„Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, Iaşi Faculty of Geography and Geology Geography Department
Present Environment And Sustainable Development
Volume 6, no.1, 2012
Editura Universităţii ,,Alexandru Ioan Cuza”
Editor-in-Chief:
Prof. Liviu Apsotol Ph. D. ,,Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, Iaşi, Romania
Editorial Advisory Board
Prof. dr. M. Brahim Akdim, Université "Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah", Fès, Morocco Prof. dr. Liviu Apostol, Universitatea ,,Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, Iaşi, România Prof. dr. hab. Krzysztof Błażejczyk, Instytut Geografii i Przestrzennego Zagospodarowania, Polska Akademia Nauk, Polska Prof. dr. Evgeny A. Cerchez, "I. I. Mechnikov" National University, Odessa, Ukraine Prof. Nathan Cohen Ph.D., "Ben Gurion" University of Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel Prof. dr. Gheorghe Damian, Universitatea de Nord, Baia Mare, România Prof. dr. André Dauphiné, Université "Sophia Antipolis”, Nice, France Prof. Nicholas Dickinson Ph. D., "Lincoln” University, Cristchurch, New Zealand Prof. dr. Pierre Dumolard., Université "Joseph Fourier”, Grenoble, France Univ.-Prof Dr rer.nat.habil. Wilfried Endlicher, "Humboldt"-Universität zu Berlin, Deutschland Prof. dr. Charles Hussy, Université de Genève, Schweiz Prof. dr. Radu Lăcătuşu, Universitatea ,,Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, Iaşi, membru al Academiei de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Silvice, România Prof. dr. Alberto Marini, Universita degli Studi, Cagliari, Italia Prof .dr. Jean-Robert Pitte, Université "Paris 4 Sorbonne", Membre de l’ Académie Française, Président de la Société Française de Géographie, France Prof. dr. Gheorghe Romanescu, Universitatea ,,Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, Iaşi, România Prof. dr. hab. Valentin Sofroni, Universitatea de Stat din Tiraspol, Chişinău, R. Moldova Prof. dr. em. Irina Ungureanu, Universitatea ,,Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, Iaşi, România
Editorial Assistant: Lucian Sfîcă Webmaster: Adrian Ursu
English language reviewers : Ionuţ Vasiliniuc, Iulia Apostol
ISSN: 1843-5971
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Cover: Adrian Ursu, Dan-Adrian Chelaru 1. The explosion at reactor No. 3, Fukushima, satellite image March 14, 2011 (Credit & Copyright: REUTERS) 2. Ground based and Aerial monitoring results, Fukushima, 2011, March 30 - April 3 (Credit & Copyright: NNSA - Japan). PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
CONTENTS
MARIA NEDEALCOV, ZAHARIA NEDEALCOV – Evaluation of thermal comfort degree in canicular days - record for the Republic of Moldova’s territory……….. 5 CARLO MURGIA, ANDREA MURGIA – Home range and habitat selection of the sardinian wildcat (felis silvestris libyca) in an area of southern Sardinia...... 11 VASILE GUTSULEAK, TANASIUK M.V. - Estimation of the Ecological State of the territory on the landscape Basis (on the example of Hertse district in Chernivtsi region, Ukraina)…………………………………………………...... 21 GHEORGHE JIGĂU, ECATERINA CHIŞLARI – Consideraţii vizînd Pedogeneza antropizată în spaţiul Carpato-Danubiano- Pontic. Considerations regarding the anthropized pedogenesis in the Carpato – Danubiano – Pontic area...... 27 VASILE GUTSULEAK, K. NAKONECHNY, N. АNDRIYCHUK – Тhe Conceptual Principles of Medical and Ecological Researches in the Context of Medical Geography………………………..……………………………………………….. 35 MARIA NEDEALCOV, VALENTIN RĂILEANU, RODICA COJOCARI, OLGA CRIVOVA – Republic of Moldova’s zonation by climatic risk level...... 39 TAMARA LEAH – Soil protection of Republic Moldova in the context of sustainable development...... 47 PETRU COCÎRŢĂ – Forest ecosystems in Republic of Moldova: evolution, problems and solutions……………………………………………………………………… 59 HELENA MARIA SABO, IVANA JINJIG – Learning geography in the classroom or to distastance?...... 75 NICOLETA IONAC, ADRIAN-CĂTĂLIN MIHOC, PAULA TĂBLEŢ – Ambient well-being parameters in the indoor spaces of office buildings. case study……… 81 GHEORGHE DURAC, NICOLAE-HORIA – Sustainable development and the protection of environmental factors – fundamental objectives of the Marrakech agreement concerning the creation of the World Trade Organization……………. 95 NICOLETA IONAC, ELENA GRIGORE – The bioclimatic stress due to overheating in the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area……………………………………….. 103 THEODORA ARDELEANU, THEODOR GHINDA – Present problems regarding urban road traffic noise and mitigation possibilities……………………………… 113 EUGEN RUSU – Curent trends of forest areas designed to protect biodiversity at global and regional...... 127 RADU LĂCĂTUŞU, MIHAELA MONICA STANCIU-BURILEANU, MIHAELA LUNGU, I. RÎŞNOVEANU, ANCA-ROVENA LĂCĂTUŞU, NINETA RIZEA, A. VRÂNCEANU, RODICA LAZĂR – Selenium in soils of the Danube Delta North-Western part……………………………...... 145 THEODOR GHINDĂ, THEODORA ARDELEANU – Environmental protection improvement possibilities for small hydropower plant projects……………...... 157 FLORIN-CONSTANTIN MIHAI, LIVIU APOSTOL – Disparities in municipal waste management across EU - 27. a geographical approach...... 169 NICOLETA IONAC, PAULA TĂBLEŢ, ADRIAN-CĂTĂLIN MIHOC – Heat waves: meteorological characteristics and biometeorological influences (case study: Romania, 14-16th july 2011)...... 181
LIVIU APOSTOL, NICOLETA - DELIA VIERU, PAUL-NARCIS VIERU – Analysis of gaseous pollutants in the atmosphere of Botosani town…………...... 195 ELENA TEODOREANU, DUMITRU MIHĂILĂ – Is the bioclimate of Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? Analysis based on tee and thi……………………………………………………………………………... 205 LĂCRĂMIOARA MIRELA VLAD, PETRU DELIU, IOSIF BARTHA – Evolution of water resources in floodplains of embanked rivers…………….. 219 ELENA TEODOREANU, DUMITRU MIHĂILĂ – Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? Analysis based on wind cooling power index and skin and lung stress index……………………………………………… 229 ILEANA VASILESCU, IRINA SMICAL, IOAN POP – the impact of mining industry on the landscape of Maramureş county……………………………...... 253 DUMITRU LETOS, CRISTINA LETOS - A local approach of some phenomena with climatic effects at the global level. Case study: Piatra Neamt town……………… 261 DANIELA IUREA – Implications and interpretations of corridor and axis development………………………………………………………………………. 275 ION ISAIA – Oscillations and cycles of air temperature in the United States…………. 285 ANCA MĂCIUCĂ, CĂTĂLIN ROIBU – Dead wood – an important issue for forestbiodiversity conservation…………………………………………………… 299 PAUL-NARCIS VIERU, IOLANDA SÎNCU, NICOLETA-DELIA VIERU – Water quality of some drinking water sources in rural area of Botosani County………...…………………………………………………………………... 309 LILIANA PETRIŞOR, ALEXANDRU-IONUŢ PETRIŞOR – Contribution of environmental protections specialists to sustainable local and regional development in Romania……………………………………………………...... 319 DOINA CAPŞA, VALENTIN NEDEFF, EMA FACIU, GABRIEL LAZĂR, IULIA LAZĂR, NARCIS BÂRSAN – Aspects of the fog phenomenon in Bacau City.... 325 FLORIN VARTOLOMEI – Factors that increase dryness phenomenon on small rivers in Prut basin (analysis of conditionalities)………………………………………… 341 ALEXANDRU-IONUŢ PETRIŞOR – dynamics of the environmental transformation processes during 1990-2006 in Romania reflected by land cover and use changes………………………………………………………...... 353 NICOLAE RUSAN – Reusable enerygy, major preocupation for the reduction of the environment’s pollution…………………………………………………...... 367 COSTEL ALEXE – Some thermic differences in the southern metropolitan area of Iaşi……………………………………………………… 377 LIVIU APOSTOL, COSTEL ALEXE, LUCIAN SFÎCĂ – Thermic differenciations in the Iaşi municipality during a heat wave. Case study: 8-20 july 2011...... 395 PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
EVALUATION OF THERMAL COMFORT DEGREE IN CANICULAR DAYS - RECORD FOR THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA’S TERRITORY
Maria Nedealcov1, Zaharia Nedealcov2
Key words: canicular days, danger level, thermal discomfort, cartographic modelling, record days.
