DOCSLIB.ORG

St. Louis Community Environmental Justice Project HANDBOOK FOR

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text

Load more

St. Louis Community Environmental Justice Project HANDBOOK FOR Pagedale Area Prepared by The Public Policy Research Center University of Missouri-St. Louis 1 Chapter One: ABOUT ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE This handbook is designed to head of the National Association show you how to take action on for the Advancement of Colored environmental issues that can People (NAACP) coined the term affect your health, property values, “environmental justice” in 1987. or economic viability. The He released the first study handbook does this by providing a showing low-income minorities step-by-step guide to obtaining are more likely to live near an and using environmental existing source of pollution or live information. in a neighborhood where a new source of pollution is to be The handbook is a product located. Several studies have of the St. Louis Environmental since upheld Chavez’s view and Justice Project, a partnership pointed out that poor minority between Project H.O.P.E. (Helping neighborhoods get a less adequate Other People Emerge) and the response when they speak out University of Missouri-St. Louis. about existing or new pollution The Project -- funded by the U.S. sources.1 Thus, environmental Environmental Protection Agency justice usually is taken to mean (EPA) under its Environmental that all people, regardless of Justice Program -- was designed to income or race, have the same provide people like you with the right to clean air, water and soil. tools to do your own research into environmental issues, and to While it is inspiring to develop a plan for seeking believe that something may finally improvements in your be done about this social inequity, neighborhood’s environmental it can take a long time for action in condition. a specific area unless people in polluted neighborhoods learn who The EPA has been is responsible for their particularly interested in issues of 1 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office environmental justice since 1994, of Compliance and Assurance, Office of when President Bill Clinton Environmental Justice Home Page, http://es.epa. officially made it a national gov.oejbut.html, January 10, 1999. National Public Radio, “Environmental Racism Exists in priority. Benjamin Chavez, former Louisiana,” May 15, 1993, as reproduced by LEXIS-NEXIS, October 20, 1998. 2 environmental problems and what different parts of the overall effort can be done about them. This can to control pollution. You may find seem like a very difficult task, information about just one especially when pollution may be company to be kept in four or five unnoticed because residents different offices. The discussion cannot see or smell it. In some that follows introduces you to the inner city neighborhoods, for various levels of government and example, traffic emissions from a their responsibility for nearby freeway can produce more environmental issues. pollution than the neighborhood gets from local industry. Environmental Law This handbook provides you The federal government acts with guides to emissions that are through its laws and the EPA. considered “toxic,” (or poisonous) Laws are created by Congress and and to some that are not, but can approved by the President. These harm human health nonetheless. laws set standards for the You will learn how to identify environment. These standards sources of pollution in your currently include the amount of neighborhood, find out what the certain chemicals that can be emissions mean for your health released into your air, the process and property, and decide which that factories must use to dispose strategy is best for getting action of hazardous wastes, and who is on your situation. (Words such as responsible for cleaning up ‘toxic’ or ‘emissions’ may not be environmental hazards. familiar to you. Although we have tried to define such words as we go, there are definitions on page 38 of this handbook.) Unfortunately, there is no one place to go for information about every pollutant that is emitted into the environment in your area. And there is no single agency that can answer all your questions. This because EPA, state agencies, and local offices have different responsibilities for 3 Congress • Passes the laws that set the national standards for the environment • Supervises the agencies responsible for implementing the laws • Provides an outlet for concerned citizens to ask questions about environmental activities in their district. 4 The EPA is responsible for enforcing the include health hazards of environmental laws passed by Congress, and for explaining them to neighborhood residents, particular chemicals, regional businesses, and local governments. This process environmental issues, includes regulations made by the EPA to determine what businesses and neighborhood environmental hazards caused by residents must do to comply with particular laws industry, and other environmental passed by Congress. information. EPA is also responsible under the “Superfund” The EPA collects a large program for making sure the worst quantity of environmental environmental sites get cleaned information that it makes available up. to the public. The information can Environmental Protection Agency • Creates regulations which explain the standards passed by Congress • Responsible for enforcement of laws • Conducts testing to determine health risks in the environment • Issues permits to control the release of hazardous chemicals State governments also are including educational projects, concerned about the environment. cleanup of contaminated sites, and Every state has its own enforcement of environmental environmental laws, passed by the laws. state legislature. Most states also have their own agencies for Some of the best dealing with the environment. environmental information comes These agencies do many of the from the permits that the state things that the EPA does, but agencies issue to businesses. focus on a much smaller area. Frequently, these agencies also Often, neighborhood residents will have environmental information, have contact with state agency but it is often broken down into staff before they will work with smaller parts, and often matches the EPA. Generally, state agencies closely with the existing city and have funds for many types of county boundaries. environmental programs, 5 State Legislatures • Pass state laws setting environmental standards that may be tougher than federal standards • Supervise the state agencies responsible for enforcement • Provides outlet for citizens to voice their concerns State Environmental Agencies • Responsible for local enforcement of state environmental standards • Create regulations explaining the state standards • Conduct testing and other activities to determine health risks from the environment • Issue permits for the release of hazardous chemicals Finally, cities, counties and other (1) learn a bit about the difference smaller communities have their between toxics (or hazardous own laws on the environment. materials) and substances which These local governments have are not toxic, but which can harm their own level of information; human health; often including business permits, (2) learn about environmental laws zoning laws, and sometimes even and who is responsible for their own environmental enforcing them; regulations. These smaller units (3) learn the shortcomings of also have more local contact information provided by information with businesses, environmental agencies. community leaders, and other agencies, and they are a great You have been given a place to start your search for sketch of the governmental information. structure of environmental activities. The remainder of this What you need to know chapter deals with materials that can harm human health. The To get started on your shortcomings of agencies’ journey for environmental information are covered in Chapter information, it helps to: 2. 6 Toxic/Hazardous Substances states, regulates both toxins and particulates. A toxin (or hazardous material) is a substance that in The next chapter describes basic quantity or form poses an information you can get about unreasonable risk. Hazardous sources of pollution in your waste is toxic material that no neighborhood. It also provides longer has a commercial value. names and addresses of agencies that can supply more The use of chemicals in environmental information. American society has skyrocketed since World War II. According to the Chemical Abstract Service, which provides names and numbers to chemicals, there were 211,000 new chemicals in 1965; 10 million in 19902. An example is chromium, which can cause cancer and other problems if a person is exposed to sufficient quantities over a certain period of time.3 Materials that ordinarily are not considered harmful can become threats to human health. This depends on the form and quantity in which they are emitted. An important example is particulates. These are little bits of material such as shavings, fibers or dust that can be breathed, posing a threat to respiratory health. A good example is the cloth dust emitted from garment factories. The EPA, as well as the 2 Jake Joyce, Ph.D., presentation to Project Researchers, September 3, 1997. 3 Iris Report from RTK.NET, January 20, 1998. 7 Chapter Two: Finding Out About Your Neighborhood How you approach your have on your health, your search for information will depend children’s health, or your property upon your goals. Typically, you values. would become involved in an environmental issue because you One of your first tasks have a particular
Recommended publications
  • THE POLLUTER PAYS PRINCIPLE and the REMEDIATION of LAND Emma Lees* Keywords: Contamination, Environmental Liability, Polluter Pa

