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Exploring the High School Sports Experiences of Female Athletes

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Exploring the High School Sports Experiences of Female Athletes THROUGH HER EYES: EXPLORING THE HIGH SCHOOL SPORTS EXPERIENCES OF FEMALE ATHLETES Megan L. Valentine A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF EDUCATION August 2006 Committee: Nancy E. Spencer, Advisor Artemisia Apostolopoulou Sally Ross © 2006 Megan L. Valentine All Rights Reserved iii ABSTRACT Nancy E. Spencer, Advisor The purpose of this study was to ascertain the high school sports experiences of female athletes. In an attempt to obtain a better understanding of these experiences, focus group and individual interview sessions were conducted with twelve intercollegiate athletes who were members of Division I soccer and volleyball teams at a mid-sized Midwestern University in the United States. This study examined the role that socializing agents such as parents, coaches, teammates/peers, and the media play in both positively and negatively influencing the sports experiences of these female athletes. Results revealed overwhelming support for the value that agents play in introducing athletes to sports and providing continued support throughout their sports careers. Results also showed that negative interaction with certain socializing agents sometimes led athletes to sacrifice other aspects of their social lives and at times led them to consider quitting sports. In some instances, athletes did quit their sports teams due to negative interactions. Additionally, sports participation allowed athletes to formulate their identities around sports. Based on the results of this study, I suggest that more educational opportunities need to be provided for various socializing influences such as parents, coaches, teammates/peers, and the media, all of whom impact the participation experiences of girls and women in sport. iv I dedicate this research to the many women and men who have fought and continue to fight to increase opportunities for girls and women in sports v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To begin, I must thank my advisor Dr. Nancy Spencer (Dr. S.). Thank you for your recommendations that allowed this thesis to become a fluid piece of research as opposed to a ragged collection of arguments. Thank you for allowing me to bounce my ideas off of you, for providing your own impressions, for responding to my “short” e- mails, for encouraging me to place myself within the research, and most of all, for helping to cultivate an environment that enabled me to learn and grow from this research. It has forever changed me. Thank you. To Dr. Artemisia Apostolopoulou (Dr. A.), thank you for offering your insight to this thesis and for offering suggestions that always seemed to make my research better. Thank you for your constant encouragement with my research and life in general. Thank you for your charisma and your infectious spirit that made the rigorous thesis process manageable. To Dr. Sally Ross (Dr. R.), thank you for allowing me to bombard you with thesis responsibilities in your first year here at BGSU. Thank you for suggesting different directions that I could take with my research, for your advice on how to better organize my information, and for pointing me in the right direction when I was searching for data and previously conducted research to incorporate into my thesis. To the athletes who made this study possible, thank you for your willingness to join this study, your willingness to share your experiences, and your willingness to provide details that enriched this study and ultimately, made it what it is. Without your participation, this research would never have developed. I wish you all the best of luck in your future athletic, academic, and professional careers. vi To my family and friends, thank you for always asking me questions about my thesis and for laughing when I said time and time again that “it was almost done.” I especially thank my mom and my dad for their encouragement and for allowing me to pursue my dreams. Mom, I thank you for always showing me what it is like to be a strong, confident woman. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE........................................................................ 15 The Sociological Imagination .................................................................................. 17 Philosophical and Organizational Change in Women’s Sport ……………............ 20 Female Athletes in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries………………………………………………………….............. 20 Legislative and Organizational Changes in Women’s Sports ……….......... 25 The AAU, the NCAA, and Women’s Intercollegiate and Interscholastic Athletics ……………………………………………........... 29 The AIAW vs. the NCAA: A Battle to Control Women’s Intercollegiate Athletics ……………………………………………........... 