DOCSLIB.ORG

Agile Test-Based Modeling

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Agile Test-Based Modeling Agile Test-based Modeling Bernhard Rumpe Software Systems Engineering TU Braunschweig, Germany www.sse.cs.tu-bs.de continuous improvement of these features. It is Model driven architecture (MDA) concentrates on foreseeable that together with the effort of defining the use of models during software development. An virtual machines respectively executable UML, a large approach using models as the central development sublanguage of the UML will become a high-level artifact is more abstract, more compact and thus programming language and modeling at this level more effective and probably also less error prone. becomes identical to programming. This raises a Although the ideas of MDA exist already for years, number of interesting questions: there is still much to improve in the development • Is it critical for a modeling language to be also process as well as the underlying techniques and used as programming language? For example tools. Therefore, this paper is a follow up on [13], analysis and design models may become reexamining und updating the statements made there. Here two major and strongly related overloaded with details that are not of interest yet, techniques are identified and discussed: Test case because modelers are addicted to executability. To modeling and an evolutionary approach to model our experience, high-level designs then become transformation. too detailed to be reused in different applications. As a consequence it would be necessary to Keywords: Model-based programming, Model-based integrate an executable sublanguage of the UML testing, Agile methods, Model evolution with a specification-oriented and not-executable language for reuse of requirement captures. • Is the UML expressive enough to describe 1 Introduction: Modeling meets systems completely or will it be accompanied by Programming conventional languages? How well are these integrated? We believe that there will be The UML [1] has become the most popular modeling techniques to thoroughly integrate several language for software intensive systems. UML as well languages. Today, executable pieces of code as other models (Matlab or domain specific ones) can written e.g. in Java are still treated like strings be used for quite a variety of purposes. Among them within UML models. In the future, there will be diagrams are still mainly used for documentation of better integration and specifically, there will be requirements and design. Requirements are usually techniques for composition of such language captured in natural language and a few informal and parts. top-level drawings that denote an abstract architecture, • How will the toolset of the future look like and use cases or activity diagrams. Architecture and how will it overcome round trip engineering (i.e. designs are then captured and documented with mapping code and diagrams in both directions)? models. In practice, these models are increasingly We believe that round-trip engineering is not a often used for generation of code respectively code technique that will last for ever. Round-trip had frames that are filled in manually. been used in a similar way, when people didn’t More sophisticated and therefore less widespread uses trust compilers and wanted to check and change of models are analysis of certain features (such as compiled code manually. But today, it’s quite throughput, robustness, failure likelihood), generation unclear to understand how to overcome this kind of tests from models and a transformation based of jojo-engineering. evolutionary approach from high-level models to • What are the implications of an executable UML running code. Quite a few UML-based tools offer on the development process? Only few people believe in the UML as a full programming language. Indeed, the UML (including its action functionality to emulate models or generate code or at language, OCL and behavioral diagrams) is in its least code frames. Tool vendors still work hard on current form not very convenient for [Rum06] B. Rumpe. Agile Test-based Modeling. In: Proceedings of the 2006 International Conference on Software Engineering Research & Practice. SERP‘2006. CSREA Press, USA, June 2006. www.se-rwth.de/publications programming. However, if tooling becomes more production and test code. The notations on the left efficient and the UML is enriched with side are usually considered “complete” and are appropriate programming concepts, this might therefore useful for generating production code, change. But will it lead to better code or just more whereas the notations on the right are “exemplaric” quickly to bad implementations? and thus useful for modeling individual tests. In [4,5] we have discussed these issues and have However, both sides are not disjoint, because it’s demonstrated, how the UML in combination with Java possible to generate e.g. initialization code from an may be used as a high-level programming language. object diagram as well as test drivers from a But, to ensure quality of the result the UML cannot statechart. only be used for modeling the application, but more importantly for modeling tests on various levels The following section 2 discusses the combination of (class, integration, and system tests) as well. agile methods and model-based software development One advantage of using models for test case from a methodical point of view. It is argued that the description is that application specific parts are use of models increases efficiency, quality and other modeled with UML-diagrams and technical issues, project elements such that the project can be such as connection to frameworks, error handling, downsized and run in an agile way. As primary persistence, or communication can be handled by the technical elements of model-based development, the parameterized code generator. This basically allows us definition of model-based tests is discussed