DOCSLIB.ORG

Oswer Technical Guide for Assessing and Mitigating the Vapor Intrusion Pathway from Subsurface Vapor Sources to Indoor Air

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Oswer Technical Guide for Assessing and Mitigating the Vapor Intrusion Pathway from Subsurface Vapor Sources to Indoor Air OSWER Publication 9200.2-154 OSWER TECHNICAL GUIDE FOR ASSESSING AND MITIGATING THE VAPOR INTRUSION PATHWAY FROM SUBSURFACE VAPOR SOURCES TO INDOOR AIR U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response June 2015 June 2015 Assessing and Mitigating the Vapor Intrusion Pathway from Subsurface Vapor Sources to Indoor Air DISCLAIMER This document presents current technical recommendations of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) based on our current understanding of vapor intrusion into indoor air from subsurface vapor sources. This guidance document does not impose any requirements or obligations on the EPA, the states or tribal governments, or the regulated community. Rather, the sources of authority and requirements for addressing subsurface vapor intrusion are the relevant statutes and regulations. Decisions regarding a particular situation should be made based upon statutory and regulatory authority. EPA decision-makers retain the discretion to adopt or approve approaches on a case-by-case basis that differ from this guidance document, where appropriate, as long as the administrative record supporting its decision provides an adequate basis and reasoned explanation for doing so. i June 2015 Assessing and Mitigating the Vapor Intrusion Pathway from Subsurface Vapor Sources to Indoor Air TABLE OF CONTENTS DISCLAIMER........................................................................................................................... i TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................... ii LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................................. vi LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. vi LIST OF APPENDICES......................................................................................................... vii ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................. viii 1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Definition of Vapor Intrusion.................................................................................... 1 1.2 Statutory Authorities ............................................................................................... 3 1.2.1 Taking Action with Limited Data under CERCLA and the NCP .................... 4 1.2.2 Taking Action with Limited Data under RCRA Corrective Action .................. 6 1.3 Scope and Recommended Uses of this Technical Guide......................................... 6 1.3.1 Petroleum Hydrocarbons ............................................................................ 9 1.3.2 Nonresidential Buildings ........................................................................... 10 1.4 Companion Documents and Technical Resources ................................................ 10 1.4.1 Vapor Intrusion Screening Level Calculator............................................... 11 1.4.2 Technical Support Documents .................................................................. 11 1.5 Historical Context ................................................................................................. 12 1.6 Public Involvement in Developing Vapor Intrusion Technical Guide ....................... 16 1.7 Organization......................................................................................................... 16 2.0 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF VAPOR INTRUSION......................................................... 19 2.1 Subsurface Vapor Sources ................................................................................... 22 2.2 Subsurface Vapor Migration.................................................................................. 24 2.3 Openings and Driving Forces for Soil Gas Entry into Buildings .............................. 26 2.4 Air Exchange and Mixing ...................................................................................... 30 2.5 Conceptual Model Scenarios ................................................................................ 31 2.6 Variability in Exposure Levels ............................................................................... 34 2.7 Consideration of Indoor and Outdoor Sources of VOCs ......................................... 34 3.0 OVERVIEW OF VAPOR INTRUSION TECHNICAL GUIDE........................................... 36 3.1 Contaminants of Potential Concern ....................................................................... 36 ii June 2015 Assessing and Mitigating the Vapor Intrusion Pathway from Subsurface Vapor Sources to Indoor Air 3.2 Vapor Intrusion Assessment ................................................................................. 37 3.3 Building Mitigation and Subsurface Remediation ................................................... 41 3.4 Community Outreach and Involvement ................................................................. 44 4.0 CONSIDERATIONS FOR NONRESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS .......................................... 