Abstract. It is well known that in order to remove excess heat in an environment, a temperature lower than body temperature, i.e. less than 37 0C is needed. If such modalities of heat removal do not exist, the organism would be overheated, the internal temperature would rise, and above 42 0C, all proteins in the human body would be coagulated and finally heat shock would be produced. When atmospheric humidity is very high, one looses heat with more difficulty, and increased temperature is harder to endure, the air seems to be unbreathable. Some categories of sick people, for example, people suffering from asthma, heart condition, hypertension, with endocrine diseases (hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism or with suprarenal problems), as well as people with obesity problems are substantially affected by increased humidification of air in canicular days.
Introduction Regional climatic changes show an increase in intensity and frequency of climatic anomalies, including those of the canicular days’ period 3. We should mention that the human body removes the accumulated heat by thermal conduction (directly by contact with cooler objects), by convection (air flows), by heat radiation and by transpiration. That is why, in the current stage, the index of thermal comfort, which indicates subjective heat perception, having at the same time objective quantifiable and measurable basis of environmental humidification degree, is used to evaluate sensorial weather conditions.
1 Prof. PhD., Institute of Ecology and Geography, Academy of Science, Republic of Moldova, [email protected]. 2 PhD Student, State University of Medicine and Pharmacy “N.Testemitanu Chişinău, Republic of Moldova, [email protected].
6 Maria Nedealcov, Zaharia Nedealcov
1. Material and methodology Thermal comfort indexes are often called Indicators of Temperature and Humidity (ITH) by meteorologists and indicate just how suffocating weather is for humans during the canicular days. The calculation of this index is based on two variables: temperature and humidity. There are two methods of calculation and evidently of expressing them: „non-dimensional” or „by units” or calibrated on temperature scale, i.e. in Celsius degrees. Thus, the necessary meteorological parameters for thermal comfort calculation (ITH), expressed both in units and calibrated in degrees, are the air temperature at 2 m of height and the relative humidity. In this work, the index of thermal comfort calculation expressed in units was elaborated using the Statgraphics Centurion Software according to the following formula: ITU= 0.81T+ 0.01HU (0.99T - 14.3)+ 46.3, where T – air temperature at 2 m of height, HU - relative humidity on the same level. When the ITH is under 79 units, the air is pleasant and easy to breathe, but when the ITH exceeds 80 units, an increased discomfort risk appears, the air being difficult to breathe. Such situations occur especially when temperature is high and air humidity is very high. An increased humidity can make air with not so high temperature really unbreathable. On the contrary, dry air, though canicular, may be more tolerable for the organism. The explanation is that high air humidity interferes with the natural transpiration of human body. Through transpiration, humans remove heat excess. When the air is saturated, the process of transpiration or evaporation is complicated, and heat from human body is not eliminated naturally.
2. Analysis of the obtained results Analysis of multiyear data on thermal regime evolution shows us that in July 2007, the most significant heat waves occurred during the period of instrumental observations. 5. According to 4, 6, considering the number of affected persons (over 210000 affected persons) in canicular days, Republic of Moldova is on the second place in Europe, after Macedonia. According to the State Hydrometeorological Service 5, the second decade of August 2010 registered a record of canicular days for this month. All the above mentioned had conditioned the calculation of thermal comfort index on the basis of daily maximum temperatures and daily relative humidity for the period of June 17-22, 2007 and August 11-16, 2010, registered as record canicular days.
Evaluation of thermal comfort degree in canicular days for the Rep. of Moldova’s territory 7
The ITH’s cartographical modeling (using Surfer software with Radial Basis interpolation method) for the above mentioned periods allowed to evidence regional particularities of thermal discomfort. We should mention that both in cases of canicular days in July 17-22, 2007 (fig.1) and the ones in August, 11-16, 2010 (fig.2) the indexes of thermal comfort have exceeded the critical value of 80 units. Therefore, the authors consider that the ITH values equal to less than 84 units should be considered as moderate thermal discomfort and the ones above these values – as intense thermal discomfort.
Briceni
Soroca
Camenca
Balti
Falesti Disconfort termic
Cornesti Bravicea Dubasari
88 Baltata Chisinau Tiraspol
87
Leova
Comrat 86
intens
85 Cahul
moderat 84
Fig.1 - Spatial distribution of the index of thermal comfort in canicular days in July 17-22, 2007
The analysis of obtained maps (fig.1, fig.2) allows stating that in both cases of canicular periods on the Republic’s territory, thermal discomfort is classified as intense, with more intensity due to the Eastern and North-Eastern parts, which is confirmed with thermal record values registered by the State Hydrometeorological Service of Moldova in the studied periods. The threat degree of thermal discomfort can be evaluated according to the Discomfort Index (DI) proposed by Giles 1, 2. To estimate the discomfort index (DI) in Celsius degrees, the following equation by Giles et al. (1990) has been applied: DI=Ta-0.55 (1-0.01 RH) (Ta-14.5)
8 Maria Nedealcov, Zaharia Nedealcov
where Ta is the hourly value of the average air temperature in Celsius degrees and RH (%) is the corresponding hourly value of the relative humidity. Discomfort increases as DI increases.
Briceni
Soroca
Camenca
Balti
Falesti Disconfort termic
Cornesti Bravicea Dubasari
Baltata 88 Chisinau Tiraspol
87 Leova
Comrat 86
intens Cahul 85
moderat84
Fig. 2 - Spatial distribution of the index of thermal comfort in canicular days in August 11- 16, 2010
The main feature observed in the average daily DI values is the general decline of the DI levels throughout the examined period of each monitoring site. The analysis shows that the average daily DI values remain lower than the 240C limit, which is the limit when more than 50% of the total population feels discomfort. The cartographical modeling of DI was executed for record canicular days in July and August and its grading shows that in July 2007 (fig.3 a), more than 80% of the Republic’s territory was at the dangerous level of discomfort. The same spatial interpretation has DI for canicular days of August 2010 (fig.3 b), except that it has a more restricted manifestation area. Statistical indexes calculation (tab.2) show us, that in the above mentioned periods, the values of DI have exceeded 29, which means the appearance of the severe stress condition of the population. The obtained results are confirmed by the fact that there were more than 210 000 persons affected in the Republic of Moldova, registered during severe drought manifestation in 2007 4.
Evaluation of thermal comfort degree in canicular days for the Rep. of Moldova’s territory 9
Tab. 1 - Classification of the DI values (Giles et al., 1990). ID (0C) Classification ID <21 No discomfort 21≤ID<24 Under 50% population feels discomfort 24≤ID<27 More than 50% population feels discomfort 27≤ID<29 Most of the population suffers from discomfort 29≤ID<32 Everyone feels severe stress ID≥32 State of medical emergency
Briceni Briceni
Soroca Soroca
Camenca Camenca
Balti Balti
Falesti Falesti
Cornesti Bravicea Cornesti Bravicea Dubasari Dubasari 31 32 Baltata Baltata Chisinau Chisinau nivel periculos Tiraspol Tiraspol 30 31 nivelul periculos al disconfortului populatia sufera de disconfort Leova Leova 29 30 Comrat Comrat
28 29 Cahul Cahul
populatia sufera de disconfort 27 28
Fig. 3 - Evaluation of danger degree for the population’s health according to the Discomfort Index in canicular days (a- July 17-22, 2007; b- August 11-16, 2010)
In conclusion, we state that the threat degree of thermal discomfort on the Republic’s territory in record canicular days is very important and could contribute to essential population’s health protection, thus reducing the number of deaths and affected people caused by the baleful influence of canicular periods.
Bibliography: Giles, B.D. and Balafoutis, C.H. (1990), The Greek heatwaves of 1987 and 1988. International Journal of Climatology, 10, 505–517.
10 Maria Nedealcov, Zaharia Nedealcov
Nedealcov Maria Fundamente teoretice privind standardizarea indicilor agroclimatici. Buletinul Academiei de Ştiinţe a Moldovei Ştiinţele Vieţii, nr. 3 (309), 2009, p. 160. M. Nedealcov Climatic risks and informational database Balwois, Macedonia ffp_1325.pdf, 2010, p.2. *** Republica Moldova. Hazardurile naturale regionale / red. resp.: Tatiana Constantinov; Acad. de Ştiinţe a Moldovei, Inst. de Ecologie şi Geografie. - Ch.: S. n., 2009. p.29. *** http://meteo.md
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
HOME RANGE AND HABITAT SELECTION OF THE SARDINIAN WILDCAT (Felis silvestris libyca) IN AN AREA OF SOUTHERN SARDINIA
Carlo Murgia1, Andrea Murgia2
Key words: home range, habitat selection, Sardinian wildcat.