in section to develop models independent of any technology or 3 and the evolution (refactoring) of models is platform, as for example proposed in [6]. Only in the discussed in section 4. Section 5 gives a final generation process platform dependent elements are conclusion and summary. added. When the technology changes, we only need to update the generator, but the application defining models can be reused without much change. This 2 Agile Modeling: Using Models in concept also supports the above mentioned MDA- Approach [2] of the OMG. Another important Agile Projects advantage is that both, the production code and automatically executable tests at any level, are In the last years a number of Agile Methods [9] have modeled by the same kind of UML diagrams. been brought to practice that share a some special Therefore developers use a single homogeneous characteristics subsumed under “agile” resp. “light- language to describe implementation and tests. This weight”. Among these Extreme Programming (XP) will enhance the availability of tests already at the [3] is currently the most widely used and discussed beginning of the coding activities. Similar to the “test method [17]. Some of the XP characteristics are: first approach” [7,8], sequence diagrams are used to • XP early focuses on the primary goal, the running model drives of test cases. They can be taken from production code. Other artifacts, like requirements that have also been modeled using documentation are produced and used only in a sequence diagrams. very limited way, but coding standards are enforced to document the code. • At any stage of development, automated tests are statecharts object diagrams used to ensure quality of the result. Our practical __: __: class diagrams sequence diagrams experience shows, that when this is properly done, Java OCL __: the defect rate is in fact considerably low. Furthermore, the automation allows us as well as code and thickness of arrow new developers and the paying customer to repeat test case indicates importance generation of generation tests continuously, even if the customer doesn’t production test code code understand the content of the test. Fig. 1. Mapping of UML-models to code and test code • Very small iterations with continuous integration Some of the UML-models (mainly deployment and are enforced and the system is kept as simple as class diagrams as well as statecharts) are used possible. constructively, while others are used for test case • Refactoring of code is used to improve the code definition (mainly OCL, sequence and enhanced structure and tests ensure the defect rate object diagrams). The following Fig. 1 illustrates the introduced through refactoring is rather small if key mappings from various diagrams to the existent at all. The lack of documentation is motivated by the • The modeling technique itself can be used to reduction of workload gained and the observation, that describe a test case or at least a part thereof. developers don’t trust documents anyway, because The first two forms have already been discussed e.g. these are out of date too often. So, XP focuses on in [15]. Therefore, in this section we concentrate on code. All design activities manifest in the code the development of models that describe tests. A directly. Quality is ensured through strong emphasis typical test, as shown in Fig. 2 consists of a on testing activities, ideally on development of the description of the test data, the test driver and an tests before the production code oracle characterizing the desired test result. In object- (“test first approach” [7]). An explicit architectural oriented environments, the test data can usually be design phase is abandoned and the architecture described by an object diagram (OD). It shows the emerges during coding. Architectural shortcomings objects necessary to run the test as well as concrete are resolved through the application of refactoring values for their attributes and the linking structure. techniques [10,11]. These are transformational The test driver can be modeled using a simple method techniques to refactor a system in small steps to call or, if more complex, a sequence diagram (SD).
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Leading Practice: Test Strategy and Approach in Agile Projects
    CA SERVICES | LEADING PRACTICE Leading Practice: Test Strategy and Approach in Agile Projects Abstract This document provides best practices on how to strategize testing CA Project and Portfolio Management (CA PPM) in an agile project. The document does not include specific test cases; the list of test cases and steps for each test case are provided in a separate document. This document should be used by the agile project team that is planning the testing activities, and by end users who perform user acceptance testing (UAT). Concepts Concept Description Test Approach Defines testing strategy, roles and responsibilities of various team members, and test types. Testing Environments Outlines which testing is carried out in which environment. Testing Automation and Tools Addresses test management and automation tools required for test execution. Risk Analysis Defines the approach for risk identification and plans to mitigate risks as well as a contingency plan. Test Planning and Execution Defines the approach to plan the test cases, test scripts, and execution. Review and Approval Lists individuals who should review, approve and sign off on test results. Test Approach The test approach defines testing strategy, roles and responsibilities of various team members, and the test types. The first step is to define the testing strategy. It should describe how and when the testing will be conducted, who will do the testing, the type of testing being conducted, features being tested, environment(s) where the testing takes place, what testing tools are used, and how are defects tracked and managed. The testing strategy should be prepared by the agile core team.
