Conference Proceedings
ISES Sweden 2010
6th International Equitation Science Conference
Uppsala 31 July – 2 August 2010
Horse welfare and human safety: Importance of learning, training and education
Editors:
Elke Hartmann Mari Zetterqvist Blokhuis Carolina Fransson Göran Dalin
Table of contents
Welcome ...... 1 ISES Sweden 2010 Committees ...... 3 Timetable ...... 4 Abstracts for Day 1 ...... 7 Plenary 1: Conflict theory – the missing link in equestrian culture? A. N. McLean ...... 8 Plenary 2: Training for soundness and performance L. Roepstorff ...... 9 How is conflict behaviour in the horse evaluated by different categories of horse professionals? S. Nyman, J. Björk, C. Puronne, L. Roepstorff ...... 10 Adherence to advice of horse behaviour counsellors R. Jobling, E. Creighton ...... 11 Why train on both sides? L. Webb, G. Norton ...... 1 Training strategies and days lost to injury vary in show jumping yards C. A. C. Lönnell, L. Roepstorff, C. Schoon, E. Hernlund, A. Egenvall ...... 13 A comparative study of total warm-up time and overall performance in an elite (Grand Prix) level dressage competition A. A. Mills, T. C. Whitaker ...... 14 Evaluating learning theory in donkeys (Equus asinus) while measuring heart rate variability and behaviour when teaching donkeys to work to a cart A. K. McLean, C. H. Heleski, M. T. Yokoyama, W. Wang ...... 15 Plenary 3: Terminology - from a biomechanical perspective M. Rhodin ...... 16 Gradual induction of hyper-flexion in naïve horses at exercise under controlled conditions in an automated-horse-walker J. Murphy ...... 17 Rein tension acceptance in young horses in a voluntary test situation J. Winther Christensen, T. Zharkikh, J. Malmkvist ...... 18 Perceived rider rein contact and the effect on the horses’ stride and step length at walk and trot H. Edwards, H. Randle ...... 19 The effect of different rein types on the rein tension applied when taking up a ‘medium contact’ H. Randle, A. Abbey, L. Button ...... 20 Influence of the rider on saddle pressure pattern during riding A. Stalfelt, A. Byström, K. Von Peinen, K. Morgan, L. Roepstorff ...... 21 Vertical forces on the horse’s back in sitting and rising trot P. De Cocq, A. M. Duncker, H. M. Clayton, M. F. Bobberts, M. Muller, J. L. Van Leeuwen ...... 22 Variability in lower leg aids used to achieve gait transitions on a dressage simulator C. M. Nevison, A. Hughes, M. D. Cole ...... 23 Gaze behaviour of show-jumping riders when they approach a jump C. Hall, M. Robins, I. Varley, D. Crundall ...... 24 Detour behaviour with asymmetric obstacle in horses P. Baragli, E. Paoletti, F. Papi, A. Gazzano, C. Sighieri ...... 25 Abstracts for Day 2 ...... 26 A model to teach students handling and basic training of young horses K. Engström ...... 27 Step-by-step education of riders promotes horse welfare and human safety M. Esseen Söderberg ...... 28
Innovative methods to improve the seat of riders M. Zetterqvist Blokhuis, M. Esseen Söderberg, A. Stalfelt ...... 29 Practical day introduction K. Dahlborn, C. Fransson ...... 30 Practical day presenters ...... 31 Practical day co-chairs ...... 32 Abstracts for Day 3 ...... 33 Plenary 4: Human safety and horse welfare - Two sides of the same coin J. Ladewig ...... 34 Optimal injury prevention for riders: Don't fall off the horse L. J. Keeling, J. Ladewig ...... 35 Learning to ride a horse – A study of concepts and thought styles in three textbooks from three centuries L. E. Danius ...... 36 The effect of mental skills training on non-elite dressage performance I. A. Wolframm, D. Micklewright ...... 37 Development of an online curriculum for youth safety in equine facilities E. A. Greene, J. L. Whittle, K. L. Waite, G. A. Heyboer, C. D. Skelly ...... 38 Is safety valued in the Australian pony market? L. A. Hawson, A. N. McLean, P. D. McGreevy ...... 39 Can we blame the widespread use of artificial training aids and dietary supplements in the UK leisure horse population on novice owners? J. Hockenhull, E. Creighton ...... 40 Two methods of training naïve horses to social separation: Does the presence of a companion increase training efficiency? E. Hartmann, J. Winther Christensen, L. J. Keeling ...... 41 Non-invasive assessment of positive emotions in horses using behavioural and physiological indicators R. B. Stratton, N. K. Waran, N. J. Beausoleil, K. J. Stafford, G. M. Worth, R. Munn, M. Stewart ...... 42 Cortisol release in sport horses participating in equestrian competitions and events M. Becker-Birck, A. Schmidt, S. Biau, E. Möstl, B. Morillon, J. Aurich, J. M. Faure, C. Aurich ...... 43 The short and long-term changes in mechanical properties of a synthetic equestrian surface E. L. Blundell, A. J. Northrop, A. G. Owen, P. J. Lumsden ...... 44 Food versus scratching as rewards for horses (Equus caballus): effects on the human-horse relationship C. Sankey, M. A. Richard-Yris, S. Henry, A. Górecka-Bruzda, Z. Jaworski, M. Hausberger ...... 45 Passion for horses: improving horse welfare communication through identifying information search patterns, knowledge levels, beliefs, and daily practices of horse enthusiasts K. Visser, E. Van Wijk, H. Kortstee, J. Verstegen ...... 46 Tackling global issues in equine training – The need to develop ‘Glocal’ strategies N. K. Waran ...... 47 Science alone is not always enough: The importance of ethical assessment for a more comprehensive view of equine welfare C. R. Heleski, R. Anthony ...... 48 Abstracts for posters ...... 49 Can previous experience of interaction with a particular human influence horses’ voluntary interest for contacting this person? A. Jansson ...... 50 Physiology and behaviour changes in horses during and after human-horse interactions A. Jansson, K. Nostell, E. Hydbring-Sandberg, S. Maurer, K. Uvnäs-Moberg ...... 51
Conflicting motivations between horse and rider? H. J. Blokhuis, K. L. Graunke, G. Hulsebosch, M. Zetterqvist Blokhuis ...... 52 Changes in heart rate variability during the initial training of three-year old sport horses A. Schmidt, J. Aurich, J. Müller, C. Aurich ...... 53 Identification of “join up” time between horse and trainer in two types of round pen J. N. P. Puoli Filho, A. C. S. Aguiar, A. C. Barbosa, V. F. Gonçalves, M. D. S. Mota, E. Marcelo, A. C. Donofre ...... 54 Is there a relationship between facial whorl direction and position and performance in the Thoroughbred racehorse? R. M. Scofield, H. Randle ...... 55 Impact of the temperament of young stallions on their stress reactions when subjected to a standardised veterinary examination M. Peeters, D. Verwilghen, D. Serteyn, M. Vandenheede ...... 56 The relationship between facial whorl characteristics and laterality exhibited in horses H. L. Savin, H. Randle ...... 57 What does my horse? K. Visser, M. Van Wijhe-Kiezebrink ...... 58 The strengths of statistical techniques in identifying patterns underlying apparently random behavioural problems J. Hockenhull, E. Creighton ...... 59 Enhancing welfare and safety: a case study examination of initiating change in tertiary equestrian coaching L. Ashton ...... 60 The effect of different head and neck positions – including hyperflexion – on the behaviour of base-level warm blood riding horses during moderate exercise M. C. Van Dierendonck, J. Sleutjens, I. Wijnberg, W. Back, H. J. Van der Kolk ...... 6 Evaluation of pressure mat as a pedagogic tool for seat corrections S. Carlberg, A. Stalfelt, K. Morgan ...... 62 Practical application of dismounted exercises to improve the rider´s seat M. Zetterqvist Blokhuis ...... 63 A preliminary study into the use of infrared thermography as a means of assessing the horse’s response to different training methods C. Hall, K. Burton, E. Maycock, E. Wragg ...... 64 Riding techniques may alter the welfare of horses (Equus caballus) C. Lesimple, C. Fureix, H. Menguy, M. Hausberger ...... 65 Comparing behavioural responses in therapeutic riding horses ridden with three different adaptive devices C. R. Heleski, E. Lewis, B. DePue, L. Kaiser ...... 66 The effect of a passive stretching programme on flexibility and range of motion in riding horses S. Tracey, N. Blackie, A. D. Ellis ...... 67 Effects of shaving and blanketing during exercise and recovery in the horse – A preliminary study H. Wallsten, K. Olsson, K. Dahlborn ...... 68 Massage treatment contra grooming in riding horses - a comparative study K. Dahlborn, M. Olsson, Y. Liljebrink, S. Nyman...... 69 Short term transport induces stress in saddle horses P. Pageat, C. Lafont Lecuelle, C. Falewee, A. Cozzi ...... 70 Stress response of transport-naive horses during repeated road transport analysed by salivary cortisol concentrations, heart rate and heart rate variability A. Schmidt, S. Hödl, E. Möstl, J. Aurich, J. Müller, C. Aurich ...... 71
The roles of equine ethology and applied learning theory in horse-related human injuries L. A. Hawson, A. N. McLean, P. D. McGreevy ...... 72 Improving horse-rider communication through a structured groundwork training programme I. A. Wolframm, C. Baars, S. Schuetz ...... 73 Investigating differences in self-regulation between novice, intermediate and advanced equestrian riders I. A. Wolframm, J. Foshagand, C. Kobbe ...... 74 Development of a preliminary questionnaire “Attitudes and opinions within and towards the equine industry” I. A. Wolframm, A. Rettig, H. Schiffers ...... 75 The use of psychological skills in novice, intermediate and advanced equestrian riders I. A. Wolframm, J. S. Foshag, C. Kobbe ...... 76 Fitness test of sport riders in dressage and showjumping G. Thorell, K. Esping, A. Linders, K. Morgan ...... 77 Goal orientation and motivation in event riders M. C. Duke ...... 78 Physiological measures of fitness of riders and non riders E. L. Halliday, B. Willmott, H. Randle ...... 79 Rider gender, its effect on Olympic individual dressage competition performance T. C. Whitaker, A. A. Mills ...... 80 Rider’s anxiety in relation to competitive performance R. Elander, G. Thorell, K. Morgan...... 81 Assessment of positive emotions in horses: implications for welfare and performance M. Stewart, R. B. Stratton, N. J. Beausoleil, K. J. Stafford, G. M. Worth, N. K. Waran ...... 82 Safety aspects and behaviour of Siena Palio horses R. Polito, M. Minero, E. Canali, G. Giovagnoli, N. Magnaghi, M. Pepe, M. Reitano ...... 83 Effect of different weaning systems on cortisol release and locomotion activity in foals R. Fischer, M. Wulf, S. Rose-Meierhöfer, M. Becker-Birck, E. Möstl, C. Aurich ...... 84 Post conflict affiliative interactions in horses (Equus caballus) A. Cozzi, A. Gazzano, C. Sighieri, P. Pageat, P. Baragli ...... 85 The use of environmental enrichment for UK leisure horses J. Hockenhull, E. Creighton ...... 86 The use of seven methods of preventing stable-based behaviour problems in UK leisure horses and their relative effectiveness J. Hockenhull, E. Creighton ...... 87 Appendices ...... 88 Glossary ...... 89 A quick guide to statistics for non scientists H. Randle ...... 92
Welcome
As chair of the Local Organising Committee and representative of ISES it gives us great pleasure to welcome you to Sweden for ISES Sweden 2010, the 6th Conference of the International Society for Equitation Science.
The Conference is appropriate as Sweden has a thriving horse industry with a deeply rooted tradition of horse management and breeding and is a country with one of the highest numbers of horses per head in Europe.
We expect an exciting meeting with equitation scientists, industry leaders, policy makers and riders and coaches from around the world to engage in debates about the interdisciplinary approach of learning, training and education to improve horse welfare and human safety. This theme, we believe is appropriate given the increasing demands for safety of both humans and horses in the equine sector, but also for the never ending demand of ensuring the well-being of horses in their associations with humans.
We gratefully acknowledge the support of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU) and the Swedish National Equestrian Centre Strömsholm. The Conference venues are excellent as they represent Sweden’s centre for research into animal husbandry and animal welfare (SLU) and Sweden’s national education centre of equestrian sport.
We would like to thank everyone who has contributed to the organisation of this conference and we are confident that this event will be enjoyable and informative.
Mari Zetterqvist Blokhuis
Chair of the Local Organising Committee
Elke Hartmann
Representative of ISES
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Welcome to SLU, the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences!
SLU is Life Science - SLU develops the understanding and sustainable use and management of biological natural resources. In many ways, SLU offers an exceptional research and educational environment, combining expertise in fields like animal husbandry, veterinary medicine, garden and landscape management, urban planning, future energy and climate solutions.
SLU is also the centre of equine research and higher education in Sweden. The Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science runs Master programmes in animal science and veterinary medicine, and Bachelor programmes in animal nursing, in ethology and animal welfare, and – last but definitely not least – in equine studies. The equine bachelor programme is run by SLU in close cooperation with the Swedish Horse Council Foundation, which represents the major Swedish horse organisations. The students follow a three-year integrated theoretical-practical curriculum at the national equestrian centres Flyinge and Strömsholm or the national trotting centre Wången.
Welcome to the Horse in Sweden – there are almost 300 000 of them!
That makes Sweden the most ‘horse dense’ (31 horses per 1 000 persons) country in Europe, second only to Iceland with its’ almost 300 horses per 1 000 persons! The interest in equestrian sports is great and there are almost 200 000 members in the Swedish Equestrian Federation, more than 500 licensed riding schools and 27 000 registered competitors (mainly show jumping and dressage). Trotting engages many professionals and amateurs, who race at 25 racetracks.
The horse has once more become an important actor in Swedish agriculture, this time, however, more as a consumer of feed and services than as a producer of work and power! Each 10th horse creates one full-time job- and lots of fun!
We all look forward to fruitful discussions and exchange of ideas and views during ISES Sweden 2010. We also look forward to tell you more about Swedish horse traditions and to learn from your experiences.
Welcome to all participants!
Göran Dalin
Chair of the Scientific Committee, ISES Sweden 2010 Head of the Department of Equine Studies (SLU), Uppsala
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ISES Sweden 2010 Committees
Local Organising Committee Chair: Mari Zetterqvist Blokhuis (MZ Equitation, Skokloster) Members: Elke Hartmann (Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SLU) Kristina Dahlborn (SLU) Göran Dalin (SLU) Cajsa Ericson (Physiotherapists in Animal Therapy, LSVET) Carolina Fransson (On Horses & Riding, OHR)
Scientific Committee Chair: Göran Dalin (Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SLU) Members: Anna Bergh (SLU) Harry Blokhuis (SLU) Janne Winther Christensen (University of Aarhus) Kristina Dahlborn (SLU) Anna Jansson (SLU) Paul McGreevy (University of Sydney) Andrew McLean (Australian Equine Behaviour Centre) Jack Murphy (University College Dublin) Hayley Randle (Duchy College, University of Plymouth) Margareta Rundgren (SLU) Kathalijne Visser (Wageningen University) Natalie Waran (Unitec New Zealand) René van Weeren (Utrecht University)
Organising Secretariat
Akademikonferens Telephone: +46 (0) 18 - 67 15 33 Fax: +46 (0) 18 - 67 35 30 P.O. Box 7059 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
Website coordinator Elke Hartmann (SLU)
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Timetable – Saturday 31 July 2010
Comparative aspects in humans and horses: On the mental and physical capacity for training and learning 07.30 Registration 08.30 Welcome to ISES Sweden 2010 Plenary 1 (Chair K. Dahlborn) 09.00 A. N. McLean Conflict theory – the missing link in equestrian culture? Plenary 2 (Chair K. Dahlborn) 09.30 L. Roepstorff Training for soundness and performance 10.00 Coffee break and poster session 1 (Chair K. Visser) Oral presentations session 1 (Chair M. Rundgren) How is conflict behaviour in the horse evaluated by different categories of 11.00 S. Nyman horse professionals? 11.10 Adherence to advice of horse behaviour counsellors R. Jobling 11.20 Why train on both sides? L. Webb 11.30 Training strategies and days lost to injury vary in showjumping yards C. Lönnell A comparative study of total warm-up time and overall mark awarded in an 11.40 T. Whitaker elite (Grand Prix) level dressage competition Evaluating learning theory in donkeys (Equus asinus) while measuring heart 11.50 A. K. McLean rate variability and behaviour when teaching donkeys to work to a cart 12.00 Time for questions, discussion and conclusions 12.30 Lunch Plenary 3 (Chair N. Waran) 13.30 M. Rhodin Terminology - from a biomechanical perspective Oral presentations session 2 (Chair N. Waran) Gradual induction of hyper-flexion in naïve horses at exercise under 14.00 J. Murphy controlled conditions in an automated-horse-walker J. Winther 14.10 Rein tension acceptance in young horses in a voluntary test situation Christensen Perceived rider rein contact and the effect on the horses’ stride and step 14.20 H. Edwards length at walk and trot The effect of different rein types on the rein tension applied when taking up 14.30 H. Randle a ‘medium contact’ 14.40 Time for questions, discussion and conclusions 15.00 Coffee break and poster session 2 (Chair A. Jansson) Oral presentations session 3 (Chair C. Heleski) 16.00 Influence of the rider on saddle pressure pattern during riding A. Stalfelt 16.10 Vertical forces on the horse’s back in sitting and rising trot P. de Cocq Variability in lower leg aids used to achieve gait transitions on a dressage 16.20 C. Nevison simulator 16.30 Gaze behaviour of show-jumping riders when they approach a jump C. Hall 16.40 Detour behaviour with asymmetric obstacle in horses P. Baragli 16.50 Time for questions, discussion and conclusions 17.15 Summary of the day 17.45 Finish 19.30 Conference dinner at Östgöta Nation
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Timetable – Sunday 1 August 2010
Equitation in practice: Training horses and teaching riders
08.00 Buses leaving to Strömsholm
Arrival in Strömsholm K. Morgan 09.45 Welcome coffee and introduction L. Roepstorff
K. Engström 10.30 Flyinge demonstrates the education of the young horse Co-chair T. Kaspareit
Strömsholm demonstrates the stepwise education of the M. Esseen Söderberg 11.15 rider Co-chair T. Kaspareit
12.00 Lunch M. Zetterqvist Blokhuis The rider’s seat - training and balance - how the seat affects M. Esseen Söderberg 13.30 the horse A. Stalfelt Co-chair S. von Dietze L. Roepsdorff 14.15 Demonstration of ongoing research in equitation K. Morgan Co-chair R. van Weeren 15.15 Panel discussion in 'Knytpunkten' Chair K. Dahlborn
16.15 Buses leaving to Uppsala
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Timetable – Monday 2 August 2010
Human safety and horse welfare Plenary 4 (Chair J. Winther Christensen) 08.15 J. Ladewig Human safety and horse welfare - Two sides of the same coin Oral presentations session 4 (Chair J. Winther Christensen) 08.45 Optimal injury prevention for riders: Don't fall off the horse L. Keeling Learning to ride a horse – A study of concepts and thought styles in 08.55 L. Danius three textbooks from three centuries 09.05 The effect of mental skills training on non-elite dressage performance I. Wolframm Development of an online curriculum for youth safety in equine 09.15 E. Greene facilities 09.25 Is safety valued in the Australian pony market? P. McGreevy 09.35 Time for questions, discussion and conclusions 10.00 Coffee break and poster session 3 (Chair H. Randle) Oral presentations session 5 (Chair P. McGreevy) Can we blame the widespread use of artificial training aids and 11.00 dietary supplements in the UK leisure horse population on novice J. Hockenhull owners? Two methods of training naïve horses to social separation: Does the 11.10 E. Hartmann presence of a companion increase training efficiency? Non-invasive assessment of positive emotions in horses using 11.20 R. Stratton behavioural and physiological indicators Cortisol release in sport horses participating in equestrian 11.30 M. Becker-Birck competitions and events The short and long-term changes in mechanical properties of a 11.40 E. Blundell synthetic equestrian surface Food versus scratching as rewards for horses (Equus caballus): 11.50 C. Sankey Effects on the human-horse relationship 12.00 Time for questions, discussion and conclusions 12.30 Lunch Oral presentations session 6 (Chair H. Blokhuis) Passion for horses: Improving horse welfare communication through 13.30 identifying information search patterns, knowledge levels, beliefs, and K. Visser daily practices of horse enthusiasts Tackling global issues in equine training - The need to develop 13.40 N. Waran 'Glocal' strategies Science alone is not always enough: The importance of ethical 13.50 C. Heleski assessment for a more comprehensive view of equine welfare 14.00 Time for questions, discussion and conclusions 14.30 Panel discussion and Conference wrap-up (Chair G. Dalin) 15.30 Take home messages and closing of the conference 16.30 General assembly of the ISES
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Abstracts for Day 1
Comparative aspects in human and horses: On the mental and physical capacity for training and learning
Plenary 1: Conflict theory – the missing link in equestrian culture?
Andrew N McLean
Australian Equine Behaviour Centre, Broadford, VIC, Australia
Riding and leading horses entail the use of negative reinforcement, amongst other learning processes, to exploit the animal’s mobility. Whilst negative reinforcement itself is a typical mode of learning, its use in the ridden and led animal can have particularly significant deleterious effects if carried out incorrectly. The pressures applied to the animal via the halter, bit, rider’s legs, spurs and whips may, in many cases, regularly exceed tolerable levels and as a result the horse may exhibit hyper-reactive behaviours in its attempts to escape the stressor. Therefore the ridden and led horse’s experience of discomfort/pain in the form of incorrectly applied negative reinforcement may constitute the greatest amounts of regularly experienced unpredictable and uncontrollable aversive stimuli leading to significant direct and indirect behaviour changes. On the other hand, the horse world typically labels hyper-reactive behaviours as resistances and evasions, where the horse is commonly seen as benevolent, malevolent and largely culpable. For example, many behaviours perceived by handlers and riders as problematic are attributed to the horse’s personality and anthropomorphic terminology is typically used to describe behaviours (e.g., lazy, keen, honest, stubborn, disobedient, willing). Further complications arise in when quasi-scientific models such as social dominance theory are used to explain learned behaviours. The unacceptably high behavioural wastage rates of performance horses and the high death and injury rates in horse-human interactions suggests that much is yet to be learned about horse training and raises serious concerns about the current understanding of equine cognition, learning and ethology by the equestrian public. This presentation examines this phenomenon, and highlights the need for a more-evidence based approach to understanding and treating behaviour problems in horses as dysfunctions in the application of negative reinforcement, where the treatment may involve the reinstatement of consistent responses from the least obtrusive of pressures (known as aids) and other signals in concert with other treatments such as positive reinforcement, overshadowing and counter-conditioning. It is proposed that the conceptualisation of behaviour problems as dysfunctions in negative reinforcement be termed conflict theory. From the welfare perspective, the addition of this term to the lexicon of equine practitioners is an essential component of enlightened equestrian culture and will assist in affecting change in horse riding and handling coaching programmes, thus potentially facilitating a significant reduction in the high human injury and equine wastage rates.
Brief Biography Andrew is author and co-author of a number of highly cited academic journal papers and has written and co-authored a number of books. He regularly conducts international clinics, disseminating the application of learning theory to all disciplines of horse training, focusing on optimal welfare through a neo–classical approach to training grounded in science. Andrew has 30 years experience in professional retraining and foundation training and has developed the AEBC; the largest equine behaviour modification and training facility in Australia.
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Plenary 2: Training for soundness and performance
Lars Roepstorff
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Uppsala, Sweden
Soundness and physical performance are key issues for more or less all horse owners, trainers and riders/drivers. Extensive economic losses due to lameness and orthopaedic injuries have been reported within the equine industry. However, in a wide perspective performance is important not only in sports, but also at riding schools and during leisure riding. Therefore, understanding of the underlying biological mechanisms determining these things are imperative for everyone working with or having responsibility for horses. Soundness and performance are extremely complex and they are affected by many factors, i.e. the coordination between physical and mental factors, genetics, management, nutrition and training. The physical performance of the horse is closely related to the locomotion and the capacity of the cardiovascular system. The locomotion pattern depends on the function and structure of the supportive tissues, muscles and nervous system while functional traits such as endurance, strength and speed, additionally depend on the oxygen transportation capacity. The lungs, heart, blood and muscles determine this capacity. Orthopaedic injuries are caused by over loading, either momentarily or under more long-term conditions, and occur mainly in supportive tissues, i.e. tendons, ligaments, cartilage and bone. Loading, or in more common terms training, is a key factor that affects the above tissues and organs. To be able to reach performance goals while minimizing the risk of injury it is necessary to have both theoretical knowledge and practical skills in a variety of areas, balancing between obtaining desired training effects and avoiding risk of injury. In the present presentation, the following subjects will be discussed using examples from current research: basic functional anatomy and exercise physiology, mechanical and biological reasons for orthopaedic injuries, and the connection between training for performance and at the same time avoiding injuries.
Brief Biography Lars Roepstorff is an active researcher in equine biomechanics, applied to both performance and health perspective. He is active in several collaborative projects both in Sweden and internationally. One of the ongoing main projects involves studies of saddle fitting and rider interaction in relation to locomotion with special focus on the horse's back. Another area of research is focused on training regimes and surface properties in relation to orthopaedic health.
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How is conflict behaviour in the horse evaluated by different categories of horse professionals?