Abstract. Four wildcat adult females and four adult males (Felis silvestris libyca, Forster 1780) were monitored with the radio-telemetric technique in several time periods from July 1994 to March 2002, in the faunal park of Monte Arcosu (southwestern Sardinia). 4,356 radio localisations were gathered. The different home-range configurations were calculated with two different methods: the minimum convex polygon method (MPC) and the kernel method. Selection was measured with the Ivlev preference index. The home ranges of the cats calculated with the 100% MCP varied between 75.5 and 469.5 ha. The home ranges calculated with the kernel method varied between 810.0 ha and 133.7 ha. In the summer the wildcats move in a smaller area than in the other seasons. The overlap of the home ranges of a few animals in the different seasons was between 24.5% and 82.5%. High maquis is the most represented vegetational typology in the home ranges of the wildcats followed by low maquis for the females and by the riparial vegetation for the males; both are used in relation to their local availability. Both the selectivity index and the preference index show that only a few wildcats distinguish among the different habitats. . Introduction Many canids tend to follow their prey, while felids approach it stealthily (Eisenberg 1986, Kruuk 1986). In general the prey are caught more effectively in a solitary way, by single individuals, than by groups. Consequently many felids defend a single territory by joining their partners only for a short period during the mating season (Kleiman-Eisenberg 1973, Seidensticker et al. 1973, Corbett 1979, Stahl et al. 1988). The territories may be partially superimposed, in the event of a mutual alliance (Leyhausen 1965; Hornocker 1969). The factor limiting the reproductive success of felid males is the availability of females, while the availability of food limits the reproductive success of females. Consequently, the
1 Sen. Res., Ente Foreste, Sardegna, Italy, [email protected] 2 Sen. Res., Ente Foreste, Sardegna, Italy,, [email protected]
12 Carlo Murgia, Andrea Murgia males tend to settle in large territories covering the territory of many females thus preventing access to other males, while the females tend to defend the food resource (Eisenberg 1986). The cost benefit ratio of this system determines the use of space by the felids (Eisenberg 1986). Wildcats use activity areas (home range) which include a series of paths linking the hunting areas, several places of refuge and breeding dens (Kitchener, 1991). The home ranges vary in size but can be very large: 184-1090 ha in France (Stahl, 1986), 174-176 ha monthly areas in Scotland (Colbett, 1979). Males generally have larger home ranges than females (Stahl, 1986), the males move on larger surfaces, especially during the breeding season (Kitchener, 1991). Within the home range, the use of space is not always uniform (Genovesi and Boitani, 1993) and often there are areas of more frequent occurrence in which territorial defense is concentrated. The model of social organization of the wild cat is based on exclusive territories between adults of the same sex and the overlapping territories of males and females (Stahl, 1986). The wild cat is bound to forest habitats, particularly hardwoods. The distribution or dispersion of the species appear to be related to forest cover (Jenkins, 1962; Parent, 1975). The forests generally occupy more than 50% of the individual areas of activity but it was detected a significant variability in the use of habitat (Stahl, 1986) in relation to different environmental conditions and prey availability. There are few works on the Sardinian wild cat Felis silvestris libyca, Forster 1780 (Ragni, 1981; Murgia et al., 2005; Murgia et al., 2007), for some authors attributed to the same species as the European wildcat Felis silvestris ( Randi and Ragni 1991, Ragni and Possenti, 1994, 1996). It is a very elusive small carnivore (males about 2.6 kg) that lives in Sardinia and Corsica (Murgia et al., 2005). Although it is a common mammals on these islands, its biology is virtually unknown. The aim of this work is to improve knowledge on some aspects of the Sardinian wild cat behavior, especially on home range and habitat selection.
1. Study area The study area is located in the WWF Park of Monte Arcosu (N 39°09'44", E 08°52'53") in south western Sardinia (fig. 1). The landscape is rough and tormented, the morphology clearly mountainous. Granitic and schistose formations dominate with steep slopes and narrow, confined, winding valleys. There are few level or sub-level areas covering not more than 0.51% of the total. The watercourses are torrential and remain dry for long periods. The mean annual rainfall is 487 mm. The mean temperature is 15/17°C with minimum values of between 6 and 9°C in January and a maximum value of about 24°C in July. The flora of the reserve has been described by Bacchetta (1997). It is typical Mediterranean vegetation, divided into five typologies degrading towards garrigue,
Home range and habitat selection of the Sardinian wildcat 13 represented by low-shrubby formations (Helicrisum italicum, Genista corsica, Thymus capitatus). The vegetable formation with the highest degree of cover is the high maquis with a dominance of strawberry tree, mock privet, lentisk, and holm oak. The fifth typology is made up of forest maquis in which the arboreal layer is monospecific (Quercus ilex), but not very tall (4-10 m), with well represented shrubby and lianas layers. The Monte Arcosu park plays a fundamental role also on account of the presence of numerous endemic forms of the island.
Fig. 1 – Sardinian wildcat and study area
2. Materials and methods The wild cats, were captured by cassette traps (40x30x120 cm) using living quails as bait. Identified using the method suggested by Toshi (1965), and Ragni Possenti (1996), and were fitted with radio-collars of the weight of about 55g (TXP 2, Televilt, Störa, Sweden), after anaesthesia with a intramuscular injection of ketamine (1.5cc/kg). The wild cats were monitored in different periods from July 1994 to March 2002. The position of each animal was recorded, using triangulation, every 20 minutes by means of a radio receiver (Custom electronics). Due to the standard measurement error (Springer 1979), the map relating to the study area at a 1:10000 scale was subdivided in 1x1 cm cells. The different configurations of the home range were calculated with two different methods not affected by the intradependence of the recordings: a) the 100% Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP) method (Dalke, 1942; Mohr,1947), which yields results comparable to many other research studies, was used to calculate both the annual and seasonal home range. The 95% MCP was
14 Carlo Murgia, Andrea Murgia used to exclude animal position recordings due to occasional excursions. The core areas were estimated considering 50% of the MCP. b) the kernel method on the other hand estimates a density from the selected points (fix). The output consists of isopleths of constant estimated density enclosing a specified percentage of points (Worton, 1989). This method was used as the preceding one to calculate 100%, 95%, and 50% of the available recordings. The availability of habitats was measured within home range (MPC 100%) of each cat (third order selection) and compared with its use (number of fixes found in that habitat). Selection was measured with the preference index method of Ivlev (E) (1961), represented by the following formula: E = (Ui - Di ) / (Ui + Di) th where Ui is the proportion of use of the i habitat and Di the availability of that habitat. The value of E varies between –1 (completely avoided habitat) and +1 (strongly preferred habitat); the values near 0 show that there is no preference. The types of habitats included in the analyses are garrigue, low maquis, high maquis, forest maquis and riparian vegetation, identified using the vegetation map.
3. Results Four adult females and four adult male were captured (tab.1). On a total 4,356 radio-localisations, the mean (SE) home range for the male cats (290.6 98.6 ha) was greater than the mean value for the females (205.633.0 ha), calculated with the 100% MCP method. The values recorded for the single cats varied greatly (tab.2). The home ranges of two males (M2 and M3) were comparable to those of the females. Even excluding the excursions (95% MCP), the mean home range for the males (236.1 93.3 ha) was larger than the mean home range for the females (162.329.1 ha). Considering the core areas, the mean values were 56.8 24.4 ha for the males and 56.810.5 ha for the females. The mean home range value for the males was greater than the corresponding value for the females by 29.2% with the 100% MCP, and by 31.3% not considering the excursions, but only by 5.0% considering the core areas. The kernel method yields 100% home range values ranging from 810.0 ha (M1) to 133.7 ha (M2); these are all greater that those calculated with the 100% MCP (except F4). The 95% calculated values on the other hand are all lower than those calculated with the 95% MCP, except for cat M1. Considering the cats monitored contemporaneously, only F2 and F3 among the females had a partial overlap of their home ranges (100% MCP and 95% MCP). Moreover their core areas were adjacent but not superimposed. M1 moves both on F2’s and on F3’s areas of use, including their core areas. Among the males M3 and M4 present a partial overlap (100% MCP and 95% MCP) but this does not refer to their core areas.
Home range and habitat selection of the Sardinian wildcat 15
The sizes of the home ranges vary considerably with the seasons, in particular of those of the males (tab.3).
Tab. 1 - Descriptive parameters of radiotagget wildcats. Females Males F1 F2 F3 F4 M1 M2 M3 M4 Weight (kg) 2.1 2.1 1.8 1.8 2.8 2.5 2.3 2.7 Aug/94 Tracking Jul/94 Jul/94 Aug/95 Oct/01 Dec/94 Nov/97 Sep/00 Oct/00 period Jun/95 Jun/95 Dec/95 Mar/02 May/95 Aug/98 Jun/01 Jul/01 Aug/95 age adult adult adult adult adult adult adult adult
Tab. 2 – Sizes of the home ranges in ha, calculated with the MCP and Kernel methods.
