Copyright by Ju Young Lee 2015 The Thesis Committee for Ju Young Lee Certifies that this is the approved version of the following thesis:
The Impact of Ideal-Self Congruity with Celebrity Endorsers on
Advertising Effectiveness:
The Moderating Role of Message Frame
APPROVED BY SUPERVISING COMMITTEE:
Supervisor: Kathrynn Pounders
Gary Wilcox The Impact of Ideal-Self Congruity with Celebrity Endorsers
on Advertising Effectiveness:
The Moderating Role of Message Frame
by
Ju Young Lee, B.A.; M.A.
Thesis
Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Master of Arts
The University of Texas at Austin August 2015 Abstract
The Impact of Ideal-Self Congruity with Celebrity Endorsers on
Advertising Effectiveness:
The Moderating Role of Message Frame
Ju Young Lee, MA The University of Texas at Austin, 2015
Supervisor: Kathrynn Pounders
Celebrity endorsements have been studied regarding factors for effectively persuading consumer behavior. To broaden this research stem, the current study aims to examine the interactive effect of ideal self-congruity (low versus high) and regulatory focus message frame (gain versus loss) on celebrity endorsement effectiveness. The findings from an experiment show that consumers with a high level of ideal self- congruity with a celebrity endorser generate a more favorable attitude toward the advertisement, attitude toward the brand, and greater purchase intention compared to consumers with low ideal self-congruity. In addition, this work examines the interplay between ideal self-congruity and regulatory focus. Interestingly, the results reveal the interaction between ideal self-congruity and regulatory focus message does not
iv significantly influence attitude toward the advertising, attitude toward the brand, or purchase intention.
Key words: celebrity endorsements, self-congruity, ideal-self concept, regulatory focus, message frame valence
v Table of Contents
List of Tables ...... viii
List of Figures ...... ix
Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 1
Chapter 2: Literature Review ...... 4 Celebrity Endorsements ...... 4 The Self ...... 10 Importance of the Self in Consumer Behavior ...... 10 Self-Concept (Self-Image) ...... 11 Self-Congruity Theory ...... 12 The Importance of the Ideal Self-Congruity ...... 15 Theory of Regulatory Focus ...... 17 Frgulatory Fit & Message Frame ...... 19
Chapter 3: Theoretical Framework and Research Hypotheses ...... 22
Chapter 4: Research Methodology ...... 26 Overview and Research Design ...... 26 Stimulus Development ...... 26 Pilot Study ...... 26 Pretest 1 ...... 27 Pretest 2 ...... 27 Main Experiment ...... 29 Sample ...... 29 Data Collection Procedure ...... 30 Measurements ...... 31 Independnt variables ...... 31 Moderating variables ...... 32 Dependent variables ...... 32 Additional Measure ...... 34 vi Chapter 5: Data Analysis and Results ...... 35 Reliability Test ...... 35 Manipulation check ...... 36 Hypothesis Testing ...... 37 Ideal Self-Congruity ...... 37 Ideal Self-Congruity and Effectiveness of Celebrity Endorsements 37 Ideal Self-Congruity, Message Framing, and Effectiveness of Celebrity Endorsements ...... 39
Chapter 6: Discussion and Conclusion ...... 46 Discussion ...... 46 Theoretical Contribution ...... 49 Managerial Implication ...... 50 Limitation and Future Research ...... 52
Appendix ...... 54
References ...... 55
vii List of Tables
Table 4.1: Study Design ...... 26 Table 5.1: Reliability Analysis of Measurement Items ...... 35 Table 5.2: T-test Resutls, Cell Means and Sample Sizes for H1A-C ...... 39 Table 5.3: Univariate Analysis of Variance Results for H2A-C ...... 41 Table 5.4: Cell Means and Sample Sizes for H2A-C ...... 42
viii List of Figures
Figure 5.1: Mean Attitude toward the Advertisement for H2A ...... 43 Figure 5.2: Mean Attitude toward the Brand for H2B ...... 44 Figure 5.3: Mean Purchase Intention for H2C ...... 45
ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Prior research in advertising and marketing has examined the effectiveness of celebrity endorsements and has revealed positive consumer attitudes and behavior can be elicited by celebrity endorsers (Ohanian, 1990; Amos, Holmes, & Strutton, 2008). The significant benefit of celebrity endorsements is that they attract the public’s attention, break through diverse advertising clutter, lead to high rates of recall, establish a distinction of product or brand images, which results in more effective communications.
(Erdogan, 1999; KaiKati, 1987; Miciak & Shanklin, 1994).
A variety of theoretical frameworks can explain celebrity endorsement effectiveness (Ohanian, 1991). The two primary theories are the match-up hypothesis
(Kamins, 1990) and the meaning transfer model (McCracken, 1989). The match-up hypothesis notes that when an endorser’s image or message is linked to a product, the target consumers more effectively respond to the endorsed products. The meaning transfer model toward celebrity endorsements concludes that a celebrity’s symbolic image or meaning transfers to a product or a brand, and the model helps to develop the match-up hypothesis (McCracken, 1989). This stream delineates the importance of a good fit between the celebrity and the product/brand image—which is closely related to self-congruity theory.
Self-congruity is an important construct in understanding consumer reactions to celebrity endorsers. A consumer can relate his or her self-image to a celebrity, and congruency is an important antecedent of consumer reactions (Choi & Rifon, 2012). In
1 addition, celebrity endorsers may serve as a source of inspiration (Gountas & Gountas,
2007; Assael, 1984; Park & Lessig, 1977).
Specifically, using endorsed brands or products can build an individual’s ideal- self (McCracken, 1989). The ideal-self is an individual’s image of who he or she would ideally like to be (Munson, 1973). This idea can support a relationship between ideal self- congruity a consumer’s purchasing behavior (Heath & Scott, 1998). Thus, it is possible that ideal self-congruity, the congruity between perceptions of consumers’ ideal self- image and the brands or products that they use can influence celebrity endorsements effectiveness.
While the importance of self-concept and self-congruity is essential to understanding consumer reactions to celebrity endorsers, there is still work needed to understand what could moderate these relationships based on the components of the advertising message. Prior research has demonstrated that message elements that match the self result in more effective advertising (Agrawal & Maheswaran, 2005; Wang &
Mowen, 1997). One such element is message framing. Prior research has demonstrated that gain frames work better for those with a promotion-focus goal orientation, whereas loss frames work better for those with a prevention-focus goal orientation. This match effect results in a “feeling right” (Higgins 2000; 2005) and greater fluency (Aaker and
Lee 2001; Lee and Aaker 2004). Thus, a match between some accessible aspect of the self and a component of the message results in more effective persuasion.
Interestingly, no work has examined the relationship between regulatory focus theory and self-congruity in the context of celebrity endorsements. Therefore, the primary 2 purpose of the current work is to merge the ideal self-congruity and regulatory focus literature streams to investigate the effectiveness of celebrity endorsements. Specifically, this research examines the potential moderating role of message frame (gain versus loss) on the impact of congruence between ideal self-image of the consumer with the celebrity endorser. Findings from the study propose an ideal message strategy to use for celebrity endorsements based on the perception of the relationship between a celebrity’s characteristics and a consumer’s ideal self-congruity. The findings of this study shed light on new ways of adjusting the causal effects of brand communication and determine how to design greater persuasive messages for celebrity endorsements.
The current study consists of the following structure: Chapter 2 presents the literature review and introduces fundamental theories for supporting the present study;
Chapter 3 develops the current study’s research hypotheses based on the theoretical framework; Chapter 4 describes the research methodology; Chapter 5 offers the results of the empirical analysis; and Chapter 6 discusses the theoretical and managerial contributions and indicates the present study’s limitations to provide suggestions for future studies.
3 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter offers a literature review on celebrity endorsements and elaborates on fundamental theories regarding ideal self-congruity, and regulatory focus messages to support the current research.
CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENTS
Using celebrities in advertisements originated in the late nineteenth century
(Erdogan, 1999). According to Speck, Schumann and Thompson (1988), a celebrity is noted to be an individual who is well known to the public. The celebrity image refers to
“the perceptions about an individual who enjoys public recognition as reflected by the celebrity associations held in consumer memory” (Seno & Lukas, 2007, p. 122).