Sara Nyman1, Jessica Björk2, Christine Puronne2 and Lars Roepstorff3
1Flyinge AB, Utbildning Forskning, Flyinge, Sweden 2Malmö, Sweden 3Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Uppsala, Sweden
Corresponding author – Sara Nyman: [email protected]
Conflict behaviour in the horse is commonly seen in all kind of horse handling. In riding, failure to release rein pressure can lead to conflict behaviours that jeopardise the safety of riders and handlers and can have a negative impact on the horse’s welfare. Today, many categories of horse professionals are involved in horse training and sport events. The aim was to study how conflict behaviours are evaluated by horse professionals. Eight warmblooded riding horses (13-20 years, regularly long-reined) were, after a warm-up period of 20 minutes, long-reined in a standardized programme for 8 minutes in total on a circle in trot in an indoor arena. The horses’ behaviour was studied with a low rein tension (LRT) as well as a sustained rein tension with stronger forward driving signals (SRT) during 2 minutes in each direction for both treatments. The study was filmed for later analysis and as a base for a questionnaire. Analyses were made from films in slow-motion of 50% during the last 90 seconds per circle and horse in both treatments. Using an ethogram, behavioural responses were compared in frequency and duration. The web-based questionnaire (including film clips from the trials) was designed to evaluate the general opinion about conflict behaviour and was given to 10 experienced trainers (Swedish A- or B-trainers), 10 dressage judges (Intermediaire or higher) and 10 horse veterinarians. The questionnaire revealed differences in evaluation of horse behaviour between categories where the trainers showed the greatest acceptance towards conflict behaviour. Great differences in terminology used when describing horse behaviour were also seen in all categories. In the SRT treatment conflict behaviours were seen in all horses. Resistance, tongue movement and increased respiratory sounds were only seen in SRT. Gaping was shown in both treatments, but with a significant longer duration during SRT (p<0.001). It is clear that evaluation of conflict behaviour in the horse differs both within and between categories of horse professionals. For the welfare of the horse, an increased communication between horse professionals and an improved understanding of basic learning theories are crucial.
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Adherence to advice of horse behaviour counsellors
Ruth Jobling1 and Emma Creighton2
1University of Chester, Anthrozoology Unit, Chester Centre for Stress Research, Chester, Cheshire, UK 2Newcastle University, School of Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Newcastle, Tyne & Wear, UK
Corresponding author – Ruth Jobling: [email protected]
Counselling services that aim to improve understanding of horse-human interactions are on the front line of the horse welfare agenda. The aim of this research was to determine characteristics of horse owners seeking advice about their horse’s behaviour that predicted their adherence to that advice. The established science of human behavioural change has largely been applied in the field of health psychology to identify predictors of behaviour. A thorough review of human behavioural change literature identified ten cognitive variables (e.g. attitude towards horse behaviour counsellors) that had the potential to predict adherence to the advice of a horse behaviour counsellor. Established self-report questionnaire methodology was adopted to survey an opportunistic sample of 52 clients of horse behaviour counsellors before they received the advice (initial cognitive profile), ten days after (changes post-communication) and at three months follow-up (long-term changes). Data were preliminarily analysed using correlation analyses and subsequently multiple regression analyses were used to generate a model for adherence. Horse behaviour counsellors cannot influence what clients come into the process perceiving, however, they are able to influence cognitive variables during the communication. The amount of post-communication change in value of the outcome of adhering to the advice (beta=0.338, p=0.033) and attribution of the horse’s behaviour problem to external factors (e.g. facilities, time) (beta=0.309, p=0.050) were significant elements of a multiple regression analysis that explained 23.6% of the variance in adherence ten days after the communication
(F2,35=6.700, p=0.003). At three months follow-up there were no associations between adherence and the earlier cognitive profiles, but clients who showed a three month increase in positive attitude towards horse behaviour counsellors were more likely to adhere long term (r=0.389, p=0.019). Horse behaviour counsellors may benefit clients by demonstrating the effects of their advice early in the communication, so that clients value their efforts to adhere and continue to do so. Horse behaviour counsellors may also foster adherence to their advice by emphasising external causes of the horse’s behaviour problem, which clients may find more controllable than internal causes such as their level of skill or fear. Developing the client’s perception of a controllable cause of their horse’s behavioural problem may build confidence in their ability to address the problem and encourage adherence.
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Why train on both sides?
Lucy Webb1 and Guy Norton1
1Anglia Ruskin University, Department of Life Sciences, Cambridge, UK
Corresponding author – Lucy Webb: [email protected]
Training has long involved a traditional bias of handling from the left, with a lack of emphasis and action on repeating important training independently on both sides. However, it is commonly accepted that horses will pass an object on one side yet react as though it is novel when it is presented on the other side. This study is an empirical demonstration of this well known phenomenon using a visually learned task. 15 horses were randomly assigned left or right eye training for operantly-trained tasks, first within a monocular field and then the binocular field. In the monocular field tests horses were conditioned to perform a head nod in response to stimulus presence, in the binocular field a head lift. Tasks were learned with one eye only whilst the other eye was covered. For the test of transfer one day post training, eye covers were reversed and the stimulus was presented to the untrained eye and responses recorded. Trained eye responses were then retested to ensure conditioned response was retained and not simply forgotten. Latency to response, duration of training, and sum of stimulus presentations were recorded. Duration of training to criteria was significantly quicker (Mann-Whitney U, P<0.01) with significantly less presentations (P<0.001) in the binocular field. Transfer of response was significantly quicker in the binocular field (P<0.001) with significantly higher mean number of responses (P<0.001). Side bias or handedness was only apparent in the binocular field; the left eye had significantly shorter training duration (P<0.05). Sex bias was also only apparent in the binocular field; females demonstrated significantly quicker first responses (P<0.05) in training and had quicker mean retention times (P<0.05) with higher mean number of responses shown (P<0.05). Bilateral training is vitally important especially if working within the monocular fields. Whilst there is no difference between the monocular fields in the ability to learn, within this field there is no transfer of learned visual associations formed on one side of the animal. Training presented in the binocular field should also consider the sex and handedness of an individual. Misguided human interpretation of “bad behaviour” often leads to excessive punishment and therefore negative associations for both horse and handler. Behaviour such as spooking can thus be better explained, dispelling continued ignorance which is detrimental to both horse welfare and progress of training.
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Training strategies and days lost to injury vary in show jumping yards
Cecilia A C Lönnell1, Lars Roepstorff2, Carolina Schoon3, Elin Hernlund2 and Agneta Egenvall1
1Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Clinical Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden 2 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Uppsala, Sweden 3Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
Corresponding author – Cecilia A C Lönnell: [email protected]
Lameness is the most common diagnosis in equine veterinary practice. Studies in racehorses have demonstrated that the risk of orthopaedic injury varies between trainers, training strategies and use of surfaces Very little has been published in relation to injuries affecting horses in equestrian sports. No such studies have been conducted in show jumpers. We hypothesised that training strategies and injury risk vary between enterprises. We conducted a prospective pilot field study during April-October 2009 in Sweden. Riders recruited were professional/full time show jumping riders ranked in country’s Top 100 (150) in 2008, starting at S level in 2008, and part time amateur show jumping riders with minimum 3 horses in training. Participating riders (professional n=17; amateurs n=2) kept a standardised daily training diary recording time and intensity of flat work, fitness work, jumping and hacking and use of riding surfaces, plus non- ridden activities, including pasture time and health data for horses (n=144). All horses were European Warmbloods, aged 4-18, competing from Novice to 5* International level. The Swedish study was part of an international collaborative epidemiological and biomechanical project on show jumping training and surfaces with elite and amateur riders in Sweden, the Netherlands, Switzerland, the UK and Denmark. Training strategies, including intensity and type of training, varied between riders. Differences included the emphasis on flatwork (min 1.5- max 7 sessions a week, median 3), hacking (0-6 sessions a week, median 1.8). For jumping and fitness work, the number of sessions varied from 0 to 2 sessions a week. Speed of canter/gallop work varied from 350 to 800 meters/minute. Strategies of jumping sessions also varied between riders, from mainly grid work /low fences to full courses with competition height. Estimated intensity of sessions varied from 5% (hacking at walk) to 85% (fitness gallop). Total daily time outside stable (including ridden work and non-ridden activities, i.e. pasture time, walker, treadmill and/or lunging) varied from 1.8 to 6.5 hours. Incidence of orthopaedic injury varied from 0-100%. Intensity and volume of training and risk of injury vary between Swedish show jumping riders at S-level. Further analysis of data and research will clarify possible associations between training factors and risk of injury in show jumpers.
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A comparative study of total warm-up time and overall performance in an elite (Grand Prix) level dressage competition
Amy A Mills1 and Tim C Whitaker1
1Writtle College, Centre for Equine and Animal Science, Chelmsford, UK
Corresponding author - Amy A Mills: [email protected]
Limiting injury within horses participating in competition is a primary welfare consideration. The importance of the warm-up is widely accepted among human athletes as a mandatory tool for limiting injury and optimising performance. The authors suggest that developing an optimum warm-up regime in the horse might aid as a potential tool for limiting injury, improving welfare and helping to achieving peak performance. Previous studies have indicated that total warm up length is positively associated with final score in dressage competition, although the association was reported to be weak. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between length of warm-up and subsequent competition performance. The total warm-up length (minutes) of competitors (n=15), undertaking a set dressage test (FEI Grand Prix B 2003), was observed. The duration of the warm-up was at the discretion of the rider and was therefore not standardised. However, all horse and rider combinations were experienced in competition at Grand Prix level dressage. Analysis of length of warm-up performed was conducted using Focus x2 Elite Sport Analysis. Two competitors were excluded from analysis as it was impossible to assess accurately the length of the warm-up activity they had performed. Performance was measured based on the final score (%). Both descriptive statistics and measures of dispersion were derived and an r2 value was returned for the data. From the thirteen competition performance marks analysed, the mean score for competitors was 64.66 (range=8.7; max score=69.4; min=60.7) with 12.54% variability in the data and Co-efficiency of variation (CV) 13.40% with s.e.m 0.74. The mean warm up duration for competitors was 38.30 (range=29.80; max=56.20; min=26.40) with 53.01% variability in the data and CV 77.80% with s.e.m 2.87. There was a positive relationship between warm-up length and overall mark, r2=0.093, P<0.05. The findings are in line with previous reports of the association between total warm-up time and overall mark achieve in dressage competition. It would appear that the total warm-up time exerts little influence over final score achieved. However, variability of the data was much higher for total warm-up time compared to final scores (CV 77.80% versus 13.40%). This would suggest a better understanding of the different components within the warm-up phase is needed and requires further investigation. This work is warranted to establish if specific warm-up activities exert different or specific influences on final scores. It is imperative that the complexities of the warm-up are fully understood. This knowledge will lead to not only potential benefits for performance but also benefit the health, soundness and overall welfare of the horse.
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Evaluating learning theory in donkeys (Equus asinus) while measuring heart rate variability and behaviour when teaching donkeys to work to a cart
Amy K McLean1, Camie H Heleski2, Melvin T Yokoyama2 and W Wang3
1University of Wyoming, Animal Science, Laramie, USA 2Michigan State University, Animal Science, East Lansing, USA 3Michigan State University, CANR Statistical Consulting Center, East Lansing, USA
Corresponding author – Amy K McLean: [email protected]
The donkey (Equus asinus) makes many valuable contributions to human society yet very little published research exists about donkeys, especially with regards to their behaviour and how they learn. There are an estimated 44.3 million donkeys worldwide and 95% of them are kept for work in developing countries. This study attempts to make a fundamental step towards enhancing our knowledge of donkey training and psychology. Ten donkeys were divided into two treatments: Halter Training Method (HTM, Group A), and Traditional Stick Method (TSM, Group B) for the first 10 days. Donkeys driven with the stick method are not equipped with a halter or driving bridle and guided with only a stick (e.g. tap the donkey on the left with the stick and they move to the right, etc.). The stick method is commonly used throughout Africa. After day 10 all donkeys were moved to HTM for safety reasons; i.e. TSM donkeys were prone to bolting. Five behavioural assessment tests were administered on days 1, 10, 11, and 18. Heart rate was monitored on days 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, 11, 13, 15, and 18. There were no differences in behaviour parameters assessed in either group of donkeys before day 11. For heart rate variability (HRV) there were no differences among treatments for all measurements before day 11; mean heart rate (HR) (p=0.22), log standard deviation from beat to beat interval (SDSSR) (p=0.13), log low frequency (LF) (p=0.22), log high frequency (HF) (p=0.21) and log square root of mean standard deviation from beat to beat interval (rMSSD) (p=0.21) among treatment groups. There were no differences in HRV parameters for donkeys remaining in HTM when comparing before and after day 11 HRV responses. A significant difference was found when comparing donkeys in HTM vs. TSM for all testing days, when measuring rMSSD (HTM=101.3, TSM=72.3, p=0.01) and HF (HTM=4411.9, TSM=2627.2, p=0.02). Driving performance for each treatment group was evaluated on days 10 and 18 with a standardized driving test. There was no difference in time (p=0.57) or driving scores (p=0.17) between groups. The study suggests that few differences were found among treatments; HRV might be related to the donkeys’ inherent temperament; and donkeys can be trained to pull a cart in a short amount of time without resorting to harsh methods. This study suggests that naïve donkeys can be trained in a short period of time (less than 30 days) with proper application of learning theory to pull a cart while using only a halter and driving lines. This study has the potential for application in developing countries when teaching and training donkeys, donkey owners, and para-professionals alternative methods for training donkeys to pull carts that require less harshness than many traditional methods. Methods from this study have already been incorporated into a project in Mali, West Africa during the summer of 2009.
15
Plenary 3: Terminology - from a biomechanical perspective
Marie Rhodin
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Clinical Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
Collection is a central theme in equestrian dressage. Despite this, there is no generally accepted definition of collection. Descriptions in the equestrian literature can differ quite considerably. However, some common points are frequently stressed and the hind limbs are always assigned an important role. Some variables, frequently used to describe the collected horse, are suitable for biomechanical investigations such as “increased weight bearing of the hind limbs, “the hind limbs (the hock and stifle joints) bend more during stance”. “With increased flexion of the hind limbs, the hindquarter of the horse would sink down resulting in a more “uphill” appearance of the horse”. To increase the weight bearing, the hind limbs are said to “step further underneath the horse” which can be interpreted as increased protraction of the hind limb. “During collection, the range of pendular motion of the hind limb is reduced”. Perhaps the difficulty in defining the concept of collection in the riding literature is due to the fact that true collection cannot be described from one single variable alone. Rather several variables have to be taken in account. This presentation will give you information from an international biomechanical study of high level dressage horses. The motion patterns of the horses were measured from skin fixed markers with high-speed video cameras. The ground reaction forces were measured with an instrumented treadmill to calculate the weight distribution between the fore- and hind quarters. The different variables were measured while the horse was walking and trotting with the head and neck in six predetermined positions. From this study, the complex concept of collection cannot be fully defined in kinematic, kinetic and temporal terms, but it is clear that the key lies in combining several parameters characterizing the horse as a whole, rather than focusing on single values.
Brief Biography Marie Rhodin is a veterinarian, PhD and dressage rider with special interest in horse and rider interaction. As a PhD-student she studied the effect of different head and neck positions on the kinematics of the horse.
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Gradual induction of hyper-flexion in naïve horses at exercise under controlled conditions in an automated-horse-walker
Jack Murphy
University College Dublin, School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine, Dublin, Ireland
There is less than absolute clarity on the usefulness or otherwise of hyper-flexion in equitation [at times referred to as rollkur, over-bending or low-deep-and-round (LDR)]. Essentially, these techniques involve varying degrees from little to extreme longitudinal cervical flexion of the horses’ mid-neck region. It has attracted much attention in the equestrian media – often controversial, where the horse works behind the vertical (BTV) – and often for extended periods. The objective here was to establish if gradual introduction of hyper-flexion would lead to different behavioural responses in naïve horses. Horses [n=8; (geldings: n=6 & fillies: n=2); age: 4 yrs)] participated in a 52 day training/conditioning programme based on incremental regimens within an automated-horse-walker (AHW). The subjects were assigned to two groups (G1 & G2) but worked concurrently in an 8-bay AHW where they exercised twice-daily. The experimental protocol required G1 to perform as controls in the morning sessions and undergo test conditions in the afternoon with vice versa for G2 on alternate days. Subjects wore head collar and saddle pad with surcingle for control conditions while test conditions required additional caveson and side-reins to encourage increasing degrees of neck-flexion from day 14 to day 42. Exercise regimens began as 15-minute sessions for days 1-14, and increased weekly with the addition of five-minute increments. Side-rein tension was non existent at the outset but was engaged gradually to encourage greater degrees of neck-flexion post day 14 until horses were working BTV in a typical hyper-flexion outline for days 42-52. There was no difference in the incidence (number of actual events observed via scan sampling protocol) of conflict behaviour responses such as resistance to move forward, rearing or lateral swinging of the head and neck among the horses under the control (2.64±1.42) and test (2.67±1.37) conditions (t=-.446, df=520, p=0.66). In fact, the horses appeared to habituate quickly to the side-rein tension and exhibit more active/engaged outline during the test compared to the control conditions. The findings suggest that horses could habituate easily to a non-coercive hyper-flexion outline under controlled conditions. In the absence of further empirical data, it is unclear if the horse would derive any level of beneficial conditioning under such circumstances – further investigation is urgently required. While the horse might habituate to the protocol as reported here, achieving similar results under saddle will be far more taxing. The ability of the rider to achieve non-coercive hyper-flexion will always be the limiting factor. Equitation experts must strive to resolve this controversial issue in terms of any potential training benefits and bona fide welfare concerns for the ridden horse.
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Rein tension acceptance in young horses in a voluntary test situation
Janne W Christensen1, Tatjana Zharkikh2 and Jens Malmkvist1
1Aarhus University, Animal Health and Bioscience, Tjele, Denmark 2Biosphere Reserve Askania-Nova, Kherson, Ukraine
Corresponding author – Janne W Christensen: [email protected]
During riding, horses are frequently exposed to pressure from the rider, e.g. through the bit and reins, but few studies have investigated at which point rein tension becomes uncomfortable for the horse. This study aimed to investigate how much rein tension young inexperienced horses were willing to accept in order to obtain a food reward; whether the tension acceptance changed during three consecutive test days; and whether rein tension correlates with the expression of conflict behaviour (e.g. gaping) and heart rate. We hypothesised that pressure-naïve horses would apply only little rein tension in the first voluntary trial, but their acceptance would gradually increase, and that high levels of rein tension would lead to expression of conflict behaviour and increases in heart rate. Fifteen 2-year-old, bridle-naïve Danish Warmblood mares were habituated to wearing a bridle, bit (double jointed snaffle) and girth to which reins of different lengths could be attached. The horses were encouraged to stretch their head forward across a vertical metal bar (height: 0.95 m) to obtain a food reward in a voluntary test situation. On each test day, each horse was exposed to two control sessions (loose reins), an intermediate and a short rein session (1 min/session). Rein tension, heart rate and behaviour were recorded. In contrast to our expectations, the horses applied significantly more tension on the first day compared to the second and third test day (RM ANOVA, mean tension (Newton) in the short rein session (left rein): Day1: 10.5±1.4, Day2: 6.0±0.6, Day3: 5.7±0.8, F=8.23, P=0.002). Significantly more conflict behaviour was shown in the short rein sessions (e.g. Day 1: Control1: 0±0, Intermediate: 1.7±0.6, Short: 3.1±0.5, Control2: 0±0, F=15.78, P<0.001). There was no treatment effect on heart rate. In conclusion, the horses applied the highest rein tension on the first day, and apparently learned to avoid the tension, rather than habituate to it. The ability of horses to learn to avoid tension is a key element in horse training and increased focus on timing of pressure release is likely to benefit both learning and welfare.
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Perceived rider rein contact and the effect on the horses’ stride and step length at walk and trot
Hayley Edwards1 and Hayley Randle1
1Duchy College, Stoke Climsland, UK
Corresponding author – Hayley Edwards: [email protected]
The amount of contact a rider takes up on the reins depends primarily on which movement is being asked of the horse. Despite rein contact (RC) being used every time a horse is ridden there are no published data to demonstrate if riders understand how much pressure is being applied through the reins to the horses’ mouth. This study investigated how first, RC is perceived by the rider and second, the effect of rein contact on stride and step length of the horse at working walk and trot. Eleven horse and rider combinations, all matched for ability, were asked to take up light and strong rein contacts as they rode in a 40m straight line down the three quarter line in walk and trot, no specific head-neck position of the horse was specified. ReinCheck™ was used to record light and strong contact and data recorded three times in walk and trot. Rein tension (RT) (N) was derived using Signal Scribe™ and walk and trot stride length (SL), left and right forelimb and hindlimb step length (RFSL, LFSL, RHSL, LHSL) (m) data were derived using the Dartfish motion analysis software. The RT applied to left and right reins was comparable (P>0.05). RT applied in trot (3.41±1.95N) was significantly greater than in walk (2.59±1.47N)
(F1,259=17.7; P<0.0001). RT was significantly greater in strong (3.69±1.79N) compared to light contact (2.32±1.47N) (F1,259=48.9; P<0.0001). SL, RFSL, LFSL, RHSL and LHSL were all significantly influenced by RT (F75,188=3.4; P<0.0001, F49,214=2.7; P<0.0001, F49,214=2.5;
P<0.0001, F51,212=2.3; P<0.0001 and F50,213=2.8; P<0.0001 respectively). Using objectively measured data this study demonstrated that first, riders apply significantly different pressures between contacts, and take up a greater contact in trot, and second, RT has a direct effect on stride and step length. There is a growing awareness of the application of rein pressure in a range of equitation disciplines. Appropriate application of rein contact when riding could enhance rider safety by improving horses comfort and so assuring their welfare through correct and more sympathetic training.
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The effect of different rein types on the rein tension applied when taking up a ‘medium contact’
Hayley Randle1, Alison Abbey1 and Lorna Button1
1Duchy College, Cornwall, UK
Corresponding author – Hayley Randle: [email protected]
In all disciplines reins provide a means by which the rider (or driver/handler) can apply a stimulus to the horse to signal a required change in activity. Objective data on the effect of different types of reins on the pressure applied to a horse’s mouth are not yet available. This study investigated the effect of rein type on the tension (gF) applied in a perceived medium contact. Thirteen human subjects were asked to take up a medium contact on a static ‘horse’ (the rein-o-meter box/apparatus) with six different types of rein (dressage, eventing, laced leather, rubber, narrow leather and webbing). Subjects were required to maintain the medium contact for 3s and then to drop it for 2s. This was repeated three times per subject. The rein tension (RT) (gF) applied was measured using ReinCheck™ and derived using Signal Scribe™ for both left and right hands. The average medium contact tension applied was 283.2±154 gF. 11/13 of subjects maintained a greater rein tension with the right rein, the remaining two applied greater tension with the left rein
(F1,382=151.06; P<0.0001). Subjects’ left/right bias remained regardless of rein type (F5, 382=0.30;
P>0.05). Rein type significantly affected the rein tension applied (F5,382=6.45; P<0.0001). Whilst greater tension was applied with laced leather reins (298.6±171.8 gF) than with any other type of reins, webbing and narrow leather reins resulted in less (268.1±164.6) and 266.3±166.0 gF respectively). The rein tensions applied by different subjects varied according to rein type
(F60,382=4.67; P<0.0001). Using objectively measured data this study demonstrated that first, there is considerable variability in what is perceived to be medium contact and second, the tensions applied differ according to both rein type and subject. Awareness of the variability in interpretation of different levels of contact needs to be raised. Those responsible for the education of both horses and riders/drivers/handlers should be aware of the possible different levels of biofeedback afforded by different rein types. Careful consideration must be given to whether novices should be taught using reins that inherently trigger the lightest contact.
20
Influence of the rider on saddle pressure pattern during riding
Annika Stalfelt1, Anna Byström2, Katja Von Peinen3, Karin Morgan1 and Lars Roepstorff2
1Swedish National Equestrian Centre, Equine Studies, Strömsholm, Sweden 2Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Uppsala, Sweden 3University of Zürich, Equine Department, Vetsuisse Faculty, Zürich, Switzerland
Corresponding author – Annika Stalfelt: [email protected]
Today saddle pressure measurements are used for research studies on saddle fitting, but there are only a few studies that have used it to valuate rider’s skill. The aims of this study were to investigate the effects caused by riders on saddle pressure measurements and to identify useful variables for analyses of a rider’s seat. An electronic pressure mat (sensor) was placed on the back of six Swedish warmblood horses, all ridden with the same saddle. Three riders (Medium level, 75,6+4,6 kg including saddle) rode each horse and saddle pressures were recorded at set speed in sitting trot, rising trot and sitting canter on both left and right hands with each rider. The riders represented a uniform group, were used to riding different horses and schooled together for two years within the university program for Equine Studies at Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. The pressure data were processed in Matlab. Different factors influencing saddle pressure were extracted for analysis and processed in two-way ANOVA in the statistical software SigmaStat. Significance level was set to p<0.05. The results showed two variables with significant differences between riders, the point of application expressing the center of all forces on the sensor (POA) and maximum pressure in the four different quadrants of the sensor. When recorded pressures were divided by the mass of saddle and rider in Newton and expressed as kPa/100 N rider, there were still significant differences in quadrant pressure between riders in different gaits. In canter there was a higher pressure distribution on the hind quadrants (Off Hind 28 %>Inner Fore 24%, Off Fore 22% and Inner Hind 26%). These differences were not detectable in sitting trot, where all quadrants had a more even pressure distribution (OF 25%, IF 26%, OH 24%, IH 25%). In conclusion, differences between riders were detectable, which shows that the pressure measurement technique can be used to analyze different aspects of the rider’s seat. The aims of upcoming studies are to conclude how the pressure pattern reflects the rider’s seat, balance and impact on the horse. This would provide practitioners with objective information on how the horses back is affected by interactions between horse and rider as well as by aspects like rider`s skill.