46 5.0 PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS OF VAPOR INTRUSION .................................................... 49 5.1 Assemble, Evaluate, and Review Available Information ......................................... 49 5.2 Identify and Respond to Conditions that Warrant Prompt Action ............................ 51 5.3 Determine Presence of Structures and Vapor-forming Chemicals .......................... 52 5.4 Develop Initial Conceptual Site Model ................................................................... 55 5.5 Evaluating Pre-Existing and Readily Ascertainable Sampling Data ........................ 58 5.5.1 Evaluate Sampling Data Reliability and Quality ......................................... 58 5.5.2 Evaluate Applicability of the VISLs and Adequacy of the Initial CSM.......... 59 5.5.3 Preliminary Risk-based Screening ............................................................ 59 6.0 DETAILED INVESTIGATION OF VAPOR INTRUSION ................................................. 61 6.1 Common Vapor Intrusion Scenarios...................................................................... 61 6.2 Planning and Scoping........................................................................................... 63 6.2.1 Vapor Intrusion Inclusion Zones................................................................ 67 6.2.2 Prioritizing Investigations with Multiple Buildings ....................................... 69 6.2.3 Planning for Community Involvement........................................................ 71 6.3 Characterize the Vapor Intrusion Pathway ............................................................ 71 6.3.1 Characterize Nature and Extent of Subsurface Vapor Sources .................. 72 6.3.2 Characterize Vapor Migration in the Vadose Zone .................................... 75 6.3.3 Assess Building Susceptibility to Soil Gas Entry ........................................ 78 6.3.4 Evaluate Presence and Concentration of Subsurface Contaminants in Indoor Air ................................................................................................. 80 6.3.5 Identify and Evaluate Contributions from Indoor and Ambient Air Sources . 81 6.3.6 Select, Prioritize, and Sequence Investigation Objectives.......................... 86 6.4 General Principles and Recommendations for Sampling ....................................... 87 6.4.1 Indoor Air Sampling.................................................................................. 88 6.4.2 Outdoor Air Sampling ............................................................................... 98 6.4.3 Sub-slab Soil Gas Sampling ..................................................................... 99 6.4.4 Soil Gas Sampling.................................................................................. 103 6.4.5 Groundwater Sampling........................................................................... 104 iii June 2015 Assessing and Mitigating the Vapor Intrusion Pathway from Subsurface Vapor Sources to Indoor Air 6.4.6 Planning for Building and Property Access.............................................. 105 6.5 Overview of Risk-Based Screening .................................................................... 105 6.5.1 Objectives of Screening.......................................................................... 105 6.5.2 Scope and Basis for Health-based, Vapor Intrusion Screening Levels ..... 106 6.5.3 Recommended Attenuation Factors for Health-based Screening ............. 108 6.5.4 Comparing Sample Concentrations to Health-based Screening Levels .... 111 6.5.5 Planning for Communication of Sampling Results ................................... 112 6.6 General Principles and Recommendations for Mathematical Modeling ................ 113 7.0 RISK ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK ....................................... 117 7.1 Collect Site-specific Lines of Evidence ................................................................ 117 7.2 Weigh and Assess Concordance Among the Lines of Evidence........................... 120 7.3 Evaluate Whether the Vapor Intrusion Pathway is Complete or Incomplete .......... 122 7.4 Conduct and Interpret Human Health Risk Assessment....................................... 124 7.4.1 Risk Management Benchmarks .............................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Vision 2030 Maharashtra
    Overview of the State ………………………………………………………….. 01 Demographic Profile ……………………………………………………………….. 03 State Economy ………………………………………………………………………. 04 Key Challenges ……………………………………………………………………... 08 Way forward ……………………………………………………………………. 13 Core five pillars (themes) of Vision 2030 …………………………………………… 15 Vision Statement & Components …………………………………………... 17 Agriculture & Allied activities Current Scenario …………………………………………………………………… 21 Vision Elements and Targets ………………………………………………………. 26 Action Points ………………………………………………………………………. 30 Industry & Services Current Scenario ……………………………………………………………………. 47 Vision Elements and Targets ……………………………………………………….. 50 Action Points ……………………………………………………………………... 52 Infrastructure Current Scenario ………………………………………………………………….. 62 Vision Elements and Targets ……………………………………………………... 65 Action Points ………………………………………………………………………. 68 Social Sectors Current Scenario ..…………………………………………………………………. 74 Vision Elements and Targets ……………………………………………………… 84 Action Points ……………………………………………………………………… 92 Governance Current Scenario …………………………………………………………………… 113 Vision Elements and Targets ……………………………………………………… 117 Action Points ……………………………………………………………………… 123 Environment Current Scenario …………………………………………………………………… 128 Vision Elements and Targets ……………………………………………………… 129 Action Points ……………………………………………………………………… 130 Implementation Strategy……………………………………………………….. 131 OVERVIEW OF THE STATE Maharashtra occupies the western and central part of the country and has a long coastline stretching nearly 720 km along the Arabian Sea. The
