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What Caused the Civil War? Ayers Draft 6/22/05 What Caused the Civil War? Ayers Draft 6/22/05 VOL. 8 • NUMBER 5 • SEPTEMBER 2005 NORTH & SOUTH 11 ON THE SIMPSONS, a popular ani- states’ rights” or “Southerners just wanted sides see crucial parts of the problem, but mated satire of American life, Apu to be left alone with their way of life.” it has proved difficult to reconcile the Nahasapeemapetilan, an industrious People deliver these explanations with an perspectives because they approach the South Asian immigrant in Springfield, air of savvy common sense, of putting the Civil War with different assumptions U.S.A., has studied hard for his citizen- matter to rest. about what drives history.2 One focuses ship test. “What was the cause of the Civil Historians are exasperated by such on deep social and cultural structures, the War?” is the final question on the oral assertions. No respected historian has other on public events close in time and quiz. “Actually, there were numerous argued for decades that the Civil War was consequence to the war’s beginning. Both causes,” says Apu. “Aside from the obvi- fought over tariffs, that abolitionists were perspectives see essential aspects of the ous schism between the abolitionists and mere hypocrites, or that only constitu- problem, but neither sees it whole. the anti-abolitionists, there were eco- tional concerns drove secession. Nor does Fundamentalists claim with confi- nomic factors, both domestic and in- any historian argue that white Northern- dence that the Civil War was a struggle ter—” The official, clearly bored with ers, suddenly discovering that slavery was over the future of the United States and such superfluous erudition, intones a gross injustice to African Americans, can say with justice that the war pitted flatly: “Just say slavery.” Apu eagerly con- rose up in 1861 to sacrifice 350,000 of slavery against freedom. Revisionists can cedes the point: “Slavery it is, sir.” With their sons, brothers, and fathers to eman- truthfully say that the Civil War was this declaration Apu wins his American cipate the slaves. Yet one still hears the caused by the disintegration of the citizenship.1 old explanations in virtually any discus- Democrats, the failure of compromise, Why is this funny? It’s not because sion of the Civil War. and the election of Abraham Lincoln. For slavery was not the cause of the Civil War, The challenge of explaining the Civil the fundamentalists, slavery is front and but because the bureaucrat demands a War has led historians to seek clarity in center; for the revisionists, slavery is bur- rote answer to explain a profoundly com- two ways of thought. One school, the fun- ied beneath layers of white ideology and plex problem at the center of the nation’s damentalists, emphasizes the intrinsic, politics. As thousands of books and ar- experience. Some Americans of course inevitable conflict between slavery and ticles show, both schools have a point. have other short explanations for the free labor. The other, the revisionists, “What caused the Civil War?” mis- Civil War. “It was really just economics,” emphasizes discrete events and political leads us because it seems such a straight- one often hears, or “it was really about structures rather than slavery itself. Both forward question. The implication of What Caused the Civil EDWARD L. AYERS 12 NORTH & SOUTH SEPTEMBER 2005 • VOL. 8 • NUMBER 5 “what” is that some factor can be isolated, The Civil War came by a number of confusion, miscalculation. Both sides held apart from everything else. “Cause” small steps, each with an explicit logic all underestimated the location of funda- evokes a mechanical model of action and its own. Combined, these small steps led mental loyalty in the other. Both received reaction. “The” implies that the Civil War to large unanticipated consequences. incorrect images of the other in the par- was the four-year set of battles and out- Each period in the struggle between 1859 tisan press. Political belief distorted each comes that eventually unfolded, includ- and 1861, despite recurring language and side’s view of the other’s economy and ing Union victory and emancipation. personalities, was framed differently, pre- class relations. Both sides believed the Such a simple question virtually demands sented different challenges, permitted other was bluffing, both believed that the a simple answer. different solutions, and pushed toward other’s internal differences and conflicts We really need a series of questions different outcomes. The frame of percep- would lead it to buckle, and both believed that combine the structural explanation tion and decision making before John they had latent but powerful allies in the of the fundamentalists with the dynamic Brown differed from that which fol- other region that would prevent war. By explanation of the revisionists. The ques- lowed; that frame changed again when the time people made