21
Vertical forces on the horse’s back in sitting and rising trot
Patricia De Cocq1, Anne Mariken Duncker2, Hilary M Clayton3, Maarten F Bobberts2, Mees Muller1 and Johan L Van Leeuwen1
1Wageningen UR, Experimental Zoology Group, Wageningen, The Netherlands 2Vrije Universiteit, Research institute MOVE, Amsterdam, The Netherlands 3Michigan State University, Mary Anne McPhail Equine Performance Center, East Lansing, USA
Corresponding author – Patricia De Cocq: [email protected]
In equestrian sports, it is generally assumed that rising and sitting trot load the horse’s back differently. The objective of this study was to quantify the load on the horse’s back in these riding techniques. Kinematic data of 13 female riders (height: 1.67 ± 0.10 m; mass 62 ± 6 kg) and 2 horses (horse 1: height at withers 1.53; mass 451 kg and horse 2: height at withers 1.63; mass 667 kg) were collected in rising and sitting trot. Six trials of both riding techniques were collected. During each trial, one full stride was collected. Four full strides at both sitting and rising trot were analysed for each horse/rider combination. Markers on the hind hoofs of the horses were used to identify the start and end of a stride cycle and a marker on the first lumbar vertebra was used to calculate speed. The time-history of the position of the rider’s centre of mass (CoM) was calculated, and differentiated twice to obtain the acceleration of the CoM. The reaction force between the rider and the horse’s back was calculated from CoM acceleration. Forces were divided by body weight of the rider to obtain dimensionless forces. Data were analysed statistically in a GLM-repeated measures test followed by a post hoc Bonferroni test. P-values of <0.05 were considered statistically significant. As expected, the computed average vertical force did not differ between riding techniques and was not significantly different from the body weight of the riders. At trot, two force peaks were present during one stride cycle. Both peaks were significantly lower in rising trot than in sitting trot (peak 1: 2.54±0.30 versus 2.92±0.29; p<0.001; peak 2: 1.95±0.34 versus 3.03±0.32; p<0.001). Although the two horses were moving at approximately the same speed (3.11 m/s) and the same stride frequency (1.2 strides/s), there was a significant difference in peak vertical force between the two horses. These differences were significant for peak 1 of rising trot (horse 1: 2.32±0.16 versus horse 2: 2.69±0.28), peak 2 of rising trot (1.62±0.24 versus 2.19±0.13), peak 1 of sitting trot (2.69±0.13 versus 3.09±0.26) and peak 2 of sitting trot (2.73±0.06 versus 3.38±0.26). There was a significant difference in vertical displacement between the two horses (horse 1: 0.055±0.008 m; horse 2: 0.088±0.004 m; p<0.001). This study supports the general assumption that rising trot is less loading for the horse than sitting trot. Furthermore, it seems that the vertical displacement of the horse also influences the peak force of the rider on the horse. This might mean that big moving dressage horses are exposed to higher forces than other horses and therefore more prone to back injuries.
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Variability in lower leg aids used to achieve gait transitions on a dressage simulator
Charlotte M Nevison1, Anna Hughes1 and Michael D Cole1
1Anglia Ruskin University, Life Science, Cambridge, UK
Corresponding author – Charlotte M Nevison: [email protected]
Equitation manuals on the ‘English’ style of riding principally focus on describing hand and lower leg aids (signals) required to achieve ridden movements. However texts vary in aid descriptions particularly for advanced movements. These differences are also likely to be reflected across trainers. Consistency in response from the ridden horse is likely to be facilitated by consistency of aid application. The question arises as to whether this occurs within and between riders? This is difficult to assess from the ground, and rider perception of their body movement may not be accurate. Using the Racewood Dressage Simulator, which is programmed to perform basic and advanced movements when riders apply pressure to sensors, we assessed the number of rider lower leg aids given and time taken to achieve transitions from halt to walk, walk to trot and trot to both canter leads over 10 replicates in 2 training sessions. Variation in leg position was also monitored. Participants were experienced riders (N=17), naïve to the simulator, whose competence level was scored across a multiple component questionnaire. Competency criteria included i) competitive experience; ii) riding frequency; iii) correct identification of written aids to preliminary, novice, elementary and medium dressage test movements and iv) highest independently evaluated riding performance level. All riders initially used more than one aid before successfully achieving each gait but varied considerably in the number of aids required to achieve the required transition (e.g. mean halt to walk 21.71±7.42, min 2, max 124). Across riders performance improved within and between sessions (GLM repeated measures within- session F2.77,44.28Greenhouse-Geisser adjusted=9.99, p<0.00; GLM repeated measures across sessions
F1,16=20.03, p<0.001). Intriguingly those whose competency rated higher on the questionnaire (using separate and combined criteria), including correct knowledge of the British Horse Society aids to gait transitions performed in the study (matching the simulator programming), did not perform better than lower rated riders. This preliminary work highlights the need for further study of a) how consistently riders signal to their mounts and how this affects equine learning, performance and welfare and b) how simulators could be used effectively in rider training and research – all of which have potentially huge benefits for the safety and welfare of both horse and rider. It also raises questions relating to how rider competency could / should be rated for research purposes.
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Gaze behaviour of show-jumping riders when they approach a jump
Carol Hall1, Matthew Robins2, Ian Varley3 and David Crundall4
1Nottingham Trent University, School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Southwell, Nottinghamshire, UK 2Nottingham Trent University, School of Science and Technology, Clifton Campus, Nottingham, UK 3Nottingham Trent University, School of Science and technology, Clifton Campus, Nottingham, UK 4University of Nottingham, Accident Research Unit, School of Psychology, Nottingham, UK
Corresponding author – Carol Hall: [email protected]
The ability of sports participants to focus on relevant visual information is central to skilful performance, competitive success and injury avoidance. In sports involving hand-eye coordination elite athletes have been found to direct their gaze appropriately sooner, make more predictive eye movements and fixate on relevant features for longer than non-elite athletes. In the equestrian sport of show-jumping visual accuracy is particularly important during the approach to a jump when the skill of both horse and rider will determine the appropriate ‘take-off’ point. The aim of this study was to identify the gaze behaviour of equestrian athletes as they approach a show-jump and to relate this to skill level and competitive experience. A mobile eye tracking device (ASL Mobile Eye) was used to monitor the visual behaviour of riders of varying competitive experience (N=10) when jumping a course of three identical show-jumps. The rider was fitted with the spectacle-mounted unit attached to a digital video cassette recorder (DVCR) housed in a backpack worn by the rider. Once the equipment had been calibrated the rider worked in on the flat and jumped a practise fence four times. The course of jumps was set up at one end of an indoor riding arena in an area of 20m × 55m. Each jump was an upright consisting of two black and white striped rails 40cm and 70cm from the ground. The course was jumped five times by each rider. The data stream for each of the ten riders was recorded from the DVCR using EyeVision data processing software. The footage was then replayed on the analysis computer and point of gaze recorded for each frame (sampled at 30 frames/second). Point of gaze recording started when each jump came into view and finished at the point of take-off. Preliminary analysis showed that when approaching a jump riders rapidly alter their point of gaze from the ground on the approach to the jump, to the jump itself and to the track beyond. Significant differences were found between the gaze behaviour of the most and the least experienced competitive rider (unrelated t-test). The more experienced rider fixated on the jump significantly earlier (9.57±0.65 seconds before take-off compared to 7.17±1.26 seconds; t(4)=2.93, p=0.04) and the duration of their fixations was significantly longer (ground approach:
0.25±0.06 seconds compared to 0.11±0.04 seconds, t(4)=3.38, p=0.03; jump: 0.22±0.02 seconds compared to 0.09±0.06 seconds, t(4)=3.63, p=0.02; track beyond: 0.26±0.1 seconds compared to 0.08±0.01 seconds, t(4)=2.86, p=0.05). This study provides the first detailed insight into the gaze behaviour of elite equestrian athletes. Visual training programmes that have the potential to enhance performance and improve safety in equestrian sport can now be developed. The negative consequences of rider error for both horse and rider could be lessened by using simulated training situations. Human safety and equine welfare would both benefit from this approach.
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Detour behaviour with asymmetric obstacle in horses
Paolo Baragli1, Elisa Paoletti1, Francesca Papi1, Angelo Gazzano1 and Claudio Sighieri1
1University of Pisa, Department of Physiological Sciences, Pisa, Italy
Corresponding author – Paolo Baragli: [email protected]
An animal’s ability to move around an obstacle to reach a target is called detour behaviour. To perform such task the animal must first move away from its goal to subsequently reach it. The use of an asymmetric obstacle may provide information about the animal’s spatial reasoning or spatial learning. With spatial reasoning, the subject directly chooses the shorter way, while with spatial learning it chooses the shorter way as it goes along. Our aim was to investigate detour ability in horses where we employed an asymmetric obstacle test experimental protocol. Ten Italian Saddle horses, mares (9.5±3.0 years) were used. Subjects were first accustomed to performing the detour task with a symmetric U-shaped obstacle (2×4×2m and 1m high). A breach in the obstacle permitted the passage of a food bucket through the opening. After this, one of the lateral sides of the obstacle was extended by 2m (by means of a wooden panel). A coin was tossed to decide which arm to lengthen, but it was never in the same position more than twice in subsequent trials. An operator led the horse to the bucket and left it in front of the obstacle. As the horse ate, the bucket was pulled through the obstacle. The task was considered solved if the subject reached the bucket on the other side of the obstacle within 5 min. Each subject performed ten trials on the same day, for a total of 100 tasks. The direction chosen to move around the obstacle and time employed were recorded. Time was evaluated with ANOVA, while the exact two-tails Binomial test was used to analyze the side chosen for the detour. All subjects completed the task. Six subjects showed lateralized behaviour when detouring the obstacle (three on the left and three on the right), while the other four showed no preference for either side. Non-lateralized subjects significantly chose the short side (28 out of 40 trials; z=2.37, p=0.017). The time taken to perform the task did not differ over the ten trials for the whole group
(F9,90=1.259, p=0.272), for lateralized (F5,54=1.736, p=0.108) and non-lateralized horses
(F3,36=0.556, p=0.820). The non-lateralized horses showed a significantly higher mean time to perform the detour compared to the lateralized horses (18.7±1.3 vs 15.9±0.7, F1,88=4.52, p=0.036). These preliminary data seem to indicate that there could be individual differences between horses when they approach spatial tasks. Some horses may use spatial reasoning to solve spatial problems and they may need more time since their behaviour is the result of a decision making procedure regarding which way is the best, while other horses showed lateralized behaviour, always going around the obstacle on the same side. Therefore, horses appear to be able to perform detour with an asymmetrical obstacle, but the solutions found could differ between subjects. Both lateralized behaviour and spatial reasoning could affect the performance when horses cope with hurdle during competitions.
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Abstracts for Day 2
Equitation in practice: Training horses and teaching riders
A model to teach students handling and basic training of young horses
Karin Engström
Swedish National Stud and Equestrian Centre, Flyinge, Sweden
It is a challenge to teach students handling and basic training of young horses. To achieve the goal, a clear system is very important. Before the students begin their practical handling of the young horse, they have to understand basic learning theories. They must learn ‘to read’ the horse and how to use their own body language and voice to communicate well. They must understand the risks and learn methods to handle the horse in a safe way. To concentrate fully on the task is perhaps the most important part in a safe and well functioning interaction between horse and man, and the student must always be disciplined in this matter.
The first week of the course, the 3 year-old horses are handled by the students from the ground for them to find out about each individual's temperament, physical abilities, strength and weaknesses etc. Highly sensitive horses are very common, as today's breeding of quality sport horses often select for this characteristic.
Before the students are allowed to get up on the horses, the horse has to listen to voice commands and have some experience with and the controlling functions of the bit as well as some physical strength to begin to carry the riders’ weight. It is very important to teach the students that the time spent on the different educational steps will vary between individual horses.
Flyinge Model - view and vision
To create a clear system for rearing and training young horses from 0-6 years of age with an aim to produce well-educated quality sports horses and approved stallions to promote horse welfare and human safety. The demonstration shown in the clinic is only a small part of the concept with the aim to show how students and horses can be educated at the same time.
“Safety is very important when educating both students and horses, because young people today are not used to handling untrained horses. The riding school, which is the first contact with horses for most young people in Sweden, gives no education at all about this category of horses.”
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Step-by-step education of riders promotes horse welfare and human safety
Marianne Esseen Söderberg
Swedish National Equestrian Centre Strömsholm, Sweden
A safe and well educated horse is essential in the education and training of young riders. The National Equestrian Centre in Strömsholm buys young horses at the age of three years, and they are educated by experienced riders. All horses get a basic education in dressage and show jumping. They are also trained in hacking individually as well as in groups and learn how to jump natural fences of various types. When they are six years old, they start working as school horses and are assigned to different disciplines depending on talent and character. A few horses are selected for sport and compete up to Grand Prix level in dressage or 1.40-1.50 m in show jumping.
The education of riders at Strömsholm is divided into three steps. In the first step, the riders learn to sit relaxed and balanced on a schooled horse (basic seat). In the second step, the riders learn how to use the different aids (technique), e.g. rein and leg aids separately before learning how to combine them. In the third step, the riders learn how to combine the different aids (feeling). In this third step they also learn the timing of the aids to be able to give the right signal at the right moment (to feel what is going to happen even before it happens).
When the riders have learned the basic seat, technique, feeling and timing, the individual training of the riders and instructors starts. The riders should now learn how to ride the horse in balance with a natural willingness to go forward and to work the horse to get it supple and strong to promote the longevity of the horse. The result from this work forms the basis for the next phase when the rider learns how to ride different movements up to collection as well as movements on the highest level like piaff and passage. If any kind of problem with the rider or horse arises, the rider learns to go back to an earlier step.
We believe that by using a step-wise education, using experienced school horses for inexperienced riders, Strömsholm provides an effective education and promotes the welfare of the horses and the safety of the riders.
“We want to teach the riders´ good basic skills and we think it is important that the riders learn how to use a supple and balanced seat to be able to interact with the horse in a harmonious way. The best results are achieved when the rider has the welfare of the horse constantly in mind”.
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Innovative methods to improve the seat of riders
Mari Zetterqvist Blokhuis, Marianne Esseen Söderberg and Annika Stalfelt
Swedish National Equestrian Centre Strömsholm, Sweden
Riding is based on an effective interaction between rider and horse. A correct seat is the basis for a good performance in riding. An effective seat is upright, balanced, elastic, solid and interactive and it follows the horse´s movements. A correct seat is well described in literature but difficult to learn. Since the rider is in constant movement, it can be difficult to isolate and train to improve a detail when the rider is sitting on the horse. The welfare of the horse can be compromised when a rider uses an incorrect seat. If, for example, the rider leans to one side or the other, this may, in the long term damage the horse´s muscles and skeleton.
Different methods to improve the rider´s seat, balance and suppleness are used in the basic training of riders in Strömsholm. The quality of the rider´s seat is constantly evaluated by “dressage rider tests” where the deviations from the ideal seat are identified. Measures of saddle pressure are used as a pedagogic tool to visualize pressure distribution. This enhances the awareness of the rider about his/her seat. Once a specific seat problem has been indentified, a seat improvement program with dismounted exercises is used to improve the rider´s seat and balance. The program addresses different possible problem areas of riders (sternum, spine, ilio- sacral joint, pelvis) that have been identified by Eckart Meyners, who is a German researcher in sport physiology. Meyners has also developed the Balimo – a stool with a mobile seat that is used to improve the position and flexibility of the riders’ pelvis.
We believe that the interaction between rider and horse can be improved if riders become more aware of their seat and what impact this has on the horse. It is also important that the riders work with specific individual dismounted exercises to improve their balance and suppleness.
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Practical day introduction
Welcome to Strömsholm - One of the three national equestrian centres in Sweden. At Strömsholm, Flyinge and Wången you find equestrian educations with an aim to combine traditional training practices with modern science.
Strömsholm has been a national education centre for several centuries. The former royal breeding stud and central military riding school is now a modern facility for equitation education up to university level, and a place for national and international clinics and competitions. During this practical day we will learn about a stepwise education method for riders, ‘The Strömsholm method’. Different techniques to improve the rider´s seat, which are used in the basic training of riders in Strömsholm will also be demonstrated.
Flyinge, situated in the south of Sweden, is one of the world's oldest active national studs dating back to the 12th century. It is an equestrian centre for breeding, research, training and education. A representative from Flyinge, Karin Engström, will present the ‘Flyinge model’, a system which is aimed at optimizing the training and developing the potential in young horses. Training and matching young horses is Flyinge's special profile.
Practical presentations will also focus on ongoing research in the field of biomechanics. Technical equipment will be demonstrated that can assist in e.g. detecting lameness, measure rein tension and saddle pressure, which can ultimately help us to better understand the interaction between horse and rider and to influence performance.
The practical day will hopefully not only be a nice field trip, but also give us an opportunity for reflection and objective discussions on education of riders and training methods for horses. We hope that this day will be an inspiration for all of us to contribute to building bridges between the sometimes unfortunate sharp dividing line between theory and practice. To assist us moderate the sessions, we have invited some highly experienced co-chairs: Susanne von Dietze, Thies Kaspareit and René van Weeren. We will close the day with a panel discussion to review the practical demonstrations that we have seen.
With representatives from different academic fields and competent practitioners present, we are looking forward to an engaged debate with horse welfare in focus.
Kristina Dahlborn and Carolina Fransson
ISES Sweden 2010 Local Organising Committee
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Practical day presenters
Karin Engström is an instructor in education of young horses at Flyinge. She has worked at Flyinge since 2001 where she has educated a large number of students and young horses.
Marianne Esseen Söderberg is the head instructor in dressage in Strömsholm. She has educated and has competed with several horses in Grand Prix dressage. She has been a trainer for 20 years, the first six years in America and since 1991 she has worked in Strömsholm where she has educated a large number of riders and riding instructors.
Mari Zetterqvist Blokhuis is a riding instructor on international level 3 and has competed up to Medium level in dressage. She has been working as teacher in pedagogics and didactics in Strömsholm for many years. She has a BSc in social science and has studied ways to improve the seat of the rider.
Annika Stalfelt is a nutritionist and a PhD student working on a project that aims to develop objective measures of the interaction between rider and horse in Strömsholm. She also works as a teacher in horse management in Strömsholm.
Karin Morgan has a degree of doctor of agriculture from the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, and she is also a dressage rider and trainer. Karin is responsible for research projects in Strömsholm.
Lars Roepstorff is an active researcher in equine biomechanics, applied to both performance and health perspective. He is active in several collaborative projects both in Sweden and internationally. One of the ongoing main projects involves studies of saddle fitting and rider interaction in relation to locomotion with special focus on the horse's back. Another area of research is focused on training regimes and surface properties in relation to orthopaedic health.
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Practical day co-chairs
Susanne von Dietze was born in Germany but lives in Israel with her family. She comes from a very horsy environment; her father was an ex cavalry officer who still rides daily at the age of 89. Her mother was a riding instructor and rode side saddle during all her active time! Susanne is a riding instructor, dressage rider at Grand Prix level (competing for Team Israel), dressage judge and moreover a physiotherapist. This background enables a unique opportunity to understand the complexity of the physical relationship between the horse and the rider. Susanne is often engaged internationally in clinics and courses and has also published the book Balance in Movement – How to Achieve the Perfect Seat.
Thies Kaspareit is a German equestrian who won a team gold medal in eventing at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. Thies is an international riding teacher and since 1998, he is the leader of the „Deutsche Akademie des Pferdes“. The task for the Akademie, situated in Warendorf, is to forward scientific knowledge in horses and horse sport to professional riders and riding teachers in Germany.
René van Weeren is one of the leading researchers in the world on equine biomechanics, joints and tendons. He has special interest in developmental aspects of musculoskeletal tissues in young horses. He is working at Utrecht University in the Netherlands and has a large international network. Prof Van Weeren has been involved in a lot of different projects concerning the performing horse, including research on saddle pressure and the biomechanical effect of different head and neck positions, a topic that has been heavily debated in dressage. He participated as one of the veterinary experts in the FEI Round Table Discussion on Rollkur/Hyperflexion/Low, Deep and Round (LDR) in February 2010.
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Abstracts for Day 3
Human safety and horse welfare
Plenary 4: Human safety and horse welfare - Two sides of the same coin
Jan Ladewig
University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Life Sciences, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
Horseback riding is said to be the tenth most accident-prone sport when frequency is considered, but the second most accident-prone sport when the seriousness of accidents is considered. Especially in recent years many surveys have outlined some of the risk factors (e.g. being an experienced 14 year old female rider sitting on a horse) and they have demonstrated how important safety equipment is. There are, however, many ways to fall off a horse. Consequently, improvement of human safety necessitates a multifaceted approach. Propagation of the use of safety equipment is important but not enough. Prevention of accidents is a better approach but also a much more complicated one. Generally, the better the welfare of a horse is, the safer it is to handle and to ride. Particularly three areas are important for the prevention of accidents. One area pertains to the training methods. The most important training related safety issues include what in the dog world is called basic obedience training. Many riders spend hours practicing various dressage or jumping exercises but fail to teach their horse to stop on a signal from the reins or the lead rope, to stand still on command, etc. In addition, riders generally fail to habituate their horses to those aspects of the environment that are known to scare horses (motor cycles, plastic bags, etc.). Secondly, horses are not companion animals. They do not live together with us but have a life of their own. During that time (up to 23 hours or more per 24 hours), their physical and behavioural needs must be fulfilled, particularly their need for full contact with conspecifics under outdoor conditions. Only if horses live in harmony will they be safe to handle and to ride. Finally, most horses are bred for “top performance” which, generally, means fast reactions. Breeding for a calm temperament in order to produce safe horses is, for various reasons, not a breeding goal. Yet, most horses are used for leisure purposes, not for Olympic level performance. Selection for a calm temperament would, in and of itself, have an important impact on horse accident statistics.
Brief Biography Jan Ladewig received a veterinary degree from the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University in Copenhagen, Denmark, and a PhD degree in animal behaviour at the University of California, Davis, USA. He held a research position at the German Institute of Animal Production and Animal Behaviour and is now professor in Domestic Animal Behaviour and Welfare at the Copenhagen vet school. Prof Ladewig has a broad interest in all aspects of horse behaviour, particularly those aspects that pertain to the welfare of the horses and the safety of people handling horses. The application of our knowledge of horse behaviour to practical aspects of horse husbandry plays a key role in his teaching and research. Apart from the scientific work in these areas, he has trained and retrained many horses and, thus, has lifelong personal experience with horse accidents!
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Optimal injury prevention for riders: Don't fall off the horse
Linda J Keeling1 and Jan Ladewig2
1Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Animal Environment and Health, Uppsala, Sweden 2Copenhagen University, Department of Large Animal Sciences, Frederiksberg, Denmark
Corresponding author – Linda J Keeling: [email protected]
Although safety equipment can reduce the severity of a horse related injury, avoiding accidents happening is always going to be the better option. This paper presents the results of two questionnaire studies. The first (Q1) was completed by 385 people being treated at hospital for a horse related injury. The second (Q2) was completed by 315 members of the riding society covering the same region as the first questionnaire. In Q2, 31% of the members reported having a least one sufficiently serious injury that required a visit to a hospital, 62% reported having at least one minor injury and 38% reported no injury at all, within the past three years. Not unexpectedly, currently experiencing a horse related injury affected the person’s perception of the horse. Only 24% of the people in Q1 rated the horse as calm and easy to handle, compared to 70% in Q2, and there was no difference in Q2 between people who had been to hospital previously and those that had not. Combining Q1 and Q2, most accidents happened in an enclosed area or paddock (41%) or when riding in the countryside or forest (20%), probably reflecting where people usually ride. But when seriousness of the injury was analyzed in Q2, an injury was more likely to be serious when the accident occurred at a competition. Accidents in both studies were classified as being a pure accident (PA), caused by the horse showing a fear reaction (FR), being disobedient (DIS) or attributable to a misunderstanding between horse and rider/handler (MIS). PA accounted for 33% of all accidents in Q1 and 24% in Q2, implying that the majority of accidents could be prevented. In Q2 FR, and especially MIS, were more likely to lead to a severe injury and those caused by DIS more likely to lead to minor injuries. Accidents attributable to FR were most likely when riding a young horse, whereas PA and MIS were more likely with older horses. In summary, when attempting to reduce horse riding injuries, more consideration should be given to accident prevention. This should be directed at training the horse, to reduce accidents caused by FR and DIS, as well improved education and awareness of the rider to reduce MIS accidents.
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Learning to ride a horse – A study of concepts and thought styles in three textbooks from three centuries
Lena E Danius
University of Gävle, Department of Culture Studies, Religious Studies and Educational Sciences, Gävle, Sweden
The aim of this paper is to discuss the didactics of riding by analysing different thought styles for what a rider needs to learn, and in what order different concepts should be introduced. Previously studies in this area have mainly focused on either the process of teaching, or the cognitive perspective of learning. What the student needs to learn has not been discussed, but rather taken for granted. In this study the questions of what kind of knowledge and practical skills a novice rider need to learn are discussed in a modern, as well as a historical context, going back to the 18th century. This study is a qualitative textual analysis of three textbooks: (1) “School of horsemanship” by de la Guérinière (1733, Swedish translation from French in 1828) commonly referred to as the Father of modern equitation; (2) “Ridläran eller ridskolan” (“The principles of riding or the riding school”) by Ehrengranat (1836) said to be the Father of Swedish equitation; and (3) “The Principles of Riding (Complete Riding & Driving System)” by Miesner et al. (1994, Swedish translation from German in 2003), a book used in the education of riding instructors at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Concepts used in the literature concerning the training of the novice rider are analysed from the perspective that knowledge is actively constructed by the student. Concepts presented in the different textbooks are seen as part of thought styles. These thought styles are not seen as representing the individual authors' ideas about riding, but rather a part of larger thought collectives. Thus representing common ideas in each author's cultures at the time, concerning how the training of novice rider should be organised. The result of this analyse shows that although three areas of concepts (the seat, the aids and equestrian tact) are included in all three textbooks they are not explained in the same way. In the 18th and 19th century literature, the focus for the seat is the position of the upper body, while in the 20th century literature the starting point is the placement of the rider’s legs. Regarding the aids, the 18th and 19th century literature emphasise the rider's hands and state that this is the primary aid. In the 20th century literature it is stressed that all aids should act together. The most hands-on explanation of equestrian tact is presented in the 19th century literature. Here it is stressed that it is the rider's ability to register how the movements of the horse affect the rider's body is the foundation for equestrian tact. My conclusion is that the 18th and 19th century thought styles are well worth exploring by instructors. They can provide useful knowledge regarding how the novice rider efficiently can be supported by the instructor when constructing basic understanding and practical skills to become an advanced rider.