    THE POLLUTER PAYS PRINCIPLE and the REMEDIATION of LAND Emma Lees* Keywords: Contamination, Environmental Liability, Polluter Pa

    THE POLLUTER PAYS PRINCIPLE AND THE REMEDIATION OF LAND Emma Lees* Keywords: contamination, environmental liability, polluter pays principle Abstract The Environmental Liability Directive attempts to provide a harmonising framework for liability for environmental damage within the European Union on the basis of the polluter pays principle. This article considers legislation in place in the Member States which sit alongside provisions based on the ELD. It shows that such regimes rely on different models for liability, which require, in turn, fundamentally different understandings as to how the polluter pays principle can work as a principle of liability. It considers provisions in place in Denmark, the United Kingdom, the Walloon Region, the Netherlands, and Germany. The differences between these systems are not differences of degree, nor are they mere technicalities, rather they represent a significant challenge not only to the goals of the ELD, but to the principles underpinning it. By undertaking a comparative analysis of these systems, it becomes clear not only that the ELD sits uncomfortably with these “parallel” provisions, but also that this discomfort is not only one of overlapping and complex legislative provisions, but rather one of underlying justification for liability. ‘The purpose of the Environmental Liability Directive (“ELD”) is to establish a framework of environmental liability, based on the ‘polluter-pays’ principle, to prevent and remedy environmental damage’ (European Commission, 2006, p. 1; A. Waite, 2006, p. 67). This goal is threatened by the variation in Member State liability for remediation of land which sits alongside the ELD in the Member States. When the legislation in Member States relating to contaminated land is examined, it becomes clear that the Member States prefer to extend liability beyond the liability of the polluter.
  • Egan, Michael. "Subaltern Environmentalism in the United States: a Historiographic Review." Environment and History 8, No

