Mapping Early Buddhist Sites in Western Tibet: Recent Findings from Tsamda County, China Karl E. Ryavec University of Wisconsin, Stevens Point, WI, USA
In this article, I present recent in Tsamda county of Ali prefecture so it is often difficult to locate early field survey findings of early in the Tibet Autonomous Region temples listed. Also, many smaller Buddhist sites in Ngari or western is designed to study the spatial shrines and cave murals are not Tibet during August 2006. The patterns of newly discovered sites recorded in the surviving historical sites are in the core region of the in relation to the better known records, and it is thus necessary former Guge kingdom [Fig. 1], sites of historical importance. In to survey areas to document sites. and date from the 10th to 13th this way, it may be possible to century Second Diffusion of deduce approximately how many Interest in western Tibet has Buddhism period, known in sites probably lie in the canyons tended to focus on the region’s Tibetan as the ‘Chidar’ (phyi dar). of Ngari awaiting detailed historical importance in This survey of abandoned temples documentation. Historical Tibetan spearheading the Second and cave murals at several locales records do not contain maps, and Diffusion of Buddhism, and the iconographic origins of Tibetan Buddhist art. Western scholarship largely started with the expe- ditions and findings of the noted Tibet- ologist Giuseppe Tucci (1933). His interests were similar to those of Sir Aurel Stein who earlier ex- plored ancient Buddhist sites along the Silk Road during the first decades of the twentieth century. In both cases, these early archae- ological and art
Fig. 1. Religious and cultural sites in the core region of the Guge Kingdom, ca. 10th-14th centuries CE. Copyright © 2007 Karl E. Ryavec
43 history surveys revealed a region Plateau west of sacred Mount an explanation for the fact that dessicated by climate change over Kailash. After the collapse of the Tibeto-Burmans inhabit both sides the past two millennia with Tibetan empire in the 9th century, of the Himalayas, the greatest numerous settlement areas the new Guge kingdom that arose natural land barrier on earth. abandoned due to dried-up in the 10th century was sometimes Certainly it is reasonable to irrigation sources. Recently, still referred to as Zhangzhung. assume these settlements in the archaeological investigations of upper Sutlej River valley had an It is not clear what sort of western Tibetan pre-Buddhist and agrarian base long before broader cultural influences may Buddhist sites have commenced Buddhism arrived, but some time have interacted with the historical under collaborations between the after the historical domestication development of Zhangzhung American archeologist Mark of the important grain crop plants during the pre-Buddhist period. Aldenderfer (2001, 2004), and the of wheat and barley in the Middle The nearest major cultural hearth Chinese archaeologists Hou Wei East about 10,000 years ago. in this part of the world was the and Li Yongxian (Hou and Li 2001) According to J. P. Mallory and Harrapan, or Indus valley of Sichuan University. And I have Victor Mair (2000), the weight of civilization that flourished c. 5000 studied the aerial extents of circumstantial evidence for the – 2000 BCE, long before available ancient abandoned farmland in early settlement of eastern Central archaeological evidence pertaining several canyons of the former Asia during the Mesolithic period to Zhangzhung appeared. What Guge kingdom based on 2-foot indicates western origins. In impact the urban Harrapan culture resolution satellite imagery, and addition to the cultivation of may have had on historical made some preliminary findings cereals, archaeological evidence developments in western Tibet is on likely historical population for the domestication of sheep also speculative at best, as outlined by levels (Ryavec 2005). favors this western origin Geoffrey Samuel (2000). hypothesis. The extent to which Furthermore, George van Driem Tsamda county lies in the heart western Tibet was geographically (1998) postulates that the of the canyon country of connected with these early northern Neolithic culture of southwestern Tibet carved by the diffusions and later trading Kashmir (2500 – 1700 BCE), much Sutlej river of the Indus networks requires further detailed closer to western Tibet, represents watershed, and bordered on the interdisciplinary research. a colonial exponent of the north south by the Himalayan frontier China Majiayao Neolithic culture Most of the Buddhist monas- with India. This region contains (ca. 3900 – 1800 BCE). Van Driem teries in western Tibet were built many ancient acropolis fort sites, aptly points out that this provides under patronage of the western some probably dating from the first millennium BCE Iron Age. Also, the terrain abounds in habitable caves. Traditionally, many people lived in caves especially during the cold winter months. Under the Tibetan empire ca. 7th to 9th centuries, western Tibet was annexed and referred to as Zhangzhung. The indigenous Bonpo religion remained strong while Buddhism seems not to have made any inroads, unlike in Central Tibet where it was fostered as a court religion of the emperors. Little is known of this past period, with studies by a small number of specialists referring to Zhangzhung in terms ranging from a coalition of territorially based lineages to group of kingdoms, and an empire (Bellezza 2003). However, most scholars agree that the Zhangzhung capital was located at Kyunglung on the eastern border Fig. 2. The acropolis fort complex above the present-day village and of Tsamda county where the Sutlej monastery of Mangnang. Note the numerous caves of the former resi- river originates on the Tibetan dents. Photograph copyright © 2006 Karl E. Ryavec.