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The effect of mental skills training on non-elite dressage performance
Inga A Wolframm1 and Dominic Micklewright2
1University of Applied Sciences Van Hall Larenstein, Wageningen, The Netherlands 2University of Essex, Colchester, UK
Corresponding author – Inga A Wolframm: [email protected]
Despite substantial evidence concerning the effectiveness of mental skills training in sports performance, only a limited number of studies have investigated their effect in equestrian sports. The aims of the current study were to identify differences in mental skills between elite and non- elite riders and to investigate the effects of a mental skills training program on ridden performance in non-elite riders. For the first part of the study, 4 elite and 4 non-elite riders were recruited for semi-structured interviews on the type of mental skills they used in preparation for a competitive event. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and then examined for differences or common themes. Mental preparation skills used by elite riders but absent in preparation routines of non-elite riders were used as a basis to devise a mental training intervention program. The intervention comprised of an initial meeting introducing sport psychology in equestrian sports, followed by 5 sessions covering goal-setting, relaxation techniques, self-talk, concentration training and imagery. For the second part of the study, 10 Dutch non-elite dressage riders (mean age 23.3±2.8) competing from novice to advanced-medium level were recruited. All riders were used as their own controls and were required to ride in three dressage competitions in their region and at their competitive level. Competitions were judged by appropriately qualified judges from the Dutch National Equestrian Federation. Riders had to participate in an initial competition approximately 6 – 8 weeks prior to the study. All riders competed for the second time approximately 1 - 2 weeks prior to the intervention and a third, and last, time upon completion of the 6-week intervention training program. Dressage performance was measured in percentage points. For the duration of the intervention training program riders participated once a week in a 2-hour session covering each of the different mental training topics. A one-way repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant effect for “time” between the three competitive results
(Wilks’ Lambda=.42, F2,8= 5.5, p<0.05). No significant difference was found between initial and pre-intervention dressage scores with p>0.05. Post-hoc paired-samples t-tests showed that post-intervention performance scores (61.73±3.07) were significantly higher than pre- intervention scores (58.2±2.98) (t9=-3.43, p=0.008). Findings suggest that mental skills training may have a positive effect on competitive dressage performance in non-elite riders, which may be due to improved horse-rider communication and interaction. Practical implications are that in addition to improving equitation skills riders and trainers should also work on relevant mental training techniques.
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Development of an online curriculum for youth safety in equine facilities
Elizabeth A Greene1, Jennifer L Whittle2, Karen L Waite3, Gwyn A Heyboer4 and Christine D Skelly3
1University of Vermont, Animal Science, Burlington, USA 2University of Kentucky, eXtension, Lexington, USA 3Michigan State University, Animal Science, East Lansing, USA 4Michigan State University, My Horse University, East Lansing, USA
Corresponding author – Elizabeth A Greene: [email protected]
Working with horses is a potentially dangerous endeavour. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (2005) reported that an estimated 23,000 youth under the age of 20 years are annually treated in emergency departments for equestrian-related injuries. Thousands of youth participate in recreational, competitive and occupational equine activities in the USA annually. There is a variety of curriculum materials and Extension bulletins designed to educate youth about horses and other equines. While safe horsemanship is a theme, these publications focus mainly on riding and exhibition skills as well as horse health care. Most youth are extremely Internet savvy, yet there are no online safety programs geared specifically to youth working at equine facilities. To address this need, My Horse University (MHU) and eXtension HorseQuest (HQ) were awarded grant funding (USA Department of Agriculture) to develop an online safety curriculum for youth working at equine facilities. This will cover topics such as horse behaviour, safe ground handling, basic horse care and management, and more. Documentation that this is an appropriate delivery method is supported by the fact that horse enthusiasts are self-selecting safety information already available through HQ (www.extension.org/horses) and MHU (www.myhorseuniversity.com). Five MHU equine webinars containing safety and handling components had 236 participants, 717 archived views, and feedback documenting intention to change behaviour/management practices in response to the webinar content. Users have shown an elevated interest in horse safety information on the HQ website as documented by high view numbers and positive feedback on the safety video clips. For example, after viewing the "Ground Handling Horses Safely" page, 90% of viewers sought out additional safety information on five related pages. All users (100%) that viewed the "Properly Fitting a Helmet" page elected to view additional horse safety content on three related pages. Also, regressions on Google Analytics data for the overall HQ site (March 2007-April 2009) showed statistically significant increases in visits (450, P<0.001) and page views (373, P=0.004) per month. Users viewing HQ horse safety content showed an increased interest in learning more about horse safety (i.e. instead of leaving the website from the first safety page viewed, users tended to look at more horse safety content). Participants in several national adult and youth focus groups ranked eleven topics about equine facility safety from most to least important. Preliminary analysis of responses ranked horse health and behaviour as the most important. The purpose of this three-year project is to develop, test, and implement an educational, interactive and engaging online equine safety curriculum for youth working at equine facilities. This new resource will improve barn/farm safety by increasing measurably the base knowledge of youth participants.
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Is safety valued in the Australian pony market?
L A Hawson1, A N McLean2, P D McGreevy1
1Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia 2Australian Equine Behaviour Centre, Broadford, VIC 3658, Australia
Corresponding author – Lesley Hawson: [email protected]
Horse riding is a particularly dangerous activity for children especially before they have accrued significant riding experience. It is reasonable to suppose that children in this relatively naïve group would be riding ponies and therefore they and their caregivers are the target market for ponies presented for sale. We investigated whether descriptors associated with ‘safer’ riding ponies were valued by vendors in the Australian pony market. We examined the Ponies and Pony Club sections in six consecutive 2009 editions of the leading Australian horse trading magazine Horse Deals. A pilot analysis identified 66 phrases that advertisers used to describe their ponies. These descriptors were assigned to categories based on the extent to which they might offer reassurance of the ponies’ safety. Three of these reflected degrees of perceived positive assurance, the fourth contained covert warning (negative) descriptors. Data on price, descriptors and other characteristics (age, height, sex, colour, breed, registration, experience) were gathered for 874 advertisements. A linear regression model analysis revealed that price significantly increased with factors such as certain heights and stated experience in showing and dressage (p<0.001) although each of these sections represent different markets with different influences on asking prices. For both the Ponies and Pony Club markets, positive descriptors were not associated with an increased asking price but for each warning descriptor in the advertisement there was a significant decrease in asking price (p<0.05). We concluded that safety descriptors do not contribute to pricing of ponies in the Australian horse market but warnings about possible unsafe aspects of the animal can have a deleterious effect on pricing decisions of pony vendors. Our findings concur with previous research into other horse markets and may be further evidence of “marketing myopia”. We recommend the market needs to be better informed of the need for safety and predictability in animals bred and trained to be ridden by younger riders.
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Can we blame the widespread use of artificial training aids and dietary supplements in the UK leisure horse population on novice owners?
Joanna Hockenhull1 and Emma Creighton2
1University of Chester, Department of Biological Sciences, Chester, UK 2Newcastle University, School of Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
Corresponding author – Joanna Hockenhull: [email protected]
The increasing use of artificial training aids and dietary supplements within the equestrian community has been anecdotally attributed to the growing number of novice owners. These owners may lack the experience and knowledge necessary to address management, training or behavioural issues by other means. A recent Internet survey of 1067 UK leisure horse owners found that artificial training aids and dietary supplements are used extensively: 79% of respondents used one or more artificial aid, e.g. martingales, drop/flash nosebands, when riding their horse and 85% routinely fed their horse dietary supplements, e.g. to promote joint health or calm behaviour, with 27% of respondents feeding four or more supplements alongside their horses concentrate feed. Data from the survey were analysed to identify associations between self-assessed rider type, self-rated skill level, experience of keeping horses and their use of artificial aids for riding or handling from the ground and dietary supplements in order to test the hypothesis that these practices are predominantly used by novice owners. Pearson’s Chi-square tests revealed that riders claiming to be committed amateurs were more likely to employ three or more artificial aids than leisure riders or professional horse riders (P<0.001) as were those with self-rated high levels of horse skills compared with those claiming low or medium skills (P<0.001). No significant associations were identified between rider type or skill and the use of supplements. Owner experience was not significantly associated with their use of artificial aids or dietary supplements. These findings suggest that attributing the widespread use of artificial aids and dietary supplements to the rise in inexperienced or novice horse owners is erroneous. Although the use of dietary supplements was found to be very widespread, with some horses receiving an alarmingly high number of supplements and potentially at risk from adverse interaction effects, these practices were not associated with indicators of owners’ lack of experience or skill. Similarly, excessive use of artificial aids was not associated with indicators of low levels of riding skill or experience, but was associated with those riders claiming high levels of skill and commitment to their sport. These data do not support the claim that novice owners resort to artificial aids and dietary supplements in an attempt to resolve riding or management problems that they do not have the experience or knowledge to address. In the case of excessive use of artificial aids, more experienced riders appear to be responsible, despite claims to high levels of skill which should equip such riders with the ability to resolve ridden performance problems using natural aids. These findings have implications for owner education programmes which typically target novice leisure horse owners. Such programmes should be expanded to promote the education of all types of horse owner.
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Two methods of training naïve horses to social separation: Does the presence of a companion increase training efficiency?
Elke Hartmann1, Janne Winther Christensen2 and Linda J Keeling1
1Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Animal Environment and Health, Uppsala, Sweden 2University of Aarhus, Animal Health and Bioscience, Tjele, Denmark
Corresponding author – Elke Hartmann: [email protected]
The intensity with which a horse responds to separation from the group is relevant for both horse and handler safety. Identification of training methods that have the potential to lower such responses and associated stress levels would be useful in practice. It was hypothesised that the initial presence of a familiar companion horse modifies responses to separation, lowers stress levels (as measured by heart rate) and increases training efficiency. Young mares (1-2 years, n=32) kept in groups of 4 horses each were exposed to social separation according to two treatments: 2 horses were trained singly (S1, n=16); and the remaining 2 horses were trained first as a pair (P2, n=8), afterwards individually (P1, n=16). The training comprised 3 steps where distance away from the group was increased. Horses had to feed from a container for at least 90 out of 120 seconds before they were allowed to proceed to the subsequent step. The final learning criterion was met when a horse fed calmly alone in the test arena (step 3). Horses on the pair-treatment had to pass step 3 together before they repeated the steps alone. All horses received maximum 20 sessions. Twelve S1 horses and 8 P1 horses reached the final learning criterion and there was no treatment effect on the number of required training sessions (S1, Mean±SD: 7.00±2.66 vs. P1: 7.37±4.60; Log-Rank: df=1, p=0.70). Similarly, there was no difference in heart rate between P1 (60.27±11.73) and S1 horses (60.05±13.80; t=0.05, p=0.96). Heart rate was significantly lower when horses were trained together (P2: 53.14±5.26) compared to when the same horses were subsequently trained individually (P1: 60.27±11.73; t=2.40, p=0.03), indicating a calming effect of being with a partner in the test situation. However, the horses appeared having to re-learn being in the test situation alone when switching to the individual training. Thus, our results suggest that from a practical point of view it may not be efficient to train naïve young horses to tolerate social separation initially with a familiar companion. Further studies are warranted that investigate the effect of a trained and older companion horse on training efficiency and stress levels during social separation.
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Non-invasive assessment of positive emotions in horses using behavioural and physiological indicators
Rachael B Stratton1, Natalie K Waran2, Ngaio J Beausoleil1, Kevin J Stafford1, Gemma M Worth3, Rachel Munn1 and Mairi Stewart3
1Massey University, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Palmerston North, New Zealand 2Unitec Institute of Technology, Department of Natural Sciences, Auckland, New Zealand 3AgResearch, Animal Behaviour and Welfare Group, Hamilton, New Zealand
Corresponding author – Rachael B Stratton: [email protected]
Recent research has investigated positive emotions (e.g. pleasure) in sheep and dogs in response to a shift in animal welfare science focus towards optimising welfare through the presence of positive states. Emotions can be described in terms of behaviour, autonomic activity and subjective feeling. We investigated changes in behaviour and indicators of autonomic activity of thirteen horses during four putatively positive (desirable) and negative (undesirable) treatments over 4 consecutive days; P1 (grooming preferred site - withers), P2 (clicker noise previously paired with feeding), C (control, standing in stocks loosely cross-tied near other horses) and NV (grooming non-preferred site - inguinal area). A modified Latin square design was used to balance for day and order of treatment effects. Movement behaviour, heart rate (HR) and respiratory rate (RR) were recorded continuously pre-treatment (10min Pre), during (5min Trt) and post-treatment (10min Post). Pre and Post conditions were the same as during C. Analysis was done using REML and Tukey t-value, mean values are given ± SEM. There was no change in the movement of head/neck, forelegs or hindlegs from Pre to Trt. There was weak evidence for a trend of increased head and foreleg movements from Pre to Post with P1 compared to C. HR decreased with P1 during Trt by 5.9 beats/min ±3.2 or -12.9% from the last min of Pre compared to C, which remained fairly stable (+1.4 beats/min ±3.2 or +3.4%) p<0.05; and compared to NV, which increased by 5.3 beats/min ±3.2 or +12.2% p<0.05. RR increased with NV during Trt by 3.1 breaths/min ±0.6 or +24.9% from Pre compared to C, which remained stable (-0.2 breaths/min ±0.6 or -1.3%) p<0.05; and compared to P1, which decreased by 0.9 breaths/min ±0.6 or -6.9% p<0.01. Based on this preliminary analysis, HR during treatment, and possibly post-treatment behaviour, show potential for assessing putatively positive experiences from neutral or negative ones. Whereas RR during treatment is useful for differentiating negative from neutral or positive experiences. Interpretation of these changes in relation to the emotional state is challenging. The results form a foundation for further work incorporating preferential tests and measures of neurochemistry that may help clarify the observed differences.
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Cortisol release in sport horses participating in equestrian competitions and events
Mareike Becker-Birck1, Alice Schmidt1, Sophie Biau2, Erich Möstl3, Benjamin Morillon2, Jörg Aurich4, Jean Michel Faure2 and Christine Aurich5
1Graf Lehndorff Institute for Equine Science, Neustadt (Dosse), Germany 2Ecole Nationale d'Equitation, Saumur Cedex, France 3University of Veterinary Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, Vienna, Austria 4University of Veterinary Sciences, Division of Reproduction, Vienna, Austria 5University of Veterinary Sciences, Graf Lehndorff Institute for Equine Science, Vienna, Austria
Corresponding author – Mareike Becker-Birck: [email protected]
Equestrian competitions require both physical activity and mental adaptation to new challenges in sport horses. Cortisol release is an accepted parameter for stress analysis but is also released in response to physical activity. Cortisol may improve fitness of the animal by energy mobilisation and changes in behaviour. In this study, we have compared concentrations of cortisol immunoreactivity (IR) in saliva of horses in response to the following equestrian events: (a) presentation of horses for sale at an auction (n=10), (b) presentation of the classical schools above the ground (sauteurs en liberté, n=10), (c) presentation of classical dressage in a quadrille at advanced level (reprise de manege, n=10), (d) participation in equestrian competitions at different levels (n=13). Saliva was collected at 60 and 30 min before the event, during the warm up phase (for b and c), immediately after the equestrian event and at 5, 15, 30, 60, 90 and 120 min thereafter. All four events caused a significant increase in salivary cortisol IR concentrations (p<0.05 vs. respective baseline). Highest cortisol IR concentrations were determined at 0 min (a-c) and 5 min (d) after the events. Peak concentrations were 0.7±0.1 ng/ml for horses at auction (a), 1.9±0.2 ng/ml for horses after schools above the ground (b), 1.2±0.4 ng/ml for horses at a presentation of classical dressage (c) and 2.2±0.4 ng/ml for horses participating in equestrian competitions (d; p<0.01 between groups). Except for the competing horses, cortisol IR concentrations decreased rapidly after the event and baseline values were reached within approximately one hour. Only in the horses taking part in equestrian competitions, at two hours after the competition, cortisol IR concentrations had not yet returned to the pre-event baseline. When the competing horses were divided by age, salivary cortisol IR was higher in young horses aged 3 to 5 years (2.5±0.9 ng/ml) than in horses >5 years of age (2.0±0.6 ng/ml, p<0.05). Although all four events caused an increase in cortisol release, concentrations were always lower than in previous studies of our group on the initial training of young horses and in transported horses. In conclusion, all equestrian events analysed elicited an increased cortisol release in horses. This response differed between the events with equestrian competitions leading to highest cortisol concentrations. Cortisol release also decreased with age and thus training and experience of the animals. Although clearly evident, cortisol release in response to equestrian events was lower than in horses exposed to other anthropogenic challenges. A transient increase in cortisol secretion might enable the horses to cope with the requirements of equestrian sports.
Supported by Stiftung Forschung für das Pferd, the Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management and the German Equestrian Federation.
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The short and long-term changes in mechanical properties of a synthetic equestrian surface
Emma L Blundell1, Alison J Northrop2, Andrew G Owen3 and Peter J Lumsden4
1Myerscough College, Research, Preston, U.K. 2Myerscough College, Equine, Preston, U.K. 3Myerscough College, Sportsturf, Preston, U.K. 4University of Central Lancashire, Research, Preston, U.K.
Corresponding author – Emma L Blundell: [email protected]
Properties of synthetic equestrian surfaces such as hardness, traction and penetration resistance may change following surface maintenance and competition use. Management of surfaces is based on manufacturers’ recommendations and empirical evidence of individual site managers. Actual quantification of the changes in mechanical properties may highlight key shifts in characteristics and variability in a surface over time. Findings may inform management regimes within the industry. The aim of this study was to therefore establish the changes in mechanical properties of a synthetic equestrian surface throughout competition, and over a period of six months. A sand, fibre, rubber and wax surface at an indoor competition centre in the U.K. was selected. Five measurements of hardness, traction and penetration resistance were taken using a Clegg hammer, traction apparatus and Longchamp penetrometer respectively, at thirty two arena positions which were kept constant throughout all trials. The measurements were taken before a preliminary, unaffiliated dressage competition, on the prepared surface, and repeated at the end of the competition. Six competitions were assessed, over six months. Temperature data was collected during competitions. Standard maintenance was carried out daily between competitions by arena personnel. The data were analysed using General Linear Models. Significant changes were noted in the mechanical properties at each competition (P<0.05). Over six months, hardness decreased from 80±0.9G to 62±0.8G (P<0.001), traction decreased from 21.5±0.1Nm to 16.9±0.1Nm (P<0.001), and total penetration depth increased from 1.9±0.03cm to 3.6±0.06cm (P<0.001). Hardness and traction results from the fifth month were the opposite of other months. This was the only month when the surface had been prepared by different personnel. Findings demonstrate that mechanical properties of surfaces change significantly over a dressage competition. Short term changes could leave late competitors working on a different surface to early competitors; however information regarding competition results was not collected for this study. This highlights a need for further examination of the interrelationship between performance and surface variability. Significant long term changes were evident in hardness, traction and penetration. It is therefore suggested, as a practical implication for the industry that objective assessment of mechanical properties, in addition to maintenance may help to provide more consistent surface properties in an equestrian arena.
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Food versus scratching as rewards for horses (Equus caballus): effects on the human- horse relationship
Carol Sankey1, Marie-Annick Richard-Yris2, Séverine Henry1, Aleksandra Górecka-Bruzda3, Zbigniew Jaworski4 and Martine Hausberger2
1Université de Rennes1, Ethos Ethologie animale et humaine, Paimpont, France 2Université de Rennes1, Ethos Ethologie animale et humaine, Rennes, France 3Polish Academy of Sciences, Institute of Genetics and Animal Breeding, Wólka Kosowska, Poland 4University of Warmia and Mazury, Faculty of Animal Bioengineering, Olsztyn, Poland
Corresponding author – Carol Sankey: [email protected]
Physical contact (e.g. stroking, scratching) is often used as a positive reinforcement in horse training. While studies reveal that human physical contact does not seem to be innately pleasurable for the horse, it has been shown that scratching the withers induces a decrease in heart rate. In this study, we tested the effects of a food reward vs. scratching the withers in horse training. Thus, the same experimenter (unknown to the horses at the beginning of the experiment) trained 20 Konik polski horses, aged 1 to 2 years, to remain immobile for up to 1 minute in response to a vocal command, using either a food reward (1 small piece of carrot, NF=10) or scratching the withers (3 vigorous scratches, NS=10), and evaluated the effects of such training on the human-horse relationship. Horses had received no previous specific training and had simply been habituated to the halter. Each horse was trained 5 min/day for 6 days. It was rewarded every time it responded correctly to the command during the training session, immediately after the required immobility duration, which increased throughout training, from 5 seconds to 1 minute. The results reveal that learning performance was higher in the food reward group than in the scratching group (maximal duration of immobility after 6 days of training:
XF=55.7±4.3 seconds, XS=28.3±8.7, MW: U=13, P<0.05). Moreover, while training with a food reward improved the human-horse relationship, scratching the withers did not have such positive effects (e.g. latency to approach a motionless human after training: XF=78.8±37.7 seconds,
XS=211.4±37.4, MW: U=15, P<0.01; no difference between groups before training). Overall, it appears that scratching the withers may not be considered as a primary positive reinforcement for horses and does not, contrary to food rewards, have positive effects on the human-horse relationship. This study has obvious practical implications, for only truly rewarding stimuli ensure a positive and efficient training and lead to a better horse-human relationship.
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Passion for horses: improving horse welfare communication through identifying information search patterns, knowledge levels, beliefs, and daily practices of horse enthusiasts
Kathalijne Visser1, Elvi Van Wijk2, Harry Kortstee2 and Jos Verstegen3
1Wageningen University and Research Centre, Livestock Research, Lelystad, The Netherlands 2Wageningen University and Research Centre, LEI, Wageningen, The Netherlands 3Wageningen University and Research Centre, LEI, The Hague, The Netherlands
Corresponding author – Kathalijne Visser: [email protected]
An increasing number of people keep horses for leisure and sports. Some ‘new’ horse enthusiasts seem to lack correct knowledge, beliefs and daily practices to ensure welfare of horses. Simultaneously, ‘old’ horse enthusiasts tend to be less receptive to new insights and are reluctant to change their habits. The aim of this project was to find ways to improve horse welfare by gaining insight into the diversity of horse enthusiasts with respect to their information search patterns, knowledge levels, beliefs and daily practices. An internet questionnaire containing 30 questions to these areas was conducted. Basic information of the 4267 respondents show that 85% of the horse enthusiasts appeared to be women. 64% of the respondents were convinced that welfare problems occur in the whole horse sector, 55% believed that the government should set minimum requirements whereas 77% believed that the horse sector should take its responsibility. The most-frequently mentioned information source was the personal contact with other horse enthusiasts (83%), followed by the vet (75%) and the farrier (70%). A cluster analysis was used to identify types of horse enthusiasts who responded similarly on several items in the questionnaire. This revealed that four different types of horse enthusiasts could be defined on the basis of their information search patterns, knowledge levels, beliefs and daily practices, with respect to horse welfare (highest ratio of distance measures = 1.75). These clusters could be labelled as horse enthusiasts devoted to 1) living in the country side, 2) riding competitions, 3) horse breeding, and 4) natural horsemanship. There were significant differences between the four clusters. Horse enthusiasts living in the country side and horse enthusiasts devoted to horse breeding seem to lack some basic knowledge about horse welfare; horse enthusiasts riding competitions devote most time with horses and horse enthusiasts devoted to natural horsemanship are the least organized group of horse enthusiasts. This study has demonstrated that four clusters of horse enthusiasts can be defined with significantly different information search patterns, knowledge levels, beliefs and daily practices, related to horse welfare. These results should be used for developing communication strategies to effectively disseminate knowledge to the horse enthusiasts and hence to improve horse welfare.
This project was funded by the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Safety.
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Tackling global issues in equine training – The need to develop ‘Glocal’ strategies
Natalie K Waran
Unitec Institute of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
Its interesting the way in which we can become so distracted by one aspect of a much bigger problem that we ‘fiddle whilst Rome burns ‘. The equestrian world’s eye has been firmly focused on the use of specific training methods like ‘hyperflexion’, and prior to that it was misuse of bits and spurs, yet we often lost sight of the need to tackle some of the basic problems in training, riding and competition that impact negatively on equine welfare. The new generation of horse owners/riders has no background with horses and consequently no inherited philosophies and practices. This presents a refreshing opportunity with these equestrian pioneers – they have a different attitude towards their use of horses, they can be encouraged to question traditional practices and training methods – and be persuaded to use scientifically validated, effective and humane approaches to training and competition. Yet these young riders are soon influenced by the need to win competitions where little has changed in relation to expectations of the horse and rider, there is no encouragement for a more rigorous scientific approach to training, and no prizes for those who train their horses more humanely. How can we take advantage of this opportunity to better educate young horse owners about the needs of their horses, and the methods that should be adopted when there are no incentives for them to stand out from the crowd and challenge the traditional (including cultural) horse training philosophies and techniques that have been historically used within that equine discipline. Strategies to address this issue must include the need to address competition rules and standards in relation to horse and rider safety, as well as coach training and expectations. Recent examples of changes in domestic rules around equipment use in competition having influence on global perspectives, include the debate around bitless bridles – one country (The Netherlands) has now allowed their use – and consequently pressure is being placed upon the International governing body (FEI) to allow their use at International level. This paper will address the need to develop ‘Glocal’ strategies (where people consider global equine welfare issues and act locally) to tackle welfare issues in horse use, training and management, present examples of how this has been started in various countries and discuss how this may positively impact upon global issues in equine welfare and how so called traditional techniques could be evaluated.