    Egan, Michael. "Subaltern Environmentalism in the United States: a Historiographic Review." Environment and History 8, No

    The White Horse Press Full citation: Egan, Michael. "Subaltern Environmentalism in the United States: A Historiographic Review." Environment and History 8, no. 1 (February 2002): 21–41. http://www.environmentandsociety.org/node/3107. Rights: All rights reserved. © The White Horse Press 2002. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purpose of criticism or review, no part of this article may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, including photocopying or recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission from the publishers. For further information please see http://www.whpress.co.uk. Subaltern Environmentalism in the United States: A Historiographic Review MICHAEL EGAN1 Department of History Washington State University Pullman WA 99164-4030, USA Email: [email protected] ABSTRACT When a group of people is faced with both social and environmental subordina- tion, they are the victims of environmental injustice. This subordination is manifest in the disproportionate siting of environmental hazards in poor or minority communities and also in the inequitable distribution of ecological resources, both of which perpetuate the marginalisation of subaltern groups. At the heart of the environmental justice movement is a fight for the empowerment of subaltern groups, heretofore excluded from environmental decision-making. In recognising that the environmental health of their living spaces and families is critical to exacting any kind of improvement of their socioeconomic condi- tions, subaltern groups have added a dynamic new dimension to their social struggles. This counter-hegemonic struggle for ecological democracy is one of the fastest growing social movements in contemporary society, and requires the attention of environmental historians to situate it within the broader context of the history of environmentalism.
  • A Citizen's Guide to Using Federal Environmental Laws to Secure

    A Citizen's Guide to Using Federal Environmental Laws to Secure

    A Citizen’s Guide to Using Federal Environmental Laws to Secure Environmental Justice Copyright © 2002 Environmental Law Institute®, Washington, DC. All rights reserved. ISBN No. 1-58576-033-1. ELI Project No. 981624. An electronically retrievable copy (PDF file) of this report may be obtained for no cost from the Environmental Law Institute web site <www.eli.org>, click on “Publications” then “2002 Research Reports” to locate the file. [Note: ELI Terms of Use will apply and are available on site.] (Environmental Law Institute®, The Environmental Forum®, and ELR® – The Environmental Law Reporter® are registered trademarks of the Environmental Law Institute.) acknowledgement This project was supported by the Office of Environmental Justice of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency under Assistance Agreement No. CR82675501. The views expressed herein should not be attributed to EPA nor should any official endorsement be inferred. table of contents Chapter 1. Introduction to Environmental Laws and Available Resources ...............................35 Environmental Justice Funding and Other Assistance for Public Participation. ..35 Other Grants . ......................... ......36 Introduction to Environmental Justice Issues.............1 Program Funding ..............................36 How Environmental Laws Can Help You to Protect Your Community ...............................3 How This Handbook Can Help You to Use Appendix A - Summary Descriptions of Selected Environmental Laws to Your Advantage...............4 Environmental Statutes..........................39 How This Handbook Is Organized, and What It Covers . 5 What This Handbook Does Not Cover.................6 Appendix B - Overview of Additional U.S. EPA Community Grant Programs .....................83 Chapter 2. Understanding the Players and the Laws Appendix C - Selected Other Environmental Justice Resources ...............................87 Identifying the Players..............................9 The U.S.
  • Just Environmentalism

