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3 , and Jorge F. S. Ferreira American Journal of Botany 101(5): 875–885. 2014. F LOWER MORPHOLOGY AND FLORAL SEQUENCE IN 1 A RTEMISIA ANNUA (ASTERACEAE) H AZEL Y. W ETZSTEIN 2,5 , J USTIN A . P ORTER 2 , J ULES J ANICK 3 , AND J ORGE F . S . F ERREIRA 4 2 University of Georgia, Department of Horticulture, 1111 Miller Plant Science Building, Athens, Georgia 30602-7273 USA; 3 Purdue University, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, 1165 Horticulture Building, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-1165 USA; and 4 US Salinity Laboratory (USDA-ARS), 450 W. Big Springs Rd., Riverside, California 92507-4617 USA • Premise of the study: Artemisia annua produces phytochemicals possessing antimalarial, antitumor, anti-infl ammatory, and anthelmintic activities. The main active ingredient, artemisinin, is extremely effective against malaria. Breeding to develop cultivars producing high levels of artemisinin can help meet worldwide demand for artemisinin and its derivatives. However, fundamental reproductive processes, such as the sequence of fl owering and fertility, are not well understood and impair breeding and seed propagation programs. • Methods: Capitulum structure and fl oral sequence were studied using light and scanning electron microscopy to describe infl o- rescence architecture, fl oret opening, and seed set. • Key results: Florets are minute and born in capitula containing pistillate ray fl orets and hermaphroditic disk fl orets. Ray fl orets have elongated stigmatic arms that extend prior to disk fl oret opening. Disk fl orets exhibit protandry. During the staminate phase, pollen is released within a staminate tube and actively presented with projections at the tip of stigmas as the pistil elon- gates. During the pistillate phase, stigmatic arms bifurcate and refl ex. Stigmas are of the dry type and stain positively for polysaccharides, lipids, and an intact cuticle. Floret numbers vary with genotype, and capitula are predominantly composed of disk fl orets. Both ray and disk fl orets produce fi lled seed. • Conclusions: Gynomonoecy, early opening of ray fl orets, and dichogamy of disk fl orets promote outcrossing in A. annua . For breeding and seed development, fl owering in genotypes can be synchronized under short days according to the fl oral develop- mental stages defi ned. Floret number and percentage seed fi ll vary with genotype and may be a benefi cial selection criterion. Key words: artemisinin; Artemisia annua ; Asteraceae; fl oral sequence; huang hua hao; pollen presentation; qinghao; Sweet Annie; wormwood. Artemisia annua , (sweet Annie, annual wormwood, qinghao, produce high levels of pharmacologically active compounds huang hua hao), has been known for centuries as a medicinal plant. has been an approach with recent efforts including the use of Native to China, the plant has become naturalized in regions in- molecular techniques for development of a genetic map for cluding the United States, Europe, and South America. It has be- A. annua ( Graham et al., 2010 ). come a critical medicinal plant in recent times because it produces The development of methods to produce large quantities artemisinin, a potent compound against multidrug-resistant ma- of seed with high viability and vigor is critical for providing a laria. Recent studies show that A. annua produces bioactive reliable source of plant material. However, in order for success- metabolites possessing a number of pharmacological properties ful hybridization to occur, fl owering must be synchronized so including potent anticancer activity ( Crespo-Ortiz and Wei, 2012 ). that pollen release and stigma receptivity of parental lines coin- As a widely used antimalarial compound, an important feature is cide. As new improved cultivars become available, information that artemisinin has shown no signifi cant side effects. Furthermore, on reproductive biology and seed production becomes vital. Artemisia compounds exhibit anti-infl ammatory, antibacterial, an- Thus, understanding the reproductive biology of A. annua is an tiviral, and antiparasitic activities ( Bhakuni et al., 2001 ). important issue. Plant material is currently the economical source of artemisinin, Some limited aspects of the fl oral morphology of A. annua with demand supplied through crop production. Artemisinin is have been described by Bailey (1951) , Ohwi (1965) , and Ferreira commercially extracted from the leaves of cultivated and wild- and Janick (1995) . The general botany, horticulture, and phar- grown plants, which produce and sequester artemisinin in glandu- macology were reviewed by Ferreira et al. (1997) . However, lar trichomes. Due to the low and variable content of artemisinin despite the importance of A. annua as a medicinal crop, funda- in A. annua , the demand for artemisinin cannot be met from mental features of reproductive biology including details of current plant yields ( Alejos-Gonzalez et al., 2011 ). Demand for fl ower morphology, the sequence of fl ower opening, pollination a stable supply has resulted in complementary approaches, biology, and seed development are poorly understood. An un- which include crop improvement