in the same way as they did when inoculated separately.
(In response to the question „can these rusts kill plants?‟) This isn‟t something that we investigated to any great extent. With perennial woody plants it is difficult to look at rust impact under glasshouse conditions, and even if we try repeated inoculations, it is not realistic since it is a small plant in a pot. However, I have had incidences of heavily infected plants (with either pathogen) dropping their leaves and dying when accidently not kept adequately watered (non-infected plants survived the drought very well). So it would be fair to say infected, droughted plants may be more vulnerable to death in the field. What I can say for Pu. lantanae it that we often get branch die-back, so part of the plant is killed. For Pr. tuberculatum heavy inoculation (over-inoculation) leads to complete leaf fall, even before much sporulation has occurred (not good!). Heavy inoculation (but not over-inoculation)
of both pathogens leads to early leaf drop, which over time is likely to seriously debilitate the plant and reduce its competitive ability.
Bruce Smallfield, New Crops Agronomist, Plant and Food Research
I am not aware of any significant New Zealand plant based industries that utilise Verbena/Lippia species. Within a MAFTech/Crop & Food Research essential oil & new crops programmes, Malcolm Douglas undertook some preliminary investigations on lemon verbena. This work was undertaken at Redbank Research Station, Clyde, in the 1990s and Dr Stephan Halloy put together a collection of Aloysia species as part of the biodiversity programme at Invermay Research Centre. I am not aware of this research leading to any commercial developments.
Lemon verbena (Aloysia citrodora) is a common garden herb grown for its aromatic foliage. The species is profiled on the Herb Federation of NZ website (http://www.herbs.org.nz/haw/Lemon%20Verbena% 20Web20.pdf ). I would suggest contacting this organisation to gauge the importance of this species to its members. Aloysia plants are available through a number of New Zealand nurseries. In my view the domestic use of verbena would represent the largest use of this genus in New Zealand.
There are several specialist New Zealand tea companies that include lemon verbena in their blends, for example Naturalus (Christchurch, http://www.naturalus.co.nz/Products/Tea/Tea.html ) and Stir Tea (Queenstown, www.stirtea.co.nz). I have no knowledge as to the proportion of product grown in New Zealand and that imported as dried leaf. Any commercial activity for herbal tea production in New Zealand is likely to be at the cottage industry scale.
New Zealand Herbalist such as The Herb Farm (Lynn Kirkland), PhytoFarm (Valmai Beckers), Tigerlillys (David Swanson) and Weleda NZ (Havelock North, www.weleda.co.nz) also profile lemon verbena. I would suggest contacting Weleda NZ (www.weleda.co.nz/Contact_Us_24.aspx) and Lynn Kirkland (www.herbfarm.co.nz/Contact-us-at-the-herb-farm.html) to gauge importance of New Zealand grown verbenas to the New Zealand herbal medicine industry. Like the specialist tea industry, any commercial activity growing lemon verbena for herbal medicine is most likely to be at the cottage industry scale.
I am not familiar with any species from genus Phlya that have medicinal or herbal use in New Zealand.
5.2 Impact of lantana on biodiversity values
Doug Foster, Northland Regional Council
Lantana may not be a big problem for DOC at present, but I think there are a lot of very vulnerable DOC- managed habitats that will come under pressure as lantana takes off – the gumlands around Ahipara, and the dune, shrublands and cliff systems on the Aupouri Peninsula in particular.
Graeme Lacock, Tongariro Whanganui Taranaki Conservancy, Department of Conservation
Lantana is also pretty rare for us as a weed – two records (Wanganui and near Waitotara). Again we don‟t treat it anywhere, nor is it a major weed for us. I‟ve only ever seen one plant as a weed around Wanganui. I know of it from South Africa, so I‟m aware of how bad it can be.
Tony McCluggage, Department of Conservation, Northland
Lantana camara does not have a great effect on the conservation estate in Northland because heavy infestations are very patchy in Northland, and as it happens, these patches do not coincide closely with DOC reserves. Lantana control is therefore a relatively minor component of weed management for us at present. It is more of a problem for others managing regenerating forest and other even more sensitive habitats such as coastlines.