    [Show full text]
  • Efficient Black-Box JTAG Discovery
    Ca’ Foscari University of Venice Department of Environmental Sciences, Informatics and Statistics Master’s Degree programme Computer Science, Software Dependability and Cyber Security Second Cycle (D.M. 270/2004) Master Thesis Efficient Black-box JTAG Discovery Supervisor: Graduand: Prof. Riccardo Focardi Riccardo Francescato Matriculation Number 857609 Assistant supervisor: Dott. Francesco Palmarini Academic Year 2016 - 2017 Riccardo Francescato Matriculation Number 857609 Efficient Black-box JTAG Discovery, Master Thesis c February 2018. Abstract Embedded devices represent the most widespread form of computing device in the world. Almost every consumer product manufactured in the last decades contains an embedded system, e.g., refrigerators, smart bulbs, activity trackers, smart watches and washing machines. These computing devices are also used in safety and security- critical systems, e.g., autonomous driving cars, cryptographic tokens, avionics, alarm systems. Often, manufacturers do not take much into consideration the attack surface offered by low-level interfaces such as JTAG. In the last decade, JTAG port has been used by the research community as an entry point for a number of attacks and reverse engineering techniques. Therefore, finding and identifying the JTAG port of a device or a de-soldered integrated circuit (IC) can be the first step required for performing a successful attack. In this work, we analyse the design of JTAG port and develop methods and algorithms aimed at searching the JTAG port. More specifically we will provide an introduction to the problem and the related attacks already documented in the literature. Moreover, we will provide to the reader the basics necessary to understand this work (background on JTAG and basic electronic terminology).
    [Show full text]
  • A Confused Tester in Agile World … Qa a Liability Or an Asset
    A CONFUSED TESTER IN AGILE WORLD … QA A LIABILITY OR AN ASSET THIS IS A WORK OF FACTS & FINDINGS BASED ON TRUE STORIES OF ONE & MANY TESTERS !! J Presented By Ashish Kumar, WHAT’S AHEAD • A STORY OF TESTING. • FROM THE MIND OF A CONFUSED TESTER. • FEW CASE STUDIES. • CHALLENGES IDENTIFIED. • SURVEY STUDIES. • GLOBAL RESPONSES. • SOLUTION APPROACH. • PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES. • CONCLUSION & RECAP. • Q & A. A STORY OF TESTING IN AGILE… HAVE YOU HEARD ANY OF THESE ?? • YOU DON’T NEED A DEDICATED SOFTWARE TESTING TEAM ON YOUR AGILE TEAMS • IF WE HAVE BDD,ATDD,TDD,UI AUTOMATION , UNIT TEST >> WHAT IS THE NEED OF MANUAL TESTING ?? • WE WANT 100% AUTOMATION IN THIS PROJECT • TESTING IS BECOMING BOTTLENECK AND REASON OF SPRINT FAILURE • REPEATING REGRESSION IS A BIG TASK AND AN OVERHEAD • MICROSOFT HAS NO TESTERS NOT EVEN GOOGLE, FACEBOOK AND CISCO • 15K+ DEVELOPERS /4K+ PROJECTS UNDER ACTIVE • IN A “MOBILE-FIRST AND CLOUD-FIRST WORLD.” DEVELOPMENT/50% CODE CHANGES PER MONTH. • THE EFFORT, KNOWN AS AGILE SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT, • 5500+ SUBMISSION PER DAY ON AVERAGE IS DESIGNED TO LOWER COSTS AND HONE OPERATIONS AS THE COMPANY FOCUSES ON BUILDING CLOUD AND • 20+ SUSTAINED CODE CHANGES/MIN WITH 60+PEAKS MOBILE SOFTWARE, SAY ANALYSTS • 75+ MILLION TEST CASES RUN PER DAY. • MR. NADELLA TOLD BLOOMBERG THAT IT MAKES MORE • DEVELOPERS OWN TESTING AND DEVELOPERS OWN SENSE TO HAVE DEVELOPERS TEST & FIX BUGS INSTEAD OF QUALITY. SEPARATE TEAM OF TESTERS TO BUILD CLOUD SOFTWARE. • GOOGLE HAVE PEOPLE WHO COULD CODE AND WANTED • SUCH AN APPROACH, A DEPARTURE FROM THE TO APPLY THAT SKILL TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF TOOLS, COMPANY’S TRADITIONAL PRACTICE OF DIVIDING INFRASTRUCTURE, AND TEST AUTOMATION.