    [Show full text]
  • Evaluating Vapor Intrusion Pathways
    Evaluating Vapor Intrusion Pathways Guidance for ATSDR’s Division of Community Health Investigations October 31, 2016 Contents Acronym List ........................................................................................................................................................................... 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................... 2 What are the potential health risks from the vapor intrusion pathway? ............................................................................... 2 When should a vapor intrusion pathway be evaluated? ........................................................................................................ 3 Why is it so difficult to assess the public health hazard posed by the vapor intrusion pathway? .......................................... 3 What is the best approach for a public health evaluation of the vapor intrusion pathway? ................................................. 5 Public health evaluation.......................................................................................................................................................... 5 Vapor intrusion evaluation process outline ............................................................................................................................ 8 References… …......................................................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Soil Contamination and Human Health: a Major Challenge For
    Soil contamination and human health : A major challenge for global soil security Florence Carre, Julien Caudeville, Roseline Bonnard, Valérie Bert, Pierre Boucard, Martine Ramel To cite this version: Florence Carre, Julien Caudeville, Roseline Bonnard, Valérie Bert, Pierre Boucard, et al.. Soil con- tamination and human health : A major challenge for global soil security. Global Soil Security Sympo- sium, May 2015, College Station, United States. pp.275-295, 10.1007/978-3-319-43394-3_25. ineris- 01864711 HAL Id: ineris-01864711 https://hal-ineris.archives-ouvertes.fr/ineris-01864711 Submitted on 30 Aug 2018 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. Human Health as another major challenge of Global Soil Security Florence Carré, Julien Caudeville, Roseline Bonnard, Valérie Bert, Pierre Boucard, Martine Ramel Abstract This chapter aimed to demonstrate, by several illustrated examples, that Human Health should be considered as another major challenge of global soil security by emphasizing the fact that (a) soil contamination is a worldwide issue, estimations can be done based on local contamination but the extent and content of diffuse contamination is largely unknown; (b) although soil is able to store, filter and reduce contamination, it can also transform and make accessible soil contaminants and their metabolites, contributing then to human health impacts.
    [Show full text]
  • EPA's Vapor Intrusion Database: Evaluation and Characterization of Attenuation, Factors for Chlorinated Volatile Organic Compo
    EPA 530-R-10-002 March 16, 2012 EPA’s Vapor Intrusion Database: Evaluation and Characterization of Attenuation Factors for Chlorinated Volatile Organic Compounds and Residential Buildings Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Washington, DC 20460 March 16, 2012 EPA’s Vapor Intrusion Database [This page intentionally left blank.] ii March 16, 2012 EPA’s Vapor Intrusion Database Disclaimer This document presents technical information regarding the concentrations of chlorinated volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in and underneath North American buildings that have been investigated for potential vapor intrusion. This document does not confer legal rights, impose legal obligations, or implement any statutory or regulatory provisions. This document does not change or substitute for any statutory or regulatory provisions. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) personnel (and others) are free to use and accept other technically sound information, either on their own initiative, or at the suggestion of responsible parties or other interested parties. Interested parties are free to raise questions and objections about the appropriateness of the information presented in this document. Finally, this is a living document and may be updated periodically. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. iii March 16, 2012 EPA’s Vapor Intrusion Database Authors and Contributors The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response (OSWER), Washington, DC, was responsible for the preparation of EPA’s Vapor Intrusion Database: Evaluation and Characterization of Attenuation Factors for Chlorinated Volatile Organic Compounds and Residential Building. Dr. Helen E.