A damaging population of kahili ginger was cleared from a reserve at St Paul‟s Rock, near Whangaroa. Lantana seedlings invaded the gaps created by ginger removal. This is a warning that lantana is a threat to reserve land following disturbance if significant seed sources are nearby.
I am aware that the NRC strategy to contain flowering lantana to south of Ahipara will provide an important buffer against future invasion of the critical habitats in the Te Paki and Aupouri Ecological Districts at the top of the Aupouri Peninsula.
While it is not a major issue for DOC reserves at present I am aware that lantana has invaded a number of coastal reserves in Northland that have had long-term settlements beside them, and that lantana is controlled to maintain reserves of (for example) Whāngārei District Council.
Don McKenzie, Biosecurity Team Leader, Northland Regional Council
The spread of lantana northwards threatens the integrity of coastal habitats, and high value northern ecological areas including the Te Paki Reserves. Lantana grows in the margins of native vegetation and can form the dominant subcanopy of manuka/kanuka shrublands. The outward appearance of these shrublands is one of an intact forest type when in reality lantana has formed a monoculture beneath. The spread of lantana under a shrubland canopy can go unnoticed for many years. Large areas can become infested and the costs of removal are high.
Heather Taylor, Department of Conservation, Northland
I know a lady who contracted out to Northland Regional Council to do this weed in the Far North. You might want to contact the NRC weeds officer, Doug Foster. I know that their work doesn‟t get as far south as the Whangaroa area, where lantana is a serious weed and is exploding as we speak. It is covering vast tracts of St Paul‟s Rock and Kaheka Point and is beyond our ability to deal with since we only have an RPMS budget for kahili ginger in the area.
Sarah Crump, Technical Support Officer (Plant Pests), DOC East Coast Conservancy
…lantana spread around the East Coast Bay of Plenty (records from Tauranga through to Ohope & around Te Kaha etc.). Not that dense around here on DOC land, mainly road verges & old dumping sites so we control it where we find it as [we] see it as having potential to invade many of our coastal sites. I've got photos of lantana from over SH35 (Te Kaha way) & this lantana is pink & yellow flowers. We do some lantana control at Tirohanga & Waiotahi Dunes (over Opotiki way). However, as we don't have that much of it occurring at the moment the amount we spend on control is pretty minimal (especially since done at same time as other weed control in same area).
Michael Sheehan, Ririwha Restoration Trust
We have an ongoing issue with lantana and did receive assistance from Northland Regional Council to eradicate. The most difficult area are cliff faces which are dangerous to access from above and probably just out of range from below with spray guns....I did note on the eastern side the lantana was affected by salt spray, with obvious pruning of the leaves. The stems were however sturdy none the less. The birds are the sowers of this accursed plant and the beds are under pohutukawa trees, but I see it popping up in the kikuyu general pasture or invading gorse areas we have sprayed.
5.3 Poisonous nature of lantana
Jenni Jones, National Poisons Centre, University of Otago
The ingestion of the berries, especially the unripe berries, of the Lantana species can also cause gastrointestinal symptoms of nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea.
From 1 June 2002 to 15 July 2011 there have been (the following calls about lantana)
Lantana = 28 human exposures + 1 goat; Ingestion = 27; Skin = 1 John Mather, Senior Biosecurity Officer, Bay of Plenty Regional Council
...We have also had one occurrence of stock (2-year-old steers) consuming wilted lantana sprayed with herbicide a few days beforehand and several (may have been 6) steers were poisoned and died... Don McKenzie, Northland Regional Council
Cattle commonly graze land infested with lantana in Northland. While we have reports of stock poisoning caused by other weeds, I am not aware of any caused by lantana.
5.4 Threat of lantana to regional values
Nick Waipara, Auckland Council
Lantana is categorised by Auckland council as a Total Control Plant in Rural areas, which means localised eradication is underway with known rural sites visited annually to ensure total control. Biological control is therefore considered a useful addition to the control toolbox for Lantana in Auckland in its total control areas. [Outside Total control areas it is a surveillance plant pest].
