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Environmental-Impacts-Of-Pasture.Pdf ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF PASTURE-BASED FARMING This page intentionally left blank ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF PASTURE-BASED FARMING Edited by Richard W. McDowell AgResearch Invermay Agricultural Centre Mosgiel New Zealand CABI is a trading name of CAB International CABI Head Offi ce CABI North American Offi ce Nosworthy Way 875 Massachusetts Avenue Wallingford 7th Floor Oxfordshire OX10 8DE Cambridge, MA 02139 UK USA Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111 Tel: +1 617 395 4056 Fax: +44 (0)1491 833508 Fax: +1 617 354 6875 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.cabi.org ©CAB International 2008. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owners. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, London, UK. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Environmental impacts of pasture-based farming / edited by: R.W. McDowell. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-84593-411-8 (alk. paper) 1. Pastures--Environmental aspects. 2. Grazing--Environmental aspects. I. McDowell, Richard W. II. Title. SB199.E58 2009 636.08'45--dc22 2008018126 ISBN-13: 978 1 84593 411 8 Typeset by SPi, Pondicherry, India. Printed and bound in the UK by Biddles Ltd, Kings Lynn. Contents Contributors vii Foreword ix Preface xi Acknowledgements xiii Part I 1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 1 C.A.M. de Klein, C. Pinares-Patino and G.C. Waghorn 2 Impacts of Pastoral Grazing on Soil Quality 33 S.P. Cuttle 3 Land–Water Interactions: Impacts on the Aquatic 75 Environment R.J. Wilcock 4 Socio-economic Issues in Pasture-based Farming 98 D. Bewsell and C. Dake Part II 5 Impact of Livestock Grazing on Extensively Managed 122 Grazing Lands W.H. Schacht and P.E. Reece v vi Contents 6 Environmental Effects of Sheep Farming 144 J.T. Scott and F.A. Robertson 7 Pressures on Beef Grazing in Mixed Production Farming 187 A.N. Sharpley and C. West 8 The Environmental Impacts of Non-irrigated, Pasture-based 209 Dairy Farming R.M. Monaghan 9 Impacts of Irrigated Dairying on the Environment 232 D. Nash and K. Barlow 10 The Impact of Hybrid Dairy Systems on Air, Soil and 249 Water Quality: Focus on Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycling P.J.A. Kleinman and K. Soder Index 277 Contributors Kirsten Barlow, Victorian Department of Primary Industries, Rutherglen, RMB 1145, Chiltern Valley Road, Rutherglen, Victoria 3685, Australia. E-mail: Kirsten. [email protected] Denise Bewsell, AgResearch Limited, Lincoln Research Centre, Corner Springs Road and Gerald Street, Private Bag 4749, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand. E-mail: [email protected] Steve P. Cuttle, Institute of Grassland and Environmental Research, Plas Gogerddan, Aberystwyth, Ceredigion SY23 3EB, UK. E-mail: [email protected] Chris Dake, AgResearch Limited, Grasslands Research Centre, Tennent Drive, Pri- vate Bag 11008, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand. E-mail: chris.dake@ agresearch.co.nz Cecile A.M. de Klein, AgResearch Invermay, Private Bag 50034, Mosgiel, New Zealand. E-mail: [email protected] Peter J.A. Kleinman, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Pasture Systems and Watershed Management Research Unit, University Park, PA 16802, USA. E-mail: [email protected] Ross M. Monaghan, AgResearch, Invermay Agricultural Centre, Private Bag 50034, Mosgiel, New Zealand. E-mail: [email protected] David Nash, Victorian Department of Primary Industries, Ellinbank, RMB 2460 Hazeldean Road, Ellinbank, Victoria 3821, Australia and eWater CRC, University of Canberra, GPO Canberra 2601, ACT, Australia. E-mail: [email protected]. govt.au Cesar Pinares-Patino, AgResearch Grassland, Private Bag 11008, Palmerston North, New Zealand. E-mail: [email protected] Patrick E. Reece, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, Lincoln, NE 68583-0915, USA. E-mail: preece@unlnotes. unl.edu vii viii Contributors Fiona A. Robertson, Future Farming Systems Research, Department of Pri mary Industries, Hamilton Centre, Mount Napier Road, Private Bag 105, Hamilton, Victoria 3300, Australia. E-mail: fi [email protected] Walter H. Schacht, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, Lincoln, NE 68583-0915, USA. E-mail: [email protected]. edu John T. Scott, Landcare Research, Manaaki Whenua, Private Bag 3127, Waikato Mail Centre, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand. E-mail: [email protected] Andrew N. Sharpley, Department of Crop, Soil and Environmental Sciences, Univer- sity of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA. E-mail: [email protected] Kathy Soder, US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Pasture Systems and Watershed Management Research Unit, University Park, PA 16802, USA. E-mail: [email protected] Garry C. Waghorn, DairyNZ, Private Bag 3221, Hamilton, New Zealand. E-mail: [email protected] Charles