Similarly, Choi and Rifon (2007, p. 309) define celebrity image as “the concept of someone or something that is held or projected by the public.” It is based on the idea that a source’s images are not defined by a source’s objective characteristics, but by the receiver’s perceptions (Berlo, Lemert, & Mertz, 1969). In modern society, celebrities are involved in diverse aspects of marketing activities—not only for celebrity endorsements, but also celebrity-branded products, celebrity branding, and celebrity cause-related marketing. A celebrity endorser is denoted as “any individual who enjoys public recognition and who uses this recognition on behalf of a consumer good by appearing with it in an advertisement” (McCracken, 1989, p. 310). The celebrity endorsers are hired
4 to advertise products, brands, and campaigns of companies or organizations for an effective way of increasing profits (Atkin & Block, 1983).
Using celebrity endorsers in advertising can bring about several advantages. For example, it attracts public attention (Sternthal, Phillips & Dholakia, 1978) and helps advertisements stand out among the clutter (Erdogan, Baker & Tagg, 2001) Celebrity endorsements help to enter new markets (Sherman 1985) and make the advertising campaign distinctive (Erdogan, 1999). For example, Michael Jordan’s return to the NBA caused to increase the endorsed company and products or related firms’ stock values by an estimated $1.1016 billion. (Mathur, Mathur, & Rangan, 1997), and approximately
25% of TV commercials display celebrity endorsers in the United States (Erdogan,
Baker, & Tagg, 2000; Shimp, 2003). Celebrities also influence individuals’ consumer behavior toward products and brands based on consumers’ desire for fame and other relevant aspirations (Gountas & Gountas, 2007). Provided celebrities are more credible than non-celebrities due to their popularity and reputation, they can influence advertising effectiveness based on their image and credibility (Petty & Cacciopo, 1986). It is well documented that celebrity marketing impacts the economy of our society and the entertainment industry (Agrawal & Kamakura, 1995). Accordingly , it is important to understand the effectiveness of celebrity endorsements for both academics and practitioners.
Although the benefits of celebrity endorsers is well-document, scholars have revealed mixed findings regarding the success of celebrity endorsements. An extensive body of work has demonstrated the positive effects of celebrity endorsement including 5 more favorable attitude toward the advertisement, attitude toward brand, and greater purchase intention (e.g., Tom, Clark, Elmer, Grech, Masetti, & Sandhar, 1992; Arpita
Srivastava, 2014; Ashok Pratap Arora, 2014). However, in contrast, Mehta (1994) suggests that a celebrity endorsement has no impact on consumer attitude toward the advertisement or attitude toward brand. The source model only supports the effectiveness of celebrity-endorsed advertisements whereas the non-celebrity advertisements were not influenced by the source model to persuade consumer behavior Mehta (1994).
The effectiveness of celebrity endorsements has been examined using various theoretical frameworks. Oftentimes, celebrity endorsement studies focus on the source model: the source of expertise and trustworthiness, credibility, and attractiveness, and the product match-up hypothesis with meaning transfer models (McCracken, 1989; Erdogan,
1999).
According to Hovland and Weiss (1953, p. 20), message effectiveness relies on the “expertness” and “trustworthiness” of the sources and is based on the source credibility model. Expertise is called “the perceived ability of the source to make valid assertions” and trustworthiness is noted to be “the perceived willingness of the source to make valid assertions” (McCracken, 1989, p. 311). The Hovland model suggests that a source’s expertise and trustworthiness are significant factors of persuasion. Many studies have shown that spokespeople who have higher credibility (compared to lower credibility) are more effective in influencing consumers’ attitudes and behavioral intentions (Sternthal, Phillips, & Dholakia, 1978). Additionally, consumers prefer getting information from friends and families over salespeople, due to their high trustworthiness 6 (Ohanian, 1991). For these reasons, highly credible message sources lead to changing consumers’ behaviors positively (Ohanian, 1991).
The source model has been explained the effectiveness of celebrity endorsements.
According to McGuire (1985, p. 264), and the source model, “familiarity,” “likability,” and “similarity” of the message source serve as the primary antecedents for message effectiveness. Familiarity is defined as “knowledge of the source through exposure,” likability as “affection for the source as a result of the source’s physical appearance and behavior,” and similarity as “a supposed resemblance between the source and receiver of the message” (McCracken, 1989, p. 311). The McGuire model proposes that it is more persuasive to consumers when sources are beloved and famous, and have similarities with receivers (McGuire, 1985).
The match-up hypothesis, suggests, “highly relevant characteristics for the spokesperson are consistent with highly relevant attributes of the brand” (Misra & Beatty,
1990, p. 160) contribute to message effectiveness. The match-up hypothesis is alternatively called congruence (Misra & Beatty, 1990; Fleck & Quester, 2007), match- up (Bower & Landreth, 2001), match (Kamins & Gupta, 1994), and fit (Keel &
Nataraajan, 2012). The product match-up hypothesis claims that using a celebrity in advertising is more persuasive when consumers perceive a higher fit between a celebrity’s image and an endorsed brand of product (Erdogan, 1999). Specifically, some studies reveal that congruence between a celebrity and a brand has influence when the brands or products are linked to high social status and symbolism (Kamins et al., 1989;
Packard, 2007). Furthermore, if there is no congruence between a celebrity and a brand or 7 product, consumers distrust the celebrity endorsements (Erdogan, 1999). This supports the idea that the incongruence leads to negative consumer behavior based on a consumer’s evaluation of the brand or the product (Keel & Nataraajan, 2012) as well as celebrities in advertisements to make consumers concentrate more on the celebrity image than the brand or product itself (Mehta, 1994). Additionally, Choi and Rifon (2012) claim a distinctive aspect of celebrity endorsements to broaden the match-up hypothesis: the congruence between the endorser’s image and the consumer’s self-concept impacts consumer behaviors toward celebrity endorsements.
Another theory used to examine the effectiveness of celebrity endorsers is the meaning transfer model. McCracken (1989) posits the meaning transfer model, consists of three stages. The first stage is a step for a formation that an endorser’s credibility transfers to celebrity images; the second stage is for transferring the celebrity images to the endorsed brand or product; the final stage is for passing the images formed on the second stage to consumers. This model explains a process of translation and extension based on association of meanings from celebrity image to brand and products to consumers (Fleck, Korchia, & Le Roy, 2012; Chan et al., 2014; Erdogan, 1999). For instance, when consumers identify celebrity endorser images, the endorser’s images transfer to the endorsed brand (Atkin & Block, 1983; Biswas et al., 2006). Specifically, when a product is not associated with celebrities, consumers perceive them as only product category images. However, consumers recognize the products as meaningful when they are endorsed by celebrities (Langmeyer & Walker, 1991b). This suggests celebrity imagery or personality mirror symbolic meaning to the endorsed products. 8 Therefore, this theory suggests the importance of congruence between a celebrity’s personality and a brand or a product (Fleck et al., 2012).
9 THE SELF
Importance of the Self in Consumer Behavior
Consumption is caused by the maintenance and strength of a consumer’s self- concept (Graeff, 1996). Self-concept is the mechanism through which self-congruity influences consumer behavior (Koo et al., 2014). Self-concept is regarded as a set of self- schema in terms of cognitive psychology (Markus, Smith, & Moreland, 1985). Markus
(1977, p. 64) points out that “self-schemata are cognitive generalizations about the self, derived from past experience, that organize and guide the processing of self-related information contained in the individual’s social experience.” Consumers articulate their personal identity and promote social interaction with others via brands that embrace psychological and social symbols (Aaker, 1997; Belk, 1988; Escalas & Bettman, 2003;
Grubb & Stern, 1971; Sirgy, 1982). Individuals can form their self-concept not only from their actual self-image—the person who actually is but also from their ideal self-image— the person who they wish to be (Ekinci & Riley, 2003; Hong & Zinkhan, 1995; Malhotra,
1988; Munson, 1973). This is because a consumer purchases products, brands, or services not only for these products’ functions but also to express one’s personal and social meanings (Levy, 1959). This idea points out that a consumer’s purchasing behavior helps to reinforce that consumer’s particular self-image (Heath & Scott, 1998).
A consumer’s personality can be illustrated based on the use of products, which involves symbolic meanings (Sirgy, 1982; Tucker 1957). Product symbolism contains associations among products’ physical features, packaging, advertising, price, and ordinary image of product users (Grubb & Grathwhohl, 1967; Levy, 1959; Sirgy, 1982). 10 For example, brands can reflect individuals’ characters—“who they are and what they are not” —thus, consumers may choose differently branded products or services to encourage their self-concepts (Bjerke & Polegato, 2006). When symbolism is related to self- concept, it can influence consumer behavior based on the effectiveness of advertising
(Hong & Zinkhan, 1995).