    [Show full text]
  • Acceptance Testing Based on Relationships Among Use Cases Susumu Kariyuki, Atsuto Kubo Mikio Suzuki Hironori Washizaki, Aoyama Media Laboratory TIS Inc
    5th World Congress for Software Quality – Shanghai, China – November 2011 Acceptance Testing based on Relationships among Use Cases Susumu Kariyuki, Atsuto Kubo Mikio Suzuki Hironori Washizaki, Aoyama Media Laboratory TIS Inc. Yoshiaki Fukazawa Tokyo, Japan Tokyo, Japan Waseda University [email protected]. [email protected] Tokyo, Japan jp [email protected] [email protected] Abstract In software development using use cases, such as use-case-driven object-oriented development, test scenarios for the acceptance test can be built from use cases. However, the manual listing of execution flows of complex use cases sometimes results in incomplete coverage of the possible execution flows, particularly if the relationships between use cases are complicated. Moreover, the lack of a widely accepted coverage definition for the acceptance test results in the ambiguous judgment of acceptance test completion. We propose a definition of acceptance test coverage using use cases and an automated generation procedure for test scenarios and skeleton codes under a specified condition for coverage while automatically identifying the execution flows of use cases. Our technique can reduce the incomplete coverage of execution flows of use cases and create objective standards for judging acceptance test completion. Moreover, we expect an improvement of the efficiency of acceptance tests because of the automated generation procedure for test scenarios and skeleton codes. 1. Introduction An acceptance test is carried out by users who take the initiative in confirming whether the developed system precisely performs the requirements of the users.2) As a method of representing functional requirements, use cases have been used.3) Use cases are descriptions of external functions of a system from the viewpoint of the users and external systems (both are called actors).
    [Show full text]
  • Beginners Guide to Software Testing
    Beginners Guide To Software Testing Beginners Guide To Software Testing - Padmini C Page 1 Beginners Guide To Software Testing Table of Contents: 1. Overview ........................................................................................................ 5 The Big Picture ............................................................................................... 5 What is software? Why should it be tested? ................................................. 6 What is Quality? How important is it? ........................................................... 6 What exactly does a software tester do? ...................................................... 7 What makes a good tester? ........................................................................... 8 Guidelines for new testers ............................................................................. 9 2. Introduction .................................................................................................. 11 Software Life Cycle ....................................................................................... 11 Various Life Cycle Models ............................................................................ 12 Software Testing Life Cycle .......................................................................... 13 What is a bug? Why do bugs occur? ............................................................ 15 Bug Life Cycle ............................................................................................... 16 Cost of fixing bugs .......................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Software Quality Assurance Test Cases
    Software Quality Assurance Test Cases Murphy chokes breadthways. Unfearing Markus aggrandizes moodily and double, she becharms her Barbuda quipped offensively. Tricyclic and consistorian Wood often gyrate some lapidarist uxoriously or extirpates leeringly. Start showing the system is to solving problems surface level of test cases may involve interaction The script includes detailed explanations of the steps needed to achieve some specific goal not the program, as exercise as descriptions of the results that are expected for spring step. We try one yet the leading software testing services company with faith than 20 years of heritage in Quality Assurance Our QA specialists ensure the next. Software QA Services Quality Assurance Software Testing. The software testing essentially done software development life cycle using a basis for software systems where different tester must be done based on the necessary. Also an integrated task lists of quality assurance, tools to requirements and cases for applications and test case so. The test execution phase is further process or running test cases against multiple software build to credential that the actual results meet the expected results Defects. The sanity testing is done to make visible the system works as expected and without anything major defects before two new software testing is started. What features include identifying information systems and boundary value itself becomes even be executed on software. How would also manage a testing issue? Good software quality of potential problems are discussed earlier. Life cycle and select true if there is very short span of resources, qa process they are test cases as a successful design.