West, Department of Crop, Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA. E-mail: [email protected] Robert J. Wilcock, National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd, PO Box 11–115, Hamilton, New Zealand. E-mail: [email protected] Foreword At the heart of this book reside the tensions that people face when managing grazed ecosystems throughout the world. Sustaining the natural capital of our grazed lands is crucial, as these areas represent a very large part of our global terrestrial ecosystems. This challenge is grounded in the socio-economic expec- tations of land users and nations. The biophysical elements that need to be managed will vary, depending on the ecosystem involved. For rangelands, the maintenance of perennial vegetations cover is critical from a soil erosion perspective. For more intensive grasslands, the emission of nutrients and gases is of great concern. But in all cases, the connections between land, water and air are becoming increasingly evident. While work involving singular disciplines of study provides knowledge of greater depth, we also need a better understanding of the interactions and emergent properties of our grazed ecosystems. The long-standing principles of ecology, armed with the analytical power of simulation modelling, have a major role to play in understanding and designing sustainable systems for the future. People must be an integral part of any future system design. They are not observers and their expectations will shape the way grazed ecosystems will be managed. While some people seek high-quality food and a pristine environment, we must recognize that many other communities simply seek a little more food and economic wealth to survive. It will be interesting to see whether the desired changes we seek in people will occur voluntarily, or whether they will require incentives and regulations. Like most things in life, I expect that a mix will be required to ensure the necessary knowledge and motivation is in place. ix x Foreword Good science must not take a political position with regard to resolving these tensions and managing our grazed lands in a better way. Rather, it must inform the various communities of interests. Herein lies the value of this book. In the end, wise solutions will be a balance of trade-offs that are based on informed deci- sions and actions. Gavin W. Sheath Chair, International Grasslands Congress Preface The principal objective of this text is to raise awareness among scientists and policy makers of the impact that grazed grasslands have on our environment. It is com- mon for scientists and policy makers to have an area of speciality. However, while focusing on one area can undoubtedly increase our knowledge, it must be put in a wider context. Too often are our decisions and conclusions based on a narrow view of the world dictated by our field of expertise. Unfortunately, the processes within the environment, defined here as the effect of grasslands on land, air and water, are linked and can have many repercussions on one another. For instance, a quantity of nutrient may be lost from land to water or air. This will be quanti- fied and management practices suggested for mitigating the loss. However, these practices are rarely evaluated in terms of economic or social impact. We must remember that while preventing damage to the environment, humans have for millennia formed part of the landscape – after all it is our values that define what an acceptable environment is. While collating this book I have tried to do two things, and have split the book into two parts as a consequence. First, was to establish a base of knowledge that the reader (and indeed I found myself) could use to interpret how land, air and water interact within grazed grasslands. Coupled to this is the socio-economic impact, too often neglected in environmental analyses. The second task recog- nized that use of grassland is becoming increasingly specialized as farms become larger, more intensive and profitable. Furthermore, specific systems have their own problems. For instance, intensive pastoral grazing by dairy cattle can result in soil damage by treading or poaching that would not occur in an extensive sheep operation. As a consequence, one land-use not only requires specific management practices to mitigate effects on the environment, but it also needs to account for regional influences like climate, topography, economic and social factors. It is predicted that by 2050, production from grazed grassland will dou- ble to just over 1 billion t of milk and 465 million t of meat (Steinfield et al., 2006). Much of this is driven by demand from areas like South-east Asia. While xi xii Preface local production in these areas has huge potential for growth, largely because lit- tle has been produced in the past, until production can be increased (if possible), traditional producers of grassland-based protein and milk products will supply the bulk of the demand.
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