Self-Concept (Self-Image)
Scholars first developed self-concept studies in the 1960s (Grubb & Hupp, 1968;
Grubb & Stern, 1971; Hamm & Cundiff, 1969). Self-concept is defined as “the totality of the individual’s thoughts and feelings having reference to himself as an object”
(Rosenberg, 1979, p. 7). Self-concept refers to “an image shaped by the very person holding the image” (Hong & Zinkhan, 1995, p. 54).
Self-concept is multidimensional (Bums, 1979; Markin, 1979; Rosenberg, 1979;
Sirgy, 1982), although earlier studies claim it is the actual self-concept, a sole dimensional construct (Malhotra, 1988) that denotes an individual’s perception
(Bellenger et al., 1976). Other researchers contradict the earlier studies and assert that an individual might have various ‘selves’ (Onkvisit & Shaw, 1987; Markus & Nurinus,
1986). Researchers argue that self-concept encompasses two domains: the actual self- concept and the ideal self-concept (Sirgy, 1982; Belch, 1978; Belch & Landon, 1977;
Delozier & Tillman, 1972; Dolich, 1969). Actual self-concept refers to how an individual perceives oneself and ideal self-concept is defined as how an individual likes to perceive
11 oneself (Higgins, 1987; Sirgy, 1982). It is also referred to as “ideal self,” “idealized image,” and “desired self” (Sirgy, 1982).
Additionally, other scholars contend that there are more than two dimensions of self-concept. Sirgy (1979, 1980) claims that there are actual self-image, ideal self-image, social self-image, and ideal social-image. The social self-concept describes the image that an individual believes others hold, and it also refers to a “looking-glass self” or a
“presenting self.” The ideal social self-concept is defined as the image that an individual likes others to hold, and it is also referred to the “desired social self.” Munson and Spivey
(1980) indicate that an “expressive self” involves either the ideal self-concept or the social self-concept. Dornoff and Tatham (1972) note that there are the actual self- concept, ideal self-concept, and the “image of best friend.”
Self-Congruity Theory
Prior studies reveal consumers follow brands that have similar attributions and characteristics as their self-image (Escalas & Bettman, 2003; Richins, 1994; Sirgy, 1982).
When individuals evaluate brands, they are inclined to select brands that are similar to their self-image (Koo et al., 2014). As previously stated, consumer’s self-concept includes diverse aspects, such as actual self-image, ideal self-image, social self-image, and ideal-social image (Sirgy, 1982; Sirgy et al., 2005). Thus, self-image/product image congruity deals with multidimensional aspects due to the multidimensional ideas of the self-concept (Sirgy, 1985).
12 Sirgy (1981a, 1982a, 1982b) extends self-image/product-image congruity theory.
Self-congruity theory is based on the image congruence hypothesis, which is the congruity between an individual’s self-image and a brand’s image in terms of attitude toward brands (Parker, 2009). An alignment between a consumer’s actual self-image and a brand/product’s image denotes “self-congruity,” and an alignment between the ideal self-image and a brand/product image refers to “ideal-congruity” (Sirgy, 1982; Dolich,
1969). Based on this idea, researchers argue that self-congruity theory consists of two elements, “self-image” and “brand image” (Parker, 2009). Self-image congruence (Sirgy et al., 2008, p.1091) is “the match between consumers’ self-concept and the user image of a given product, store, sponsorship event, etc.” The concept of self-congruity is alternatively called self-congruence, self-image congruence, and image congruence
(Hosany & Martin, 2012).
Self-congruity has proved to be an antecedent of consumer attitude toward products and brands, and a predictor of shopping behavior (Lee & Hyman, 2008). Self- congruity research has been conducted regarding brand satisfaction, preference, purchase intention, and choice (Birdwell, 1968; Dolich, 1969, Erickson, 1996; Grubb &
Grathwhohl, 1967; Graeff, 1996; Levy, 1959; Malhotra, 1981; Ross, 1971; Sirgy, 1982).
A discussion of congruity between self-concept and product image was originated by
Gardner and Levy (1955) and Levy (1959) (Landon, 1974; Sirgy 1982). According to
Levy (1959), using products has symbolic meaning as well as a functional utility for the consumer. For instance, Birdwell (1968) showed that branded cars have a linkage between consumers’ perception of the cars and consumer themselves. Additionally, the 13 relationship between product/brand preference impacts consumer behavior (Dolich,
1969). Specifically, Malhotra (1988) found house preference is related to actual- and ideal-congruity. Ericksen (1996) revealed that positive self-congruity regarding a branded car results in higher purchase intention. These ideas support the notion that consumers intend to create meaningful and personal bonds with a brand by matching the images of the brand with their self-images.
According to functional attitude theory, one of the important motives for consumers in their purchase behavior is to solidify and express the values that are important to them (Sirgy & Samli, 1985; Sirgy et al., 1991, 2000). When customers identify a brand image that is congruent with their self-image, they can agree that the brand represents their identity, and thus form favorable attitudes (Sirgy, 1982). Therefore, self-image congruity influences the effectiveness of advertising (Bjerke & Polegato,
2006; Hong & Zinkhan, 1995), choices of consumers (Quester et al., 2000), brand preferences (Jamal & Goode, 2001), attitudes toward brands (Ekinci & Riley, 2003), and brand loyalty (Kressmann et al., 2006). For instance, the degree of self-congruity toward a brand or retailer can have a great impact on consumer behavior and the effectiveness of advertising (Hong & Zinkhan, 1995; Taylor et al., 2012). For example, self-congruity plays a significant role in expressing consumer’s self-images when consumers make fashion-related purchasing decisions (Liljander, Polsa, & van Riel, 2009).
According to Park and Lessig (1977), a reference group is “an actual or imaginary individual or group conceived of having significant relevance upon an individual’s evaluations, aspirations, or behavior” (Choi & Rifon, 2012, p. 641). Due to 14 celebrities’ symbolic aspiration, they are typically considered as a reference group
(Assael, 1984; Park & Lessig, 1977). Although consumers do not have direct interactions with celebrities in advertising, most consumers make purchases based on celebrity endorsements to pursue symbolic selves of them based on their aspirational reference group (Thomson, 2006).
The Importance of the Ideal Self-Congruity
Some scholars claim that the primary cause of consumer decision-making is the ideal-self (Sirgy, 1982; Dolich, 1969). This is because a primary motivation for consumer behavior is the construction of a consumer’s actual-self that fits with their ideal-self
(Higgins, 1987). Specifically, self-congruity theory can be explained based on self- consistency and self-esteem (Sirgy et al., 1997; Kressmann et al., 2006). Self-esteem refers to an individual’s tendency to strengthen self-concept based on seeking out experiences, while self-consistency refers to an individual’s persistent tendency to behave based on their self-perceptions (Sirgy, 1982). Self-esteem or self-enhancement and self- consistency or self-knowledge are the influential motives of self-concept (Escalas &
Bettman, 2003; Sirgy, 1982, 1985). Self-esteem is linked to consumers’ behavior of building up their ideal self-image (Grubb & Grathwohl, 1967; Sirgy, 1986; Johar &
Sirgy, 1991; Sirgy et al., 1992), and consumers tend to sustain their behavioral consistency as self-consistency, based on their actual and social self-image (Kang et al.,
2012). Therefore, consumers can reduce a discrepancy between the actual and ideal self and boost their self-esteem or self-consistency via self-congruity (Rosengberg, 1979; 15 Sirgy et al., 2005). Individuals aim to achieve a higher standard by associating themselves with others who embody their desired images rather than with those who project the images they currently have. Therefore, the perception of consumer’s ideal self-image of a product or brand is more favorable than the actual-self (Ekinci & Riley,
2003; Hong & Zinkhan, 1995; Hosany & Martin, 2012; Malhotra, 1988).