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Science alone is not always enough: The importance of ethical assessment for a more comprehensive view of equine welfare
Camie R Heleski1 and Raymond Anthony2
1Michigan State University, Animal Science, East Lansing, MI, USA 2University of Alaska Anchorage, Philosophy, Anchorage, AK, USA
Corresponding author – Camie R Heleski: [email protected]
Many of us in equitation science have worked hard to use objective measures in horse behaviour/welfare studies; ones that colleagues will appreciate. This is a good thing. However, since equine welfare is not purely an empirical matter, we must recognize that science alone may not be enough when assessing equine treatment. As Bernie Rollin says ‘Science is not value free.’ Regarding horse treatment, the equitation science community must realize, as does the public, that different value assumptions will lead to different welfare emphases. Thus there is an intimate interplay between science and values where the quality of life of our mixed communities is concerned. As Temple Grandin states ‘if a practice cannot pass the test of being acceptable to an average airplane passenger, it won’t ultimately matter whether science proves or disproves it.’ If certain training practices are shown to the public and a majority find the practices objectionable, the practices should be re-evaluated – regardless of what science has proven about them. One example is the practice of intensive stalling (i.e. nearly continuous box stall housing) so prevalent in equine competition industries. If we look only to science to assess this practice, the answer may be ambiguous. Most science to date has not proven that intensive stalling negatively impacts horse welfare, especially if horses are provided some forced exercise to maintain bone strength. There may be a small rise in stereotypic behaviours, but that has not been unequivocally proven. Yet most horse people, those who understand equine behavioural needs, will tell you that nearly continuous stalling of horses is inappropriate for good welfare. There are still many that believe if a horse is healthy and performing then its welfare is good. On closer scrutiny, equine welfare is conceptually more nuanced than this and includes an ethical/values-based component. Welfare is not only concerned with biological functioning, but also with 'affective states' such as emotions, pain and suffering. These emphases, informed by empirical insights, reflect value frameworks that influence scientific study of equine welfare. If, for example, a horse is ridden in a method where it receives nearly continuous aversive stimuli with little/no opportunity to make a ‘right’ choice, does it suffer? We do not have absolute scientific proof of this. Once an animal habituates to a specific training practice, cortisol levels and heart rates may not rise, but when we watch the responses of the horse, do we feel comfortable defending the practice? Here, we consider the complementary values-based side of equine welfare and suggest how ethical and scientific assessments can align to enhance equine welfare. Each aspect of the horse industry contains at least a few ethically questionable practices. We must take greater responsibility to investigate these practices and strive to do what is fair in terms of horse welfare.
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Abstracts for posters
Can previous experience of interaction with a particular human influence horses’ voluntary interest for contacting this person?
Anna Jansson
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Animal Nutrition and Management, Uppsala, Sweden
The aim was to investigate if previous experience of interaction with a particular person influences horses’ voluntary interest for contacting this person. Four horse-human interactions were investigated: A) leading over an unfamiliar black rubber carpet, B) putting oats and molassed sugar beet pulp in the crib of each horse's box while the horses was in the box and then allowing it to eat it, C) brushing the body (horse tied in its’ box) and D) grooming at the withers, an attempt to mimic a friendly horse-horse interaction (horse loose in its’ box). Four women previously unknown to eight Standardbred horses from the same herd performed one treatment each on all horses. Each treatment was performed once daily and in total seven times in each horse within a ten days period. At day 11, one horse at a time was taken from their box and let free in a familiar paddock outside the stable. The four women and an unknown control woman were standing in the opposite end of the paddock, as far as possible from the entrance, for 10 min. The horses’ behaviour was observed by direct observation during the interactions and was videotaped during the paddock-test. Analysis of the horses position in the paddock was made by dividing it into four areas; AA=closest to the women, AB=next closest to them, AC=most far away from them, not at the entrance and AD=most far away from them, in the entrance area, closest to the stable door. Data were analysed using SAS and the GLM- Procedure and Chi-square test. All horses showed some avoidance while crossing the carpet on day 1. At day 10 all horses except for one, crossed the carpet with no or only minor reactions. Four individuals showed no avoidance while being brushed and groomed throughout the study. The other horses showed avoidance (and ears backwards) while being brushed and groomed and these reactions increased over time. The horses showed no preference for any woman during the paddock test. The time spent in area AA, AB, AC and AD was 161±47, 140±18, 57±26 and 242±51 seconds, respectively and the horses spent significantly more time in area AD than in AC (P<0,05). These results show that none of the interactions performed in the present study positively affected the horses´ interest for human contact in the test situation. In contrast, most time were spent in the area closest to the stable and herd members.
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Physiology and behaviour changes in horses during and after human-horse interactions
Anna Jansson1, Katarina Nostell1, Eva Hydbring-Sandberg1, Sophie Maurer1 and Kerstin Uvnäs- Moberg1
1Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Animal Nutrition and Management, Uppsala, Sweden
Corresponding author – Anna Jansson: [email protected]
The aim of the study was to measure blood pressure, heart rate, plasma oxytocin concentrations and behavioural changes in horses during and after human-horse interactions. Nine horses and their owners were subjected to four treatments in a random order. The treatments were: H = owner stroking the horses’ forehead, B = owner brushing the body of the horse with exception for the head, G = owner grooming/scratching the withers and C = control treatment where the owners were standing beside the horse. A catheter was introduced to one of the jugular veins at a minimum of 45 min before the treatments started. Each treatment lasted for 4 minutes but sampling continued until 45 min after the start of each treatment (with the owner being nearby the horse throughout the 45 min). Before and after 2, 4, 15, 25 and 45 minutes blood pressure and heart rate was measured at the tail root (Cardell Veterinary Monitors, USA), behaviour was noted by direct observation of specific behaviours/body positions (yes/no) and blood samples were collected for analysis of oxytocin (no blood sample was collected at 2 min). Data were analysed using the GLM-Procedure and Chi-square test in Statistical Analysis System (SAS). In the present abstract, significant (p<0,05) treatment effects at specific time points are reported for the physiological parameters and whole treatment effects for the behavioural observations. The mean heart rate was lower during H than during B after 2 minutes (36 vs 53 beats/min, SE=5). The systolic blood pressure was lower during H compared to G after 4 minutes (102 vs 118 mmHg, SE=5) and also lower compared to B after 25 minutes (102 vs 115 mmHg, SE=5). Oxytocin concentrations were higher during C compared to B, H and G after 45 minutes (52 vs 24, 26 and 9 g/ml, respectively, SE=6) and the concentration was also higher during H compared to G at that time. The horses rested their hind legs, yawned and scraped with their front legs more during C than during H, G and B (data not shown). The study indicates that interactions between horses and humans might affect the physiology and behaviour of the horse. Furthermore, stroking of the forehead seemed to be linked to more calm and relaxation, when compared to the other treatments.
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Conflicting motivations between horse and rider?
Harry J Blokhuis1, Katharina L Graunke2, Gijs Hulsebosch3 and Mari Zetterqvist Blokhuis4
1Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Animal Environment and Health, Uppsala, Sweden 2Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology, Dummerstorf, Germany 3Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands 4MZ Equitation, Skokloster, Sweden
Corresponding author – Harry J Blokhuis: [email protected]
In the context of a project focussing on the horse-rider interaction we carried out an experiment aiming to induce conflicting motivations of horse and rider and possibly identify parameters to measure the level of distress in the horse caused by such a situation. During a period of six weeks, 13 show jumping horses (5-14 years old) were conditioned to a doorbell sound that marked the end of the daily training session after which the horse was led to its box and fed. On the experimental day following the six weeks of conditioning the horses were trained as usual by professional riders. However, in a slot of three minutes (minutes 9 to 11 of training), the rider was requested to make the horse respectively canter, trot and walk (control period). After 20 minutes of training the doorbell was sounded as usual but the rider was then requested to resume the training for another three minutes and again make the horse canter, trot and walk (experimental period). During the two three minute periods, behaviour was recorded with a video camera. Video tapes were analyzed and duration and frequency of behaviours recorded using the decoding program ‘The Observer XP’. In the experimental period, the horses were disobeying the rider’s instructions more often, and showing the requested gait later after the rider’s instructions (p<0.01). In the experimental period the horses spent less time with their head held higher than the imaginary elongation of their back spine but the nose still below this line (p<0.01), and less time with the ears ‘steady forward’ (p<0.01). As a whole the behavioural differences between control and experimental period were very small. However, the later reaction to the rider’s instructions, the shorter duration of ‘ears steady’ and another position of the head indicated that the horses were not completely indifferent about the situation. In this experimental set-up it remains unclear how much exactly the sound of the doorbell contributed to signalling the end of the training. It is concluded that these experienced show jumping horses were not particularly upset by the breaking of a routine. However, they clearly reacted to breaking the routine and for instance younger horses in combination with less experienced riders may show much more conflict behaviour.
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Changes in heart rate variability during the initial training of three-year old sport horses
Alice Schmidt1, Jörg Aurich2, Jürgen Müller1 and Christine Aurich3
1Graf Lehndorff Institute for Equine Science, Neustadt (Dosse), Germany 2University of Veterinary Sciences, Division of Reproduction, Vienna, Austria 3University of Veterinary Sciences, Graf Lehndorff Institute for Equine Science, Vienna, Austria
Corresponding author – Alice Schmidt: [email protected]
Many situations to which domestic horses are exposed are potentially stressful. However, studies on the stress experienced by horses during equestrian training are limited. Besides cortisol and behaviour, cardiac beat-to-beat (RR) interval and heart rate variability (HRV) have been suggested as parameters for stress analysis. The HRV, i.e. short-term fluctuations in the RR interval, represents the balance of sympathetic and parasympathetic tone. Increases in the values of the HRV variables standard deviation of RR interval (SDRR) and root mean square of successive RR differences (RMSSD) reflect a shift towards more parasympathetic dominance, while reduced values indicate sympathetic dominance. In the present study, three-year-old Warmblood stallions (n=9) and mares (n=7) were followed through a 9 and 12-week training programme to determine changes in RR interval and HRV associated with individual training steps. The RR interval was recorded and SDRR, RMSSD and the geometric means standard deviation 1 (SD1) and 2 (SD2) were calculated. The RR interval decreased in response to lunging (e.g. in mares before first riding from 1530±80 to 1259±136 msec). This decrease is most likely caused by physical activity during lunging. A further, pronounced decrease occurred when the rider was mounting (502±53 msec, p<0.05). At this time, the horse was not showing any pronounced physical activity. Such a decrease was absent on days when horses were only lunged without a rider mounting. When the horse was slowly ridden forward after the rider had mounted, RR interval increased again (775±45 msec). In case of physical activity dominating at that time, a further decrease in RR interval should have occurred. As for RR interval, also for the HRV variables SDRR, RMSSD and SD1 lowest values were reached during mounting of a rider (p<0.05) and values increased again when the rider had mounted and physical activity was requested from the horse with the rider on its back (e.g. SDRR in mares at first riding: baseline 71.7±7, lunging 60±7, mounting 17±3, moving with rider 39±5 msec, p<0.05). The response in RR interval and HRV to mounting of a rider became less pronounced with ongoing training. While for periods when the horses were lunged or ridden, we cannot differentiate between stress-induced and activity-induced effects, a marked decrease in HRV in non-moving animals often is interpreted as evidence of a stressful experience.
Supported by Stiftung Forschung für das Pferd, the Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management and the German Equestrian Federation.
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Identification of “join up” time between horse and trainer in two types of round pen
José Nicolau P Puoli Filho1, Adriana C S Aguiar1, Ana C Barbosa1, Vitória F Gonçalves2, Marcilio D S Mota2, Erika Marcelo1 and Ana C Donofre1
1Sao Paulo State University, Animal Production, Botucatu, Brazil 2Sao Paulo State University, Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Botucatu, Brazil
Corresponding author – José Nicolau P Puoli Filho: [email protected]
Among western riding, the use of a round pen to break and interact with colts in a gentle and less aggressive way is very important. The working time spent inside the round pen depends, basically, on the interaction and connection (join up) between animal and trainer. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the type of round pen used, sex of the animal and direction the movement started (clockwise or anti-clockwise) influenced how much time the horse took to “join up” with the trainer and if influenced the time spent between first and second “join up”. The subjects were forty American Quarter horses, aged between 3 and 13 years old. Twenty were males (stallions and geldings) and the other twenty were mares. Each animal's reactions were recorded in video and the time they spent to join up was registered. Both pens were 16 meter diameter and were either pipe corral panel type round pen (the animal could see through the fence) or solid panel (the animal could not see through the fence). At the beginning all animals were pursued by a trainer that was unfamiliar to the horses. The trainer's walking speed increased until the animals showed signs of submission, such as licking, chewing or lowering the head. At this point, pressure was taken off, chasing ceased and the trainer tried to approach the animal's head. As soon as the horse accepted being touched on the head (time I), the trainer kept touching the animal's neck, ribs and hind quarters. After that the trainer turned his back on the animal and walked away to see if the horse would follow him. Straight away the same procedure was performed in the opposite direction until the horse connected with the trainer again (time II). There was no significant statistical difference, according PROC GLM–SAS, between sexes (males: time I=501,39, time II=191,33, females: time I=492,95, time II=177,95) or direction the movement started (clockwise: time I=444,33, time II=189,70, anti-clockwise: time I=450,17, time II=179,71). However, time I was significantly affected (P<0,05) by the type of the round pen, being the mean time for the animal to connect in the solid panel pen was 374,95 seconds, while in the one, it was 519,38 seconds. Sex, round pen and direction did not influence if the animal followed the trainer or not. The use of a solid panel round pen allows the animal to be more attentive to the trainer, avoiding distractions and therefore reducing working time with the animal. This significant reduction in time can be very useful if a trainer has many animals to work with, but the solid panel pen also increased the animal's reactions to the trainer movements. Therefore, the type of round pen used has to take into account the horse's personality and stress level, because a solid panel pen could represent too much pressure for a more sensitive horse.
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Is there a relationship between facial whorl direction and position and performance in the Thoroughbred racehorse?
Rose M Scofield1 and Hayley Randle1
1Duchy College Stoke Climsland, Equitation Science, Callington, UK
Corresponding author Rose M Scofield: [email protected]
Many indicators of racehorse performance have been investigated in order to predict the future success of a particular individual. Studies have reported links between physical features of facial whorls and behaviour tendencies and facial whorls and laterality. If an easily identifiable (physical) indicator of performance such as a facial whorl could be validated it might be used by racehorse trainers as a tool to decide which animals enter training. This study investigated the relationship between facial whorl direction and position and handicap rating in individual racehorses that have competed in the UK. 89 Thoroughbred racehorses and ex-racehorses were assessed at race meetings, training yards and livery yards by direct observation. Photographs were also taken when permission was granted and facial whorl direction and position were validated by an independent observer. Current handicap ratings were taken from the publicly available Racing Post database. The direction (clockwise, C or counter-clockwise, CC) and positioning (left, L), (middle, M), or (right, R) of the midline and height in relation to the eye position, (above, A), (eye level, EL) and below, B) of each whorl was recorded using a simple coding methodology. Analysis of the preliminary data obtained to date (n=89) indicates that none of the measured physical features of facial whorls are related to racehorse performance (F1,87=0.83, F2,86=0.57,
F2,86=0.96, p>0.05). Further data collection is currently taking place and after conducting a power analysis it is expected that n=500 horses will be assessed. It is possible that facial hair whorl features may provide an easily assessed physical indicator of potential ability and performance on the racetrack. However, results to date show that this cannot be applied at present. It is possible that an increase in sample size may redefine the results.
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Impact of the temperament of young stallions on their stress reactions when subjected to a standardised veterinary examination
Marie Peeters1, Denis Verwilghen2, Didier Serteyn2 and Marc Vandenheede1
1University of Liège, Ethology and Animal Welfare, Liège, Belgium 2University of Liège, Equine Clinic, Liège, Belgium
Corresponding author – Marie Peeters: [email protected]
Handling and veterinary examination of horses can induce dangerous stress reactions. It especially occurs in young and non-educated horses, particularly stallions, and makes their manipulation a risk for breeders, grooms and medical staff. Moreover, these stressful situations will affect the animal’s health and welfare. As stress reactivity is thought to be partly determined by genetic factors, scientists, vets and breeders are likely to be interested in adding temperament assessments in stallions’ selection schemes. The aims of this study were to assess young stallions' temperament and to compare it to their stress reactions during a standardised veterinary examination for stud-book admission. It consists of a general examination, a lameness examination including flexion tests, an endoscopy of the upper airway and a standardised radiological exam. From 2008 to 2009, 92 stallions were evaluated. Owners were asked to fill out a 25-items questionnaire (adapted from Lloyd, Martin et al. 2007) about their horse’s temperament. Stallions were observed from the moment they were unloaded from the trailer at the clinic till the end of the veterinary examinations. Their behaviours during these clinical steps were scored by the experimenter: for example, when the animal unloaded from the trailer, the way he went down could be ‘calm’, ‘quick’ or ‘sudden’. The number of trials needed to perform examinations and the head and body movements of horses were also noted during these manipulations. Each vet in charge of the examination fulfilled a short questionnaire about the horse’s reactivity and the quality of the performed exams (5-Likert visual analogue scale). During the examinations, we couldn’t contain five horses and parts of the examination had to be interrupted or totally abandoned. The medical staff was injured three times and grooms or vets were slightly hurt five times. Significant correlations (rs) were found between temperament assessed by owners and horses’ reactions during manipulations (p<0.05). Horses assessed by owners as ‘Dominant’ had sudden head shaking during blood sampling (rs=0.23) and during
ECG electrodes placement (rs=0.29). Horses assessed as ‘Anxious’ went down more suddenly from the trailer (rs=0.31). Horses scored as ‘Excitable’ showed more head shaking during ECG recording (rs=0.22) and more movements during general examination (rs=0.24). Other significant correlations were obtained between behavioural data and vet’s questionnaires. Fear reactions as feet movements are correlated to poor quality of exams assessed by vets (rs=-0.84 during flexions exam, and -0.53 during endoscopy). All the examined horses were young and probably not well educated yet and may therefore not represent the same behavioural patterns as adults. However, it may be important to include personality assessment as a trait in the selection of reproductive stallions - as it’s already done in some breeds and some countries.
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The relationship between facial whorl characteristics and laterality exhibited in horses
Hannah L Savin1 and Hayley Randle1
1Duchy College, St Austell, UK
Corresponding author – Hannah L Savin: [email protected]
It is becoming recognised that understanding the motor laterality exhibited by individual horses may contribute to the wellbeing of the horse. In modern equitation, demands are put on the horse that interferes with their asymmetry and natural movement. It has been suggested that facial hair whorl direction (FWD) may be used as a physical indicator of laterality. Following successful validation, digital pedometers (designed for human use) were used to record the activity of the forelegs of 22 horses. Readings were taken over a 4h period whilst the horses were stabled with forage and water available ad libitum. Three replications were conducted for 9 horses with a clockwise (C) facial whorl and 13 horses with a counter-clockwise (CC) facial hair whorl. There was a significant effect of whorl direction on the total number of steps recorded (F1,128=7.77; P<0.01). Horses with C whorls took more steps, i.e. more mobile in general (mean=11.4±18.4) than horses with CC whorls (mean=4.39±18.4). Laterality Indices (LI) were derived and significance determined for resulting z scores (P<0.05). Analysis of LI indicated an overall left bias within the sample population (mean LI=7.27±18.4) regardless of whorl direction, however horses with a C whorl exhibited a stronger left bias (mean LI=11.4±17.2) than horses with CC whorls (mean LI=4.39±19.4). Pedometers are a low cost device which can be used to measure motor laterality in horses. A better understanding of laterality may improve the welfare and general health of the horse and improve the safety of the rider/handler. Understanding laterality limitations may lead to more effective and equally sympathetic training methods.
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What does my horse?
Kathalijne Visser1 and Maudia Van Wijhe-Kiezebrink1
1Wageningen University and Research Centre, Livestock Research, Lelystad, The Netherlands
Corresponding author – Kathalijne Visser: [email protected]
In light of horse welfare discussions, the horse industry in the Netherlands called for a recording protocol to gain more insight in daily activities of horses living in the Dutch horse industry. The aim of this study was to develop such a recording protocol and to collect some figures using the developed protocol. The protocol had to include main activities like spending time in a stall, at pasture and time being worked. The protocol was applied by the stable owner who registered each horse’s activities every 15 minutes, 24 hours a day, 7 consecutive days. Additionally, general information about the stable(management) and the horses was collected. Horse owners were asked to tick the most important use of their horses (e.g. riding lessons, sport competitions, breeding etc). In total 640 horse owners were invited to participate in the study. At last, the data of 138 horse owners was used in the analysis, representing 488 horses. Based on their responses it was shown that in the fall of 2009, these horses spent almost 12 hours per day in the stall; horses used in sports (competition) spent significantly more time (14-15 hours) in the stall compared to horses used for breeding or leisure (F=12.2, p<0.001). Horses spent over 9 hours a day at pasture; horses used in sports spent significantly less time at pasture compared to horses used for breeding or leisure (F=15.6, p<0.001). In general, horses spent more than two hours per day in a paddock and were worked less than half an hour a day. Horses used for instruction lessons were worked almost 1.5 hour a day, which was significantly more compared to horses used for leisure, sports or breeding (F=46.0, p<0.001). This project has made it possible for horse owners to collect data on daily activities of their horses in a standardized way using a recording protocol. Furthermore, it has made them aware of differences in daily activities between horses hold for different goals. Hopefully, this insight will increase their awareness of horses’ needs and motivations and this may help in discussions how this may influence horse welfare.
This project has been funded by the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Safety.
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The strengths of statistical techniques in identifying patterns underlying apparently random behavioural problems
Joanna Hockenhull1 and Emma Creighton2
1University of Chester, Department of Biological Sciences, Chester, UK 2Newcastle University, School of Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
Corresponding author – Joanna Hockenhull: [email protected]
Many horses express a number of apparently insignificant behaviour problems. These problems may occur infrequently or have little impact on the owner’s interaction with their horse. Consequently, such problems are often ignored or dismissed by owners as a quirk of the horse’s personality or the consequence of a previous home or experience. Yet what if these minor problems represent a larger, more significant concern? The inability of owners to recognise patterns behind the seemingly disparate or random behaviour problems expressed by their horse has major welfare implications. Individual horses are likely to differ in the way they outwardly express an underlying problem, such as pain or some form of environmental inadequacy. Furthermore, such behavioural expressions are generally only very subtle aberrations at first, only deteriorating in to overtly intrusive or dangerous behaviours when no remedial action is taken by the owner. Together, these tendencies mean that many owners fail to make the association between behaviour problems or take steps to identify and resolve their cause. Here we report how epidemiological and statistical techniques are valuable tools for identifying patterns in behavioural data and revealing underlying associations between groups of behaviour problems that may be overlooked if relying on observational data alone. A series of three cross-sectional surveys, self-administered via the Internet, were used to generate data regarding the frequency 44 different behaviour problems were expressed by a representative sample of UK leisure horses. Each of the three surveys focused on a different area of the horse’s life and the behaviour problems included in each survey varied accordingly, falling in to the categories of stable-related or handling problems, pre-feeding problems and ridden behaviour problems. Data were generated for 1324-1850 individual horses depending on the survey. Principle components analyses were used to identify underlying patterns in the behaviour problems included in each survey. The analyses each accounted for over half of the variance in the data, ranging from 52.4%-57.1% depending on the survey, and identified between three and five biologically meaningful behaviour problem components. The components in order of prevalence were: problems with slowing down/resistance when ridden (84%), physical discomfort when ridden (61%), handling issues (57%), frustration (52%), pre-feeding frustration (49%), abnormal oral/ingestive behaviour (48%), pre-feeding aggression (44%), pre-feeding stereotypies (39%), jumping issues when ridden (36%), aggression towards people (33%), locomotor stereotypies (22%) and extreme conflict when ridden (22%). These findings demonstrate the value of statistical techniques in identifying associations between apparently random behaviour problems. Recognising relationships between individual problems may prompt owners to take earlier action to resolve them, improving their horse’s welfare.
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Enhancing welfare and safety: a case study examination of initiating change in tertiary equestrian coaching
Lisa Ashton
South Staffordshire College, Rodbaston Campus, Equine, Penkridge, Staffordshire, UK
Research has identified inappropriate behaviour in horses as a significant cause of wastage and horse-human interactions are inherently dangerous. It is suggested the horse-human relationship can be enhanced by improving the handling and training of horses. With horse training now more precisely identified as following the principles of learning theory (the explanation of changes in behaviour beyond hard-wired physiologic and non-associative learning modalities) Rodbaston College embedded learning theory into its Higher Education awards in 2005. These principles facilitate optimal learning in horses during training, and diminish negative welfare outcomes (inappropriate punishment, simultaneous bit and flank pressure, failure to reward appropriate responses.). Previously Rodbaston delivered the British Horse Society (BHS) approach to horse training which is effective, to some extent, yet its use of subjective, conceptual terminology and lack of objective measures to quantify equestrian technique highlighted its inaccuracies in terms of cognition, learning theory and ethology. Research in the application of learning theory in horse training identifies the importance of educational institutions delivering evidence-based training. With this in mind the college researched the transparency and availability of horse training system’s applying scientific horse training principles. The Australian Equine Behaviour Centre’s (AEBC) Academic Horse Training (AHT) System demonstrated the correct application and explanation of learning theory to the ridden horse, as well as providing the rider/trainer with clarity, simplicity and progression of learning. As higher education students gained knowledge of learning theory (2005), instructors (a range of BHS qualified, up to BHS Instructor level; n=11) were also invited to partake in a continuous professional development (CPD) program to understand and apply scientific principles to equitation. A series of formal and informal training opportunities were provided over a five year period. Some instructors found the ‘unfreezing’ stage of existing equitation knowledge challenging, evoking strong reactions. 73% decided to progress their knowledge and understanding of learning theory by embedding into their teaching. All 73% identified knowledge gained from Learning Theory CPD directly improved their formal lesson observation grades undertaken by college quality and leadership teams. Participating instructors concluded (via face-to-face interviews) an equitation paradigm shift had enabled them to facilitate 'clear, safe, effective and ethical equitation lessons'. This study has implications for improving knowledge of evidence-based equitation practices to enhance safety and welfare in educational institutions.