44 of Buddhist temples during the ‘Chidar’ period. Buddhist monks also painted cave murals as they did throughout the Silk Road region.
New Sites
The acropolis fort complex [Fig. 2, facing page] above the village of Mangnang [Fig. 3] contains a ruined temple with an approx- imately 4 m 12th-century Buddhist statue still largely intact [Fig. 4]. Fig. 3. Mangnang village, and ca. 11th century temple complex. Himalaya fron- Mangnang is well known as the tier between Tibet and India in background. Photograph copyright © 2006 Karl site of an 11th century temple E. Ryavec. where the famed Bengali Buddhist master Atisha was invited to stay th Tibetan Guge dynasty (ca. 10 to Yet almost every canyon in the one year ca. 1043 before traveling th 17 centuries CE), which became county has an ancient acropolis to Central Tibet where he passed instrumental in supporting a fort complex that saw the addition away. Available guidebooks to Ngari make no mention of this important surviving statue in the fort above the Mangnang village temple complex. Bedongpo village lies in a small tributary of the Sutlej at approximately 4,200 m. Ruins of a fort/monastery complex tower above the village [Fig. 5]. Historical records show that the monastery of Bedongpo was a branch of the main monastery of Toling constructed in 996 CE during the beginning of the Buddhist period in western Tibet. Various other ruined temples are also found in the Bedongpo valley,
Fig. 5. Ruined ca. 12th century fort/ temple complex above the village of Bedongpo. Note small new Buddhist temple at foot of site. Photograph copyright © 2006 Karl E. Ryavec Fig. 4. Ca. 12th century ruined statue of a Buddhist deity, approximately 4 m tall, on the top of the Mangnang fort complex. Photograph copyright © 2006 Karl E. Ryavec resurgence of Buddhist art and literature. During this period many acropolis fort sites were re- developed to accommodate temples. In fact, the former Guge capital at the fortress of Tsaparang is the main destination of most tourists going to Tsamda county today, and is described in detail in guide books to western Tibet.
45 early Tibetan Buddhist forms of art and architecture relatively unknown except to a handful of specialists. The area’s importance as one of the core agrarian bases of the kingdoms of Guge and Purang starting in the tenth century led to royal patronage for substantial temple construction.
There are several problems, however, that make it difficult if not impossible for scholars and tourists to visit most of these sites. In recent years, tourists to Tsamda county have generally only been granted access to the main Fig. 6. Drisa fort complex with ca. 12th century chorten. Photograph copyright temples at Toling in the county © 2006 Karl E. Ryavec. seat, the nearby fort and temples at Tsaparang, and the Dungkar but only near the village was a circa twelfth-century murals [Figs. caves and fort easily accessed small temple rebuilt after China’s 9, 10, facing page]. There are from the main road into the political and economic reforms in some other caves in the valley, but county. Chinese border security Tibet during the 1980s. About 2 ladders are required to access concerns place most of the other km downstream sites off limits, from Bedongpo ostensibly due is a relatively to sensitivity unknown site about the loca- called Drisa tions of military [Fig. 6]. Num- bases and erous chorten patrols. China dating from might do well circa the twelfth to learn from century lie on its neighbor the valley floor India, which below an exten- now allows sive complex of scholars to caves and an travel within 1 acropolis fort. km of its Traces of red claimed border pigment on the walls of at least Fig. 7. Ca. 12th century chorten and aban- one of the doned farmland in the Bedongpo valley. ruined fort Note the numerous caves of the former buildings residents. Photograph copyright © 2006 indicate Karl E. Ryavec. possible temples. No traces of houses, them. The Khyung- however, are noticeable, indicating lang cave lies about that the former farmers probably 5 km upstream from lived year-round in the caves. The Shangtse fort, the entire valley here below Bedongpo reputed summer village consists of large tracts of capital of the Guge abandoned farmland, also kings. indicated by a surviving chorten near the edge of an ancient field [Fig. 7]. Conclusion
The Khyunglang cave [Fig. 8] Tsamda county con- Fig. 8. Entrance to the Khyunglang cave. contains 3 walls with surviving tains many surviving Photograph copyright © 2006 Karl E. Ryavec.
46 them freely available. This would then make it possible for more people to visit the sites without the need to take photographs of the murals, as complete images would already be available.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the Tibetan Academy of Social Sciences and Prof. David Germano of the University of Virginia for facilitating my field research in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China under the general auspices of the Tibetan and Himalayan Digital Library project.