....biocontrol is viewed as vital and important method to help reduce weed abundance and populations in Auckland's Urban and Peri-Urban areas.
The proposed biocontrol agents will also be essential tools for release in neighbouring regions (particularly Northland) where there are larger populations and rapid spread of the weed. These adjoining populations of Lantana present a re-invasion risk to Auckland and high propagule pressures will also affect re-invasion capacity across Northern New Zealand. Therefore the two biocontrol rust pathogens are an incredibly useful and sustainable method to help contain and control Lantana. Auckland Council would like to see the introduction of fungal rusts to assist its Lanatana management in Auckland and beyond (Northland).
42 Total control Sites under annual Lantana management (monitoring, inspection, control-removal) ….Cost = …. $15k - $27k p.a. Which is an ongoing cost. Conventional chemical and mechanical control methods are currently used.
Sara Brill, Biosecurity Officer, Northland Regional Council
Some control work has been done in Omapere – Doug Foster will have this amount. The site work was not completed before the contractor left the area so I have been following up the site. I have spent 2 half- days and estimate up to 40 hours to complete this outlier site.
Lantana at One Tree Point has taken approximately 80 hours so far with several more landowners needing visiting.
... have been doing a significant lantana and ginger control programme on their 10-acre block just outside Rawene and ... is happy to discuss the impacts of lantana on this restoration project.
Daryl Kee, Greater Wellington Regional Council Lantana is commonly seen in Kapiti gardens but we don't record it. Not known in any KNE reserves but seen on Waikanae River established from rear of residential property. I have dealt with it in a Te Horo QE covenant as a contractor. Commonly encountered around homesteads and older lifestyle blocks around Te Horo, Otaki, which is odd considering it‟s considered toxic to livestock. Many cultivars seen in gardens in Waikanae and Paraparaumu during surveys.
John Mather, Senior Biosecurity Officer, Bay of Plenty Regional Council
Lantana is a Containment Pest Plant in our soon to be adopted draft RPMS and was in a similar (Progressive Control) category in the still current Strategy. We can enforce the control of lantana (current and proposed strategies). Lantana is established in pockets in the coastal BOP but has been expanding its distribution through bird- borne seed dispersal. There is one heavy infestation over approximately 20 ha near Tauranga. Lantana is also quite difficult to control with herbicides ...The multiple thorny stems also make the plant difficult to control with hand tools. Don McKenzie, Biosecurity Team Leader, Northland Regional Council
Distribution and abundance
Core infestations now exist in the Whangaroa and Hokianga areas and small infestations are scattered throughout Northland. It is most common near urban centres where it was once commonly planted as an ornamental. Cultivation of lantana is now forbidden. The distribution of lantana is not well mapped for much of Northland, and we are constantly being made aware of outlier populations that could become the focus for wider invasion. Lantana is well mapped in the Far North and is not as abundant as it is in the core infestation in the mid-north. However, it appears to be more aggressively invasive in this climate.
Lantana management programme
Northland Regional Council recognises that lantana is one of the most common and damaging weeds in the subtropics elsewhere in the world. The council is working pre-emptively to ensure that this is not repeated in Northland. The Northland Regional Pest Management Strategy 2010–2015 (RPMS) objectives for lantana are:
To contain lantana to core infestation areas.
To minimise the effects of lantana on environmental and economic values of Northland.
To raise public awareness of the economic, biodiversity, social and cultural impacts of lantana.
The 2010–2015 operational plan aims to remove the threat of lantana to areas of high ecological significance. By May 2012 there will be a lantana-free (zero density) zone in the Bream Bay area to remove the threat from lantana to the economic and social land uses in this area. A four-stage containment programme has begun in the Far North to strengthen the protection of the northern ecological areas and to remove the threat from lantana to the economic and social land uses in this area.
The operational plan also aims to reduce the economic and social impacts of the plant through the wider region. Small populations outside the core infestation are treated. The Council offers a free removal service for small infestations of lantana, but occupiers are then obliged to keep the area lantana-free.