    [Show full text]
  • Vapor Intrusion? Can You Get Sick from Vapor Vapor Intrusion Refers to the Vapors Produced by a Chemical Intrusion? Spill/Leak That Make Their Way Into Indoor Air
    Bureau of Environmental Health Health Assessment Section VVaappoorr IInnttrruussiioonn “To protect and improve the health of all Ohioans” Answers to Frequently Asked Health Questions What is vapor intrusion? Can you get sick from vapor Vapor intrusion refers to the vapors produced by a chemical intrusion? spill/leak that make their way into indoor air. When intrusion? You can get sick from breathing harmful chemical chemicals are spilled on the ground or leak from an vapors. But getting sick will depend on: underground storage tank, they will seep into the soils and How much you were exposed to (dose). will sometimes make their way into the groundwater How long you were exposed (duration). (underground drinking water). There are a group of How often you were exposed (frequency). chemicals called volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that How toxic the spill/leak chemicals are. easily produce vapors. These vapors can travel through General Health, age, lifestyle: Young children, the soils, especially if the soils are sandy and loose or have a lot elderly and people with chronic (on-going) health of cracks (fissures). These vapors can then enter a home problems are more at risk to chemical exposures. through cracks in the foundation or into a basement with a dirt floor or concrete slab. VOC vapors at high levels can cause a strong petroleum or solvent odor and some persons may VOCs and vapors: experience eye and respiratory irritation, headache VOCs can be found in petroleum products such as gasoline and/or nausea (upset stomach). These symptoms or diesel fuels, in solvents used for industrial cleaning and are usually temporary and go away when the person are also used in dry cleaning.
    [Show full text]
  • Radon. How It Gets Into Your Home
    Radon. How it gets into your home Radon gas kills an estimated 21,000 Americans every year, Radon gas entering How it gets in your home making it the second-leading cause of lung cancer in the home from below ground Loose pipes, unsealed cracks and sump crocks (a basin in the United States. You are most likely to be exposed to it in Common ways to remove concrete basement oor that collects groundwater seepage) your own home. Here’s how radon gets into your home radon gas from home can be points of entry for radon as it seeps up through and how you can get rid of it. permeable rock and soil. Regardless of your home's base, any break in the seal between ground and foundation can allow radon to enter and escape into your living areas. Higher oors will see less radon as the particulates dissipate. Advance Local graphic. Sources: U.S. Department of the Interior Reducing the risk U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Once radon levels are conrmed to be high, Minnesota Department of Health there are ways to remove it. Leaks that allow radon to enter are sealed and a radon mitigation system, left, is installed that vents the particulates safely outside. Radon fan Water pipes Faucet Drain Gaps in Cracks suspended oors Well Cracks How geology determines radon risk pipe Radon pipe Highly permeable soil or rock types oer less of Construction a barrier to radon present below ground. Suction pit joints Generally, the harder packed the ground is, the lower the chance of having radon in your home.