About the Author
Dr. Karl E. Ryavec is an Assistant Professor in the Geography/ Fig. 9. One of the three c. 12th century mandala murals in the Khyunglang cave. Photograph copyright © 2006 Karl E. Ryavec. Geology Department at the University of Wisconsin, Stevens with China. But China, unlike concern relates to efforts by Point. His Ph.D. dissertation India, has to deal with its citizens Chinese cultural offices preventing (University of Minnesota, 2002) attempting to flee the country. photography at the sites. This was entitled “Land Use Change in Thus the wider off-limit areas on problem could be easily solved if Central Tibet, c. 1830-2000.” the Chinese side reflect, in part, a those scholars who have already Starting in 2004, Dr. Ryavec method of preventing people from taken high-resolution photos (and conducted field research in getting close enough to the border official Chinese-sponsored surveys Tsamda county in China to to walk into India. A second have already done this) made understand better the growth and decline of the western Tibetan Guge kingdom. E-mail:
References
Aldenderfer 2001 Mark Aldenderfer. “Piyang: a Tibetan Buddhist Temple and Monastic Complex of the 10th -11 th Centuries AD in Far Western Tibet.” Archaeology, Ethnology, & Anthropology of Eurasia, 2001, 4(8):138-146. Aldenderfer and Moyes 2004 Mark Aldenderfer and Holley Moyes. “Excavations at Dindun, a pre-Buddhist village site in far western Tibet.” In: Huo Wei and Li Yongxian, eds. Essays of the International Conference on Tibetan Archaeology and Art. Chengdu, China: Center for Fig. 10. Detail of a Guge warrior in one of the three c. 12th century mandala Tibetan Studies, Sichuan Union murals in the Khyunglang cave. Photograph copyright © 2006 Karl E. Ryavec. University, 2004: 47-69.
47 Bellezza 2003 and the Mystery of the Earliest Tucci 1933 John V. Bellezza. “Ancient Tibet: Peoples from the West. London: Giuseppe Tucci. Secrets of Tibet: Bringing to Light the Forgotten. A Thames & Hudson, 2000. Being the Chronicle of the Tucci comprehensive survey: of Pre- Ryavec 2005 Scientific Expedition to Western Buddhist sites in Upper Tibet Tibet. Translated from the Italian (1992-2002).” Athena Review, 3/ Karl E. Ryavec. “Aerial Survey of edition by Mary A. Johnstone. 4 (2003), online at
all types of wood-based artifacts, Han Lacquerware and the Wine whether vessels, boxes, furniture, musical instruments, arms, Cups of Noin Ula chariots, or coffins. By the Qin (220–206 BCE) and early Han François Louis eras, lacquering had become so Bard Graduate Center, New York prominent a craft that certain vessels were even produced as ‘pure’ lacquer artifacts without a Lacquer work is today recognized recorded his historic find, a wood substrate, using instead as one of the centrally distinctive wooden ear cup with scroll lacquer-drenched ramie fabric to components of Han material ornament from the ruins of a Han build a core. culture (206 BCE–220 CE). What’s command center (Stein 1921, Vol. more, the Former Han period (206 2, 645; Vol. 4, pl. LII). Since As a commodity, lacquer work BCE–8 CE) has come to be Stein’s discovery, and especially was in many respects akin to celebrated as the apogee of over the past forty years, woven silk during the Han era. Chinese lacquer art (see Wang archaeologists have unearthed Both had relatively little intrinsic 1982, 80–99; Prüch 1997; Fuzhou thousands of Han and even pre- material value. Made from 1998; Barbieri-Low 2001; and Li Han lacquer artifacts, several renewable resources, silk and 2004 for further reading on Han hundred of which are fortunately lacquer products, unlike artifacts lacquer). These insights are still in fine condition. made of jade and gold, were relatively recent and entirely the valued primarily on the basis of result of archaeological dis- We now know that the use of their design and manufacture. coveries. Precisely a century has lacquer as a protective, water- This meant that they could be passed since the first proof coating made from the sap made to cater to a relatively broad archaeological discovery and of the lacquer tree (rhus spectrum of the population. Plain identification of a lacquer vessel verniciflua) goes back to Neolithic silk fabric and utensils simply from Han China. In the spring of times in China. But as an varnished in raw brown lacquer 1907, while surveying the Han artistically emancipated craft, were widely available and border fortifications north of lacquering came into its own only essential commodities. But Dunhuang — and just weeks in the late fifth century BCE in the patterned silks with complex before coming upon the state of Chu in southern China. weave structures and glossy, sensational medieval library at the From that time on it was the colored lacquers with artfully Mogao Caves — Aurel Stein dryly preferred means of decoration for painted red and black decoration
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