The Council sees biological control as a key control tactic that will limit the escalation of the costs of managing small infestations and allow reallocation of resources to the protection of other regional values. Biological control is the only option for protecting land in the core infestation from further encroachment.
5.5 Threat of lantana to economic values
Sam Middlemass, Rayonier Forests Northland
Lantana doesn't appear to be common in Northland. I'm aware of one plant in our forests and I think this has been sprayed.
Nick Waipara, Auckland Council
42 Total control Sites under annual Lantana management (monitoring, inspection, control-removal) ….Cost = …. $15k - $27k p.a. Which is an ongoing cost. Conventional chemical and mechanical control methods are currently used.
Doug Foster, Northland Regional Council
Lantana is one of a range of similar weeds that often grow in mixed stands in Northland – gorse and woolly nightshade, in some areas ginger and Chinese privet, and to a lesser extent mānuka/kānuka. Many of these sites are steep gullies or hillsides that are economically marginal pastoral farmland under the best of circumstances, and when weed infested, are best excluded from the pastoral system and either planted in exotic forest (again marginally economic) or allowed to revert to native bush. In a lot of places removal of lantana would simply change the mix of scrubweeds without great benefit. On easier, better producing country the costs of controlling lantana and controlling other weeds are interchangeable, and I don‟t see great benefits there. However, a lot of marginal pastoral land or land already covered in gorse in Northland is reverting to forest through invasion by mānuka and kānuka. This tends to be under- managed steeper country, often collectively-owned, where conventional controls aren‟t economically practical. If that succession were left alone then there would be big biodiversity gains for Northland, but lantana often grows in amongst it. Lantana may well be the worst of the scrub weeds because following fire, it is lantana that tends to come back as the dominant species excluding all else. We find that once a lantana infestation reaches a reasonable size and density, nothing grows under or among it and the monospecific patch slowly expands outward. Lantana is threatening regeneration on these lands.
Lantana has invaded up to a kilometre into the thinned Juken NZ plantations growing on the consolidated dunes in the Far North. Seeds have been spread by birds, and lantana is well established along some of the forest margin and boundary areas and can extend into the forest considerable distances in historically wet gullies. It isn‟t a great issue under the maturing forests, but I think they will have big problems with lantana when the time comes to intensely managing second- or third-generation forests on this land if the plant is not controlled now while there is a relatively small amount of it.
Don McKenzie, Northland Regional Council
There is no reliable information about economic losses to lantana. The weed fringes some high-producing pastoral land, but its impact there can be mitigated by herbicide applications. Much of the land in the core infestation is not highly productive, and control on such land is not cost-effective. Economic losses to pastoral production caused by lantana are therefore present, but are probably not very great. Lantana scrambles through plantations in the North. While this is unlikely to affect tree growth, thickets must cause costly delays at harvest, and impose „good neighbour‟ costs on plantation owners.
The council concentrates resources on early intervention in small infestations rather than rehabilitation of large infestations. For that reason the costs to council of lantana management are not high. The lantana containment programme in the Far North has a budget of approximately $35,000 per annum. The remaining costs of lantana management in Northland are not budgeted separately from other weed management operations. Occupiers are required to maintain properties lantana-free, and some farmers spray infested land to retain productive capacity. The costs to occupiers are not known.
6. IDENTIFICATION OF BENEFICIAL AND ADVERSE EFFECTS OF THE PROPOSED INTRODUCTION
The potential risks, costs and benefits of the proposed introduction to New Zealand of Puccinia lantanae and Prospodium tuberculatum and the possible reduction in the abundance and vigour of lantana were identified by literature review, by public consultation and by formal brainstorming involving personnel from
Northland Regional Council, Department of Conservation. Those not considered to significantly impact the application are as follows:
6.1 Possible beneficial effects
6.1.1 Beneficial effects on the environment
Source of potential benefit Comments
Maintenance of habitats The rust reduces adverse affects of lantana on Successful biological control will reduce adverse ecosystem relationships. effects wherever the weed occurs, acting far beyond the reach of existing management efforts. Control will reduce the future development of adverse effects of the weed as it spreads.