    [Show full text]
  • Groundwater Overdraft, Electricity, and Wrong Incentives : Evidence from Mexico
    Groundwater Overdraft, Electricity, and Wrong Incentives : Evidence from Mexico Vincente Ruiz WP 2016.05 Suggested citation: V. Ruiz (2016). Groundwater Overdraft, Electricity, and Wrong Incentives : Evidence from Mexico. FAERE Working Paper, 2016.05. ISSN number: 2274-5556 www.faere.fr Groundwater Overdraft, Electricity, and Wrong Incentives: Evidence from Mexico by Vicente Ruiz⇤ Last version: January 2016 Abstract Groundwater overdraft is threatening the sustainability of an increasing number of aquifers in Mexico. The excessive amount of groundwater ex- tracted by irrigation farming has significantly contributed to this problem. The objective of this paper is to analyse the effect of changes in ground- water price over the allocation of different production inputs. I model the technology of producers facing groundwater overdraft through a Translog cost function and using a combination of multiple micro-data sources. My results show that groundwater demand is inelastic, -0.54. Moreover, these results also show that both labour and fertiliser can act as substitutes for groundwater, further reacting to changes in groundwater price. JEL codes:Q12,Q25 Key words: Groundwater, Electricity, Subsidies, Mexico, Translog Cost ⇤Université Paris 1 - Panthéon Sorbonne, Paris School of Economics (PSE). Centre d’Économie de la Sorbonne, 106-112 Boulevard de l’Hopital, 75647, Paris Cedex 13, France. Email: [email protected] Introduction The high rate of groundwater extraction in Mexico is threatening the sustainability of an increasing number of aquifers in the country. Today in Mexico 1 out of 6aquifersisconsideredtobeoverexploited(CONAGUA, 2010). Groundwater overdraft is not only an important cause of major environmental problems, but it also has a direct impact on economic activities and the wellbeing of a high share of the population.
    [Show full text]
  • Sustainable Use of Soils and Water: the Role of Environmental Land Use Conflicts
    sustainability Editorial Sustainable Use of Soils and Water: The Role of Environmental Land Use Conflicts Fernando A. L. Pacheco CQVR – Chemistry Research Centre, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados Ap. 1013, Vila Real 5001-801, Portugal; [email protected] Received: 3 February 2020; Accepted: 4 February 2020; Published: 6 February 2020 Abstract: Sustainability is a utopia of societies, that could be achieved by a harmonious balance between socio-economic development and environmental protection, including the sustainable exploitation of natural resources. The present Special Issue addresses a multiplicity of realities that confirm a deviation from this utopia in the real world, as well as the concerns of researchers. These scholars point to measures that could help lead the damaged environment to a better status. The studies were focused on sustainable use of soils and water, as well as on land use or occupation changes that can negatively affect the quality of those resources. Some other studies attempt to assess (un)sustainability in specific regions through holistic approaches, like the land carrying capacity, the green gross domestic product or the eco-security models. Overall, the special issue provides a panoramic view of competing interests for land and the consequences for the environment derived therefrom. Keywords: water resources; soil; land use change; conflicts; environmental degradation; sustainability Competition for land is a worldwide problem affecting developed as well as developing countries, because the economic growth of activity sectors often requires the expansion of occupied land, sometimes to places that overlap different sectors. Besides the social tension and conflicts eventually caused by the competing interests for land, the environmental problems they can trigger and sustain cannot be overlooked.
    [Show full text]
  • Reference: Groundwater Quality and Groundwater Pollution
    PUBLICATION 8084 FWQP REFERENCE SHEET 11.2 Reference: Groundwater Quality and Groundwater Pollution THOMAS HARTER is UC Cooperative Extension Hydrogeology Specialist, University of California, Davis, and Kearney Agricultural Center. roundwater quality comprises the physical, chemical, and biological qualities of UNIVERSITY OF G ground water. Temperature, turbidity, color, taste, and odor make up the list of physi- CALIFORNIA cal water quality parameters. Since most ground water is colorless, odorless, and Division of Agriculture without specific taste, we are typically most concerned with its chemical and biologi- and Natural Resources cal qualities. Although spring water or groundwater products are often sold as “pure,” http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu their water quality is different from that of pure water. In partnership with Naturally, ground water contains mineral ions. These ions slowly dissolve from soil particles, sediments, and rocks as the water travels along mineral surfaces in the pores or fractures of the unsaturated zone and the aquifer. They are referred to as dis- solved solids. Some dissolved solids may have originated in the precipitation water or river water that recharges the aquifer. A list of the dissolved solids in any water is long, but it can be divided into three groups: major constituents, minor constituents, and trace elements (Table 1). The http://www.nrcs.usda.gov total mass of dissolved constituents is referred to as the total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration. In water, all of the dissolved solids are either positively charged ions Farm Water (cations) or negatively charged ions (anions). The total negative charge of the anions always equals the total positive charge of the cations.