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The effect of different head and neck positions – including hyperflexion – on the behaviour of base-level warm blood riding horses during moderate exercise
Machteld C Van Dierendonck1, Janneke Sleutjens2, Inge Wijnberg2, Wim Back2, 3, Han J Van der Kolk2
1Utrecht University, Behavioural Biology group, Department of Biology, Utrecht, The Netherlands 2Utrecht University, Department of Equine Sciences, Utrecht, The Netherlands 3Ghent University, Department of Surgery and Anaesthesiology of the Domestic Animals, Ghent, Belgium
Corresponding author – Machteld C Van Dierendonck: [email protected]
The welfare of the equine athlete, with regards to the head and neck position (HNP) is under debate. To objectively quantify parameters of mental disturbance, the effect of predetermined HNPs on the behaviour in base-level trained Dutch warm blood riding horses was determined. This is part of a large study including the neuromuscular functionality; upper airway functionality; biomechanics and physiological stress during training in different HNPs (approved by the ethical committee). Seven horses were studied on the lunge in 5 HNPs: HNP1-Unrestrained; HNP2- Neck raised; nose bridge around the vertical (‘on the bit’); HNP4-Neck lowered and flexed; nose pointing towards the chest; HNP5-Neck raised and extended, nose bridge in front of the vertical. HNP7-Neck lowered and flexed; nose bridge pointing towards the carpus. HNP4 and 7 are often associated with the term “hyperflexion”. After at least three weeks training - to prevent reactions due to novelty, muscle tiredness etc -, exercise tests were performed in each HNP on 5 days (order HNP at random). These consisted of a warming-up (8min), application of position (6min), trot1 (15min), canter (4min), trot2 (10min), walk (5min) and cooling down. External influences were limited and all performances were video recorded, the predefined behavioural elements of the horses & trainers (defined at poster) were scored. Data were compared to HNP1 in a linear mixed model with post-hoc Bonferonni correction (p<0.05). The most important results show that head tossing and head shaking were increased during exercise in HNP2 & 5 (p<0.001). During exercise trainer encouragement was increased in HNP2, 4 & 7 (p<0.001); trainer slow down was increased in HNP2 & 5 (p<0.001), shying was decreased in HNP7 (p<0.02), blowing was increased in HNP2 & 4 (p<0.001), snorting was increased in HNP7 (p<0.001) and tail swishing was increased in HNP2 (p<0.001). During attaching of the side-reins, tail swishing was increased in HNP2 (p<0.01), while during detaching head shaking was increased in all HNPs (p<0.001); holding the head low was increased in HNP5 (p<0.03) & tail swishing was increased in HNP2 & 7 (p<0.03). Generalised, the results show that HNP2 & 5 (higher positions) seem to provoke more active resistance behaviour during exercise compared to HNP1 while lower head positions (4 & 7) do less. The possible explanations are studied. However, the results of parameters in other parts of the project were not always in line with the behavioural parameters, the implications for the overall effect for the horses will be discussed. The behavioural part of a study of horses with different head and neck positions during training (including hyperflexion), showed that relative high head positions can provoke conflict behaviours. However, behaviour (parameter often used by non-scientists) was not always in congruity with other parameters. Only multi-disciplinary scientific studies can determine the combined effects in these horses.
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Evaluation of pressure mat as a pedagogic tool for seat corrections
Stina Carlberg1, Annika Stalfelt1 and Karin Morgan1
1Swedish National Equestrian Centre, Equine Studies, Strömsholm, Sweden
Corresponding author – Karin Morgan: [email protected]
The first and most basic skill a rider needs to learn is how to sit correctly in the saddle. This decides whether or not the rider will be able to follow the horse’s movements and use her/his riding aids in an efficient way. Today there are some ways to visualize riding to help the rider to improve her seat, for example mirrors and videotaping. For research purposes a pressure mat has been used to study rider’s seat. The aim of this study was to evaluate the pressure mat as a pedagogic tool. The study had two questions. Does the pressure pattern from the mat increase the rider’s awareness of her/his seat? Is the pressure mat a suitable pedagogic tool for improvement of the rider's seat? This study was part of a research project, where also the pressure was measured. Twelve different riders (L-level - basic riding skills) rode a standardized program, while pressure measurements under the saddle were recorded. After that, the rider got to sit on the pressure mat placed on an artificial horseback where she was instructed to adjust her riding position. Simultaneously, she could follow her pressure pattern on a computer screen. The rider answered a pre-test enquiry concerning seat problems, effort of seat correction and motivation. This was followed by a post-test enquiry on their view of the pressure mat as a pedagogic tool. A visual-analogue scale was used for evaluation, where “0” was easy and “10” was difficult. The data were analyzed in Microsoft Excel for means, standard deviations and a paired t-test. The results showed that after the riders had seen their pressure pattern, they scored the awareness for seat correction (1.9±1.2) as compared to the pre-situation (3.0±1.8), however this did not differs significantly (p=0.13). Seven out of twelve riders experienced an increased awareness after they had seen the pressure pattern on the artificial horseback. No effects on motivation where found, since these riders already where highly motivated to work with their position in the saddle. In conclusion, this pilot study indicates that the pressure mat can be a pedagogic tool for some riders to enhance the awareness of their seat. However, further studies on connection to learning strategy would be interesting to evaluate where it would be appropriate use.
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Practical application of dismounted exercises to improve the rider´s seat
Mari Zetterqvist Blokhuis
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden Present address: MZ Equitation, Skokloster, Sweden
Riding is based on an effective interaction between rider and horse and a correct seat of the rider is very important for this. The welfare of the horse can be compromised when a rider has an incorrect seat. The aim of the present study was to explore riders’ different perceptions of their own seat. It was also investigated whether it is possible to use a program with dismounted exercises for training of riders in riding schools. 24 riders of elementary level from three different riding schools in Sweden were interviewed and their balance, mobility and suppleness were tested in some simple tests. A Balimo stool (a stool with a mobile seat) was used to test the riders’ balance and mobility of the pelvis, spine and hip joint. Suppleness was tested by five different stretching exercises (chest muscles, hamstrings, front hip flexors, quadriceps muscles, thigh adductors). On a voluntary basis, the riders in the study carried out physical exercises three times a week (dismounted exercises including exercises on the Balimo stool) over a period of 8 weeks. The exercises contained a general warm-up program (walking in four different ways, small jumps, crossover movements, head shaking, shoulder-knee stretches) and exercises that addressed different problem areas of riders (sternum, spine, ilio-sacral joint, pelvis). The study addressed the interviewees’ perceptions of their own seat and how they experienced the dismounted training program (how they experienced the exercises, what exercises they found most/least useful, if they perceived any difference in the seat before and after training period or not, experiences from the project). The results showed that an additional training program without horse was perceived as positive by the riders. 18 out of 24 riders perceived that they improved their seat/riding during the test period. The exercises on the Balimo stool were perceived as most valuable. The riders found it easy to transfer the exercises from the stool to the feeling of sitting on a horse. Riders experienced, among other things, that their posture improved and that they got more supple in pelvis and hips and sat deeper into the saddle. Tests and interviews helped the riders to become more aware of their seat, of the impact their seat has on the horse and how they can work with dismounted exercises to improve their seat. Riding instructors should be more aware of the usefulness of dismounted exercises to correct the rider´s individual seat deviations. They should be able to give riders individual advice on such exercises. This is likely to improve the interaction between horse and rider and thus the welfare of both horses and riders.
The project was funded by Stiftelsen Svensk Hästforskning.
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A preliminary study into the use of infrared thermography as a means of assessing the horse’s response to different training methods
Carol Hall1, Kelly Burton1, Emily Maycock1 and Elizabeth Wragg1
1Nottingham Trent University, School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Southwell, Nottinghamshire, UK
Corresponding author – Carol Hall: [email protected]
Infrared thermography (IRT) has been used as a non-invasive means of assessing stress responses in animals. Changes in surface temperature that relate to redirected blood flow have been associated with emotional responses in a range of species. For example, when horses were subjected to a sham clipping procedure increases in eye temperature were found to correlate significantly with increases in salivary cortisol. The Pessoa Training Aid is claimed to enhance the physical performance of the horse but may also increase the psychological stress associated with training. The aim of the current study was to use IRT to evaluate whether the use of this training device affected the stress response of horses during a lunge session. Riding school horses (n=8) were used for the study. All had previously been lunged in the Pessoa. Each horse was lunged for two sessions of approximately 15 minutes, once with and once without the Pessoa using a cross-over design. In each session the horse was lunged on both reins at walk, trot, canter, trot and walk. With the Pessoa the horse was lunged initially with the device fitted loosely and it was only tightened for the second trot. Thermal images were taken from a distance of one metre after each gait and from each side of the horse using a Mobir GuidIR M4 thermal camera which also recorded ambient temperature. A digital rectal thermometer was used to measure core temperature. Thermal images were analysed using Guide IR Analyser software. The same area around the eye, on the neck and around the ear was circled on each image and the maximum temperature recorded. Mean temperatures (eye, ear, neck and core) were calculated for each gait with and without the Pessoa. A two-way repeated measures ANOVA was carried out on the mean temperatures to assess the effects of the Pessoa and gait. Significantly higher eye temperatures were recorded with the Pessoa (30.59±0.58°C) than without it (28.7±0.83°C) (p<0.05). There was also a significant effect of gait (p<0.01), with the highest eye temperature being recorded following the second trot when the Pessoa was worn (32.34±2.61°C), the lowest at halt (27.5±0.95°C). There was no significant effect of either gadget or gait on ear or neck temperature. Significantly higher core temperatures were found when the Pessoa was used (with: 37.11±0.2°C; without: 36.7±0.17°C) although this was not affected by gait. No correlation between ambient temperature and eye, ear or neck temperature was found. The results of this preliminary study indicate that the horses experienced more stress when lunged with the Pessoa than without it. The increased eye temperature that occurred in relation to gait and was highest after the second trot was accentuated by the use of the Pessoa following tightening of the device. The use of IRT offers an objective non-invasive method of assessing the horse’s response to other training methods and a means of improving the welfare of the ridden horse.
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Riding techniques may alter the welfare of horses (Equus caballus)
Clémence Lesimple1, Carole Fureix2, Hervé Menguy3 and Martine Hausberger2
1UMR CNRS 6552 - EthoS, Paimpont, France 2UMR CNRS 6552 - EthoS, Rennes, France 3Chiropractic practice, Saint Jacques de la Lande, France
Corresponding author – Clémence Lesimple: [email protected]
Working animals are often submitted to back pressure with charges placed on a saddle, a pack- saddle or straight on the back of the animal. When ridden, horses are submitted to the riders’ pressure, and although vertebral problems are regularly reported on riding horses, these problems are not always identified nor noticed enough to prevent these horses to be used for work. In this study, performed on 19 horses from 2 riding centres during beginner lessons, we tried to understand the links between horses’ vertebral problems at rest, their attitude at work and the riders’ postures. Because horses could have different backgrounds, we focused on horses present in the schools for at least 1year. The evaluation of our study horses’ spine was performed by an experienced licensed chiropractor who did not know the horses beforehand. Manual palpation was performed from head to tail. Manual methods have been suggested to be efficient to detect back pain (Wood 2001, Shearar et al 2005). In order to ensure the repeatability of these findings, evaluation was double performed by a second licensed chiropractor. Comparison of evaluations (localisation of vertebral sites affected) revealed a 94.28%±3.69 agreement, confirming reliability of the evaluation. In order to measure horses’ posture at work, the ankle between the neck and the back as well as the shape of the neck were noted down. Concerning the riders’ position, hands and heels height were measured (elbow and ankle angles) as well as reins length. The riding teachers’ speech was also analysed (duration, number of speech bouts and attention given to horses’ and riders’ postures) to determine whether teaching practices could be involved. Results show that 74% of horses were severely affected (at least two vertebrae affected) by vertebral problems, while only 26% were mildly (1 vertebra affected) or not affected. No difference was found according to age (Spearman correlation test, rs=-0.32, P>0.05) or sex (Mann Whitney U test: U=28, P>0.05). However, the degree of vertebral problems identified at rest was statistically correlated with horses’ attitudes at work, with horses spending more time with high neck at work presenting more vertebral areas affected (Spearman correlation test, rs=0.53, P<0.05), and horses’ attitudes at work were clearly correlated with riders’ positions (Spearman correlation tests, high hands and high neck: rs=0.48,
P<0.05, long reins and high neck: rs=-0.53, P<0.05). Clear differences appeared between schools concerning both riders’ and horses’ postures, and the analysis of the teachers’ speech content and duration highlighted differences in the attention devoted to the riders’ position. These findings are the first to underline the importance of teaching proper balance to beginner riders and its possible impact on horses’ back problems.
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Comparing behavioural responses in therapeutic riding horses ridden with three different adaptive devices
Camie R Heleski1, Elisabeth Lewis1, Bonnie DePue2 and Lana Kaiser3
1Michigan State University, Animal Science, East Lansing, MI, USA 2CHUM Therapeutic Riding Center, Dansville, MI, USA 3Michigan State University, Human Medicine, East Lansing, MI, USA
Corresponding author – Camie R Heleski: [email protected]
Therapeutic horseback riding (THR) and other equine-assisted activities (EAA) have become increasingly popular over the last few decades. Multiple studies have shown evidence of the positive benefits that THR and EAA have for riders. However, some have asked if this is fair to the horse? Are we “exploiting” the horse solely for human benefit? Furthermore, at the THR facility we work with, they have begun using a special saddle for riders with cerebral palsy (Independent Saddle) and the question was raised as to whether this saddle might cause any additional mental stress to the horse, as measured by the occurrence of conflict/frustration/irritation behaviours. With this in mind, we added a component to a recently funded THR project that evaluates the effects of THR on patients with cerebral palsy. 10 patients (aged 3.5 - 31 yrs) were assigned to one of three different adaptive riding devices based on the recommendations of a NARHA (North American Riding for the Handicapped Association) certified occupational therapist. The 3 tested devices were: traditional hunt seat saddle with 2 side walkers to assist the rider’s posture as needed (HS), the IndependentSaddle (a specially designed saddle with a back rest and two arm rests to help individuals lacking postural strength) (IS), or back riding, where a trained back rider is seated behind the rider and a bareback pad is used on the horse (BR). 8 horses (aged 4 -16 yrs) were used. For the purpose of this study, a consistent lesson plan was developed where all riders performed the same patterns at a walk for approximately 30 min of riding time. We examined 6 lessons throughout a 6 mo period. Both live and video assessments were conducted; 1 min of data/every 5 min of lesson + mounting and dismounting were evaluated for horses’ behavioural responses (approx 8 min data per lesson). A behavioural ethogram representing conflict/frustration/irritation (CFI) behaviours was used from two previous studies. Two trained observers performed the behavioural assessments (1 was blinded to the study’s purpose; the 2nd was not); inter-observer reliability was ≥ 80%. CFI behaviours did not differ across devices (P=0.55) and averaged just 2.9 CFI’s per lesson. Ears back behaviour also did not differ across devices (P=0.23) but was highly horse dependent, with 2 individuals maintaining ears back behaviour more than 50% of the time. All of these THR horses are also ridden in lessons in more traditional settings so we compared behavioural responses between THR settings and traditional lesson settings. CFI behaviours were higher in traditional lessons (P<0.01). Based on work at this facility, with these horses, we conclude there are no significant welfare concerns and that the Independent Saddle does not increase mental stress to the horses. Furthermore, THR does not appear more mentally stressful than traditional lessons, at least to horses accustomed to both types of work.
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The effect of a passive stretching programme on flexibility and range of motion in riding horses
Susan Tracey1, Nicola Blackie1 and Andrea D Ellis2
1Writtle College, Centre for Equine and Animal Science, Chelmsford, UK 2Nottingham Trent University, Brackenhurst Campus, School of Rural, Environmental and Animal Sciences, Southwell, England
Corresponding author – Susan Tracey: [email protected]
The defining characteristic of effective and positive locomotion is movement which is unrestricted, smooth and well co-ordinated (Denoix and Pailloux, 2004). Horses accumulate a myriad of physiological stresses as a function of everyday life (Ridgeway, 1999) which create loss of extensibility in soft tissue (Schrier, 2004) and limits joint range of motion, reducing the ability of the horse to perform at its optimum level (Bromiley, 2004). Passive stretching is commonly used in the equine industry to maintain flexibility, to restore joint range of motion, regain neuromuscular control after injury and increase flexibility by lengthening muscles. The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of a short term passive stretching programme on stride characteristics of horses. Seventeen riding horses (475 - 650 kg) were blocked for height and were randomly split into treatment (n=10, height: 157cm±16.35) and control (n=7, 155cm±27.82) groups. Both groups continued their normal exercise schedule throughout the study period. The treatment group was subjected to a 14 day passive stretching programme (McTimoney Practitioner). Hind limb skin markers were placed on the tuber coxae, greater trochanter, patella, talus, distal metatarsus and coronary band at geometric centres of joint rotation. Saggital plane video (50 hz) data for trot stride characteristics was collected, horses were trotted past the camera 5 times in each direction, at a distance of 17.5 metres, with a field of view of 5.5 metres. Pre, post and one week post (post+1) stretching data was analysed for velocity (metres/second), stride length (metres), peak hock flexion (degrees) and distance between successive hoof prints (tracking) on the front and hind ipsilateral leg (± cm) using SIMI° Motion software. Following evaluation for normal distribution, Anova and a post hoc LSD test were applied to test for differences between and within groups (SPSS 16.0). There was no significant difference within or between groups for velocity and tracking distance. Stride length significantly reduced after stretching had ceased for one week (post +1) in the treatment group (post=2.43 m±0.03 s.e; post +1=2.30 m±0.03 s.e.; p<0.05). There was no significant difference between left and right stride length immediately after stretching. Tarsocrural flexion decreased significantly immediatey after stretching in the treatment group (pre=118°±1.56 s.e.; post=113°±2.66 s.e.; p<0.05), whilst the control group showed no significant difference (pre=110°±1.92 s.e.; post=110°±2.27 s.e.). This study suggests there may be an increased flexibility of musculature (semimembranosus, semitendinosus, biceps femoris, gluteus medius, longissimus dorsi and related fascia) associated with increased tarsocrural flexion (joint range of motion) directly after the trial. However, one week post stetching stride length was reduced producing a negative effect on flexibility which suggests that once a programme of stretching is put into place it is contra-indicative to cease stretching but further research is required to confirm and evaluate these factors.
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Effects of shaving and blanketing during exercise and recovery in the horse – A preliminary study
Hanna Wallsten1, Kerstin Olsson1 and Kristina Dahlborn1
1Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Uppsala, Sweden
Corresponding author – Kristina Dahlborn: [email protected]
Shaving the winter coat is done to improve heat dissipation during exercise and make grooming easier. It is often combined with blanketing to keep the horse warm. The aim of the present study was to investigate how the use of blankets affects horses before and after they are shaved. One warm-blooded horse, one New Forest pony, and one Gotland pony were studied in that order during an exercise test consisting of walk+trot+canter in combinations (in total 1700 m walk, 1800 m trot and 2950 m canter). The horses did one test a day when they had 1) full winter coat 2) winter coat + blanket during recovery 3) left or right side shaved 4) fully shaved 5) shaved with blankets during exercise and recovery. Tests 1 and 2, and 4 and 5, respectively, were randomized. Heart rate (HR) was measured continuously with a telemetric system. Respiration rate (RR) was counted by observing flank contractions, skin temperature was measured on left and right neck and both hind legs by thermistor probes and rectal temperature was measured with a digital thermometer at predetermined stops during exercise and every 5 min during recovery. The skin wetness (SW) was estimated on a scale with 0=dry to 5=dripping by ocular inspection. The outdoor temperature varied from -1.1±0.4 to -8.7±1.7 °C and the relative humidity from 89±6 to 99±0 %. The results are presented as means ± SD (SAS Statistics, Proc mixed). Differences were considered significant if P<0.05 or less. HR did not differ between treatments. Respiratory rate was faster in unshaved than shaved horses (P<0.05). Rectal temperature was higher in both unshaved horses with blankets and half shaved horses compared to shaved horses without blankets (P<0.05). Shaving decreased all skin temperatures during exercise and recovery (P<0.05) and blanketing increased the recovery time in both unshaved and shaved horses (P<0.05 for both). The SW was 3.3±1.2 in unshaved horses and 3.7±1.5 when they had blanket (P<0.05). When half shaved, the unshaved side scored 2.0±1.0 and the shaved side scored 0 (NS). In conclusion: Shaving could be used to enhance heat dissipation during exercise and will accelerate recovery in individuals with dense coat.
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Massage treatment contra grooming in riding horses - a comparative study
Kristina Dahlborn1, Malin Olsson1, Yvonne Liljebrink2 and Sara Nyman3
1Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Uppsala, Sweden 2Östansjö, Delsbo, Sweden 3Flyinge AB, Flyinge, Sweden
Corresponding author – Kristina Dahlborn: [email protected]
Massage treatment in the horse has become more and more popular during the last decade. In man, massage has been reported to block pain signals to the brain, reduce stress and activate the parasympathetic nervous system. The aim of the present study was to compare both short and more long lasting effects of massage with grooming on heart rate, saliva cortisol levels, goniometry and performance in a riding test. Ten riding horses (6 mares and 4 geldings, 3-12 years old) were used in a cross over design where five of the horses were randomly allocated to start with massage and the rest with grooming. All treatments were performed by a trained horse massage therapist. Each period consisted of four weeks with a weekly treatment of either 40 minutes of standardized massage program or grooming with a brush. The pressure used with the different massage techniques and during grooming was measured with the Tecscan Saddle system equipment. Before and after each treatment period a control registration was made in each horse. Heart rate (HR) was measured telemetric with a Polar Pro Trainer 5 TM Equine Edition. Saliva samples were taken before and after the pre- and post control and before and after each massage or grooming treatment and were analyzed for cortisol, in total 24 samples per horse. During the pre- and post control a clinical examination was blindly performed by one veterinarian trained in chiropractic and one physiotherapist. The fetlock, carpal and hock joints on each side were measured with goniometry. During control days the horses were tied up for 20 minutes in the same way as during massage and grooming and HR was registered and saliva samples collected. The same rider blindly performed a standardized riding test in each horse before and after each treatment and then filled in a questionnaire. Statistical analyzes was made with SAS release 6.12, procedure mixed. The mean pressure ranged from 0.1 to 4.4 kg with maximum values between 2.4–11.2 kg during massage and the mean value was 1.7 kg during grooming with a maximum of 4.8 kg. The horses responded individually to the two treatments and overall there were no significant differences. However, a tendency for a lower HR was seen in the fourth week in the massage treated horses compared to groomed horses. Another finding is that the body area treated affected HR more than the different treatments. When using a standardized massage and grooming protocol, like in this study, the effect of massage treatment did not differ from grooming. Since it was an individual preference for massage/grooming at different specific body areas, individually designed massage protocols should be considered.
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Short term transport induces stress in saddle horses
Patrick Pageat1, Céline Lafont Lecuelle1, Christelle Falewee1 and Alessandro Cozzi1
1Phérosynthèse Research Institute Semiochemistry and Applied Ethology, Saint Saturnin les Apt, Le Rieu Neuf, France
Corresponding author – Alessandro Cozzi: [email protected]
Studies performed on horses travelling to slaughterhouses show the modification of physiological indicators linked to stress. This type of transport can hardly be compared to the transport of sport and leisure horses. This study was designed to investigate whether or not a short term road transport is stressful for horses that regularly travel short distances without any apparent difficulty. The level of stress during transport was described using heart rate, rectal temperature, plasma cortisol, glucose, neutrophile/lymphocyte ratio (N/L) and white cell count. Nine horses and seven ponies, from different breeds (between 5 and 20 years old), were involved in this study. For each horse, three blood samples were realized: immediately pre transport (a), immediately post transport (b) and after 45 minutes of recovery (c). Horses were transported for 1h 30 min on a defined 60-km route and any injury was detected after transportation. Horses were grouped four by four each test day for practical reasons (sixteen horses were included and the truck had seven spaces so the largest common denominator is four) and as equipment they had leg protections. Each animal was compared to itself during different stages of this study for all parameters. We found significant differences for all comparisons concerning HR (means (bpm): a: 37,5; b: 58,1; c: 45,3; Friedman’s test; dF=3; c2=23,025; p<0,0001) and rectal temperature (°C: a: 36,6; b: 37,3; c: 37; c2=17,161; dF=2; p=0,0002); cortisol results showed significant differences for comparisons between pre transport/post transport and post transport/recovery (mg/l: a: 60; b:101; c: 67; c2=25,125; dF=2; p<0,0001); the white cell count test showed significant differences for each comparison involving recovery (cell/mm3: a: 8913; b: 8744; c: 10313; c2=7,6250; dF=2; p=0,022); the glucose test showed significant differences for the two comparisons involving the pre transport period (g/l: a: 0,83; b: 0,92; c: 1,05; c2=12,2857; p=0,002); for the N/L, no significant difference was found between the periods (N/L: a: 2,41; b: 2,38; c: 3,03; c2=2,6809; p=0,261). Parameters chosen in this study revealed the existence of stress on the described population during a short term road transport. Transporting horses is not insignificant, even to those that are reported to be confident with the event.
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Stress response of transport-naive horses during repeated road transport analysed by salivary cortisol concentrations, heart rate and heart rate variability
Alice Schmidt1, Silvia Hödl1, Erich Möstl2, Jörg Aurich3, Jürgen Müller1 and Christine Aurich3
1Graf Lehndorff Institute for Equine Science, Neustadt (Dosse), Germany 2University of Veterinary Sciences, Vienna, Austria 3University of Veterinary Sciences, Graf Lehndorff Institute for Equine Science, Vienna, Austria
Corresponding author – Alice Schmidt: [email protected]
Domestic animals are often repeatedly exposed to the same anthropogenic stressors. Based on cortisol secretion and heart rate, it has been demonstrated that transport is stressful for horses but so far, changes in this stress response with repeated road transport are unknown. In this study, we have determined cortisol immunoreactivity (IR) in saliva, faecal cortisol metabolites, cardiac beat-to-beat (RR) interval and heart rate variability (HRV) in transport-naive horses (n=8) transported four times over 200 km at 2 to 4-day intervals. The RR interval was recorded and the HRV variables standard deviation of RR interval (SDRR), root mean square of successive RR differences (RMSSD) standard deviation 1 (SD1) and 2 (SD2) were calculated for individual periods before, during and after transport. Data were analysed by ANOVA using a general linear model for repeated measures. Salivary cortisol IR concentrations always increased in response to transport (p<0.001) but the amount decreased stepwise with each transport (p<0.05). Pre- transport baseline values were always <1 ng/ml and highest concentrations reached were 5.9±1.9, 3.7±0.3, 2.9±0.5 and 2.1±0.6 during transport 1 to 4, respectively. Concentrations of faecal cortisol metabolites increased from 55.1±4.6 ng/g before the first transport to 161±17 ng/g the morning thereafter (p<0.001), the delay reflecting intestinal passage time. Subsequent transport did not cause further increases in faecal cortisol metabolites. In response to the first transport, mean RR interval decreased with loading of the horses and further with the onset of transport (1551±23, 1304±166 and 1101±123 msec one day before, immediately preceeding and at 60-90 min of transport, respectively; p<0.05). Decreases in RR interval during subsequent transports became less and less pronounced (p<0.001). Transport was associated with a short, marked rise in the HRV variable standard deviation 2 (SD2; p<0.001 except transport 1: p=0.084), indicating sympathetic activation. No consistent changes were found for other HRV variables. In conclusion, transport of horses leads to increased cortisol IR release and to changes in RR interval indicating stress in the animals. The stress response decreased with repeated transport. Horses are thus able to habituate rapidly and transport is experienced as less and less stressful.