Lantana rust reduces the ecosystem services Although lantana fills this role, it is only one of a provided by the weed to pest animals such as wide range of scrub weeds in Northland that would possums, rabbits, goats and pigs, including shelter, fill the same purpose and the effect is marginal. and food resources.
The rust adds to overall biodiversity in True, but adding two species of rust is not a New Zealand. significant change to New Zealand's biodiversity.
Control of lantana increases the ecosystem services Implicit in discussion in Section 6. provided to valued species by replacement vegetation.
Reduced dominance of lantana reduces the adverse The effects of lantana infestation on soil biology are effects to accompanying plants through modification not known, but the significance of allelopathy is of the soil. discussed in section 6.
Sustainability of flora and fauna Effects addressed in application
Ecosystem processes Reduced carbon sink Lantana is one amongst a large array of similar woody weeds that could replace this effect.
Any adverse effect of lantana on soil processes is Effects uncertain because soil biology under lantana reduced. is not well known.
Monocultures of lantana are split, increasing plant Limited effect, see Section 6; increased plant diversity and animal diversity, and ecosystem resilience. as lantana monocultures break up will increase the diversity and complexity of trophic webs, but effects will vary locally, spatially and temporally.
Increased patchiness of the vegetation opens new Limited effect, see Section 6; ditto. pathways for regeneration and succession.
Reduced vigour and seed productions reduces the A real effect, but limited by current distribution of risk of lantana monoculture following fire. lantana, see Section 6.
Intrinsic value of ecosystems
See maintenance of habitats.
Inherent genetic diversity in New Zealand
Reduction in the abundance and vigour of lantana A real effect, but limited by current distribution of benefits populations of small-stature plants (e.g. lantana; see Section 6. epiphytes) under lantana.
Reduced dominance of lantana in the environment Ditto increases overall biodiversity.
6.1.2 Beneficial effects on human health and safety
Source of potential benefit Comments Biocontrol of lantana reduces the abundance of Poisoning of humans recorded, and some forms of potentially poisonous plant parts in the environment. the weed are poisonous to stock; see Section 6.
Access to land is made easier as lantana becomes less A real effect, but limited by current distribution of vigorous and abundant. lantana.
Biocontrol reduces the stature and bulk of A real effect, but limited by current distribution of infestations, improving visibility, and detection of lantana. hazards hidden to machinery operators.
Successful biocontrol reduces the occupational risk to Not considered a significant effect. herbicide applicators.
Reduced biomass of lantana leads to less odour and Not considered a significant effect. less allergic response to foliage odours.
Reduced biomass of lantana leads to fewer allergic Not significant. response to lantana spines.
6.1.3 Beneficial effects on the relationship of Māori and their culture and traditions with the environment
See separate section and the application.
6.1.4 Beneficial effects on society and communities
Source of potential benefit Comments
Reduced vigour limits the value of lantana as a Not a significant effect. prickly protection for illicit crops.
Reduced stature of lantana allows better access to A real effect, but limited by current distribution of wild areas via tracks and bush margins. lantana.
6.1.5 Beneficial effects on the market economy
Source of potential benefit Comments Disease reduces flowering, reducing the tourism Lantana flowers not currently value of lantana flowers.
Educational benefits on merits of weed management. Not regarded as a significant effect.
There is reduced incidence of mechanical damage to Not currently an issue of note. stock.
Reduced abundance of lantana reduces the incidence Not currently an issue of note. of lantana spines downgrading wool.
6.2 Possible adverse effects or risks
6.2.1 Adverse effects on the environment
Source of potential adverse effect Comments
Maintenance of habitats Lantana rust reduces the ecosystem services provided A real effect, but limited by current distribution of to animals by the weed, including shelter, and food lantana. resources.
Value of lantana as a nurse crop adversely affected. Not significant. Lantana is not considered as a nurse crop, and is allelopathic to other plants.
Sustainability of flora and fauna Lantana rust spores cause allergenic responses in No such effect known. The mechanism is native birds. speculative.