    [Show full text]
  • Basic Radon Facts
    Connecticut Department of Public Health Environmental Health Section Radon Program 410 Capitol Avenue, MS# 21 RAD PO Box 340308 Hartford, CT 06134-0308 June 2016 Basic Radon Facts Radon is a cancer causing, radioactive gas Radon is a naturally occurring, radioactive gas released in rock, soil, and water formed from the breakdown of uranium. Levels in outdoor air pose a low threat to human health. However, radon can enter homes from surrounding soil and become a health hazard inside buildings. Radon does not cause symptoms. You can’t see it or smell it, but an elevated radon level in your home may be affecting the health of your family. Breathing radon over prolonged periods may damage lung tissue. Exposure to radon is the leading cause of lung cancer in nonsmokers in the United States. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that radon causes more than 20,000 lung cancer deaths in the country each year. Only smoking causes more lung cancer deaths. If you smoke and your home has radon, your risk of developing lung cancer can be much higher. Radon is found all over the United States Radon has been found in elevated levels in homes in every state. High radon concentrations can occur sporadically in all parts of Connecticut. Two homes right next to each other can have different radon levels. Just because your neighbor’s house doesn’t have an elevated level of radon does not mean that your house will also have a low radon level. The only way to know if you have an elevated radon level above the EPA action level of 4 pCi/L is to test your home’s indoor air.
    [Show full text]
  • Keeping Your Home Safe from RADON
    Keeping Your Home Safe From RADON 800-662-9278 | Michigan.gov/radon 08/2019 What is Radon? Radon is a colorless and odorless gas that comes from the soil. The gas can accumulate in our home and in the air we breathe. Radon gas decays into fine particles that are radioactive. When inhaled, these fine particles can damage the lung. Exposure to radon over a long period of time can lead to lung cancer. It is estimated that 21,000 people die each year in the United States from lung cancer due to radon exposure. A radon test is the only way to know how much radon is in your home. Radon can be reduced with a mitigation system. The Michigan Department of Environment, Great Lakes, and Energy (EGLE) has created this guide to explain: • How radon accumulates in homes • The health risks of radon exposure • How to test your home for radon • What to do if your home has high radon • Radon policies C Keeping Your Home Safe From Radon Table of Contents Where Does Radon Come From? ............................................. 1 Radon in Michigan ....................................................................... 1 Percentage of Elevated Radon Test Results by County ......... 2 Is There a Safe Level of Radon? ............................................... 3 Radon Health Risks ..................................................................... 4 How Radon Enters the Home ..................................................... 6 Radon Pathways ........................................................................... 7 Radon Testing ............................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Freshwater Resources
    3 Freshwater Resources Coordinating Lead Authors: Blanca E. Jiménez Cisneros (Mexico), Taikan Oki (Japan) Lead Authors: Nigel W. Arnell (UK), Gerardo Benito (Spain), J. Graham Cogley (Canada), Petra Döll (Germany), Tong Jiang (China), Shadrack S. Mwakalila (Tanzania) Contributing Authors: Thomas Fischer (Germany), Dieter Gerten (Germany), Regine Hock (Canada), Shinjiro Kanae (Japan), Xixi Lu (Singapore), Luis José Mata (Venezuela), Claudia Pahl-Wostl (Germany), Kenneth M. Strzepek (USA), Buda Su (China), B. van den Hurk (Netherlands) Review Editor: Zbigniew Kundzewicz (Poland) Volunteer Chapter Scientist: Asako Nishijima (Japan) This chapter should be cited as: Jiménez Cisneros , B.E., T. Oki, N.W. Arnell, G. Benito, J.G. Cogley, P. Döll, T. Jiang, and S.S. Mwakalila, 2014: Freshwater resources. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L. White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 229-269. 229 Table of Contents Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................................................ 232 3.1. Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]