    Just Environmentalism

    YALE LAW & POLICY REVIEW Just Environmentalism Brigham Daniels,* Michalyn Steele* & Lisa GrowSun*** Thirty years ago, the environmentaljustice movement emerged as a powerful critique of traditional environmentalism, which had largely ignored the distribution of environmental harms and the ways in which those harms were concentrated on the poor and communities of color. This Article calls for a similarly groundbreakingreimagination of both mainstream environmental policy and environmentaljustice: we argue that, to truly embrace justice, environmentalists must take account, not only of the ways that environmental harms uniquely impact vulnerable populations but also of the costs that environmentalprotection imposes on the most vulnerable among us. In this Article, we contend that both mainstream environmentalism and environmentaljustice have taken inadequateaccount of the costs and harms that environmental protection imposes on the vulnerable, particularlythe poor and communities of color. Drawingon examples from a wide variety of contexts-from the formation of nationalparks, to the protection of endangeredspecies, to regressive environmental taxes and regulations, to net metering policies that promote solar power-we demonstrate that there are many instances in which environmental Professor, BYU Law School. Associate Professor, BYU Law School. Professor, BYU Law School. The authors would like to thank Ann Carlson, Rob Verchick, Sarah Krakoff, Michael Pappas, Jim Salzman, Hari Osofsky, Holly Doremus, Blake Hudson, and the other participants at the Biannual Conference for the International Association for Scholarship on the Commons in the Netherlands, the Annual Environmental Justice Conference hosted by the Sydney Environment Institute in Australia, the UCLA Climate and Energy Workshop, and the Louisiana State University Conference on Emerging Issues at the Intersection of Energy and Coastal Environmental Hazards for their valuable feedback on the ideas in this Article.
  • A New Approach for Environmental Justice Impact Assessment

    A New Approach for Environmental Justice Impact Assessment

    UCRL-JC-123630 PREPRINT A New Approach for Environmental Justice Impact Assessment oc-CI Cory H. Wilkinson, Gregg P. Brumburgh and Thomas A. Edmunds, Lawrence Livetffiore»N4tfl Laboratory (LLNL); Douglas Kay, Science Applications International Corporation (SAIQ^ \aath special acknowledgement to Diane E. Meier, LLNL This paper was prepared for submittal to the National Association of Environmental Professionals (NAEP) 21st Annual Conference, June 2-6, 1996 Houston, Texas. March 1996 This is a preprint of a paper intended for publication in a journal or proceedings. Since changes may be made before publication, this preprint is made available with the understanding that it will not be cited or reproduced without the permission of the author. LLB421#v1.0(3/96) DISTRIBUTION OF THB DOCUMENT IS UNUNITED DLC- DISCLAIMER This document was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor the University of California nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or the University of California. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or the University of California, and shall not be used for advertising or product endorsement purposes.
  • Anthrozoology and Sharks, Looking at How Human-Shark Interactions Have Shaped Human Life Over Time

    Anthrozoology and Sharks, Looking at How Human-Shark Interactions Have Shaped Human Life Over Time

    Anthrozoology and Public Perception: Humans and Great White Sharks (Carchardon carcharias) on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, USA Jessica O’Toole A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Marine Affairs University of Washington 2020 Committee: Marc L. Miller, Chair Vincent F. Gallucci Program Authorized to Offer Degree School of Marine and Environmental Affairs © Copywrite 2020 Jessica O’Toole 2 University of Washington Abstract Anthrozoology and Public Perception: Humans and Great White Sharks (Carchardon carcharias) on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, USA Jessica O’Toole Chair of the Supervisory Committee: Dr. Marc L. Miller School of Marine and Environmental Affairs Anthrozoology is a relatively new field of study in the world of academia. This discipline, which includes researchers ranging from social studies to natural sciences, examines human-animal interactions. Understanding what affect these interactions have on a person’s perception of a species could be used to create better conservation strategies and policies. This thesis uses a mixed qualitative methodology to examine the public perception of great white sharks on Cape Cod, Massachusetts. While the area has a history of shark interactions, a shark related death in 2018 forced many people to re-evaluate how they view sharks. Not only did people express both positive and negative perceptions of the animals but they also discussed how the attack caused them to change their behavior in and around the ocean. Residents also acknowledged that the sharks were not the only problem living in the ocean. They often blame seals for the shark attacks, while also claiming they are a threat to the fishing industry.
  • Sustainability Toolkit