up their minds to tions should acknowledge that what be- the parties put four candidates in the fight, slavery itself had become obscured. came the Civil War was caused over and field, again when Lincoln won the Re- Southern white men did not fight for sla- over again as it changed from a political publican nomination, again when Lin- very; they fought for a new nation built conflict to a military conflict to a struggle coln won the election, again when the on slavery. White Northerners did not over emancipation. We need to set aside Gulf South states seceded, again when fight to end slavery; they fought to de- our knowledge of later events and their Fort Sumter was fired upon and the fend the integrity of their nation. Yet sla- outcome to ask the first key question: troops were called out. Each frame dic- very, as Abraham Lincoln later put it, “What motivated millions of Americans tated the range of actions, and those “somehow” drove everything. to declare themselves as enemies of one ranges grew ever more restricted with What we might call “deep contin- another in 1859, in 1860, and in 1861?” each stage. gency” can help explain this puzzle. All We must push below the surface of fa- Slavery was a profound economic, social life is “contingent,” implicated and miliar events to see how people through- political, religious, and moral problem, unpredictable, because all parts of life out the social order thought of them- the most profound the nation has ever depend on one another. What we think selves and their responsibilities. faced. But that problem did not lead to of as public and private, economic and war in a rational, predictable way. The political, religious and secular, and mili- war came through misunderstanding, tary and civilian are deeply connected. Reprinted from What Caused the Civil War? by Edward L. Ayers. Copyright ©2005 by War? Edward L. Ayers. With permission of the publisher, W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. Fort Sumter, as it appeared shortly after the Federal surrender. Library of Congress VOL. 8 • NUMBER 5 • SEPTEMBER 2005 NORTH & SOUTH 13 Social change can start anywhere and lead greater the eagerness with which those political stance. Many of the largest anywhere. As a result, the most profound states seceded. The deep South had a slaveholders of Mississippi and Louisi- kinds of self-understanding can change higher percentage of slaves, and the deep ana did everything they could to keep radically and abruptly. The American South seceded before the border South.3 their counties and states in the Union. Civil War stands as an example of how But there are problems with such simple Despite the misleading impressions cre- history can suddenly pivot and take a new mathematics. First of all, if those same ated by statewide numbers, we find few direction. Histories of other nations in tables showed the number, rather than statistical links between individual other times record similar seismic the percentage, of slaves, the pattern slaveholding and votes on secession. changes, changes explainable only would change. In 1860, Virginia held Slaveholders were not necessarily more through deep contingency. more enslaved people than any other likely than nonslaveholders to vote for An argument for deep contingency Southern state. The border South was immediate secession. is based on the simple principle that the fully invested in slavery. Second, suggest- Slavery held profound meaning for best explanation reckons with the most ing that a delay in secession implied a lack every person who lived within its orbit. information. Simple explanations that of commitment to slavery ignores the Slavery’s power stretched all the way to ignore complication in an impatient de- geopolitical calculation that shaped the the Mason-Dixon Line, into every facet termination to get to a bottom line or root course of secession. Unionists in the bor- of life. Yet the force of slavery was re- cause are worse than useless. They give der South did not waver on slavery; they fracted through prisms of social prac- the false impression that we have ex- counseled, in fact, that union offered the tice and belief. Slavery defended itself plained something when we have not. best protection for slavery. They were cor- with Unionism as well as with secession, Those who want a demographic ex- rect. with delay as well as action. Each planation for the Civil War, for example, Moreover, even in the deep South county’s and state’s strategy depended make the point that the higher the per- white Southern self-interest in slavery, so on where it fitted in the machinery of centage of slaves in Southern states, the real and so obvious, did not lead to one American politics.4 Library Congress of Ostendorf Collection Library Congress of Stephen A. Douglas John C. Breckinridge John Bell Library ofLibrary Congress “Dividing the National Map,” a satire of the 1860 presidential election.
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