MPC Kernel N. fixes 100% 95% 50% 100% 95% 50% 1. F 768 124,0 84,0 28,5 294,7 64,6 13,0 1 F2 552 265,5 204,5 59,0 625,8 166,8 10,2 F3 460 252,5 208,5 79,5 549,1 115,9 17,3 F4 474 180,5 152,2 60,0 142,9 71,1 1,3 M1 228 469,5 337,5 114,0 810,0 337,0 19,4 M2 606 75,5 42,5 4,0 133,7 29,7 7,0 M3 646 171,5 120,5 37,0 239,1 95,6 7,1 M4 622 446,0 444,0 84,0 627,5 261,0 34,7
In summer the wild cats move in a smaller area than in the other seasons and in no case were the home ranges of one single season larger than 78% of the total. Generally the seasonal overlap of the areas used by F2 and M1 was less than the overlap calculated for the entire year. Even in the case of F3 and M1, the overlap was less if we consider the only season in which the two cats were monitored contemporaneously. In fact, the overlap percentage was 16% only in the summer of 1995. An overlap of the home range of F1 and F2 was never observed in any of the four seasons in which both cats were monitored. In the case of the males M3 and M4, there was no overlap in autumn, while a considerable overlap appeared in winter and a smaller one in spring (tab.4).
16 Carlo Murgia, Andrea Murgia
Tab. 3 – Size of the seasonal home ranges (ha) and average percentage on the total home
2. F F2 F3 F4 M1 M2 M3 M4 1 (94-95) (95) (01-02) (94-95) (97-98) (00-01) (00-01) (94-95) Summer 43,5 98,0 182,0 118 28,0 Autumn 90,0 112,0 194,5 61,5 288,5 35,0 54,0 203,0 Winter 88,5 142,0 140,5 45,2 117,0 194,0 Spring 61,5 149,0 54 33,5 86,0 320,5 %mean 57,2 47,2 74,6 101 26,3 49,6 49,9 53,6 es 9,0 4,6 1,8 39,5 12,4 23,5 9,2 7,9
Tab. 4 – Percent overlap of the seasonal home ranges of the cats with the 95% MCP
Summer Autumn Spring Summer Winter
1994 1994 1995 1995 2000/2001 F2 11,1 24,7 8,9 M1 32,0 18,6 33,3 F3 6,7 M1 15,4 M3 76,0 M4 42,0
The kernel method shows that in all seasons, the cats preferably use two or three areas inside their total home range, linked together by a few tracks. Moreover the resting locations (50% inactive fixes) appear small (less than a hectare) and scattered in the normally used area. There are not significant difference in land use between male and females (U=12; p0.05; Mann-Whitney U-Test). Habitat use in each season is independent of its availability (Autumn: 2=687.7, gl=15, p0.01; Winter: 2=821.6, gl=15, p0.01; Spring: 2=1339.6, gl=20, p0.01; Summer: 2=232.3, gl=12, p0.01). Sardinian cats are more active during darkness hours (Murgia et al., 2007) and, in every season, land use is significantly different during day or night (Autumn: 2=293.2, gl=28, p0.01; Winter: 2=460.9, gl=28, p0.01; Spring: 2=472.1, gl=28, p0.01; Summer: 2=332.1, gl=28, p0.01). Nevertheless high maquis is the most widely represented vegetable typology in the home range of the Sardinian cats, followed by low maquis for the females and riparian vegetation for the males. The home range of F3 includes only 3 environments (excluding garrigue and riparian vegetation), that of F4 only 4 environments (excluding forest maquis), while the home ranges of the other cats includes 5
Home range and habitat selection of the Sardinian wildcat 17 environments, though in different proportions. No cat showed a marked selective behaviour (Ivlev’s index) towards high maquis and only M3 negatively selected low maquis. Riparian vegetation was selected negatively by all females (except F4) and by the male M1, which presents a positive selection for forest maquis, while it was positively selected by the other males. F2 and to a lesser extent M1 showed that they preferred garrigue (fig.2).
3. Discussions The only detailed study on home range of wild cats in Europe (Stahl et al., 1988) has shown that the seasonal home ranges of 17 adult males were larger (573 259 ha) and more variable in size than those of the 7 females (158 51 ha). The home ranges of the males overlapped with those of 3-5 females, while the overlap was poor among individuals of the same sex. Our results partly disagree with this picture. Only two of the captured male cats showed a home range double in size the mean home range of the females (using both the 100% and the 95% MCP), but the other two males showed values even lower than those of some of the females. The male M1, which frequented the same valleys as the captured females, overlaps its home range very extensively with the home ranges of two of them. The overlap between areas of individual use is never so marked, especially if we consider the core areas, suggesting the existence of the male-female couple as the basic social unit. Moreover we also observed a partial overlap also between areas of use of two males which were monitored contemporaneously. The comparison between the extension of the area of overlap of the individual home ranges shows that in none of the cases did the overlap seem to be the result of excursions outside the normally used area. Nevertheless, none of the couples of animals showed concordance in the use of space. This agrees with the hunting strategy of these felids, in which the presence of a conspecific near the hunting animal could have a negative effect on its predatory efficiency. It can be expected therefore that in the areas of overlap the animals tend to avoid each other except in the mating season. In the Sardinian wild cat this avoidance seems to be achieved through the use of different portions of the overlapping strip. In the European wild cat Corbett (1979) found that the seasonal sizes did not change, in spite of changes in the main prey population. The seasonal sizes of the home range of Sardinian cats, compared to the total sizes, and the partial overlap between areas used by the same animal in all the seasons suggest a seasonal use of a reduced, partially different portion of the home range. It could be hypothesised that the difference between our data and those reported by Corbett is due to the characteristics of the vegetation, which offers cover to a hunting cat in every environment. In such a situation, seasonal variations in the availability of food may affect the size of the home ranges. The small home
18 Carlo Murgia, Andrea Murgia range of M2 could be justified by the fact that this cat frequents a maquis area bordering on an open field, with a high density of wild rabbits, and therefore needs smaller movements to find its prey. Even the sites suited to resting, when limited, may determine the size of the home range with their spatial distribution, especially in the case of the females, which need adequate shelters to raise their offspring. Like other felines (Eisenberg, 1986; Leyhausen 1965), the home range of Sardinian wild cat are used uniformly and are made up of a variable number of more or less regularly visited areas, linked together by an elaborate network of tracks. The choice of the habitats is likely to be affected by the temporal dispersion of the resources and of their abundance and concentration within the different sectors of each environment.
M4
M3 HM M2 LM M1 MF G F4 VR F3
F2
F1
-1 -0,8 -0,6 -0,4 -0,2 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
Fig.2 – Ivlev preference index (HM=high maquis; LM=low maquis; MF=forest maquis; G=garrigue; VR=riparian vegetation)
The study area is characterised by a rather uniform vegetation and by a relatively scarce variety of habitats. In this environmental typology we may expect a relatively homogeneous spatial dispersion of the resources and therefore not a very marked preference by the wild cats. The results of the selection indices in fact seem to suggest a poor selectivity. All home ranges include a relatively similar area of high maquis. It can be hypothesised therefore that the high maquis is an important habitat for the cats and that each individual may need a more or less similar area of this habitat within its family area and that the lack of selection in the
Home range and habitat selection of the Sardinian wildcat 19 use of high maquis is precisely related to its abundance in the home ranges. Nevertheless, a few individual variations in the selection of the other environments emerge. The overall results, in particular the individual variations in the size of the home range, in the portion of home range used seasonally, in selecting the habitat, in the dispersion of the resting sites, in the size of the home ranges, and in the distance covered during moves seems to be a complex strategy of use of the environment, which probably allows the cats to better exploit the variety of resources present in the area and reduce interindividual competition to a minimum.
References: Bacchetta G. (1997). La Riserva Naturale di Monte Arcosu. Il Golfo Editore, Cagliari. Corbett L.K. (1979). Feeding ecology and social organization of Wildcats (Felis silvestris) and domestic cats (Felis catus) in Scotland. Ph.D. thesis. Univ. Aberdeen, Scotland 296 pp. Dalke P.D. (1942). The cottontail rabbit in Connecticut. State Geol. Nat. Hist. Survey Bull., 65: 1-97. Eisemberg J.F. (1986). Life history strategies of the Felidae: variations on a common theme. Pp 293-305 in: Cats of the world: Biology, conversations and management. Miller S.D. and Everett D.D. ed., National Wildlife Federaation. Washington, D.C.. Genovesi P., Boitani L. (1993). Spacing patterns and activity rythms of a wildcat (Felis silvestris) in Italy. Seminar on the biology and conservation of a wildcat (Felis silvestris). Council of Europe, Strasbourg, Environmental encounters, 16: 98-101. Hornocker M.G. (1996). Winter territoriality in mountain lions. J. Wildl. Manage. 33: 457-464. Ivlev V.S. (1961). Experimental ecology of the feeding of fishes. New Haven: Yale University Press. Kitchener A. (1991). The natural history of the wild cats. Christopher Helm, London. Kleiman-Eisenberg J.F. (1973). Comparison of canid and felid social systems from an evolutionary perspective. Aim. Behav. 21: 637-659. Kruuk H.H. (1986). Interactions between felidae and their prey species: a review. Pp 353- 374 in: Cats of the world: Biology, conversations and management. Miller S.D. and Everett D.D. ed., National Wildlife Federaation. Washington, D.C.. Jenkins D. (1962). The present status of the wild cat (Felis silvestris) in Scotland. Scott. Nat., 70: 126-139. Leyhausen P. (1965). The communal organization of solitary mammals. Symp. Zool. Soc. Lond. 14: 249-263. Mohr C.O. (1947). Table of equivalent populations of North American small mammals. Am. Midl. Nat., 37: 223-249. Murgia C., Murgia A., Deiana A.M. (2005). Caratterizzazione biometrica di popolazioni selvatiche di gatto selvatico sardo. Rendiconti Seminario Facoltà Scienze Università Cagliari • Vol. 75, Fasc. 1-2.