Supported by Stiftung Forschung für das Pferd, the Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management and the German Equestrian Federation
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The roles of equine ethology and applied learning theory in horse-related human injuries
Lesley A Hawson1, Andrew N McLean2 and Paul D McGreevy1
1University of Sydney, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Sydney, Australia 2Australian Equine Behaviour Centre, Broadford, Australia
Corresponding author – Lesley A Hawson: [email protected]
Horse-related injuries to riders, handlers and veterinarians can be both serious and long-term in their effects on the victim. A review of the literature was undertaken via the Web of Knowledge and Scopus databases associated with horse-related injuries to humans and sought to summarize the available data on such injuries. Twenty six papers from ten different countries that covered both horse riding and horse handling derived incidents were reviewed. There was a consistent bimodal pattern to injury frequency with most injuries occurring in the second and fifth decades of life. Females predominated in the younger age groups but males were more highly represented in older age groups. Patients older than 50 years were more likely to sustain fracture of ribs and thoracolumbar vertebrae while patients younger than 50 years were more likely to present with concussion and fractures of the upper extremities. The most common cause of injury in all studies, except the two studies covering veterinarians, was falling and/or being thrown from the horse (range 46% - 83% of incidents). Injuries among non-riders, including veterinarians, were most often caused by kicks (range 0.8% - 41% for riders/handlers, 7%-82% handler/bystanders). There was some evidence that recent technological advances in protective equipment may have mitigated some injuries but incident frequency has not changed. Suggested prevention strategies included in the studies focused on improved training and education of riders and handlers and greater utilization of personal protective equipment. While little information was available on the role of the horse in the incidents recorded, the unpredictable nature of horses was commonly cited as a cause of human injury. Few studies consider the preventative benefits of more effective horse training. Recent advances in ethology and equitation science may make horse behaviour more predictable and therefore potentially safer. A clear understanding of the probable behaviour patterns a horse can exhibit in a given context would help riders and handlers to predict and manage such behaviours. Horse trainers may be able to address this aspect of horse behaviour through a more thorough application of current advances in learning theory.
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Improving horse-rider communication through a structured groundwork training programme
Inga A Wolframm1, Christiane Baars1 and Svenja Schuetz1
1University of Applied Sciences Van Hall Larenstein, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Corresponding author – Inga A Wolframm: [email protected]
Anecdotal evidence suggests that riders who perceive their horses to be more obedient will be more confident in handling and riding them. The aim of this study was to investigate whether structured and progressive training from the ground can increase equine obedience and subsequent rider confidence. Twenty-eight German riders (2 male, 26 female) were recruited to participate with their own horses in the study. Riders were initially asked to complete a 12-item German language version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (Wettkampf Angst Inventar – State; WAI-S) to assess levels of somatic anxiety, cognitive anxiety and self-confidence. In order to test equine obedience, horse-rider combinations were required to negotiate an “obstacle course” in-hand comprising 5 different obedience tasks. Horses were scored by the researchers on a 4-point Likert scale for each task depending on their level of obedience. Rider-horse combinations then participated in a 6-week structured groundwork training programme aimed at improving horse-rider communication. Riders were taught how to give effective aids based on principles of negative and positive reinforcement thereby improving obedience of the horse. At the end of the intervention riders were once again required to complete the WAI-S and complete another obstacle course in-hand, featuring the same tasks but in a different order. Equine obedience scores as well as pre-and post anxiety and self-confidence scores were tested for significant differences using Wilcoxon Signed Ranks tests. Findings revealed a significant decrease in somatic anxiety scores pre-and post intervention (mean somatic anxiety scores: 6.32 vs. 4.96; Z=-3.36, p≤0.001). Horse-rider combinations also scored significantly higher on obedience scores following the training programme (mean obedience scores: 23 vs. 24; Z=-3.5, p<0.001). A positive trend was seen for levels of self-confidence pre-and post intervention (mean self-confidence scores: 11.1 vs. 11.8; Z=-1.89, p=0.059), yet no statistically significant difference could be found for cognitive anxiety. Results suggest that following the training programme, riders may have felt more in control of their immediate environment, including their horses. This in turn may have had a positive effect on levels of physical tension and feelings of self-confidence. Practical implications are that ground work training based on principles of positive and negative reinforcement are likely to have a beneficial effect on horse-rider communication, improving obedience in the horse under-saddle and in-hand and increasing physical relaxation and feelings of self-confidence in the rider.
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Investigating differences in self-regulation between novice, intermediate and advanced equestrian riders
Inga A Wolframm1, Julia Foshag1 and Carina Kobbe1
1University of Applied Sciences Van Hall Larenstein, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Corresponding author – Inga A Wolframm: [email protected]
Research into a wide variety of sports has shown that appropriate levels of self-regulation, e.g. an athlete’s ability to regulate cognitive, emotive and motivational processes, can help improve performance. Anecdotal evidence suggests that communication and performance of the horse- rider dyad may be improved if the rider is able to monitor and control his own cognitions, emotions and levels of motivation. The current study aims to investigate differences in self- regulatory skills in the equestrian population. The 60-item German “Volitionale Komponenten im Sport” inventory (VKS; volitional components in sport) examines four dimensions of self- regulatory skills, including self-optimisation, self-blocking, activation default and loss of focus. The VKS was distributed via email to 285 German riders (mean age 24.46±5.61; 246 female, mean age 23.86±4.64; 46 male, mean age 28.21±8.81). Participants were divided into novice (N=122), intermediate (N=135) and advanced riders (N=28), depending on their competitive level. Novice riders were defined as competing at the German performance level “Leistungsklasse” (LK) 0 or LK6, intermediate riders at LK 5, 4 or 3, and advanced riders at LK 2 or 1. Two-way between-subjects MANOVA tests were used to examine competence-by-gender interactions in VKS scores. Post hoc analysis was conducted independently for each VKS subscale using one-way univariate ANOVA tests. An alpha level of 0.05 was used to indicate statistical significance and partial eta squared effect sizes (partial η2) were calculated for significant results. No significant interactive effect between gender and competence was found
(F8,554=.83; p>0.05), nor was there a main effect for gender (F4,276=1.4; p>0.05). A significant main effect was found for competence levels (F8,554=2.39; p<0.05], however, the effect size was relatively small (partial η2=.03). Post-hoc comparisons revealed significantly higher self- optimisation scores in intermediate than in novice riders (63.6±11.1 vs. 59.8±12; p<0.05). Activation default scores were found to be significantly lower in intermediate than in novice riders (5.4±4.4 vs. 7.5±5; p<0.05). Lastly, loss of focus scores were also significantly lower in intermediate than in novice riders (3.9±3.6 vs. 5.3±4.1; p<0.05). Findings suggest that novice riders possess comparatively fewer self-regulatory skills than intermediate riders. Surprisingly, advanced riders did not score significantly differently to novice or intermediate riders. However, this may have been due to comparatively small numbers of advanced riders participating in the study resulting in a distortion of the results. Practical implications are that in addition to developing skills related to equitation, novice riders should work on their ability to remain motivated and focused while riding. Equitation instructors may also want to expand their own knowledge base regarding self-regulatory processes in order to be able to provide appropriate support to riders.
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Development of a preliminary questionnaire “Attitudes and opinions within and towards the equine industry”
Inga A Wolframm1, Annika Rettig1 and Hannah Schiffers1
1University of Applied Sciences Van Hall Larenstein, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Corresponding author – Inga A Wolframm: [email protected]
In recent years the equine industry has grown considerably in size and impact across many countries worldwide. However, economic and social contributions to society as a whole are still difficult to determine. The aim of the current research was to develop an easy-to-use questionnaire investigating “Attitudes and Opinions within and towards the Equine Industry” (AOEI-Q). A preliminary version of the AOEI-Q was developed focusing on current social, economic and welfare issues within the equine industry. The preliminary questionnaire was distributed to a small sample group of 28 students studying for a Bachelor in Equine Science and adapted for clarity and readability. The amended version of the AOEI-Q included 68 items to be rated on a 5-point Likert Scale. It was distributed via different internet fora (equine and other) to a random sample of 326 people (113 without equine knowledge, 213 with equine knowledge). Prior to statistical analysis all negatively worded items were reversed to ensure appropriate scoring. Furthermore, suitability of data for factor analysis was assessed. The Kaiser- Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy was 0.83 and the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity reached significance (p<0.0001), supporting the factorability of the correlation matrix. Following Principal Component Analysis, four factors were retained explaining 34.5% of variance. The four factors were tested for internal reliability using Cronbach’s Alpha and amended to ensure maximum reliability scores (factor 1: α=.82; factor 2: α=.67; factor 3: α=.7; factor 4: α=.66). Factors were named according to content of relevant items. Factor 1, “Equine welfare”, deals with current welfare issues in management and training. Factor 2, “Social issues and society”, is concerned with how horses and equestrian sports may impact on society. Factor 3, “Impact on personality and development”, discusses whether riding and caring for horses fosters certain aspects of character development. Factor 4, “Impact on economics and workfield”, addresses professional trends within the equine industry. The final questionnaire contains 21 items, distributed across the four factors with factor 1 containing 9 items and factors 2, 3 and 4 containing 4 items each. Considering the somewhat low reliability scores of factors 2 and 4, additional confirmatory studies are recommended. In the long term the AOEI-Q may be considered as a useful tool for practitioners to investigate views and opinions within the equine industry, and potentially lends itself to comparing how the equine industry is viewed across different countries. Key stakeholders within the equine industry may wish to employ the AOEI-Q to determine public opinion on issues such as equine welfare, the role of equestrian sports in society or potential employment opportunities in the equine field.
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The use of psychological skills in novice, intermediate and advanced equestrian riders
Inga A Wolframm1, Julia S Foshag1 and Carina Kobbe1
1University of Applied Sciences Van Hall Larenstein, Wageningen, Netherlands
Corresponding author – Inga A Wolframm: [email protected]
Psychological skills have been shown to be of benefit in competitive performance in a wide variety of sports. However, only limited research exists investigating the use of psychological skills in equestrianism. The aim of the current study was to determine the use of psychological skills in the wider equestrian population. The short, German-language version of the Psychological Skills Inventory for Sport (15 items, PSIS-G15) examines five separate components of psychological skills, including (lack of) confidence, mental preparation, performance motivation, team emphasis and (lack of) task regulation. The PSIS-G15 was distributed via email to 285 German riders (mean age 24.46±5.61; 246 female, mean age 23.86±4.64; 46 male, mean age 28.21±8.81). Participants were divided into novice (N=122), intermediate (N=135) and advanced riders (N=28), depending on their competitive level (German “Leistungsklasse”, LK). Novice riders were defined as holding LK0 or LK6, intermediate riders having gained LK 5, 4 or 3, and advanced riders holding LK 2 or 1. Data were examined for statistical differences in the use of psychological skills between competitive levels and according to gender within those levels. One-Way ANOVA tests revealed statistically significant differences between competitive levels for mental preparation (F2,282=4.08, p<0.05) and performance motivation (F2,282=5.4, p<0.001). Post-hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that intermediate riders score significantly higher than novice riders in mental preparation (14.8±2.3 vs. 14.1±2.5, p<0.05) and performance motivation (12.3±2.9 vs. 10.7±2.8, p<0.001). In intermediate riders a significant difference between female and male riders could be found for mental preparation (t133=.66, p<0.01; 14.9±2.1 vs. 14.5±3.4). Findings seem to indicate that intermediate level riders make greater use of mental preparation techniques, e.g. imagery or self- talk, to prepare for competition than novice riders. Intermediate riders also score higher on performance motivation than novice riders, indicating that they prioritise their sport above other things. Results also suggest that at intermediate level female riders use more mental preparation strategies prior to competing. Practical implications are that even at novice level more attention should be paid to teaching riders mental preparation strategies as an important prerequisite to progress through the competitive levels.
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Fitness test of sport riders in dressage and showjumping
Gabriella Thorell1, Katarina Esping1, Anna Linders1 and Karin Morgan1
1Swedish National Equestrian Centre, Equine Studies, Strömsholm, Sweden
Corresponding author – Karin Morgan: [email protected]
The study had two aims. First, to study the fitness of sport riders in dressage compared to show jumping. Second, to follow-up the effects of dismounted physical training as a complement to riding. The participants in the experiment were young riders and high school students within the elite program at Swedish National Equestrian Centre, Strömsholm. In school they ride three regular lessons a week on their own sport horses. November 4, 2009, the students carried out a fitness test (Cooper’s test 3000 m running and movement analysis) at Swedish National Sports Complex, Stockholm. Each student got an individual designed training program for improvement to the following-up tests. On February 16, 2010, the students performed the Cooper’s test again. All riders could not participate at all tests due to health problems such as a cold, an injured limb or had resigned from the educational program. The data were processed in Microsoft Excel. The following statistical tests were carried out to compare the two groups dressage (D) and show jumping (SJ): t-test for fitness parameters, Chi-2 test for movement analysis and paired t- test to compare fitness results between Nov and Feb. The significance level was set to p<0.05. The fitness results from the Nov-test showed no significantly differences between dressage (n=7) and show jumping (n=6). The results presented as mean ± standard deviation; running time in minutes (D: 15.9±2.1 minutes and SJ: 16.7±5.6 minutes), test score from Cooper's test (D: 41±6 and SJ: 37±3), given status based on the Cooper's test (D: normal and SJ: normal- poor) and heart rate (D: 208±5 bpm and SJ: 200±9 bpm). Movement analysis showed no significant differences between the groups. Both knee joint and torso had many remarks on stability (9 out of 13). Five out of thirteen had remarks on flexibility for hamstring (“thigh”), M Iliopsoas (“hip-bender”) and thorax area. Overall, seven rider performed Cooper’s test both in Nov and Feb. There were no significantly changes in fitness over time, even though there was a tendency (p=0.08) to a decline in Feb (normal-poor) compared to Nov (normal). This can be explained by a harsh winter that complicated outdoor training, but also the fact that the students tried to run in a more tactic way the second time, made a missjudgement and had strengths left after the finishing line. This study has not evaluated the physical fitness in relation to performance in competition or actual demands of physical fitness while riding dressage or show jumping. Further studies in this field of research are needed. In conclusion, we could not detect fitness differences between riders in dressage and riders in show jumping. The riders had a normal to poor fitness level and could benefit from additional dismounted physical training, even though they are difficult to motivate.
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Goal orientation and motivation in event riders
Molly C Duke
Hartpury College, Gloucester, UK
Motivation compels individuals to undertake goal-orientated tasks, and determines the intensity of specific task-related behaviours. The initiation of behaviour is the result of psycho-physiological drive to achieve. Motivation is commonly divided into two sub-categories; intrinsic motivation (IM) (feelings of pleasure and satisfaction inherent in activities, independent of external rewards), and extrinsic motivation (EM) (taking part in sports for expected outcomes or contingencies not inherent in the activity itself). Motivational researchers have adopted a goal orientation framework, where two types of goals that are particularly relevant in an achievement setting, are referred to as a ‘task’ orientation and ‘ego’ orientation. These relate to how people judge their level of competence and define successful goal accomplishment and have led to the development of the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire, (TEOSQ). This study aims to investigate whether goal orientations of equestrian eventers from novice, intermediate, advanced and Olympic level athletes are seminal variables towards performance in competition. The relationship between performance and task orientation was negatively correlated (R=-.513, P≤0.00) and performance and ego orientation was positively correlated (R= .436, P≤0.00). The results mimic trends found in other competitive sports indicating that riders with high task, low ego orientations will be most successful. Effective and humane handling of horses positively affects many important aspects including performance levels and welfare. However, it is evident that negative reinforcement is predominant in British horse training. This leads to the prediction that if competition or training fails in any way, the welfare of the horse may be jeopardised. This may be caused by an accumulation of rider stress generated through internal pressures such as psychological pressure or frustration. This scenario would likely be borne out by an ego orientated rider. Further research is needed, however, to determine an association between rider motivation and horse welfare.
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Physiological measures of fitness of riders and non riders
Emma L Halliday1, Brender Willmott1 and Hayley Randle1
1Duchy College, Stoke Climsland, UK
Corresponding author – Emma L Halliday: [email protected]
Equine sports involve two athletes, the horse and rider. However many riders fail to consider themselves as an athlete, despite believing that riding as a sole physical activity ensures that they are fit for purpose. Whilst limited data are available regarding rider fitness, current research indicates that riding as the sole physical activity does not promote peak physical fitness. Increased rider fitness can improve performance. This study aimed to quantify and compare 13 physiological measures of fitness in amateur riders, non riding amateur surfers and amateur footballers. A total of 29 mixed gender athletes participated in the study (14 riders, 9 surfers and 6 footballers); groups were mix gender and were aged ≥18 years and ≤35 years. None of the athletes regularly participated in any other sport than their chosen discipline. A series of fitness tests were conducted to investigate general health, aerobic ability, flexibility and strength. Predicted VO2 Max was significantly lower in riders (31.94±2.70ml.kg1.min1) than footballers 1 1 (46.17±2.97 ml.kg .min ) (F2,10=45.6; P<0.001). Equally peak flow was significantly lower in riders (420.6±78.0) compared to surfers (567.8±68.4) and footballers (648.9±39.9)
(F2,10=26.88; P<0.001). Significant differences were also identified in strength tests. Riders completed significantly less sit ups in one minute (22.64±8.06) in relation to footballers
(44.33±5.54) (F2,10=13.58; P<0.001). Riders exhibited significantly less leg strength in the vertical jump test (26.55±6.49cms) than footballers (54.58±5.28cms) (F2,10=27.33; P<0.001).
Systolic blood pressure also differed significantly among sporting groups (F2,10=5.22; P<0.05), riders exhibited lower (130.71±15.79) pressure compared to footballers (150.17±21.02), but higher than surfers (117.11±14.13). This study identified that amateur riders are physically weaker and have a poorer aerobic ability than amateur athletes from other sports. Studies have shown that well conditioned athletes have shorter recovery times and take longer to become physically fatigued than less fit individuals. Amateur riders possess a lower physical fitness level in comparison to other amateur athletes. This may mean that they exhibit poorer judgements and slower reaction times which have negative implications of the safety, performance and welfare of both horse and rider.
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Rider gender, its effect on Olympic individual dressage competition performance
Tim C Whitaker1 and Amy A Mills1
1Writtle College, Centre for Equine and Animal Science, Chelmsford, UK
Corresponding author – Tim C Whitaker: [email protected]
When compared to most other sporting competition equestrian sports present some atypical characteristics. An interesting feature is that within a significant proportion of equestrian sports both men and women compete against one another in a non-handicapped format. Various theories relating to the relative differences between male and female sports in terms of their masculine or feminine basis have been offered. Differences between male and female performance may be considered to be a consequence of differences in physiology or psychological. The differences between males and females in terms of physical strength have been demonstrated. This study examined differences in the level of performance by male and female riders judged by final rank in competition, from the individual Olympic dressage over 20 years. Data was collected from Olympic Games (1988-2008) for the individual dressage competition final rankings, in total 292 individual competitors. The independent variables considered were rider gender; the dependant variable tested was final rank in competition. Data relating to rider age was also collated. Descriptive statistics were returned. Comparative analysis for gender was performed via a Mann Whitney U tests for all competitors. Chi squared analysis considered gender against medal outcome. No significant difference was reported between final median ranks of riders in competition. Median rank for females (n=188) was 25th, for males (n=104) 23rd. Medal outcome by rider gender showed of the total 18 awarded medals over the six games, 16 were won by females and two by males (both bronze medals) (χ2=10.89, df=1, P<0.01). Within the studied data no significant effect was observed for rider gender on overall final rank in individual Olympic dressage competition. However, the vast majority of medals awarded, 89% were to female athletes, with all six gold medals over the period being won by female riders. It may be suggested that female riders may have had better horses over this 20 year period. This in itself is worthy of examination as to why this may have happened. Additional and more detailed measures of performance such as individual test scores would enable some of the likely and more complex aspects of gender and performance differences to be examined. Consideration of other equestrian sports, where the physical and psychological demands may differ markedly from dressage is also required. If differences between male and female performance are established consideration by riders, trainers and selectors should be given to their possible physiological or psychological basis, and how this may impact on training and selection.
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Rider’s anxiety in relation to competitive performance
Rebecka Elander1, Gabriella Thorell1 and Karin Morgan1
1Swedish National Equestrian Centre, Equine Studies, Strömsholm, Sweden
Corresponding author – Karin Morgan: [email protected]
A high anxiety level can impair fine motor skills. Anxiety affects all forms of athletic performance and horseback riding is no exception. Previously it has been showed that anxiety affects rider’s performance, where elite riders rated significantly higher in their ability to cope with anxiety than riders at the non-elite level. The aim of this present work was to study the anxiety of less experienced riders in relation to a competitive performance. The participants in the experiment were 25 high school students (2nd year, age 17) at Swedish National Equestrian Centre, Strömsholm. In school they rode three regular lessons a week with a group of school horses (n=25-30). This means that these factors are standardized. Approximately an hour before they mounted the horse for the dressage test they filled in the instrument CSAI-2R (Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2Revised). CSAI-2R is a self-assessment form with 17 questions which was developed for sport science. It measures cognitive (min 5 - max 20) and somatic anxiety (min 7 - max 28) as well as self-confidence (min 5 - max 20). The students’ regular riding teacher placed the students into three groups due to performance level and experience level: – “Low skill” (n=7), “Normal skill” (n=9) and “High skill” (n=6). However, this was not known by the students and it was only used for data analysis. The data were processed in the statistical software SigmaStat with one-way ANOVA (group differences of CSAI-2R score) and for correlations, means and standard deviations. The results showed significant differences for the score from the dressage test (p<0.001) between “High skill” (7.2±0.4) and “Low skill” (5.8±0.5) as well as for somatic anxiety (p=0.04) where “Low skill” scored a higher somatic anxiety (13.7±4.8) compared to “High skill” (8.5±1.6). Also, high somatic anxiety correlated to high dressage test score within both “Low skill” (R2=0.83) and “High skill” (R2=0.72). An interesting finding was in the “Low skill”-group where self-confidence correlated to dressage test score (R2=0.98) and, opposite to one would expect, high self-confidence showed lower test score. An explanation to this can be that a student with high self-confidence was pleased with herself and did not put in as much effort to the test. Consequently, it is important for a riding teacher to challenge a rider with high self-confidence in order to improve that rider. The "Normal-skill" group did not show any strong correlations. Based on this the most interesting findings were for the least experienced non-elite riders. In conclusion, the “take home message” is that less experienced riders need more support with somatic anxiety, even though somatic anxiety to some extent seems to promote performance. Too high self-confidence can impair the performance.
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Assessment of positive emotions in horses: implications for welfare and performance
Mairi Stewart1, Rachael B Stratton2, Ngaio J Beausoleil2, Kevin J Stafford2, Gemma M Worth1 and Natalie K Waran3
1AgResearch Ltd, Animal Behaviour and Welfare Group, Hamilton, New Zealand 2Massey University, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Palmerston North, New Zealand 3Unitec Institute of Technology, Department of Natural Sciences, Auckland, New Zealand
Corresponding author – Mairi Stewart: [email protected]
Traditionally, the majority of concern regarding animal welfare has focussed on negative emotional states, such as fear and pain. The ability to detect situations that elicit negative emotional states allows owners to minimise these situations, and thus reduce compromise of welfare and performance. However, it is now widely accepted that good welfare is not simply the absence of negative experiences, but also the presence of positive experiences. Knowledge regarding what horses perceive as pleasant or unpleasant is limited and has important implications for stable management systems (e.g. training and husbandry). Research in this area has the potential to assist horse owners to minimise negative experiences and actively promote positive experiences, in order to improve welfare and performance. This paper will present our research approach to investigating positive emotions in horses. A multidisciplinary approach will be applied, using both physiological and behavioural indices. Autonomic activity has potential as a physiological marker of positive emotions, with parasympathetic activation predominating in a relaxed state. In addition to behavioural measures, non-invasive techniques for measuring autonomic activity, infrared thermography (IRT) and heart rate (HR) variability will be examined along with other physiological responses as potential markers. IRT, indirectly measures blood flow changes, by detecting small changes in skin temperature that are related to alterations in emotional state. Preliminary results show that HR decreased (-7.0±2.7 beats/min) and eye temperature appeared to increase during grooming. This may be associated with an increase in parasympathetic activity, and warrants further investigation. In addition to autonomic activity, secretion of endorphins is known to be associated with modulating emotional states and are maximal in blood draining the pituitary gland. We propose to use a blood sampling technique developed to allow non-surgical collection of pituitary venous blood, which is only possible in horses because of their unique anatomy. Horses are an ideal model for assessment of positive emotions because of their lack of fear of humans, ease of handling and measurement of cardiac activity, and the ability to sample pituitary venous blood. The ability to objectively identify situations perceived as positive would allow us to actively improve horse welfare, health and performance.