    Sustainability Toolkit

    Sustainability Toolkit Environmental Justice Another public policy driver for corporate sustainability efforts is the growing global movement for greater environmental justice. This movement acknowledges that communities of color and socio-economically disadvantaged areas in the developed world and large portions of developing countries have suffered disproportionate environmental harm to benefit wealthier economies in the developed world. One definition of environmental justice (EJ) is as the “fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations and policies.” A corollary concept is the notion of climate justice, which responds to the concern that many nations and communities that are least responsible for the causes of climate change are often most vulnerable to its effects. The ideal of fair treatment for all dictates that no group of people should bear a disproportionate share of the negative environmental consequences that result from commercial or governmental actions or policies. In addition, all communities should have access to the wealth of ecological services that arise from proper environmental management – such as green spaces and clean air and water—as well as the numerous ways that businesses often help develop healthy, thriving communities. The complex history of discrimination and racism that has caused communities of color and the poor to be disproportionately affected by pollution may lie far outside a company’s direct sphere of influence. However, companies are facing increasing pressure from investors, employees, customers, and the communities in which they are located to align business strategies with efforts that promote environmental justice.
  • Environmental Justice

    Environmental Justice

    ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE a students’ guide version 1.3 This guide was written by three masters of landscape architecture students who wanted to learn more about how landscape architecture can promote social justice and equity through design. In 2016 we became the student representatives for the ASLA's Environmental Justice Professional Practice Network so we could better connect the important work of professionals, academics, and activists working towards environmental justice with students. This guide is a response to our own desires to educate ourselves about environmental justice and share what we learned. It is a starting-off place for students - a compendium of resources, conversations, case studies, and activities students can work though and apply to their studio projects. It is a continuously evolving project and we invite you to get in touch to give us feedback, ask questions, and give us ideas for this guide. We are: Kari Spiegelhalter Cornell University Masters of Landscape Architecture 2018 [email protected] Tess Ruswick Cornell University Masters of Landscape Architecture 2018 [email protected] Patricia Noto Rhode Island School of Design Masters of Landscape Architecture 2018 [email protected] We have a long list of people to thank who helped us seek resources, gave advice, feedback and support as this guide was written. We'd like to give a huge thank you to: The ASLA Environmental Justice Professional Practice Network for helping us get this project off the ground, especially Erin McDonald, Matt Romero, Julie
  • Environmental Justice, Conservation & Racial Justice

    Environmental Justice, Conservation & Racial Justice

    Environmental Justice, Conservation & Racial Justice About this resource This round-up offers a curated resource list for scholars, practitioners, students, and activists interested in intersections among environmentalism, conservation, justice, and racism. Organized conceptually and thematically, this is not meant to be exhaustive, but rather one of many resources available that can be generative of new conversations in the classroom, in workshops, and across communities. Acknowledgements Purdue University is located in the traditional homelands of the Woodland People. We honor and appreciate these Indigenous caretakers which include the Bodéwadmik (Potawatomi), Lenape (Delaware), Myaamia (Miami), and Shawnee People. We thank the many contributors who provided feedback and suggestions for this document. This work was initiated by members of the Building Sustainable Communities Signature Research Area, Center for the Environment, Purdue University. Contributors included environmental justice scholars, activists, and artists from Purdue University and beyond. A special thanks to Zhao Ma, Malik Raymond, Melissa Poe, Shannon McMullen, Teresa Mares, Andrew Flachs, and Jennifer Johnson for their comments and contributions. Laura Zanotti served as the resource curator. *Indicated resources available from Purdue libraries. Why we need to talk about race when we talk about the environment ● Thomas, Leah. (2020). Why Every Environmentalist Should be Anti-racist. Vogue. ● Purdy, Jedediah. (2015) Environmentalism’s Racist History. The New Yorker. ● Reid, Lauren. (2018). Why Race Matters when we Talk about the Environment An interview with Dr. Robert Bullard. Greenpeace. ● Toomy, Diane. (2018). How Green Groups Became So White and What to Do About It. Yale Environment 360. ● Race and the Anthropocene Vol. 38: Issue 1, 2020. Society & Space ● Baldwin, A.
  • Kortetmaki Is Broad the New Deep in Environmental Ethics.Pdf