20 Carlo Murgia, Andrea Murgia
Murgia C., Murgia A., Luiselli L., Angelici F.M. (2007). Movements and activity patterns of radiotracked Sardinian wildcats, Felis silvestris libyca Forster, 1780. Rev. Écol. (Terre Vie), vol. 62:121-126. Parent H.G. (1975). La migration recente, a caractére invasionnel, du Chat sauvage, Felis silvestris silvestris Schreber, en Lorraine belge. Mammalia, 39:251-288. Ragni B. (1981). Gatto selvatico Felis silvstris Schreber, 1777. Pp105-113 in: Distribuzione e Biologia di 22 specie di Mammiferi in Italia. Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Roma. Ragni B., Possenti M. (1994). Predatory behaviour of Felis silvestris. Boll. Zool. Suppl. 61:44. Ragni B., Possenti M. (1996). Variability coat-colour and markings system in Felis silvestris. Ital. J. Zool. ,63: 285-292. Randi E., Ragni B. (1991). Genetic variability and biochemical systematics of domestic and wild cat populations (Felis silvestris: Felidae). J. Mamm. 72:79-88. Seidensticker J.C., Hornocker M.C., Wiles M.V., Messick L.P. (1973). Mountain lion social organization in the Idaho Primitive Area. Wildl. Monogr. 35: 1-60. Springer J.T. (1979). Some source of bias and sampling error in radio triangulation. J. Wildl. Manage. 43: 926-935. Stahl P. (1986). Le Chat forestier d’Europe (Felis silvestris, Schreber, 1777): exploitation des resources et organization spatiale. Ph.D Thesis, Univ. Nancy. Stahl P., Artois M., Aubert M.F.A. (1988). Organisation spatiale et dèplacements des chats forestiers adultes (Felis silvestris, Schreber, 1777) en Lorraine. Rev. Ecol. (Terre et Vie), vol.43: 113-132. Toschi A. (1965). Fauna d’Italia, vol. 7. Mammalia: Lagomorpha, Rodendia, Carnivora, Ungulata, Cetacea. Calderini, Bologna. Worton B.J. (1989). Kernel methods for estimating the utilization distribution in home- range studies. Ecology 70: 164-168.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
ESTIMATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL STATE OF THE TERRITORY ON THE LANDSCAPSE BASIS - ON THE EXEMPLE OF HERTSE DISTRICT IN CHERNIVTSI REGION, UKRAINA
Vasile Gutsuliak1, M.V. Tanasiuk2
Key words : landscape, ecological state of the territory, Chernivtsi region.
Abstract. Landscape-geochemical researches and geochemical problem solving of the territories are based on the principles of landscape geo-ecology and landscape studies. They contain corresponding methods of analysis and evaluation of a geochemical state. The task of a landscape-geochemical research is the evaluation of the ecological states and of the eco-situation within natural and anthropogenic geo- complexes. The object of the evaluation is landscape complexes of various ranges modified as a result of the anthropogenic influences; the subject is their ecological state as well as the conditions of favorability for human activity.
Introduction Conducting landscape-geochemical studies is one of the necessary aspects of the study of the ecological state of a territory that enables to investigate the degree of environment contamination, the migration ability of geocomplexes depending on the chemical composition and physical-chemical properties of their components, the possible areas of contaminating substances, the geochemical ability of accumulation landscape complexes to self-purification from contaminating substances etc. The theoretical and methodological basis for the study and research of anthropogenic geo-systems is formed by the scientific works of Voloshyn I.M., Voropai L.I., Gutsuliak V.M., Denysko G.I., Isachenko A.G., Kovalchuk I.P., Malysheva L.L., Milkov F.M., Saieta Y.E., Shwebs G.I., Shevchenko L.M., Shyshchenko P.G. and others.
Main results of research and their discussion Hertsaivsky district is situated in the south-western part of the before- Carpathian landscape area of Bucovina, in the eastern part of the Prut-Siret in- between interfluve area. The Prut tributaries, which wash out loose sandy-clay
1 Prof. Ph.D., Chernivtsi National University “Yuriy Fedkovitch”, Ukraine, [email protected] 2 Assist. Prof. Ph.D. Chernivtsi National University “Yuriy Fedkovitch”, Ukraine
22 Vasile Gutsuliak, M.V. Tanasiuk residues, have formed a compound erosion relief. Range-hilly and sloping-wavy types of relief are common here. The slopes of ridges and valleys are complicated with landslides, which add a slight hilly character to the surface. The climate in comparison with other areas of the before pre-mountain territory is drier and warmer, it corresponds to the moderate continental. Average January temperatures 5-5,50C, July – 19-200C. The total sum of the temperatures over +100C in a year comprises 2600-28000C. The average precipitation amount is 563 mm. The soil covering of the territory is represented by grey and dark-grey forest- turf-podzol soils, meadow-swampy soils, which were formed on the loamy soil, contemporary diluvium and bedded with guarded clays. In the natural vegetation, motley-grass and cereals meadows dominate. Deciduous forests (common oak, beech forest, common hornbeam) are widespread, beech plantings prevailing, with occasional coniferous representatives. The morphological structure of landscapes is characterized by the conjunction of valley-terrace, slope and water-bearing complexes. Valley-terrace complexes are represented by flood plains, low and medium terraces of the Prut River with meadow and ashed black earth under the complete belt of village settlements, motorways and agriculture lands. Landscape complexes of high Prut terraces are intensively broken down with ashed black earth and dark-grey forest soils, and are mainly under agriculture lands. Slope and water-bearing landscape complexes of high above-Prut plains, hilly and erosion-landslide areas are covered with grey and light-grey forest soils, under meadows of secondary formation, arable plots, beech-oak-hornbeam woods. These landscape complexes are formed by kidney-like erosion-landslide meadow hollow units with motley-grass and cereals meadows, arable plots, and village buildings. Landscape complexes of slumping sloping valley of the Prut tributaries are widely spread there. I. Territories of water-bearing units and their slopes: 1- Residues are formed by sandy loams, brownish-ashy podzol surface-clayed soil, under arable land; 2- Slopes of water-bearing units composed by forest-like sandy loam soils and loamy soils, with brownish-ashy surface-clayed washed-out soils, under ploughed fields and constructions. II. Territories of slopes: 3- Gentle slopes (1-2), composed by loamy soils and clays, with light-grey forest washed-out soils under ploughed fields; 4- Slightly falling down slopes (3-5), formed by loamy soils and clays, with light-grey forest washed-out soils under ploughed fields, constructions and fragments of beech forests; 5- Falling down and steep slopes (3-5), formed by loamy soils and clays, with light-grey forest medium-and highly washed-out soils, under constructions and beech forests fragments; 6- Slopes of river valleys, gullies and ravines, formed
Estimation of the ecological state of the territory on the landscape basis 23 by loamy soils and sandy loam, with light-grey forest medium-and highly washed- out soils, under ploughed fields, constructions and beech forests fragments. III. Territories of river valleys, gullies and ravines. 7- Bottoms of small rivers formed by sandy loam soils under meadows, pastures and hydrophytic associations; 8- Wide bottoms of small rivers formed by sandy loam soils and loamy soils, with alluvial meadow clayed soils under meadows, pastures, swamps with considerable parts of hydrophytic associations; 9- Gullies and temporary waterways made of loamy soils, with dark-grey forest highly washed-out soils, under motley-grass and cereals vegetation. Geo-chemically, the district belongs to the family of geo-chemical landscape, which makes the transition from forest to steppe and meadow, from acid to calcium class. It is characterized by the medium water exchange, trans-eluvial, eluvial- accumulative, neo-eluvial elementary landscapes, availability of forest-like loamy soils and clays. This district has many aspects common with other forest-steppe districts. Concentration coefficient of all 4 macro-elements is higher than 1 (from 1,03 to 1,22), indicating their high contents in ground waters. Moreover, their migration ability is rather high, especially calcium and sodium (correspondingly 7,7 and 3,5). The properties of ground waters of Hertsa geo-chemical district are the following: according to alkali-acid condition – neutral or low-alkali; according to the hardness category - moderate-hard, hard and very hard (the average hardness is 10,2 mg-eqv/dm); by the degree of mineralization - fresh (average mineralization - 0,66 g/dm); by the limited norms of mineralization - good; by the chemical composition - hydrocarbonate-calcium, infrequently - hydrocarbonate-magnesium- calcium. Cl is a good migrant in district waters; calcium also has a rather high coefficient of water migration. The concentration coefficient of macro-elements in waters is >1, especially Ca. The Hertsa geo-chemical district belongs to the forest- steppe type of landscapes according to the main geochemical parameters. The general evaluation of the components of the ecological-geochemical state of a landscape and the level of ecological changes of the environment in connection with the contamination is carried out according to the 5-point system and the following criteria [1;2]: 1- favourable (there is no contamination); 2- relatively favourable (contamination is acceptable, the substance content exceeds the background one, but not more than the maximum permissible concentrations in all landscape components); 3- relatively unfavourable (concentrations in moderately dangerous chemical substances content exceed MPC in soils); 4- unfavourable (concentration is dangerous; there is excess of MPC in soils and air); 5- very unfavourable (concentration is very dangerous, substances content exceeds MPC in environment - soils, air, water, vegetation).