Using brands or purchasing celebrity endorsers’ products helps consumers form their ideal self-concept (McCracken, 1989). Celebrities in advertising encourage consumers to motivate their ideal-self toward desirable celebrity images based on self- esteem (Escalas & Bettman, 2003). Specifically, self-concept is related to celebrity endorsements and a factor of successful celebrity endorsements is the congruity between a celebrity’s image in advertising and a consumer’s ideal-self. According to Choi and
Rifon (2012), ideal self-congruity, the congruence of self-image and images in celebrity endorsements, has a valid influence on consumer behavior. Specifically, when consumers perceive higher ideal self-congruity, their response is more positive toward the advertising and they have higher purchase intention.
16 THEORY OF REGULATORY FOCUS
Regulatory focus theory states the people can have one of two accessible goal- orientations: prevention-focus or promotion-focus. Individual’s goal orientation has a linkage to one’s psychology and includes various components that can have a significant impact on consumer behavior (Higgins, 1997, 1998, 2002). Regulatory focus suggests that individuals are motivated by pursuing pleasure and avoiding pain (Lee & Aaker,
2004; Higgins, 1997). A promotion focus relates to achieving positive outcomes such as advancement, achievement, and aspiration; a prevention focus relates to protection and safety as a means of avoiding negative outcomes such as failure, threats, and obligations
(Lee & Aaker, 2004; Higgins 2002; Higgins 1997; 1998). When an individual is driven by a promotion focus, the individual will control their behavior to approach positive outcomes. Alternatively, when an individual is driven by a prevention focus, the individual will manage their behavior to avoid negative outcomes (Lee & Aaker, 2004;
Liberman et al., 2001). In sum, regulatory goals address the following strategic means:
For goal attainment, promotion focus operates with an approach strategy; by contrast, prevention focus applies an avoidance strategy (Higgins, 2002).
Regulatory focus and corresponding message frame has been shown to be an effective way to persuade consumers (Higgins et al.1994). Particularly, message frames and momentary situations cause regulatory goals, and the regulatory goals strengthen based on loss with prevention focus, and gain with promotion focus (Crowe & Higgins
1997; Idson, Liberman & Higgins 2000; Kim, 2006). For example, message frames can highlight promotion-focused priming, which contains the benefits of using the advertised 17 product toward approaching strategies or emphasize prevention focus priming, which includes the costs of not using the advertised product toward avoidance strategies (Levin et al., 2002). Message frames prompt consumers to perceive products as a gain, which includes positive benefits, or a loss, which consists of negative attributes (Salovey,
Schneider, & Apanovitch, 2002). According to Zhang and Buda (1999), a positive- framed message is noted as “a brand’s advantages or the potential gains for consumers resulting from the purchase or use of the brand” (Zhang & Buda, 1999, p. 1). A negative- framed message refers to “the potential losses to consumers if the brand is not chosen or a wrong decision is made in choosing a brand” (Zhang & Buda, 1999, p. 2). According to
Salovey, Schneider, and Apanovitch (2002), “gain-framed messages usually present the benefits that are accrued through adopting a certain behavior” and “loss-framed messages convey the costs of not adopting the requested behavior” (Salovy, Schneider, &
Apanovith, 2002, p. 392). According to O’Keefe and Jensen, “a gain-framed message is one that emphasizes the desirable consequences of compliance (including the attainment of desirable states and the avoidance of undesirable states); a loss-framed message is one that emphasizes the undesirable consequences of noncompliance (including the attainment of undesirable states and the avoidance of desirable states)” (O’Keefe &
Jensen, 2008, p. 55). Based on these definitions, a gain-framed appeal involves these following statements that ‘‘If you perform the advocated action, desirable outcome X will be obtained’’ or ‘‘If you perform the advocated action, undesirable outcome Y will be avoided” (O’Keefe & Jensen, 2008, p. 53). A loss-framed appeal delivers these statements that ‘‘If you do not perform the advocated action, desirable outcome X will be 18 avoided’’ or ‘‘If you do not perform the advocated action, undesirable outcome Y will be obtained” (O’Keefe & Jensen, 2008, p. 53). Gain frames are generally considered a promotion prime, whereas loss frames are generally considered a prevention prime
(Higgins 1997).
Participants better remember an ad with promotion-focus (i.e., a gain frame) when they have a promotion chronic regulatory focus, and prevention-focus priming (i.e., loss frame) promotes better recollection when participants have a prevention chronic regulatory focus.
Regulatory Fit & Message Frame
Avent and Higgins (2006) introduce the notion of regulatory fit, which refers to when an element of a message or advertisement is consistent with an individual’s accessible regulatory focus. When an individual’s behavior is influenced by regulatory fit, the individual “feels right” and then the individual engages more (Higgins, 2005,
2000). Regulatory fit has been examined in gauging advertising effectiveness (e.g.,
Karekias & Buch, 2012; Shao, Grace, & Ross, 2014; Aaker & Lee, 2006), and strengthens the relation between advertising and brand (Kees et al., 2010; Kim, 2006).
Specifically, advertising is more persuasive and memorable when it exhibits information with individuals’ congruent regulatory focus (Aaker & Lee, 2001). In addition, prior work has demonstrated regulatory fit results in more favorable attitudes toward the ad, more favorable attitudes toward the brand, and higher behavioral intention. Therefore, regulatory fit has a positive impact on brand attitude and the efficacy of advertising 19 (Choi, 2014; Kim & Sung, 2013; Sung & Choi, 2011; Labroo & Lee, 2006, Kim, 2006,
Keller, 2006; Lee & Aaker, 2004; Cesario et al., 2004; Higgins et al., 2003).
Regulatory fit suggests messages are most persuasive when they elicit feelings and thoughts that are consistent with an individual’s chronic or accessible regulatory focus (Petty et al., 2000; Cesario et al., 2004). Much of the work in regulatory fit has examined message frames because they can prompt an accessible promotion or prevention regulatory focus (Crowe & Higgins 1997; Idson, Liberman, et al., 2000;
Roney, Higgins, and Shah 1995).
Scholars have studied the persuasiveness of messages in health-related behaviors regarding decision-making based on positive and negative framed massages (Kim, 2006).
Specifically, the effectiveness of gain-and loss framed appeals has been suggested for influencing individual behavior regarding a healthy lifestyle (Latimer, Salovey and
Rothman, 2007). For example, gain-framed messages underlined the benefits of doing recommended behaviors: “If you follow the recommendation, you will experience advantages” (Seo, Dillard, & Shen, 2013, p.565). On the contrary, loss-framed messages appeal to the disadvantages of failing to follow the recommendation: “If you do not performing the recommendation, you will not achieve the advantages” (Seo et al., 2013, p. 565).
According to Maheswaran and Meyers-Levy (1990) and O’Keefe and Jensen
(2008), positive frames are more persuasive that negative frames in the health communication context. On the contrary, Levin, Schneider and Gaeth (1998) show that positive frames focusing on positive consequences to achieve a certain goal are less 20 persuasive than negative frames that stress the negative consequences to attain a certain goal regarding health-related issues. Meyerowitz and Chaiken (1987) show that loss- framed messages are more persuasive than gain-framed messages for females regarding breast self-examination (BSE). Similarly, Umphrey (2003) found loss-framed messages are more persuasive than gain-framed messages for males regarding testicular self- examination. However, Rothman, Salovey, Antone, Keough, and Martin (1993) reveal that loss-framed messages are more persuasive for female participants and gain-framed messages are more persuasive for male participants regarding the promotion of skin cancer detection behaviors. These inconsistencies regarding studies of message frames explain that diverse moderating variables are linked to message framing’s effectiveness
(Sasaki & Hayashi, 2015). For example, respondents’ gender (Kim, 2012), education level (Smith, 1996), and individuals’ needs for cognition (Steward, Schneider, Pizarro, &
Salovey, 2003) are influential moderating factors with message frame. In addition, self- efficacy (Van’t Riet, Ruiter, Werrij, & De Vries, 2008), self-discrepancy, and individuals’ involvements (Dijkstra, Schakenraad, Menninga, Buunk, & Siero, 2009) can motivate consumer behavior as significant moderating variables.
21 CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH
HYPOTHESES
This chapter develops research questions and hypotheses that help to examine the moderating role of a message’s regulatory focus between ideal self-congruity and celebrity endorsement advertising’s effectiveness based on the theoretical framework.