    Kortetmaki Is Broad the New Deep in Environmental Ethics.Pdf

    This is an electronic reprint of the original article. This reprint may differ from the original in pagination and typographic detail. Author(s): Kortetmäki, Teea Title: Is Broad the New Deep in Environmental Ethics? A Comparison of Broad Ecological Justice and Deep Ecology Year: 2016 Version: Please cite the original version: Kortetmäki, T. (2016). Is Broad the New Deep in Environmental Ethics? A Comparison of Broad Ecological Justice and Deep Ecology. Ethics and the environment, 21(1), 89- 108. https://doi.org/10.2979/ethicsenviro.21.1.04 All material supplied via JYX is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, and duplication or sale of all or part of any of the repository collections is not permitted, except that material may be duplicated by you for your research use or educational purposes in electronic or print form. You must obtain permission for any other use. Electronic or print copies may not be offered, whether for sale or otherwise to anyone who is not an authorised user. 1 Biographical info Teea Kortetmäki is a Ph.D. student at the University of Jyväskylä. She received her master's degree in philosophy from the University of Jyväskylä in 2011. Her research interests include environmental ethics, food ethics, and the capabilities approach. Contact info Address (work): PO Box 35, 40014 University of Jyvaskyla, Finland Address (home): Kivirinnanpolku 3, 40950 Muurame, Finland Phone (both): +358 41 5486483 e-mail: [email protected] affiliation: University of Jyvaskyla Please send the contributor’s copies to the home address. Acknowledgments I would like to thank Mikko Yrjönsuuri, Markku Oksanen and Arto Laitinen for helpful comments.
  • An Introduction to ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE

    An Introduction to ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE

    July 2012 Photo courtesy of: freedigitalphotos.net An Introduction to ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE Bulletin Board Resources for CFs by the Office of Sustainability Simply cut and paste! Tips for a More Sustainable Bulletin Board: • Use newspaper for a background instead of butcher paper OR use the backside of the butcher paper from your last bulletin board • Print on used paper that is still good on one side Recycle all scrap paper when you • are done! Created by: Amelia Evans [email protected] www.scu.edu/sustainability Sustainability [email protected] An Introduction to Environmental Justice ! What is environmental justice? The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines environmental justice as: “The fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies.” Other Important Terms: environmental racism = “the unequal protection against toxic and hazardous waste exposure and the historical and systematic exclusion of people of color from environmental decisions affecting their communities” ecofeminism = “a movement or theory that applies feminist principles and ideas to ecological issues” (e.g. examining the historical relationship between the social domination of women and that of nature” “The principles of environmental justice say that access to clean air, water and soil and to a healthy, safe, livable community are intrinsic human rights.” - Communities for
  • Environmental Justice

    Environmental Justice

    Environmental Justice "In making determinations regarding disproportionately high and adverse effects on minority and low- income populations, mitigation and enhancements measures that will be taken and all offsetting benefits to the affected minority and low-income populations may be taken into account, as well as the design, comparative impacts, and the relevant number of similar existing system elements in non-minority and non-low-income areas." --from U.S. Department of Transportation Order on Environmental Justice It has been The Federal Highway Administration's (FHWA's) and the Federal Transit Administration's (FTA's) longstanding policy to actively ensure nondiscrimination under Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act in Federally funded activities. Under Title VI and related statutes, each Federal agency is required to ensure that no person is excluded from participation in, denied the benefit of, or subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, sex, disability, or religion. The Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 clarified the intent of Title VI to include all program and activities of Federal-aid recipients, sub recipients and contractors whether those programs and activities are federally funded or not. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) stressed the importance of providing for "all Americans safe, healthful, productive, and esthetically pleasing surroundings", and provided a requirement for taking a "systematic, interdisciplinary approach" to aid in considering environmental and community factors in decision-making. This approach was further emphasized in the Federal-aid Highway Act of 1970: 23 United States Code 109(h) established further basis for equitable treatment of communities being affected by transportation projects.