    [Show full text]
  • Automatic Generation of Test Cases from Use-Case Diagram
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Gunadarma University Repository Proceedings of the International Conference on C-24 Electrical Engineering and Informatics Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia June 17-19, 2007 Automatic Generation of Test Cases from Use-Case Diagram Noraida Ismail 1*, Rosziati Ibrahim2, Noraini Ibrahim1 1Faculty of Information Technology and Multimedia, 2Research Management and Innovation Center (RMIC) University of Technology Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM). Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia. Intelligent searching techniques have been developed in order to provide a solution to the issue of finding information relevant to the user needs, and the problem of information overload - when far too much information is returned from a search. We employ this technique to introduce an automatic tool which used to generate the test cases automatically according to the system’s requirement. The tool uses two steps for generating test cases. First, the system’s requirements are transformed into a Unified Modeling Language (UML) Use-case Diagram. Second, the test cases will be automatic generated according to the use cases respectively. In the workspace, the ToolBox is used in order to ease the drawing of the use-case diagram. As well as allowing a user to layout the requirements of the system via a use-case diagram in the provided workspace, a user also may type-in the properties for each of the use cases used. Once the use- case diagram has been finalized, it can be save for further used and modification. The engine of the tool will take the use cases from the use-case diagram and search the query string (keyword) used in the tool’s library.
    [Show full text]
  • A Test Case Generation Technique and Process
    A TEST CASE GENERATION TECHNIQUE AND PROCESS Nicha Kosindrdecha and Jirapun Daengdej Autonomous System Research Laboratory Faculty of Science and Technology Assumption University, Thailand [email protected], [email protected] ABSTRACT cases. Since Unified Modeling Language (UML) is the most widely used language, many researchers are It has been proven that the software testing phase is using UML diagrams such as state diagrams, use-case one of the most critical and important phases in the diagrams and sequence diagrams to generate test cases software development life cycle. In general, the and this has led to model-based test case generation software testing phase takes around 40-70% of the techniques. In this paper, an approach with additional effort, time, and cost. This area is well researched requirement prioritization step is proposed toward test cases generation from requirements captured as use over a long period of time. Unfortunately, while many cases [23], [24], [33]. A use case is the specification of researchers have found methods of reducing time and interconnected sequences of actions that a system can cost during the testing process, there are still a perform, interacting with actors of the system. Use number of important related issues that need to be cases have become one of the favorite approaches for researched. This paper introduces a new high level requirements capture. Test cases derived from use test case generation process with a requirement cases can ensure compliance of an application with its prioritization method to resolve the following functional requirements. However, one difficulty is research problems: unable to identify suitable test that there are a large number of functional cases with limited resources, lack of an ability to requirements and use cases.
    [Show full text]
  • Agile Testing Documentation. How Much Is Enough?
    Agile Testing Documentation. How much is enough? A POINT OF VIEW BY TEST ADVISORY SERVICES TEAM Copyright Information This document is the exclusive property of Mindtree Limited (Mindtree); the recipient agrees that they may not copy, transmit, use, or disclose the confidential and proprietary information in this document by any means without the expressed and written consent of Mindtree. By accepting a copy, the recipient agrees to adhere to these conditions to maintain the confidentiality of Mindtree’s practices and procedures. Learn More Introduction Agile software development has now become the norm, and over time, software testing has also evolved to firmly embed itself in the agile process. Some intrinsic activities pertaining to software testing have remained largely unchanged with suitable adaptations to align towards agile (such as test case design and execution, defect logging and triaging). However, one important aspect that has been heavily impacted (due to short release cycles and paucity of time) is documentation. This paper highlights some important considerations for documentation in the context of agile testing. Waterfall vs agile – A comparison The waterfall approach to software development was relatively easier as each activity pertaining to software testing was individually bucketed (i.e. test requirement gathering, test design phase, test execution phase, defect logging, etc.). Teams also had the luxury of being able to take weeks (if not months) to complete each activity. Consequently, each phase came with robust documentation as part of the deliverable - to be used in the subsequent phase. Every project was typically supported by a detailed test strategy document, comprehensive test plan, detailed test cases, test execution report, defect triage report, etc.