33 The Feminine Appropriate Versus Feminine Inappropriate Sports Debate ............ 42 Defining Masculinities and Femininities …………………………………............ 44 Patriarchy and Hegemony ………………………………………………….......... 51 Women in Collegiate Athletic Administration Leadership Positions ………........ 52 Comparing the Individual and the Organizational Models of Employment .......... 54 Responsibility Conflicts Faced by Female Coaches ………………………......... 56 Hegemony in Sport …………………………………………………………........ 58 Social Learning Theory ……………………………………………………......... 60 Parental Influence …………………………………………………………........... 63 The Role of Parents Once Children Have Been Introduced to Sports ....... 68 vii Coaches’ Influence …………………………………………………………......... 69 Athletes’ Preference for a Female or a Male Coach ……………….......... 70 The Visibility of Female Coaches in Collegiate and High School Athletics ……………………………………………………………......... 75 Potential Explanations for the Lack of Female Coaches and Administrators …………………………………………………......... 79 Peer Influence ………………………………………………………………......... 81 Socialization within Sport: The Role of Peers ……………………........... 82 Peer Influence and Collective Identity ……………………………………........... 83 Women’s Hockey Fights for a Promotion to Varsity Status: Cook v Colgate ………………………………………………………………........ 86 Lack of Support for Girls’ and Women’s Sports ……………………………........ 87 Women Athletes in the Mainstream Model of Sport ……………………….......... 88 Media Influence …………………………………………………………….......... 89 The Amateur Athletic Foundation of Los Angeles’ Media Studies …........ 90 Messages Conveyed Through the AAFLA Studies …………………......... 102 Building Audience Demand for Television Programming ………….......... 105 Visibility of Women’s Team Sports …………………………………………........ 108 Additional Research Needed ……………………………………………………... 117 CHAPTER 3. METHOD …………………………………………………………......... 119 Participants ………………………………………………………………......... 119 Instruments ………………………………………………………………......... 121 Sports Participation Survey …………………………………………........ 121 viii Focus Groups ………………………………………………………......... 122 Individual Interviews ………………………………………………........ 124 Procedure …………………………………………………………………....... 126 Obtaining Approval and Selecting Participants ……………………........ 126 Confidentiality and Anonymity ……………………………………........ 128 Data Analysis ……………………………………………………………......... 129 Crystallization ………………………………………………………....... 131 Grounded Theory ……………………………………………………....... 132 Coding ………………………………………………………………....... 133 CHAPTER 4. RESULTS ………………………………………………………………… 135 Table 1: Socializing Agents and Their Influence ……………………………… 136 Socialization into and within sport: Early sport involvement …………………. 138 Table 2: Early Sport Experiences for Team 1 …………………………………. 139 Table 3: Early Sport Experiences for Team 2 …………………………………. 140 Parents’ Prior Involvement in Sports ………………………………………….. 151 Formative Years: Communicating About Sports ……………………………… 156 Formative Years: Viewing Sports ……………………………………………… 158 Satisfying an Internal Competitive Drive ……………………………………… 160 Socialization within Sport ………………………………………………………. 162 Socialization within Sport: The Role of Coaches ……………………………….. 164 Preference for a Male or a Female Coach ………………………………… 165 Time Commitment Required of Athletes ………………………………………… 170 Surviving the Recruiting Maze …………………………………………………… 175 ix The Role of Peers and Teammates ………………………………………………... 178 The Value of an Athletic Identity ………………………………………………… 182 The Role of the Media ……………………………………………………………. 191 Summary of Results ………………………………………………………………. 193 CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION ………………………………………………………........... 194 Parents and Family Members: Socializing Children into Sports ……………......... 194 Parents: Socializing Children within Sports …………………………………......... 200 The Role of Coaches within Athletes’ Sport Socialization ………………….......... 201 Specialization ………………………………………………………........... 204 Personal Encounters with Sport Specialization ………………………......... 209 Visibility of Female and Male Coaches ………………………………........ 211 Reflecting on Recruiting Experiences …………………………………....... 213 Personal Reflections on Recruiting ……………………………………....... 217 The Role of Peers and Teammates ………………………………………................ 218 Negative Experiences with Teammates: Hazing and Politics ....................... 220 The Media ................................................................................................................. 225 CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSION …………………………………………………….......... 227 Personal Reflections .............................................................................................. 227 Practical Implications ..........................................................................................
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