24 Vasile Gutsuliak, M.V. Tanasiuk
3 3 7 4 4 3 3 6 4 2 1 1 7 3 2 7 3 3 2 4 1 4 3 4 4 5 6 4 3 4 1 7 1 6 4 3 3 4 4 3 1 9 4 4 3 5 2 3 5 2 3 5 5 4 5 5 4 1 2 5 4 4 5 4 1 2 7 4 8 4 1 4 4 3 7 1 1 4 4 3 3 2 3 6 2 7 9 4 7 1 3 4 7 6 1 6 1
5 4 7 2 1 1 8 3 4 1
7 9 4 4 2 2 6 3 7 8 7 4 1 4 4 7 4 3 2 6 3 3 1 4 4
Fig. 1 - Fragment of the landscape map scheme of the territory of Petrashivka village in Hertsa district Chernivtsi region, Ukraina
100
10 Pb Zn 1 Cu
mg/kg Cd 0,1
0,01 water-bearing bottoms of gullies sloping (LC)
Fig. 2. Contents of heavy metals in landscape complexes of Petrashivka village, territory of Hertsa district Chernivtsi region, Ukraina
The content of microelements in landscape complexes of the territory is various. Analyzing the data received, we see that the lead content ranges from 1,31
Estimation of the ecological state of the territory on the landscape basis 25 to 2,89 mg/kg (when MPC is 30 mg/kg), zinc correspondingly from 8,07 to 12,63 (when MPC is 23 mg/kg), copper - from 3,34 to 3,54 mg/kg (while MPC is 100 mg/kg), cadmium data vary from 0,021 to 0,042 mg/kg and also do not exceed MPC (1,0 mg/kg).
Tab. 1 - Chemical composition of ground waters in the Petrashivka village of the Hertsa district Chernivtsi region, Ukraina
Having viewed the acquired characteristics and data, we can give the general estimation of the ecological situation in landscape complexes (Picture 1). According to the ecological-geochemical data, the territory of the research has a favourable situation, meaning the contamination is almost absent. The index of contamination intensity of landscape complexes reaches 15 (according to the estimating scale of the ecological danger of landscape contamination).
Conclusions Landscape-ecological investigations of residential geo-systems of the Hertsa region enabled us to distinguish and use in practice morphological units (ravines, territories), which reflect rather distinctly the structure, properties and a degree of transformation of landscape complexes. Correspondingly, these units are characterized as geo-ecological complexes and form the basis for distinguishing geo-ecological units. According to the received ecological-geochemical data, the territory is ecologically favourable, it means there is almost no contamination. We should point out only some excess of zinc contents in the soils of water-bearing areas (12 mg/kg) and lead accumulation in the ravines of gullies bottoms (10 mg/kg). However, such concentration of heavy metals doesn’t produce any danger for human activity.
26 Vasile Gutsuliak, M.V. Tanasiuk
Bibliography: Gutsuliak V.M. (2002), Landscape Ecology: geochemical aspect: teach. User / Gutsuliak V.M. - Chernivtsi: Ruta, - 247 sec. Gutsuliak V.M. (1994), Geochemistry: Manual. - Chernivtsi: Ruta, - 82s. Gutsuliak V.M. (1992), Fundamentals of Landscape: Teach. The user.-K.: SMC PA,1992.-60 p. Tanasiuk M.V. (2010), Landscape-geochemical analysis of rural geo-systems (for example Drachynetskoyi key areas of Bukovina) / Scientific Bulletin of Chernivtsi University: Collected Works. 2010. S. 38-41. *** (1978), Nature of Chernivtsi region / edited by K.I. Gerenchuka - Lviv: High School, 1978. – 160 p.
.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE ANTHROPIZED PEDOGENESIS IN THE CARPATO – DANUBIANO – PONTIC AREA.
Gheorghe Jigău1, Ecaterina Chişlari2
Key words: anthropized pedogenesis, carpato-danubiano-pontic area.
Abstract. If we start from the premise that geographical space can be considered a concrete space, coherent and changeable, then landscape - environment rapport becomes essential for understanding how the prehistoric humans were affected by natural conditions. In these conditions, we treat the environment as a multi- dimensional reality, which includes both natural environment and human creations, and the human being in a double hypostasis: as an environment component and as its beneficiary. The geographical space that became „a consumable good” for Neolithic communities will end by being anthropized, fact that attests a specific mentality of the respective populations about life. Moreover, human beings started to depend on environment, changing it in their own interests. From this perspective, the soil←factors reality had suffered the most. In the different stages of agriculture, different progresses were registered, and modifications also occurred in the soil and the environment in general.
According to V.V Docuceaev (1949), soil is a product of interaction in time of the climate, vegetation, parent rock and relief. In term of functional - genetical concept, the interaction between the specified factors and their dynamics determines a certain pedogenetical ambiance, which conditions the realization of a specific pedogenetical elementary process, thus ensuring pedogenetical diversity materialized in different classes, types and subtypes of soils. They also determine the geographical rules of distribution in space of the pedogenetical formations. In such an approach, the system soil ← factors is a self-regulator system at the geological time scale. Along with human involvement in the environmental components functionality, also time at its historical (social) scale gets involved. The first changes are related to the first agricultural revolution (the years 12000 and 7000 Before Christ- BC) with the first steps in soil tillage, by a simple operation of „scratching” in order to improve conditions for seed germination. The
1 Assist. Prof. Ph.D., Moldova State University, Chişinău, R. Moldova, [email protected] 2 Lecturer Ph.D., Moldova State University, Chişinău, R. Moldova /[email protected]
28 Gheorghe Jigău, Ecaterina Chişlari first „plows” hauled by human being force appeared 7000 years BC, when soil tillage was as a necessity in order to achieve an adequate life environment for the seeds and efficient fight against weeds. Namely, this superficial soil tillage was probably the most important rupture of the trophic chain from the natural ecological system.
Tab. 1 - Techno- anthropic implications within pedogenetical factors
Along with human society development, people have succeeded to transform continuously and increasingly the pedogenetical ambiance, intervening with the help of science and technologies on the vegetation and also on the relief (especially microrelief), on groundwater and surface waters, on climate (especially on the local climate). Therefore, these interventions have influenced the morpho-dynamics of the local processes through grubbing, construction of human settlements, roads and The other component of the system soil←factors – the SOIL also suffers important modifications. As a result of anthropic implication, modifications of the pedogenesis process occurred: agricultural crops have replaced the steppe meadows; the soil is
Considerations regarding the anthropized pedogenesis 29 intensely processed mechanically; drainage works and irrigations are executed; mineral and organic fertilizers, amendments are introduced (tab. 3,4).
Tab.2 - Evolution factors and natural-anthropic dynamics of the soils
All these lead to: diminishing of the bioacumulative process; intensification of the compounds laundering; increase the danger of salinization and solonetization processes; extension of some areas temporarily affected by humidity; increase of chemical pollution etc. (tab. 5). From the above table, we can notice that the polluting impact of the sources is different. In the case of sources with agricultural origins, the impact is preponderantly small. But, in the same time, it falls on all over the surface of the
30 Gheorghe Jigău, Ecaterina Chişlari
Tab. 3 - Phylum of agrotechnical implications Identification criteria (evaluation) Involved elements minimal Number of works; passes on the field medium high early Time of processing works optimal late superficial usual Depth of processing works deep bottomless Implications on the traits: physical Mobilization and water accessibility. hydrophysical Soil climate dynamics. pedogenetical regimes
Tab. 4 - Implications phylum of crop plants Identification criteria (evaluation) Involved elements Sowing: dense Humidity consuming rare Implications on the thermal regime mixed high low short Duration of vegetation period moderate long very demanding Nutritive elements consumption moderately demanding slightly demanding Dense sowing Implications on the substances redistribution Hoeing (anti-erosional protection) technical multi-annual plantations cleaning deep plowing Work necessities usual plowing deep refining Dense sowing Hoeing Implication on physical traits Technical cultures Multi-annual plantations
Considerations regarding the anthropized pedogenesis 31
Tab. 5 - Pollution sources of the agricultural soil in the Carpato- Danubiano – Pontic area
Substances with polluting impact.