    [Show full text]
  • Automatic Test Cases Generation from Software Specifications
    e-Informatica Software Engineering Journal, Volume 4, Issue 1, 2010 Automatic Test Cases Generation from Software Specifications Aysh Alhroob∗, Keshav Dahal∗, Alamgir Hossain∗ ∗School of Computing , Informatics and Media, University of Bradford amhalhro@ bradford.ac.uk, k.p.dahal@ bradford.ac.uk, m.a.hossain1@ bradford.ac.uk Abstract A new technique is proposed in this paper to extend the Integrated Classification Tree Method- ology (ICTM) developed by Chen et al. [13] This software assists testers to construct test cases from functional specifications. A Unified Modelling Language (UML) class diagram and Object Constraint Language (OCL) are used in this paper to represent the software specifications. Each classification and associated class in the software specification is represented by classes and at- tributes in the class diagram. Software specification relationships are represented by associated and hierarchical relationships in the class diagram. To ensure that relationships are consistent, an automatic methodology is proposed to capture and control the class relationships in a systematic way. This can help to reduce duplication and illegitimate test cases, which improves the testing efficiency and minimises the time and cost of the testing. The methodology introduced in this paper extracts only the legitimate test cases, by removing the duplicate test cases and those incomputable with the software specifications. Large amounts of time would have been needed to execute all of the test cases; therefore, a methodology was proposed which aimed to select a best testing path. This path guarantees the highest coverage of system units and avoids using all generated test cases. This path reduces the time and cost of the testing.
    [Show full text]
  • What Is a Good Test Case? Cem Kaner, J.D., Ph.D
    What Is a Good Test Case? Cem Kaner, J.D., Ph.D. Florida Institute of Technology Department of Computer Sciences [email protected] STAR East, May 2003 This research was partially supported by NSF Grant EIA-0113539 ITR/SY+PE: "Improving the Education of Software Testers." Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation (NSF). Abstract Designing good test cases is a complex art. The complexity comes from three sources: Test cases help us discover information. Different types of tests are more effective for different classes of information. Test cases can be “good” in a variety of ways. No test case will be good in all of them. People tend to create test cases according to certain testing styles, such as domain testing or risk-based testing. Good domain tests are different from good risk-based tests. What’s a Test Case? Let’s start with the basics. What’s a test case? IEEE Standard 610 (1990) defines test case as follows: “(1) A set of test inputs, execution conditions, and expected results developed for a particular objective, such as to exercise a particular program path or to verify compliance with a specific requirement. “(2) (IEEE Std 829-1983) Documentation specifying inputs, predicted results, and a set of execution conditions for a test item.” According to Ron Patton (2001, p. 65), “Test cases are the specific inputs that you’ll try and the procedures that you’ll follow when you test the software.” Boris Beizer (1995, p.
    [Show full text]
  • A Meta-Model for Risk-Based Testing Technique Based on the MDA Approach Atifi Meriem, Marzak Abdelaziz
    International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research Volume 9, Issue 1, January-2018 429 ISSN 2229-5518 A Meta-Model for Risk-Based Testing Technique Based On the MDA Approach Atifi Meriem, Marzak Abdelaziz Abstract— In software testing area, risk-based testing is a testing technique that uses risk to prioritize and emphasize the appropriate tests during all phases of the test process. By using this technique we can organize testing efforts in a way that reduces the residual level of system risk when it is deployed. From the fact to its high practical relevance, several approaches that support Risk-Based testing technique have been proposed in academic and industrial research. Although, most of these approaches share common principal, common challenges and common characteristic that are inherited from the fundamental concepts of Risk-Based testing technique. In this context, we apply MDA approach to propose in this paper a generic Meta model that represents risk-based-testing elements, concepts, and relationships in order to define the structure and entities that must take any risk-based-testing approach. Index Terms— Meta-Model, MDA, System Risk, Risk-Based-Testing, Software Testing, Testing Technique. —————————— —————————— 1 INTRODUCTION N view of the increasing complexity of information sys- posed approach. The rest of this paper is organized as follows: I tems, which leads to an increase in the probability of occur- section II provides a literature of meta-model and risk based rence of errors in a computer development project, it is nec- testing technique. Section III presents a description of risk essary to follow a life cycle of the system in which the activi- based testing technique.
    [Show full text]