and microbially based semi- derstanding of fl oral biology would provide valuable informa- synthesis to increase global artemisinin production ( Immethun tion for breeding and seed production programs. Thus, several et al., 2013 ; Larson et al., 2013 ). Breeding to develop plants that key areas of investigation evaluating the reproductive biology of A. annua are proposed. The objectives of the present investi- 1 Manuscript received 13 September 2013; revision accepted 17 April gation were to study the morphology and histology of fl owering 2014. in A. annua to (1) defi ne infl orescence architecture and the fl o- 5 Author for correspondence (e-mail: [email protected]) ral sequence of ray and disk fl oret types, (2) evaluate stigma receptivity and pollen–stigma interactions, (3) assess fl ower doi:10.3732/ajb.1300329 fertility and seed set, and (4) characterize fl oral developmental American Journal of Botany 101(5): 875–885, 2014 ; http://www.amjbot.org/ © 2014 Botanical Society of America 875 876 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY [Vol. 101 stages needed to promote successful cross pollination. Our ap- were stained in 1% aqueous acid fuchsin (w/v), followed by 0.5% aqueous proach was to induce plants to fl ower under short-day treatments toluidine blue ( Feder and O’Brien, 1968 ). Carbohydrates were visualized with and to evaluate fl oral development over time using light and periodic acid–Schiff’s (PAS) reagent ( Pearce, 1972 ). For lipid detection, fl orets were stained in 0.3% Sudan black B (w/v) in 70% ethanol, and destained in scanning electron microscopy. Further, plants grown in fi eld 70% ethanol. Cuticle was visualized by staining in 0.01% auramine O in 0.05 mol/L plots were evaluated for fl oret numbers, fertility, and timing of phosphate buffer, pH 7.2 ( Heslop-Harrison, 1977 ) and viewed under blue fl uo- fl oral developmental stages. rescence (excitation BP460-490, barrier BA520) using an X-Cite 120 Fluores- cence Illumination System (Excelitas Technologies, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada). Tissues were examined using a light microscope (BX51; Olympus MATERIALS AND METHODS America, Center Valley, Pennsylvania, USA) and photographed digitally. Plant material — Artemisia annua L. is an annual herb that fl owers under short days. Stock plants were obtained from seed derived from open pollination RESULTS of lines from Brazilian (B) and Chinese (C) germplasm, and intercrosses of high-yielding lines (A), which were sown in fl ats containing Fafard 3B, a com- Floral organization — Florets are minute (<2 mm long) and mercial potting mix containing peat moss, bark, perlite, vermiculite, and dolo- mitic limestone (Sun Gro Horticulture, Agawam, Massachusetts, USA). Plants borne within small disk-shaped capitula (2–3 mm wide) which were potted and maintained in the greenhouse under natural light conditions are organized in loose spreading panicles ( Fig. 1A ). Character- in the spring and summer. Because plants can attain heights of over 2 m, geno- istic of the Asteraceae, each capitulum contains two fl oret types: types were maintained by periodically taking cuttings to control size and to in- (1) marginal ray fl orets, which are pistillate, and (2) central disk crease the number of clonal plants for studies. During fall and winter, plants fl orets, which are hermaphroditic ( Fig. 1B ). Florets are sessile were maintained under long days (16 h light/8 h dark) to prevent fl owering. and the inferior ovary is attached to a mound-shaped receptacle Flower timing, fl oret number, and seed set were evaluated using fi eld-grown material of genotypes that were propagated from cuttings. Plants fl owered ( Fig. 1C ). Numerous glandular trichomes, the site of ar- under natural short day conditions during fall. The date of visible bud appear- temisinin production, are present on fl oral surfaces including ance was noted, and the timing to obtain the green bud stage (discrete green the receptacle and corolla of fl orets. Numerous developing in- capitula enclosed within involucral bracts), yellow capitulum stage (bracts open fl orescence buds were evident at 24 d after the onset of short exposing yellow fl oret buds), ray fl oret opening stage (pistillate ray fl owers dis- day treatments ( Fig. 1D ). Infl orescences are subtended by an playing stigmatic arms), and disk fl oret opening stage (hermaphroditic disk elongated bract ( Fig. 1A, D ) and further enveloped by numer- fl orets in the staminate stage undergoing pollen presentation and release) was determined. During full bloom, the number of total fl orets, pistillate ray fl orets, ous imbricate involucral bracts. At maturity, capitula are nod- and hermaphroditic disk fl orets per capitulum were assessed by dissecting un- ding and display the numerous yellow fl orets that make up each der a microscope ( n = 50 capitula per genotype). At seed maturity, capitula were infl orescence, as shown in Fig. 1E . The number and type of collected ( n = 50 per genotype), dissected apart, and the number of fi lled and fl orets per capitulum varies. Table 1 summarizes the total num- aborted seed from ray and disk fl orets determined.
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