Origin of
pollution Type of pollution source. Impact assessment source.
Other
Heavy metals
Ballast Ballast
Pesticides
substances substances
substances.
Radioactive Fertilization − + − + + + Low Plant protection − − + − − Low Agricultural Irrigation − +? +? + + Low Zootechnics − − +? + + Low
Energy production based on − − + ++ ++ Moderate local fossil fuel
Manufacturing industry Industrial − − − ++ ++ Moderate local Transport − − + + + Moderate Cast mining − − +− ++ ++ Moderate local Transboundary +? − + + + Low Moderate local +? +? + ++ ++ Waste storage ramps Moderate local +? +? + ++ ++ Domestic Unauthorized dumps
Mud from cleaning stations Moderate – strong +? +? ++ ++ ++ local
Tab. 6 - The quantity of mineral fertilizers used in agriculture in R. Moldova (recalculated to 100 % nutritive substances, thousand tones)(Burlacu,2000)
Mineral Years fertilizers 1965 1970 1975 1989 1985 1990 Total 61 118 205 317 410 226 Nitrogenous 21 54 91 119 161 85 Phosphatic 26 42 66 100 126 106 Potassic 13 22 48 98 123 35
region. Moreover, the agricultural impact is constant and permanently increasing. The quantity of mineral fertilizers, for example, from the ′60s to the ′90s increased more that 5 times (Table 6). Researches in this field have highlighted that together with mineral fertilizers, some quantities of heavy metals are transported in the soil (Table 7). Thereby, it constitutes an anthropizated pedogenetical ambiance: the result of human activity interference with the natural environment, the latter keeping some
32 Gheorghe Jigău, Ecaterina Chişlari
initial characteristics. Human activity bivalence manifests in two antagonistic directions: destruction of some elements of the natural environment, but also creation of a new environment. It arises thereby a third dimension of the environment, namely the social environment, specific for every society.
Tab. 7. Medium content of heavy metals in mineral fertilizers.
Fertilizers The content of heavy metal, mg/kg Cd Pb Ni Zn Cu Mn Hg As Cr Co Potassic 0, 3 8,0 14,0 23,0 16,0 10,1 - 1,4 5,7 1,5 Nitrogenous 0, 3 0,2 19,0 30,0 26,0 76,0 - 2,5 42,0 1, 3 Phosphatic 1,4 13,0 2,0 49,0 33,0 - 0,06 - 46,0 - Complex 30,0 7,5 18,0 59,0 39,0 194,0 - 3,0 116,0 36,0
Therefore, anthropical pedogenetical ambiance implies 4 basic components: 1. natural environment – composed of primary components or abiotic (lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere), biotic (plants and living creatures) and pedosphere. 2. anthropizated environment – includes the space influenced or partially modified by humans: agricultural fields, touristic routes, anthropic lakes etc. 3. anthropic environment represented by the systems created through an almost total change of the natural environment: human settlements, tourist stations, amusement parks etc. 4. social environment – which has a sociocultural and psychological sense. Within such a pedogenetical ambiance, the pedogenetical functional framework, materialized in pedogenetical regimes, suffers significant changes. The evaluations based on suction curve bring us to the conclusion that the hydrological regime develops in the sense of xerophytisation and it is characterized by: - reduced water reserves at the beginning of vegetation, as a result of permeability reduction and water capacity reduction, as also hydraulic conductivity; - more intensive water consumption within warm periods as a result of superficial leakage increase and physical evaporation; - lower moistening and percolation depth; - a more contrast humidity regime; - reduction of pedogenetical active water reserves and increase of the inactive reserves; The mentioned effects are caused by soil compaction, structure degradation and pore space modification. Therefore, pedogenetical implications are: reduction of the chemical and biochemical processes intensity and their share within
Considerations regarding the anthropized pedogenesis 33 pedogenesis and increases the share of mechanical processes; disturbance of the unidirectional dynamics of the elementary processes in circadian, seasonal and multi-annual regime.
Tab. 8 - Soil function which suffers modifications within anthropic pedogenesis
Tab. 9 - Evolution processes under conditions of anthropic pedogenesis
The hydrothermal regime evolves in the direction of a more pronounced instability and a high vulnerability to the climatic conditions. In the natural regime, the soils go through complicated adaptation mechanisms which attenuate the
34 Gheorghe Jigău, Ecaterina Chişlari fluctuations of the climatic conditions. Within agricultural soils, this mechanism significantly decreases. Thermal regime evolves in the direction of basic parameters increase: sum t0>100C, the depth of their penetration within soil profile, their maintenance duration on different depths. The specified modifications determine the intensification of the organic remnants mineralization processes and of the humus. Aeration and aerohydric regime evolves towards the mineralization processes intensification. Redox regime evolves towards the oxidation processes intensification.
Tab. 10 - Principial scheme of the anthropic pedogenesis
The specified modification implies a new phase in the soil evolution of the Carpato-Danubiano-Pontic area (tab. 9, tab. 10).
Bibliography: Jigău Gh. (2009), Geneza şi fizica solului - Chişinău: CEP USM,2009 Docuceaev V.V. (1949), Izbrannâe socinenia.-Moskva.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
ТHE CONCEPTUAL PRINCIPLES OF MEDICAL AND ECOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN THE CONTEXT OF MEDICAL GEOGRAPHY
Vasile Gutsuleak1, K. Nakonechny2, N. Аndriychuk3
Key words: medical geogrpahy, ecological research.
Abstract. Nowadays ecological situation and population morbidity is generated most of all by the high level of anthropogenic effect. That is why the conception of medico-ecological researches is studied in the system “environment – population health”. The bases of conception are ecological researches, determination of the level of intensity of medico-ecological situation, integral index of ecological danger of landscape, cartographic modeling and geoecological monitoring.
Introduction Nowadays ecological situation and morbidity of population is generated mainly by the high level of anthropogenic effect. Clear indications of ecological crisis are detected at all regions of Ukraine. They are favorable to steady increasing of oncologic, cardiovascular, infectious, respiratory, allergic and other diseases. Medico-ecological researches of the regions of Ukraine are also stipulated by the necessity of implementation of international and state programs, including resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine N 182 from February 22, 2006 “Regarding Approval of the Order of Realization of the state socio-hygienic monitoring”.
1. Outgoing precondition Medico-ecological researches of the territory are carried out by different experts – biologists, geographers, ecologist and medicals. Questions of econosological cartographing and medico-ecological zoning are elucidated in
1 Prof. Ph.D., Chernivtsi National University “Yuriy Fedkovitch”, Ukraine, [email protected] 2 Assistent Ph.D., Chernivtsi National University “Yuriy Fedkovitch”, Ukraine 3 Assistent, Chernivtsi National University “Yuriy Fedkovitch”, Ukraine
36 V. Gutsuliak, K. Nakonechny, N. Andriychuk works of Baranovskyy W. [1], Shevchenko W. [5]. Ecological aspects of the assessment of population health are discussed in works of Berdunuyk O [2], Serdyuk A. [4] and others. Chernivtsi National Y. Fedkovich University and Department of Medical and Ecological Problems, L.I. Medved’s Institute of Ecohygiene and Toxicology developed and defended joint scientifically- dissertational project “Medico-ecological assessment of settling geosystems of Chernivtsi region” [3].
2. Goal and target of the research Taking into consideration European tendencies of Ukraine and geoecological problems, which should be solved on the international level, it is necessary to create joint transboundary network on medico-ecological monitoring, which will function with due regard for conditions of constant development. The target of research is an interpretation of main preconditions of medico-ecological investigation taking into account geoecological peculiarities of regions of Ukraine.