Consumers can perceive and apply a celebrity’s meanings and images to build their self-concepts (Choi & Rifon, 2012). This is because celebrity endorsements influence consumers to activate their ideal-self by boosting self-esteem (Boon & Lomore,
2001; Escalas & Bettman, 2003; Sirgy, 1982, 1985). Self-esteem denotes a tendency to experience and reinforce self-concept (Sirgy, 1982). Thus, the effectiveness of celebrity endorsements strengthens when a consumer’s perception of ideal self-congruity is high through celebrity endorsements (Choi & Rifon, 2012). This means that celebrity endorsements can be effective because they influence a consumer’s attitude toward the advertisement, and that attitude relies on the consumer’s perception of the celebrity in reference to his or her ideal self-image (Choi & Rifon, 2012). Therefore, the current research proposes to investigate a relationship between ideal self-congruity of consumers and celebrity endorsers.
When advertising appeals correspond to an individual’s self-view, the messages are more persuasive (Agrawal & Maheswaran, 2005; Wang & Mowen, 1997).
Specifically, individuals consume actual products and symbolic meanings of products to
22 express their self-identities (Elliot, 1994). Regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1997) focuses on self-regulation: promotion-focused goals and prevention-focused goals are respectively positioned to be sensitive to a gain or a loss (Pham & Higgins, 2005). The prior studies support the argument that promotion-focus/gain-framed messages or prevention-focus/loss-framed messages are related to self-concepts. Individuals, whose tendency is promotion-focus-oriented, anticipate their goals as hopes and aspirations
(Higgins, 1997). According to Carver and Scheier (1990), hopes and aspirations are linked to the ideal-self (Higgins et al., 1994; Chung & Tsai, 2009).
As stated above, previous studies discuss the inconsistencies regarding a message’s regulatory focus based on various factors that can affect consumer behavior
(Kim, 2006; Latimer et al., 2007). Based on the prior studies, loss-framed messages are more persuasive than gain-framed messages in the context of health communication, especially related to disease (Levin et al., 1998). In addition, consumers tend to be persuaded with loss-framed messages (vs. gain-framed messages) (Meyerowitz &
Chaiken, 1987; Rothman et al., 1993). However, a celebrity endorsement is linked to the ideal-self (Choi & Rifon, 2012) and includes a promotion-focus goal related to purchase motivation and behavior (Carver & Scheier, 1990).
Specifically, a good fit between health-related issues and gain- or loss-framed regulatory focus message has investigated to encourage consumers to be motivated and to achieve their desires (Kareklas et al., 2012). Therefore, a gain-framed message will be more persuasive than a loss-framed message for those with a promotion focus. In sum, a
23 gain-framed message is more effective than a loss-framed message with for those with a promotion focus exposed to celebrity endorsements (Bartels, Kelly, & Rothman, 2007).
Overall, the current study examines the optimal message design of celebrity endorsements based on ideal self-congruity and regulatory focus theory in the context of health communications. Interestingly, to the author’s knowledge, there has been no work that has examined the relationship between regulatory focus theory and ideal self- congruity theory. Prior research has demonstrated various moderating variables that the factors can more effectively influence gain or loss frames. Similarly, this work examines the interplay of ideal self-congruity and regulatory focus message frames toward celebrity endorsements effectiveness in the context of health communications.
In sum, the following research questions and hypotheses guide this study.
RQ 1. Does ideal self-congruity positively affect the effectiveness of celebrity
endorsements?
H1A: A high level of ideal self-congruity with the celebrity endorser is
positively related to attitude toward the advertisement.
H1B: A high level of ideal self-congruity with the celebrity endorser is
positively related to attitude toward the brand.
H1C: A high level of ideal self-congruity with the celebrity endorser is
positively related to purchase intention.
24 RQ 2. Does message frame moderate the relationship between ideal self- congruity with the celebrity endorser and celebrity endorsements effectiveness?
H2A: A high level of ideal self-congruity with the celebrity endorser more
positively influences attitude toward the advertisement when paired with a
gain message frame (compared to a loss message frame).
H2B: A high level of ideal self-congruity with the celebrity endorser more
positively influences attitude toward the brand when paired with a gain
message frame (compared to a loss message frame).
H2C: A high level of ideal self-congruity with the celebrity endorser more
positively influences purchase intention when paired with a gain message
frame (compared to a loss message frame).
25 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
OVERVIEW AND RESEARCH DESIGN
This chapter provides an overview of the study design, stimuli, variable measurement, and experimental procedures. It also includes information on the two pretests and the main study, and a description of the experimental design research. This study’s primary purpose is to investigate an optimal advertising message strategy toward celebrity endorsements based on consumer’s ideal self-congruity. The proposed hypothesis was tested in an experimental research setting. Specifically, a 2 (ideal self- congruity: low versus high) × 2 (message frame valence: gain versus loss) between- subjects design was utilized. These variables were manipulated in an experimental setting. The study design is presented in Table 4.1.
Ideal Self-Congruity High Low Message Frame Gain Valence Loss Table 4.1 Study design
STIMULUS DEVELOPMENT
Pilot study
Prior to the main study, pretests were conducted to select a celebrity endorser, and to choose an appropriate health topic in the context of celebrity endorsed advertising.
Two pretests were conducted. 26
Pretest 1
A total of 60 consumers ages 18-35 living in the U.S. participated in the first pretest. Each respondent was randomly assigned to one of four different conditions. The goal of the pretest was to identity the best celebrity to serve as the celebrity endorser in the main study. The researcher chose four different celebrities to pretest: Rihanna,
Jennifer Lawrence, Angelina Jolie, and YuNa Kim. The celebrities were picked by criteria based on the Celebrity 100 list (an annual list compiled and published by Forbes magazine since 1999), and/or were awarded Oscars in the most recent three years. The selected celebrities’ occupations were musician, actress, and athletes. A majority of the respondents preferred Angelina Jolie to be a celebrity endorser (M = 3.83, SD = .707).
Pretest 2
The purpose of the second pretest was threefold. First, the pretest sought to identify an appropriate health context to feature in a PSA or advertisement. Second, the study sought to test the effectiveness of the message frame valence manipulation. Finally, the study sought to test the appropriateness of Jennifer Aniston as a celebrity to endorse a health product. This was determined to be an appropriate choice because she is associated with the brand Smart Water.
Provided Angelina Jolie’s association with breast cancer (Borzekowski, Smith, &
Roter, 2013) it was decided that Angelina Jolie would endorse a health message promoting routine testing for breast cancer. Additionally, since Jennifer Aniston is
27 familiar with low-carb diet and yoga workouts (Celebrity Health & Fitness, 2014) it was decided she would be an appropriate endorser for a weight control supplement.
For the second pretest, two PSAs and two print advertisements were created. Each set of stimuli contained either a gain or loss frame. The weight control supplement featured a European weight loss brand and product that has been used in prior research
(Pounders & Kowalczyk, 2014). The message frame valence manipulation was manipulated in the copy of the PSA or advertisement. Specifically, the health advertisements featuring Angelina Jolie stated: “You have a lot to gain by checking yourself for breast cancer on a regular basis. Checking your breast for lumps on a regular basis increases the chance of living a healthy life,” or “You have a lot to lose by not checking yourself for breast cancer on a regular basis. Checking your breast for lumps on a regular basis decreases the chance of finding out you have breast cancer before it’s too late.” The health-related product advertisements featuring Jennifer Aniston stated: “You have a lot to gain by using Isagenix. Using this product for weight control increases the chance of living a healthy life and maintaining the weight you want,” or “You have a lot to lose by not using Isagenix. Using this products for weight control decreases the chance of living a healthy life and maintaining the weight you want.”
A total of 67 female consumers aged 18-35 in the U.S. participated in the second pretest to choose an optimal health-related topic for celebrity endorsements and the message frame valence’s manipulation check. Each of the 67 respondents was randomly assigned to one of four different advertisements. The participants answered a series of manipulation check questions and an independent sample t-test was conducted to check 28 the manipulated capacity of stimuli of the second pretest. A set of health product advertisements’ regulatory focus messages was manipulated. However, a set of health campaign advertisements with Angelina Jolie unexpectedly failed to manipulate as gain- and loss-framed messages. Specifically, subjects assigned to the gain-framed message condition indicated the message in the advertisement was less promotion oriented (M =
4.06, SD = 2.380) for the question “The ad stressed what one has to gain by checking oneself for breast cancer,” than subjects assigned to the loss-framed message [M = 4.17,
SD = 2.684; t (32)= -.119, p = .906]. However, for the question “The ad stressed what one has to lose by not checking oneself for breast cancer,” subjects assigned to the loss- framed message condition indicated the message in advertisement was less prevention oriented (M = 4.44, SD = 2.093) than subjects assigned to the gain-framed message [M =
4.44, SD = 2.128; t (32) = -.010, p = .992]. Thus, the message frame valence manipulation with Angelina Jolie failed. As a result, the researcher determined to use only a set of health product advertisements featuring Jennifer Aniston as the celebrity endorser for the main study.