Biocontrol reduces the value of lantana as a habitat for Not significant. Many similar woody shrubs valued flora, fauna and fungi/bryophytes. inhabit lantana-infested Northland so any effect is likely to be marginal.
Ecosystem processes Rapid biocontrol leads to erosion, followed by Many similar woody shrubs inhabit lantana- reduced water quality from sediments. infested Northland so any effect is likely to be marginal. Increased abundance of rust spores reduces air Rusts are common in the environment, and quality. sometimes abundant e.g. poplar rust. Marginal increase in spore load from these rusts would be minimal Rust competes with native or valued fungi, or with Lantana has no other rusts, and the control agents other ecosystem drivers. are host specific. No significant overlap expected. Fewer lantana flowers in the environment leads to a Lantana is not recognised as a significant bee reduction in nectar and pollen resources available to plant. bees.
Fewer lantana berries reduces the food available to This will be so, but the effect will be limited to birds such as blackbirds, mynahs, waxeyes and heavily infested land, and even there other fruit possibly tūī. sources will be abundant amongst woody scrub. Reduction in the abundance of lantana reduces cover Many similar woody shrubs inhabit lantana- for kiwi. infested Northland so any effect is likely to be marginal.
Reduced carbon sink. Ditto. Any beneficial effects of lantana on soil processes is Lantana is allelopathic, and no beneficial effects reduced. have been noted.
Food web interactions are adversely affected by the Adverse effects are conceivable but not expected. introduction of new prey species. Increased plant diversity as lantana monocultures break up will increase the diversity and complexity
of trophic webs, but effects will vary locally, spatially and temporally. The process of control increases nutrient turnover in Leaf and root consumption will increase turnover the litter, adversely affecting nutrient cycles. under lantana infestations, slightly enriching soil and aiding establishment of alternative vegetation. Effect limited to soil beneath the weed, and is temporary.
Intrinsic value of ecosystems
No significant effects have been identified.
See maintenance of habitats.
Inherent genetic diversity
Reduction in the abundance and vigour of lantana Lantana has no known benefits for underlying threatens populations of small-stature plants (e.g. vegetation and is known to be allelopathic. The epiphytes) under lantana. reverse is likely to be true.
The rust has adverse effects on threatened species, No such species known (Waipara et al. 2009). including fungi. The rust threatens rare and endangered species directly associated with lantana.
6.2.2 Adverse effects on human health and safety
Source of potential adverse effect Comments Lantana rust spores increase the overall frequency of No such responses have yet been recorded. allergic reactions to fungal spores.
Rust infection increases the palatability of lantana to Mechanism speculative. Unlikely to make fruits young children. more or less attractive to children.
6.2.3 Adverse effects on the relationship of Māori and their culture and traditions with the environment
See separate section and the application.
6.2.4 Adverse effects on society and communities
Source of potential adverse effect Comments Fear and distrust of exotic species and their possible Firmly held opinion in a proportion of the non-target effects. population.
Public reacts badly to rust pustules on leaves, and Urban public unlikely to encounter products of products of leaf senescence. biological control.
Reduced vigour leads to less value as a garden plant No significant risk. Cultivation is forbidden. and as a food for butterflies.
6.2.5 Adverse effects on the market economy
Source of potential adverse effect Comments Disease resistance develops, eliminating the value of No such resistance has been observed following the biocontrol investment. release of a rust as a control agent.
The costs of introduction and establishment exceed This is an early intervention to preclude the the monetary benefit. development of future costs.
Biocontrol causes an increase in costs of erosion and Monocultures of lantana exist on too few sites for erosion control. this to be a significant issue. On unmanaged land other scrub species such as mānuka are likely to replacement lantana.
Successful biological control reduces revenue for Not a significant effect. Revenues directly related to contractors and suppliers. lantana management are not a key revenue source for many or any contractors or supplies.
10. Signature of applicant or person authorised to sign on behalf of applicant
I request the Authority to waive any legislative information requirements (i.e. concerning the information that shall be supplied in my application) that my application does not meet (tick if applicable).
I have completed this application to the best of my ability and, as far as I am aware, the information I have provided in this application form is correct.
Signature Date