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Safety aspects and behaviour of Siena Palio horses
Roberta Polito1, Michela Minero1, Elisabetta Canali1, Gianluigi Giovagnoli2, Nicola Magnaghi3, Marco Pepe4 and Marco Reitano5
1Università degli Studi, Dipartimento di Scienze Animali, Milano, Italy 2Scuola Italiana di Fisioterapia Animale, Siena, Italy 3Professional DVM, Casino di Terra, Italy 4Università degli Studi di Perugia, Facoltà di Medicina Veterinaria, Perugia, Italy 5Centro Militare Veterinario, Grosseto, Italy
Corresponding author – Michela Minero: [email protected]
In historical horse races the likelihood of accidents is significant with repercussions on human and horse safety and on the public opinion. The ‘Palio di Siena’ is a horse race held twice each year in Siena, Italy, in which ten horses and riders ride bareback circling three times the shell- shaped Piazza del Campo on a layer of dirt (tufo). The Siena municipality set a ‘Protocol’ to prevent horse injuries and to protect horse welfare during the race. Thickness, compactness and moisture of the tufo race track are regularly checked, padded crash barriers are placed against the walls at San Martino, a sharp curve with marked deceleration, and a specialized first aid unit is compulsory present. The registration of horses in the “Palio Horse Book” is allowed only for mix-breed Anglo-Arabian-Sardi horses with specific requirements for height, trunk length and shin (metacarpal) circumference. The ‘Protocol’ also provides for a mandatory training consisting of three compulsory trials used by the veterinary team to select five year old horses with suitable behaviour. No educational resources about horse behaviour and learning ability of horses are provided to jockeys, owners and stockmen. After implementation of the ‘Protocol’ in 2000, the incidence of injuries decreased from 8% during the 90s’ to 3% in the period 2000-2008. The first phase of this study aimed to verify the management and the handling methods used for the foals to be registered in the “Palio Horse Book”. The efficacy of the mandatory training was verified in a second phase, not related to the first. Fifteen three to five months old foals, registered for assessment were analyzed. All foals were extensively raised in paddocks within stable family groups. Five out of 15 foals received a regular early handling based on unforced individual human contact since their birth. Compared to the other subjects, all the early handled foals showed more positive interactions (shorter flight distances and more contact with the experimenter) with humans during a human approach test. We tested if horses behaved similarly during training trials and racing. Twenty-four horses competing in Palio races 2007-2008 entered the study. We video-recorded every training trial and race of the horses and analyzed the hourly frequencies of specific unwanted behaviours (i.e. kicking, head shaking, etc.), using a focal animal continuous recording method. A GLM for repeated measures was used to verify changes in behavior over time. We found no correlation between behaviours shown by horses during training and the race. Only ‘forcing the canape’, that means pushing against the rope tightened across the starting point, decreased significantly (p<0.05) over the training trials which was probably due to a habituation process. This study highlighted some handling and training aspects of the Siena Palio horses that should be implemented in order to protect human and horse safety.
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Effect of different weaning systems on cortisol release and locomotion activity in foals
Regina Fischer1, Manuela Wulf1, Sandra Rose-Meierhöfer2, Mareike Becker-Birck1, Erich Möstl3 and Christine Aurich1
1Graf Lehndorff Institute for Equine Science, Neustadt (Dosse), Germany 2Leibniz-Institute for Agricultural Engineering, Potsdam-Bornim, Germany 3University of Veterinary Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, Vienna, Austria
Corresponding author – Regina Fischer: [email protected]
Weaning is considered one of the most stressful events in the life of a foal. However, most studies are restricted to behaviour analysis and information based on physiological parameters is limited. Cortisol in plasma is an accepted parameter for stress analysis but repeated venipuncture often is a stressor by itself. Therefore, in this study cortisol immunoreactivity (IR) was determined in saliva. In addition, locomotion was determined with ALT-Pedometers (activity, lying, temperature) allowing objective analysis of the foals’ activity. The purpose of this study was to compare 3 different weaning systems in 17 fillies (4-6 months old) with regard to animal stress. The foals of group A (n=6) and B (n=5) were weaned simultaneously. While group-A- foals remained without mares, 2 mares unrelated to the foals were introduced to group B before weaning and remained with the foals. In group C (n=6), mares were removed on consecutive days (2 mares per day). The day when mares were removed was defined as day 1 of weaning for the respective foals. ALT-Pedometers were placed on one hind leg of foals from the day before weaning to 8 days thereafter. Locomotion activity, standing and lying time were determined for 3 hours each, in the morning and in the afternoon. Saliva for cortisol analysis was collected on the same days 6 times per day. Sampling was done by one person without restraint of the fillies and was well tolerated. Weaning caused a significant cortisol IR release on day 1 in groups A and B and on days 1 and 2 in group C (p<0.05). Peak cortisol IR concentrations in response to weaning were 3.5±0.6, 2.4±0.2 and 2.5±0.7 ng/ml, respectively (group A vs. group B and C p<0.05). On day 2, a peak in cortisol release was detected only in group C (3.5±0.8 ng/ml). On all other days, cortisol IR showed a clear circadian rhythm with highest values in the morning and a gradual decline throughout the day. Cortisol IR decreased over time until day 8. Locomotion time on day 1 of weaning was most pronounced in foals of group A (9.3±1.3 min/15 min) and lowest in group B (4.9±0.4 min/15 min; p<0.05). Foals of group C showed an increase in locomotion activity on days 1 and 2. In all groups, locomotion decreased thereafter. On day1, foals of group B were standing without moving for longer time (391±11 min/8 h) than foals of groups A (257±33 min/8 h) and C (355±21 min/8 h; group A vs. groups B and C: p<0.05). Foals spent only little time lying on day 1 and values recorded by pedometers were 1.0±0.8, 1.3±0.7 and 2.0±1.4 min/8 h for foals of groups A, B, and C respectively (n.s.). From day 3 onwards, foals of all groups were again lying regularly. In conclusion, abrupt weaning induced the most pronounced stress response on the day of weaning, while in foals weaned consecutively, the stress response was protracted over at least 2 days. The least pronounced stress response occurred in foals left in a group with 2 older mares unrelated to the foals.
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Post conflict affiliative interactions in horses (Equus caballus)
Alessandro Cozzi1, Angelo Gazzano2, Claudio Sighieri2, Patrick Pageat1 and Paolo Baragli2
1Phérosynthèse Research Institute Semiochemistry and Applied Ethology, Saint Saturnin les Apt, Le Rieu Neuf, France 2University of Pisa, Veterinary Medicine, Physiological Sciences, Pisa, Italy
Corresponding author – Alessandro Cozzi: [email protected]
Visual and tactile communication is essential for the formation and maintenance of social relationships in equids. The aim of this work is to describe the communication patterns of affiliative behaviours after an aggressive interaction in a permanent group of horses. The behaviour of 7 horses, 5 females and 2 geldings (between 10 and 23 years old) sharing an enclosure (4ha), was observed during 108h; we focused on the post-conflict context. Behaviour sampling was used to analyze dyadic (between the two opponents) and triadic (with the intervention of another horse) social interactions. Behaviours were classified as affiliative (mutual grooming, play, friendly contact, approach, follow) or aggressive (threat to bite, threat to kick, mild threat, threat to strike, bite, kick, strike, push, chase, attack, nipped).The emission of aggressive and subsequent affiliative behaviours was measured and we used post conflict (PC) /matched control (MC) method; this method compares the timing of the first affiliative interaction between former opponents during one PC period with that during the corresponding MC period without a conflict situation. The MC was taken on the next observation day for the same horses at the same time of day to control for the seasonal and diurnal pattern. We use the PC/MC method to test the existence of post conflict affiliation in this group. Our data showed 102 conflicts (82% threat and 18% contact). Affiliative behaviours with dyadic and/or triadic interactions occurred in 85% of the post-conflict context and did not in 15%. The proportion of attracted pairs over total post-conflict situations was significantly greater than the proportion of dispersed pairs, both during dyadic interactions (V19=89, p<0.001) and during triadic interactions (V19=109.5, p=0.002) (Wilcoxon signed-ranks tests). These findings may help improve knowledge of social behaviour in horses and provide a framework cue for conflict management research between animals sharing the same space. Considering the possible implications of affiliative interactions with regard to the welfare of horses and other farm animals in modern husbandry methods, we emphasize the importance of investigating in greater detail the role of post conflict behaviour in individual anxiety reduction.
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The use of environmental enrichment for UK leisure horses
Joanna Hockenhull1 and Emma Creighton2
1University of Chester, Department of Biological Sciences, Chester, UK 2Newcastle University, School of Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
Corresponding author – Joanna Hockenhull: [email protected]
Due to restrictions imposed by external factors, such as private yard regulations, many leisure horse owners have little control over their horse’s physical environment, e.g. the design of their horse’s stable, the type of bedding used or the amount of turn-out time available. For many owners the only practical way of improving the stable environment for their horse is through the addition of some form of environmental enrichment. While there appears to be an ever-increasing range of enrichment items marketed for horses there are little data available as to their use in the leisure horse population. Data were generated for 1373 UK leisure horses via an Internet survey. A series of questions with closed drop-down menus requested details on the type of stable enrichment item used, why it was provided, how long the horse had had it and how often it was used by the horse. Respondents could complete this question series for up to three different enrichment items. Forty-five percent of respondents provided at least one type of enrichment item. The most frequently provided enrichment types were food-based (89%). Most were provided to keep the horse occupied in its stable (53%); while only 7% of respondents provided enrichment to address unwanted behaviour. There was a significant association between the type of enrichment and the reason it was provided (Chi-square; P<0.001) with more respondents than expected providing foodballs to keep their horse occupied in the stable, Likits (flavoured blocks designed to encourage licking) as a treat and stable mirrors to stop the horse performing unwanted behaviour. The length of time the horse had had the enrichment was significantly associated with type (Chi-square; P<0.001), with more respondents than expected providing foodballs for more than twelve months and hanging food items for less than one month. Enrichment type was significantly associated with how often it was used (P<0.001); more horses than expected often used foodballs while fewer than expected often used balls/cones/tyres. Lastly, a significant association was found between the length of time the horse had had the enrichment item and the frequency it was used (P=0.020) with more horses than expected often using items they’d had over twelve months and sometimes using those they’d had between 1-3 months. These findings provide a valuable insight in to the use of environmental enrichment by UK leisure horse owners. The majority of enrichment provided was food-based. This may have implications for obesity levels within this population of horses; however, the risk could be reduced by using low energy food in foodballs. The relationship between the frequency the horse used the enrichment and the length of time it had been available was not straightforward, possibly as the ability to refill food-based enrichment items renews their novelty value and therefore prolongs interest.
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The use of seven methods of preventing stable-based behaviour problems in UK leisure horses and their relative effectiveness
Joanna Hockenhull1 and Emma Creighton2
1University of Chester, Department of Biological Sciences, Chester, UK 2Newcastle University, School of Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
Corresponding author – Joanna Hockenhull: [email protected]
A number of scientific studies have highlighted the welfare implications of attempting to physically inhibit the expression of unwanted behaviour in stabled horses. There are a number of different prevention methods available to horse owners, which vary considerably in the severity of their action, but with little data on how extensively they are used or their success in inhibiting the unwanted behaviour. This study explored the use of seven common prevention methods within the UK leisure horse population and their success in preventing unwanted behaviour being expressed. An internet survey was used to generate data from 1174 leisure horse owners each reporting on one horse. The seven prevention methods were presented in a matrix question format. For each method the respondent was asked to indicate if the method was not used, stopped the problem, reduced the problem or had no effect. Of the 222 respondents (19%) that used these methods, 66% (147/222) used one, 18% (40/222) used two, 11% (24/222) used three, 4% (9/222) used four and 1% (2/222) used five. Nobody reported using more than five of the seven prevention methods. Coating surfaces with a distasteful substance was the most commonly used prevention method (10%; 111/1159), followed by covering surfaces with carpet or metal (6%; 66/1161). Antacids, stable mirrors, anti-weave grills and electrifying surfaces were each used by 3% of respondents (39/1164 and 31/1157 respectively). The least used prevention method was the cribbing collar (2%; 22/1151). No method was reported as completely successful in inhibiting the unwanted behaviour, which may explain why 34% (75/222) of respondents that used prevention methods used more than one. Electrifying surfaces had the highest percentage of users reporting that it stopped the problem (65%: 20/31), while stable mirrors had the least (10%; 4/39). However, stable mirrors had the highest percentage of users reporting a reduction in problems (67%; 26/39). The least successful prevention methods reported were cribbing collars, stable mirrors and feeding antacids; 23% of respondents (5/22; 9/39 and 9/39 respectively) using each of these methods reported that they had no effect on the problem. The findings suggest that the use of methods designed to prevent the expression of unwanted behaviour is not widespread within the UK leisure horse population. This has positive implications for the welfare of these horses, especially as the potentially most severe method, the cribbing collar, had the lowest prevalence. While no data were collected regarding the specific behaviour these methods were intended to prevent, these findings imply that none of the prevention methods were entirely successful and their continued use must be questioned on ethical grounds. Instead, the underlying cause of the problem behaviour needs to be investigated and resolved to benefit the horse’s welfare.
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Appendices
Glossary
Catenary: The slight loop in a perfectly flexible and inextensible rope or chain of uniform cross- section and density as it hangs freely from two fixed points that are not in the same vertical line. The term is used in discussions of rein tension.
Classical conditioning: The process whereby the unconditioned or conditioned response becomes elicited from a conditioned stimulus. In equitation it is the process where learned responses are elicited from more subtle versions of the same signal or to entirely new signals.
Conflict behaviour: A set of responses of varying duration that are usually characterised by hyper reactivity and arise largely through confusion. In equitation, confusions that result in conflict behaviours may be caused by application of simultaneous opposing signals (such as go and stop/slow/step-back) such that the horse is unable to offer any learned responses sufficiently and is forced to endure discomfort from relentless rein and leg pressures. Attempts to flee the aversive situation result in hyper-reactivity. In addition, the desired response to one or both cues diminishes. Conflict behaviours may also result from one signal eliciting two or more responses independently, such as using the reins to achieve vertical flexion independently of the stop/slow/step-back response, or using a single rein to bend the neck of the horse independently of its previously conditioned turn response. Similarly, conflict behaviour may result from incorrect negative reinforcement, such as the reinforcement of inconsistent responses, incorrect responses, no removal of pressure, or no shaping of responses. Often referred to as evasions and resistances.
Conflict theory: Conflict theory proposes that most unwelcome responses in animals trained with aversive stimuli are more appropriately recognised as active coping behaviours, arising from dysfunctions in negative reinforcement.
Contact: The connection of the rider’s hands to the horse’s mouth, of the legs to the horse’s sides, and of the seat to the horse’s back via the saddle. The topic of contact with both hand and leg generates considerable confusion related to the pressure that the horse should endure if the contact is deemed to be correct. In classical equitation, contact to the rein and rider’s leg involves a light pressure (approximately 200g) to the horse’s lips/tongue and body, respectively. Although a light contact is the aim, there are brief moments (seconds or parts of a second) when contact may need to be stronger, particularly at the start of training, or in re- training, to overcome resistances from the horse. Many contemporary horse trainers insist that the contact should be much heavier than a light connection. This view may cause progressive habituation leading to learned helplessness to the rein and leg signals as a result of incorrect negative reinforcement and/or simultaneous application of the cues. Contact may therefore need to be the focus of discussion and debate.
Cue: An event that elicits a learned response. In equitation, cues are sometimes termed aids or signals. Rein, leg, whip and spur cues are initially learned through negative reinforcement and then transformed to light cues (light rein, light leg, voice, seat) via classical conditioning because of the temporal relation between the two. In traditional horsemanship, the cues are
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divided into two groups: the natural cues and the artificial cues. This distinction is misleading as it neither identifies nor correlates with the two different learning modalities through which the horse acquires its responses to the cues. These are learned through classical conditioning when a response comes increasingly under stimulus control.
Ethical equitation: Ethical equitation aims to minimize deleterious effects at the human–horse interface. It demands, in particular, that trainers and riders use minimal pressure in both contact (if relevant to the sport) and signalling and that pressure is released immediately. Furthermore, it requires trainers and riders to understand the impacts of their actions and be prepared to justify them.
Ethology: Ethology is primarily the scientific study of innate adaptive behaviour in animals, as it occurs in a natural environment; applied ethology being is the study of animal behaviour in the human domain.
Habituation: The waning of a response to a repeated stimulus as a result of frequent exposure (not fatigue).
Learned helplessness: A state in which an animal has learned not to respond to pressure or pain. This arises from inappropriate application of negative reinforcement, which results in the horse not being able to obtain release from aversive stimuli. If this continues over a period of time, the horse will no longer make responses that were once appropriate. Learned helplessness has the following characteristics: a disinclination to trial behavioural responses to pressure; lowered levels of aggression; dullness; loss of appetite; physiological and immunological changes.
Negative punishment: The removal of a reinforcing stimulus which makes a particular response less likely in the future.
Negative reinforcement: The subtraction of something aversive (such as pressure) to reward the desired response and thus lower the motivational drive.
Operant conditioning: Training the horse to respond consistently to signals through positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.
Positive punishment: The addition of an aversive stimulus which makes a particular response less likely in the future.
Positive reinforcement: The addition of a pleasant stimulus (a reinforcer) to reward the desired response and thus make this response more likely in the future.
Punishment: The presentation of an aversive stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a response or, in the case of negative punishment, the removal of a reinforcing stimulus. Punishment is often used incorrectly in horse training, i.e., when not immediately contingent with the offending response. Incorrect use of punishment can lower an animal’s motivation to trial new responses, desensitise the animal to the punishing stimulus and create fearful associations.
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Reinforcement: The process in which a reinforcer follows a particular behaviour so that the frequency (or probability) of that behaviour increases.
Reinforcer: An environmental change that increases the likelihood that an animal will make a particular response, i.e., the addition of a reward (positive reinforcer), or removal of an aversive stimulus (negative reinforcer).
Response: A reaction to a stimulus.
Shaping: The successive approximation of a behaviour toward a targeted desirable behaviour through the consecutive training of one single quality of a response followed by the next. In horse training, a shaping program is known as a Training Scale. Not paying due attention to shaping in horse training has been associated with conflict behaviours.
Stereotypy: A repeated, relatively invariant sequence of movements that has no function obvious to the observer. A number of stereotypic behaviours are seen in horses and are erroneously referred to as stable vices. Crib-biting is where the horse is holding onto a fixed object with the incisor teeth, arching the neck and leaning backwards, with or without engulfing air with a characteristic grunting noise; in the US it is referred to as cribbing. Wind-sucking, in Australia, describes a stereotypic gripping of a fixed object with the teeth while pulling back and engulfing air into the cranial oesophagus whereas in the UK it refers to the gulping of air into the cranial oesophagus without holding onto any fixed object.
Stimulus: Any of the cues or signals used to elicit responses in horses. Often referred to as aids.
Stress (acute and chronic): Stress, in its acute form, is a short-term dysfunction of the signal- response relationship presenting variously as raised tension levels, agonistic behaviours, redirected aggression and displacement activities. Chronic stress manifests as raised corticosteroid levels, physiological disturbances, gastric pathology, repetition and ritualisation of original conflict behaviours, redirected, ambivalent and displacement behaviours, development of stereotypies and injurious behaviours, such as self-mutilation and increased aggression.
Training scale: A progressive order of training particular qualities of responses through the process of shaping. Shaping programs merit further research.
Original source of the glossary:
McGreevy, P. D., McLean, A. N., Warren-Smith, A. K., Waran, N., Goodwin, D., 2005. Defining the terms and processes associated with equitation. In: Proceedings of the 1st International Equitation Science Symposium, Australian Equine Behaviour Centre, Melbourne, Australia, 10-43.
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A quick guide to statistics for non scientists
Hayley Randle
Duchy College, Stoke Climsland, Callington, Cornwall, UK
The ‘scientific process’ comprises the six steps listed below. The application of statistics is a tool which enables reliable conclusions to be reached and the research objective to be answered. Statistical analysis is not that difficult and simply involves following a series of simple steps and rules. An example is used to demonstrate the steps needed for a simple scenario where the researcher needs to apply the two sample t-test in order to statistically assess the difference between two sets of data. (All text relating to the example given is highlighted with grey shading.)
EXAMPLE: A study is planned to investigate the success of dressage horses trained using two different training methods (Method A and Method B).
1. Generating a research question A good project will have a simple title which clearly describes the objective of the study.
Is there a difference in the success of dressage horses trained using Method A and Method B?
2. Identifying variables and measures There are two types of variables – independent variables which are determined by the researcher and dependent variables which provide the measurements upon which statistical tests are conducted.
The Independent Variable is ‘Training method’ and has two levels: Method A and Method B.
The Dependent Variable is ‘success’ – which can be measured by scores achieved in competition.
3. Formulating hypotheses All research projects rely on the examination of hypotheses. Each statistical analysis relies on the simultaneous examination of a pair of hypotheses which are opposites of each other and always follow the standard format:
The Null Hypothesis (Ho) states that ‘There is no significant difference between A and B’.
The Alternative Hypothesis (Ha/H1) states that ‘There is a significant difference between A and B’.
Ho: There is no significant difference in the dressage scores achieved by horses trained using Method A and the dressage scores achieved by horses trained using Method B.
4. Ha:Designing There is significantthe experime differencent ~ datain the collectiondressage scores achieved by horses trained using Method A and the dressage scores achieved by horses trained using Method B.
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When designing an experiment it is important to obtain a decent sample size (n, as a rough guide is that anything less than 30 is considered to be a ‘small’ sample) and to match everything about the individuals contributing to each sample as evenly as possible.
All of the horse and rider combinations in this study will be competing at a similar level, and performing
the same dressage test, under the same conditions, and be judged by the same judge.
5. Data analysis Two types of data analysis are applied, first, exploratory, descriptive analysis which provides averages and an indication of the spread of the data, and second, confirmatory statistical analysis which yields ‘test statistics’ and probabilities and ultimately allows a statistical conclusion to be reached. The latter will then allow a conclusion to be reached in relation to the objective of the study.
Sample data (Dressage scores, %) Method A 60 60 60 50 64 56 55 56 48 44 53 53 59 54 57 52 52 59 56 61 55 50 58 56 52 62 53 67 58 51
Method B 60 73 69 67 72 67 65 64 64 72 64 72 61 68 70 74 61 63 66 68 66 72 70 68 55 87 60 66 68 69
Exploratory, descriptive analysis ~ of the sample data shows that horses trained using Method A achieve an average score of 55.7% with a variability of 4.93% typically presented as 55.74.93%. Horses trained using Method B achieved a higher score of 67.45.80%.
At this point, the general impression is gained that there is a difference in the scores achieved by horses trained using the two different training methods.
Confirmatory, statistical analysis ~ is necessary in order reach a reliable conclusion. A standard process is now followed:
Conduct a statistical test (here the two sample t-test). This will produce a test statistic and a probability value, P.
For this example:
t56=8.40; P<0.001
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6. Reach a conclusion In statistics there is a one important number: P=0.05.
A P-value of 0.05 means that if a study was repeated 100 times, then 95 times out of 100 the same result would be found, and 5 times out of 100 the opposite result would be gained. As far as interpretation of results goes the P value should be less than 0.05 in order for the results to be considered to be reliable.
A simple procedure is followed to relate the P value to the hypotheses in order to reach a statistically sound conclusion:
If the P value obtained is less than 0.05, the Ha is accepted and the Ho is rejected. The conclusion is then reached that there is a significant difference between the two samples. The averages found in exploratory data analysis show that training Method B is more successful than Method A.
If the P value obtained is equal to, or greater than, 0.05, the Ho is accepted and the Ha is rejected. The conclusion is then reached that there is not a significant difference between the two samples. (Here scientists state that there is a non significant difference.)
This guide is intended to enable non-scientists to understand the statistical references made in the abstracts and presentations during the course of the ISES international conference.
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Welcome to the 7th International Equitaton Science Conference ISES in The Netherlands 26 th - 29 th October 2011
In 2011 the 7th ISES conference will be organised in collaboration with the 11th Global Dressage Forum, the Veterinary Faculty of Utrecht University and the Animal Science Group of Wageningen University. The venue for this spectacular event will be the Bartels Academy in Hooge Mierde, the Netherlands. Equitation Science: principles and practices It is with pleasure that we announce the ISES conference in 2011 to be held in the Netherlands. This has provided our society with an exciting opportunity to collaborate with the world famous Global Dressage Forum (GDF). In order to facilitate this unique combination of events, ISES needs to change its “usual” meeting period. The new dates for the 2011 ISES conference are set for Wednesday 26th October to Saturday October 29, 2011. For those who wish to even get more out of this stay, the ISES conference will be followed directly by the GDF. The Global Dressage Forum is the leading public debating platform for the international dressage world. The world’s top rider’s and trainer’s techniques are scrutinised and examined in both practical and theoretical sessions. The latest developments in horse management and sports science are also presented. Since October 2001 top trainers, riders, officials, equestrian journalists and serious dressage enthusiasts from around the globe meet here annually. The presence of the serious international equine press will ensure maximal exposure to horse owners, riders and trainers world wide. The theme of the 7th ISES conference will be: “Equitation science: principles and practices - science at work The primary aim of this conference is to stimulate participants to exchange ideas and research results about how scientific research can help to improve the welfare, performance and safety of the horse in cooperation with man. The local organising committee is planning a well balanced and exciting programme with well known invited plenary speakers. Prof. Daniel Mills will talk about Equine Abnormal Behaviour, and a golden coach of an Olympic discipline will present how he used modern scientific techniques to help his team to win an Olympic Gold Medal. The other speakers and practitioners during the practical day will be unveiled in due time. All hotel facilities, scientific presentations and discussions will take place in a modern conference centre close by. The hotel can be easily accessed by public transport and there is an airport near by. We look forward to welcoming you all in October 2011 to the Netherlands. On behalf of the Local Conference Organising Committee Dr. K. Visser Dr. M. van Dierendonck Drs. F. Westerduin Drs G. Bartels [email protected] www.ises2011.nl www.equitationscience.com www.globaldressageforum.com