MAIN EXPERIMENT
Sample
A total of 194 female respondents ages 18-35 in the U.S. participated in the main study, which was conducted from May 8 through May 20, 2015. All of respondents were recruited from Qualtrics, an online research company in the U.S. Female consumers are particularly sensitive to the ideal-self and can have greater impact on the effectiveness of 29 celebrity endorsements (Klaus & Bailey, 2008; Boyd & Shank, 2004; Klaus & Bailey,
2008), thus, the subjects were all female (n = 194). The average age of subjects was 27.87 ranging from 18-35. Approximately 67% (n = 130) of participants were white/caucasian,
12.4% (n = 24) were African American, 9.3% (n = 18) were Asian, 8.2% (n = 16) were
Hispanic, 1% (n = 2) were Native American, and 2.1% (n = 4) were others.
Data Collection Procedure
The study was conducted in an online setting. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of the two conditions: a gain-framed message advertisement and a loss-framed message advertisement (See Appendix). Jennifer Aniston served as the celebrity endorser for both ads. Subjects were initially informed that the objective of the study was to contribute to a better understanding of celebrity endorsements.
The first step of the main study was to make subjects perceive the celebrity endorser in the experiment’s advertisement. Subjects were exposed to one of the stimuli, asked whether they recognized the celebrity endorser in the advertisement, and to write down the celebrity’s name.
Next, the subjects were asked to respond to a series of questions about the effectiveness of the celebrity endorsement, their attitude toward the advertisement, attitude toward the brand, and purchase intention. The advertisement was visible on the computer screen when the subjects answered all of the dependent variable questions.
They then responded to the manipulation check questions and provided demographic information.
30
MEASUREMENTS
Independent variables
Ideal Self-Congruity
The present study’s ideal self-congruity concept was adopted from Sirgy and Su
(2000)’s research and it developed as “the degree of match between a consumer’s ideal self-image (how consumers like to see themselves) and a celebrity endorser image.”
The current study adapted Sirgy et al.’s (1997; 2000) new method of self-congruity that is a more direct and comprehensive way to measure the score. This is because the Sirgy et al. (1997; 2000) measurement does not include any specific attributes such as predetermined-adjectives. Subjects were provided the following instructions: “Take a moment to think about the celebrity in the ad. Please describe the celebrity’s personality.
And please think about how you view yourself and indicate your agreement or disagreement with the following statements.” The items of ideal self-congruity in this study were: “This celebrity’s personality is consistent with how I would like to be,” “This celebrity’s personality reflects who I would like to be,” “This celebrity’s personality is a mirror image of the person I would like to be,” and “This celebrity’s image can be matched with who I would like to be.” The four items were on a 7-point Likert scale: 1= strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree.
31 Moderating variables
Regulatory focus message: Gain-and loss-framed message
In the present study, the regulatory focus message of the message frame valence served as the moderating variable. Since an advertisement can be delivered to the audience through two ways (a gain-or loss-framed message), the regulatory focus message was manipulated by appealing to two different goals (promotion versus prevention). “You have a lot to gain by using Isagenix” served as the manipulation for the gain frame. “You have a lot to lose by not using Isagenix” served as the manipulation for the loss-framed message (See Appendix).
The measurement of regulatory focus message was adapted from Cho and Boster
(2008). The two items were on a 7-point semantic differential scale: 1 = “Focused on the disadvantages of not using the product,” 7 = “Focused on the advantages of using the product.” In the present study, the items were developed as a 7-point Liker-type scale:
“The ad focused on the advantages of using the product” and “the ad focused on the disadvantages of not using the product.”
Dependent variables
The effectiveness of the celebrity endorsement was measured by three dimensions: attitude toward the Ad (Aad), Attitude toward the Brand (Ab), and Purchase
Intention (PI).
32 Attitude toward the Ad
Attitude toward an advertisement is a “predisposition to a favorable or unfavorable manner to a particular advertising stimulus during a particular exposure situation” (MacKenzie and Lutz, 1989). The measurement of attitude toward an advertisement was adapted and developed from MacKenzie and Lutz (1989), and was measured on a 7-point semantic differential scale: 1 = Bad, Unfavorable, Dislike, Boring,
Unpleasant, Unappealing, Unattractive; 7 = Good Favorable, Like, Interesting, Pleasant,
Appealing, Attractive.
Attitude toward the Brand
Attitude toward the brand is “an individual’s internal evaluation of the brand”
(Mitchell and Olson, 1981, p. 318). The measurement of attitude toward the brand was adapted and developed from Lee and Aaker (2004) and Spears and Singh (2004). It was measured by 7 items on a 7-point semantic differential scale: 1 = Bad, Unfavorable,
Dislike, Boring, Unpleasant, Unappealing, Unattractive; 7 = Good Favorable, Like,
Interesting, Pleasant, Appealing, Attractive.
Purchase Intention
Purchase intention is “an individual’s conscious plan to make an effort to purchase a brand” (Spears and Singh, 2004, p. 56). In this study, 5 items were adapted from Spears and Singh (2004) and the items were developed as 10 items on a 7-point
Likert scale: 1= strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree; “ Never purchase (r),”
“Definitely Purchase,” Definitely do not intend to buy (r),” “Definitely intend to buy,”
33 Very low purchase interest (r),” “Very high purchase interest,” “Definitely not buy it (r),”
“Definitely buy it,” “Probably not buy it (r),” and “Probably buy it.”
Additional Measure
At the end, the study collected demographic information such as age, race and education level.
34
CHAPTER 5: DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
This chapter provides the results of experimental design research that explores the relationship among ideal self-congruity (low versus high), celebrity endorser’s image and message valence (gain versus loss) toward celebrity endorsement effectiveness (e.g. attitude toward the advertisement, attitude toward the brand, and purchase intention).
RELIABILITY TEST
To assess reliability, a Cronbach’s �, test was conducted to examine the internal consistency of the current study’s scales (Cronbach, 1951). Table 5.1 shows Cronbach’s
� of this study’s dependent variables: attitude towards the ad, attitude towards the brand, and purchase intention; and independent variables: ideal self-congruity, which meet the standards of acceptable reliability (Cuieford, 1965).
.
Variables Constructs # of Items Cronbach’s � Attitude towards the ad 7 .964 Dependent Attitude toward the brand 7 .978 Variables Purchase Intention 10 .975
Independent Ideal Self-Congruity 4 .959 Variables Table 5.1: Reliability Analysis of Measurement Items
35 MANIPULATION CHECK
First, it is important to execute a manipulation check to determine if respondents could identify the celebrity endorser featured in the advertisement. Participants were asked if they recognized the endorser in the advertisement and if they were able to provide the celebrity endorser’s name. A total of 29 participants who could not identify the celebrity endorser or provide the celebrity’s name were removed. Therefore, the final sample size used for the analysis for the main study was 165.
Second, an independent sample t-test was conducted to check the message frame valence manipulation. Subjects were asked to answer a series of manipulation check questions to the extent to which the message embodied in the advertisement related gain or loss on 7-point Likert-type scales (1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree). As expected, subjects assigned to the gain-framed message condition indicated the message in the advertisement was relatively more promotion oriented (M = 5.18, SD = 1.664) for the question, “The ad focused on the advantages of using the product,” than subjects assigned to the loss-framed message [M = 3.73, SD = 1.964; t (159.316)= 5.112, p =
.000]. On the other hand, for the question “The ad focused on the disadvantages of not using the product,” subjects assigned to the loss-framed message condition indicated the message in the advertisement was more prevention oriented (M = 2.45, SD = 1.533) than subjects assigned to the gain-framed message [M = 4.93, SD = 2.035; t (152.357) = -
8.837, p = .000]. Thus, the message frame valence manipulation was successful.
36 HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Ideal Self-Congruity
Prior to examining the hypotheses, ideal self-congruity was categorized into two groups by using a median split (Sirgy et al., 2008). Participants were classified into two groups based on their degree of ideal self-congruity and according to median score (high ideal self-congruity group > 4.5; low ideal self-congruity group: ideal self-congruity score < 4.5) and participants who scored in the median (n = 8, M = 4.5) were eliminated.
An independent t-test was conducted, and the results showed significant differences between high (n = 82, M = 5.835, SD = .695) and low (n = 75, M = 2.827, SD = 1.201) ideal self-congruity groups [t (116.327) = 18.980, p = .000] on the ideal self-congruity measures.
Ideal Self-Congruity and Effectiveness of Celebrity Endorsements
To examine hypotheses 1A, 1B, and 1C, three sets of independent t-tests were conducted for the three dependent variables (i.e., attitude toward the advertisement, attitude toward the brand, and purchase intention). Results are discussed below.
Attitude toward the Advertisement
The relationship between ideal self-congruity on attitude toward the advertisement was examined by an independent t-test. There was a significant difference in the high (M = 5.110, SD = 1.564) and low (M = 3.724, SD = 1.480) ideal self- congruity groups [t (155) = 5.690, p = .000]; the effect size was large (calculated using eta squared = .17). These results indicated that different levels of ideal self-congruity 37 significantly influenced attitude toward the advertisement. Specifically, participants who had a high level of ideal self-congruity with the celebrity endorser had a more favorable attitude toward the advertisement than those with a low level of ideal self-congruity.
Thus, H1A is supported (See Table 5.2).
Attitude toward the Brand
The relationship between ideal self-congruity on attitude toward the brand was examined by an independent t-test. There was a significant difference in high (M = 4.953,
SD = 1.678) and low (M = 3.659, SD = 1.385) ideal self-congruity groups [t (153.431) =
5.285, p = .000]; the effect size was large (calculated using eta squared = .15). These results revealed that ideal self-congruity influenced attitude toward the brand.
Specifically, participants who had a high level of ideal self-congruity with the celebrity endorser had a significantly more favorable attitude toward the brand than those with a low level of ideal self-congruity. Thus, H1B is supported. (See Table 5.2).
Purchase Intention
The relationship between ideal self-congruity on attitude toward the brand was examined by an independent t-test. There was a significant difference in high (M = 3.915,
SD = 1.833) and low (M = 2.384, SD = 1.284) ideal self-congruity groups [t (145.410) =
6.102, p = .000]; the effect size was large (calculated using eta squared = .19).The result demonstrated ideal self-congruity influenced purchase intention. Specifically, participants who had a high level of ideal self-congruity with the celebrity endorser had a significantly greater purchase intention than those with a low level of ideal self- congruity. Thus, H1C is supported (See Table 5.2). 38
Independent
Dependent Variables Variables Ideal- Self N Mean SD t df p Congruity High 82 5.110 1.564 Attitude 5.690 155 .000* toward the Ad Low 75 3.724 1.480
High Attitude 82 4.953 1.678 toward 5.285 153.431 .000* Low the Brand 75 3.659 1.385
High 82 3.915 1.833 Purchase 6.102 145.410 .000* Intention Low 75 2.384 1.284
Note. * = p < .05
Table 5.2: T-test Results, Cell Means and Sample Sizes for H1A-C
Ideal Self-Congruity, Message Framing, and Effectiveness of Celebrity
Endorsements
To assess H2A-C, a 2 (ideal self-congruity: low versus high) × 2 (message frame valence: gain versus loss) Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test was conducted for each of the three dependent variables (i.e., attitude toward the advertisement, attitude toward the brand, and purchase intention). Specifically, as stated, ideal self-congruity was categorized into two groups by using a median split, thus, subjects were divided into two groups according to the median (Group 1: high ideal self-congruity; Group 2: low ideal self-congruity). Results are discussed below. 39 Attitude toward the Advertisement
A two-way ANOVA was conducted to explore the impact of ideal self-congruity and message framing on attitude toward the advertisement. There was a statistically significant main effect for ideal self-congruity [F (1, 153) = 30.571, p = .000]; the effect size was large (partial eta squared = .167). However, the main effect for message frame valence [F (1, 153) = 2.547, p = .113] and the interaction effect [F (1, 153) = .400, p =
.528] did not reach statistical significance. Therefore, H2A is not supported (See Table
5.3 and Table 5.4; Figure 5.1).
Attitude toward the Brand
A two-way ANOVA was conducted to explore the impact of ideal self-congruity and message framing on attitude toward the brand. There was a statistically significant main effect for ideal self-congruity [F (1, 153) = 26.380, p = .000]; the effect size was large (partial eta squared= .147). However, the main effect for message frame valence [F
(1, 153) = .303, p = .583] and the interaction effect [F (1, 153) = .017, p = .895] did not reach statistical significance. Therefore, H2B is not supported (See Table 5.3 and Table
5.4; Figure 5.2).
Purchase Intention
A two-way ANOVA was conducted to explore the impact of ideal self-congruity and message framing on purchase intention. There was a statistically significant main effect for ideal self-congruity [F (1, 153) = 36.080, p = .000]; the effect size was large
(partial eta squared = .191). However, the main effect for message frame valence [F (1,
153) = .304, p = .582] and the interaction effect [F (1, 153) = .208, p = .649] did not reach 40 statistical significance. Therefore, H2C is not supported (See Table 5.3 and Table 5.4;
Figure 5.3).
Dependent Variables Factor F-value p-value
Ideal Self-Congruity 30.571 .000* Message Framing 2.547 .113 Attitude toward the Advertisement Ideal Self-Congruity × Message Framing .400 .528 Ideal Self-Congruity 26.380 .000* Message Framing .303 .583 Attitude toward the Brand Ideal Self-Congruity × Message Framing .017 .895 Ideal Self-Congruity 36.080 .000* Message Framing .304 .582 Purchase Intention Ideal Self-Congruity × Message Framing .208 .649 Note. * = p < .05
Table 5.3: Univariate Analysis of Variance Results for H2A-C
41 Independent Variables Dependent Variables Ideal-Self Message Mean SE N Congruity Framing High Gain 5.216 1.267 45 Attitude toward the Loss 4.981 1.873 37 Advertisement Low Gain 4.021 1.561 34 Loss 3.477 1.381 41 High Gain 5.000 1.375 45 Loss 4.896 2.005 37 Attitude toward the Brand Low Gain 3.752 1.375 34 Loss 3.582 1.406 41 High Gain 3.798 1.597 45 Loss 4.057 2.098 37 Purchase Intention Low Gain 2.371 1.277 34 Loss 2.395 1.305 41 Table 5.4: Cell Means and Sample Sizes for H2A-C
42
Figure 5.1 Mean Attitude toward the Advertisement for H2A
43
Figure 5.2 Mean Attitude toward the Brand for H2B
44
Figure 5.3 Mean Purchase Intention for H2C
45
CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
This chapter discusses the theoretical and managerial contributions. Due to the present study’s insignificance of moderating variables’ role, this chapter points out limitations as suggestions for future studies.
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to investigate how perceptions of ideal self- congruity (low versus high) and message frame valence (gain versus loss) with a featured celebrity endorser impact key advertising outcomes. Specifically, based on a theoretical framework from self-congruity theory and regulatory focus theory, the current study aimed to verify: 1) whether consumers’ ideal self-congruity with a celebrity endorser will positively affect consumers’ attitude toward the advertisement, attitude toward the brand, and purchase intention, 2) whether regulatory focus message frame/message frame valence impacts the relationship between a consumer’s ideal self-congruity with the celebrity endorser’s image on effectiveness of the endorsement (attitude toward the advertisement, attitude toward the brand, and purchase intention).
The study reveals support for H1A-C. As hypothesized, ideal self-congruity results in enhanced celebrity endorsement effectiveness. The current study examined the impact of ideal self-congruity on attitude toward the advertisement, attitude toward the brand, and purchase intention. Specifically, this study verified that consumers with a high level of ideal self-congruity with a celebrity endorser displayed more higher purchase 46 intentions, compared to consumers with low ideal self-congruity. Particularly, purchase intention was the greatest effected dependent variable by different levels of ideal self- congruity among other variables of celebrity endorsement effectiveness (e.g. attitude toward the advertisement, attitude toward the brand). As a result, matching between a consumer’s self-image and a celebrity endorser in an advertisement is a significant factor that influences the decision-making toward a celebrity endorsement.
H2A-C examined whether message frame valence moderates the relationship between ideal-self congruity on attitude toward the advertisement, attitude toward the brand, and purchase intention. Surprisingly, findings revealed that message frame valence did not moderate the relationship between ideal-self congruity and these three advertising effectiveness outcomes. The mean values showed a similar pattern that the researcher expected, regarding attitude toward the advertisement and attitude toward the brand, but not for purchase intention. Specifically, the gain-framed message group had a more positive attitude toward the advertisement and brand than the loss-framed message group, whereas the gain-framed message groups showed relatively more negative purchase intention than the loss-framed message groups.
Several potential explanations can be offered to explain the lack of support for
H2A-C. First, the type of product in the stimuli advertisement was a health supplement, which can be categorized as a utilitarian product. According to Micu and Chowdhury
(2010), a prevention-focused message positively impacts advertising effectiveness for utilitarian products, whereas a promotion-focused message in an advertisement is more effective to persuade consumers for hedonic products. Thus, a health supplement can be 47 more linked to loss framed-message than gain framed message and could defer the match effect between ideal self-congruity and regulatory focus. In addition, the effectiveness of health-related issues in advertising messages, such as the one used in the stimuli, can be influenced by the level of issue involvement. Specifically, the topic of message in the stimuli advertisement was using a health supplement to control an individual’s weigh, which can be classified as a high involvement message. According to Maheswaran and
Meyers-Levy (1990), a gain-framed message helps to persuade consumers for low- involvement issues. On the contrary, a loss-framed message is more effective for high- involvement issues. Moreover, according to Carver and Scheier (1990), ideal self-concept contains a promotion-focus goal that linked to positive consumer behavior. According to
Bartels et al. (2007), a gain-framed message has greater influence on advertising effectiveness based on consumer’s the way of achieving goals. Thus, an ideal self- concept can be more related to gain framed-message than loss framed message. This means the pairing of a loss-framed message with utilitarian products, and the pairing of a gain-framed message with hedonic products and ideal-self concept might increase the possibility of statistical significance. Therefore, when the design for stimuli in an experiment results in a match among message frame valence (e.g. gain, loss), product types (hedonic, utilitarian), issue involvement (low, high) and self-concept (e.g. ideal self-congruity), this should also be considered as factors that can impact advertising effectiveness based on the interaction between independent variables and moderate variables.
48 THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTION
Self-congruity theory has been studied in different contexts regarding consumer behavior. The current study broadens the application of self-congruity theory to the consumer-celebrity endorser relationship. Especially, this study focuses on the relationship among an individual’s ideal self-congruity (low and high), regulatory focus message frames (gain and loss) and the effectiveness of celebrity endorsements (attitude toward the advertisement, attitude toward the brand, and purchase intention).
The findings of the present study contribute to the existing literature of celebrity endorsement. Prior studies regarding the effectiveness of celebrity endorsements have been focused on the characteristics of endorsers such as source credibility and expertise or match-up hypothesis, such as the relationship between product-endorser. The results of the current study revealed that higher self-congruity leads to a more favorable attitude toward the advertisement, attitude toward the brand, and greater purchase intention.
Next, the findings of the current study showed that distinctive ideal self-congruity degrees have different effect sizes of influence on attitude toward the advertisement, attitude toward the brand, and purchase intention. Particularly, the largest effect size by different levels of ideal self-congruity was consumer purchase intention. The second largest effect size by the congruity was consumer attitude toward advertisement, and the third largest effect size by independent variables was attitude of consumers toward the brand. These findings help to compare the effectiveness of celebrity endorsements among their domains based on ideal self-congruity regarding consumer behavior.
49 Notably, the present study adapted self-congruity measurements from the research of Sirgy et al. (1997). The measurement, which is called the new measurement, overcame the traditional method of self-congruity that used predetermined attributes by a set of adjectives. Specifically, Choi and Rifon (2012) examined celebrity endorsement effectiveness based on self-congruity, between consumer ideal-self and celebrity endorser image, however, that study used the traditional method not incorporating any reference to the psychological congruity experience (Sirgy et al., 1997, p. 231). Therefore, this study developed literature of consumer behavior toward celebrity endorsement and the relationship between consumer-celebrity endorser based on ideal self-congruity via the new measurement.
Although the current study failed to support the relationship between self- congruity and regulatory focus theory, the study helped to re-examine the interaction of theories for further studies. The study tried to confirm consumer behavior regarding self- congruity theory by using a health product based on regulatory focus message characteristics. This is because the attribute that was demonstrated in most studies regarding message framing dealt with a health context such as a public health campaign.
Thus, guidance for future studies regarding this issue can serve as a stepping-stone to examining the linkage of ideal self-image and regulatory focus theory.
MARNAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS
This study provides several important implications for practitioners in the advertising and marketing industries to understand consumer behavior toward a celebrity 50 endorsement. The findings of the current study suggest the level of perceived ideal self- congruity is the key factor to generate consumers’ advertising attitude, brand attitude, and purchase intention.
Even as marketers have focused less on a fit between a celebrity endorser and a consumer’s image, the results suggest that marketers need to apply the criteria when they choose celebrity endorsers, especially for female consumers. This is because prior studies have concentrated on the endorser’s characteristics regarding source credibility, or a match between the product and the endorser based on match-up hypothesis. However, the congruity or incongruity of the consumer’s perceived image with a celebrity endorser is a significant element that can affect attitude toward the advertising, attitude toward the brand, and purchase intention. According to the findings of the present study, purchase intention was the most influenced domain by different levels of ideal self-congruity when it compared to attitude toward the advertisement and attitude toward the brand. For this reason, when a marketer expects more positive advertisement effectiveness as well as greater purchase intention regarding their products, they should emphasize the congruence that occurs when there is a match between images of their target consumers and a celebrity endorser.
The findings of the current study also provide a recommendation for advertisers and marketers when they execute a celebrity endorsed advertising campaign. According to Sirgy (1982), the product or brand images are not simply determined by its physical attributions. This means other factors except substantial attributions have an impact on their campaign. For example, consumer perceived ideal self-congruity based on the 51 advertising campaigns’ copy, message, or visuals can also influence consumer behavior toward a celebrity endorsement. Therefore, advertisers can deliver messages or visuals that fit and convey the target consumers’ ideal self-congruity with a celebrity endorser.
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH
There are several limitations in the present study. First, it is difficult to make a generalization to all consumers in the U.S. by the results of this study. This is because the researcher chose to use a convenience sampling and the researcher recruited only female participants in the current study. Thus, considering the potential impact of gender differences is recommended for further study. Additionally, regarding the sampling issue, we propose a following study to examine the potential effect of age difference toward consumer behavior regarding a celebrity endorsement. Since the present study examined only 18-35 age females in the U.S., using other age groups of consumers such as teens, or seniors for the respondents regarding this topic may help to further understand celebrity endorsement effectiveness.
Next, new studies should explore the effectiveness of celebrity endorsements based on different types of consumer self-congruity. According to the literature, there are various kinds of self-concepts besides ideal self-concept that was concentrated on in this study. To examine the potential impact on attitude toward the advertisement, attitude toward the brand, and purchase intention, a follow-up study could expand self-congruity
52 theory with the relationship between consumer self-concepts and celebrity endorser image.
Moreover, researchers for future study can propose a larger diversity of celebrity endorsers regarding self-congruity theory. The present study focused on a female celebrity endorser, which is one person of the same gender. Some advertisers have employed dual or multiple celebrity endorsers to avoid disadvantages with using a single celebrity. This provides a beneficial application to test the consumer decision-making process regarding choosing celebrity endorsers.
Furthermore, additional research is needed in re-verifying the relationship between self-congruity and regulatory focus theory regarding celebrity endorsements based on message strategies. The message strategies include not only verbal message framings (gain- and loss-framed messages) but also visual aspects to persuade consumer behavior. According to Rossiter and Percy (1980), using visual content has an impact on favorable attitudes and purchase intentions via advertisements as much as verbal messages. Advertising with a celebrity endorser consists of visual factors that can be recognized by consumers as attributes of advertising persuasiveness. Therefore, the current research will help to develop the theory of self-congruity, and to examine an ideal strategy based on celebrity endorsement effectiveness regarding a linkage of the self- congruity and regulatory focus theory.
53 APPENDIX: Stimuli for Experiment
(1) Gain-framed Message ad
(2) Loss-framed Message ad
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