3. Exposition of main research material Problems of medico-ecological researches are examined in the system “environment – population health”, built on the fundamental data of geoecology and medicine. The bases of the conception are ecological researches, determination of the intensity level of medico-ecological situation, integral index of ecological landscape danger, cartographical modeling and geoecological monitoring. Ecological researches of the territories should be carried out on landscape base. Landscape complexes (natural and anthropogenic) are saturated with interacting effusion of materials, energy and information [3]. That is why the process of pollution of different territories should be studied against a background of landscape parts. It gives us the opportunity to use methodical receptions of data’s interpolation and extrapolation in the process of model mapdrawing (that is relatively reliable and economically beneficial under the condition of project execution). The determination of the level of intensity of medico-ecological situation of landscape parts should carry out on the base of multifactorial analysis of parameters of anthropogeoecological system, which consists of two subsystems – “living environment” and “population health”. First subsystem deals with ecological indices and criterions of such natural components: 1 – atmospheric air; 2 – drinking water; 3 – soil; 4 – biota (vegetation). Mentioned components form geoecosystem in the result of interconnections and interconditionality. The geoecosystem may become an object of general scientific ecological assessment. The subsystem “population health” was examined using next medico-ecological indices: 1 – death rate, 2 – morbidity (main nosological forms), 3 – medico-genetic
Principles of medical and ecological researches in the context of medical geography 37 indices (the rate of inborn malformations). The complex index of the intensity of medico-ecological situation (taking into account the effect of harmful factors on the environment of existence) is determined as the sum of pointed indices. The definitive conclusion on the real intensity of medico-ecological situation is made with taking into consideration relationship of cause and effect of any changes of population health [4]. The integral index of ecological landscape safety may be used for the assessment of the level of intensity of medico-ecological situation connected with the environment pollution, taking into account translocal significance of landscape components and synergism effect of the peculiar elements. The integral index records migration of harmful chemical substances in the natural chain (soil - water- individual, soil - atmosphere - individual, soil – agricultural products - individual). Cartographic modeling is an important stage of the assessment of medico- ecological situation, especially as to branch and complex maps of medico- geographical division into districts. Medico-ecological complexes – nosotops are used in the process of parting and ranging of medico-geographical units. Geoecological monitoring is based on direct observations over natural and anthropogenic variations of all ecological indices of geosystem for a definite period. Created geoinformational computer system of geoecological monitoring may consist of 4 blocks: 1) assessment of modern ecostate of natural and anthropogenic geosystems (component and according to natural complex). Cartographical modeling of geoecological situations of the target territories; 2) formation of the network of medico-ecological monitoring of the environment and realization of systematized control on the base of created ecopoints and stations with material and technical provision and skilled staff (Stations should be located first of all in effected zones of technogenic objects); 3) prognosis of the development of medico-ecological situations in the target region, depending on different technogenic effects (according to monitoring results); 4) ecological management aimed on improvement of the environment and prevention of negative health effects.
Conclusions Medico-ecological research is based on the analysis of components of the system “environment – population health”. Main methodological approaches are: landscape-ecological (geoecological) and sanitry-hygienic approaches. Objective base of the assessment of medico-ecological conditions of territorial units is the basic landscape map and its partial variants (landscape-geochemical, landscape- functional). Usage of such maps allows us to study each nosological form at the
38 V. Gutsuliak, K. Nakonechny, N. Andriychuk background of landscape complexes taking into account natural environment factors (the level of technogenic pollution and self-purification, contents of macroelements and microelements, alkaline-acid and oxidizing- estoration conditions etc.). The assessment of the level of ecological danger (intensity) should be carried out on the base of complex analysis of ecological and medico- demographic dependency of factors. Medico-ecological analysis of the target territory affirms that the level of population health may serve as the integral index (indicator) of the environmental quality.
Bibliography: 1. Барановський В.А. Медико-екологічне картографування території України / В. А. Барановський // Економіка України. – 1993. – № 2. – С. 93-96. 2. Бердинюк О.В. Методологічні аспекти оцінки здоров‘я населення в еколого- гігієнічних дослідженнях / О. В. Бердинюк, В. Ю. Зайковська // Довкілля та здоров‘я. – 2005. – № 4 (35). – С.3-5. 3. Медико-екологічна оцінка ландшафтів Чернівецької області: монографія / В.М. Гуцуляк, К.П. Наконечний. – Чернівці: Чернівецький нац. ун-т, 2010. — 184 с. 4. Сердюк А.М. Здоров‘я населення України: вплив навколишнього середовища на його формування / А. М. Сердюк, О. І. Тимченко. – К.; Сімферополь, 2000. – 33 с. 5. Шевченко В.О. Теоретико-методичні основи медико-географічного аналізу території України : автореф. Дис… докт. геогр. наук.: 11.00.11. – К., 1997. – 32 с.
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PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA’S ZONATION BY CLIMATIC RISK LEVEL
Maria Nedealcov1, Valentin Răileanu2, RodicaCojocari3, Olga Crivova4
Key words: climatic risks, vulnerability, Geographical Informational System (SIG), probability, late spring frosts.
Abstract. Till present neither in the world nor in the Republic of Moldova is there a unanimously accepted terminology that concerns extreme natural phenomena. At the same time, UNDP experts have elaborated a unified definition of natural hazards risk (Disaster Risk Index, DRI), which mentions the negative consequences probability and foreseen losses that result from interaction with dangerous phenomena of natural and anthropic origin and from vulnerability conditions. . Introduction Vulnerabilities are conditions determined by natural, social, economical factors or processes that intensify communities’ exposure to danger’s influence (Reducing Disaster Risk, global report, 2005). CRED, the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, Université Catholique de Louvain (UCL), Belgium, which is the most authoritative organization in statistics of calamities of different origin, bases its definition on criteria that include the following requirements: 10 or more human victims, not less than 100 affected, international help soliciting, declaration of national emergency 1.
Materials and investigation methods The necessity of natural risks evaluation at the national level, including climatic ones, is conditioned by the significant increase in the number and
1 Prof. PhD, Institute of Ecology and Geography, Academy of Sciences, Republic of Moldova/ [email protected] 2 Senior researcher, Ph.D. Institute of Ecology and Geography, Academy of Sciences, Republic of Moldova /[email protected] 3 Senior researcher, Ph.D., Institute of Ecology and Geography, Academy of Sciences, Republic of Moldova/ [email protected] 4 Senior researcher, Ph.D., Institute of Ecology and Geography, Academy of Sciences, Republic of Moldova /[email protected]
40 Maria Nedealcov, Valentin Răileanu, Rodica Cojocari, Olga Crivova frequency of their manifestation. In this context we should mention that using mathematical investigation methods of a phenomena or natural process needs first of all modeling, identifying particular characteristics that would describe integrally a phenomena or a random event. Their evolution is guided by probabilistic laws that state a certain chance for respective manifestation to lead to a predefined result. From this point of view, events or random signals are different from deterministic ones, the values of which can be estimated with accuracy in any moment of time. Theoretic support which allows random signals analysis is offered by the probability theory which is mainly analyzing medium values of physical manifestations which are produced at larger scale. The connection point between the multitude of real physical manifestations and unified mathematical formalism is the random variable expressed by the function which associates a number per each possible result of a given experiment. An ensemble of random variables defines a random process. A central role in the probability theory is the mathematical expectation which subscribes to a random variable a value resulted from an arithmetic mean of infinite theoretical numbers of individual realizations of considered physical manifestations. As a function of discrete or analogue experimental character it is defined as:
Where X is a random value which presumably has n possible realizations with pi probabilities in discrete cases, and in analogue cases it is probability density xfx respectively. Subsequently, climatic risk notion includes the probability of manifestation of a certain climatic extreme event within the limits of prevention 2, 3, 4. Thus, the territorial zoning according to climatic risk degree is normally based on verisimilar risk indexes. The quantitative evaluation of climatic extremes is based on an interaction which reflects its manifestation frequency’s variability with different intensity degree. Taking into consideration the limited number of meteorological stations as well as the relief conditions of the republic’s territory, we used as initial data for spatializing, e.g. the factors that determine zonal repartition of climatic elements the geographic latitude () and longitude (). Azonal factors include absolute (H) and relative (Δh) altitude, the coefficient of fragmentation (d), slope (k) and exposition (a). The models of physical and geographical factors influence in
Republic of Moldova’s zonation by climatic risk level 41 climatic risk elements redistribution was executed using Statgraphics Centurion XV software and multiple regressions with stepping procedure.
1. Analysis of obtained results The cartographical models that reflect the probable manifestation (once in 10 years) of climatic risk factors such as extreme seasonal temperatures and late spring and early autumn frosts were layered with the administrative regions limit, and territorial climatic risk was calculated. The proposed investigations in our opinion are extremely important taking into account the agrarian orientation of the republic’s economy and the need to provide consumers with climatic information on local level. Thus for the Republic of Moldova’s agriculture late spring frosts are substantially dangerous, as they can catch agricultural plants in their first or last phases of development causing freezes sometimes substantially severe. The cartographic modeling of dangerous spring frosts layered with the administrative regions’ limits (fig.1) allowed computing (tab.1) the manifestation of extreme temperatures – a necessary information for effective measures of prevention and mitigation of the given risk. Thus in: Briceni – once in 10 years on 70% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС. Ocnita – once in 10 years on 60% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС. Edinet – once in 10 years on 60% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС. Donduseni – once in 10 years on 60% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС. Soroca – once in 10 years on 30-40% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-5ОС. Riscani – once in 10 years on 30-50% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-5ОС. Drochia – once in 10 years on 30-40% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС. Floresti – once in 10 years on 70% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-5ОС. Soldanesti – once in 10 years on 30% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-5ОС.
42 Maria Nedealcov, Valentin Răileanu, Rodica Cojocari, Olga Crivova
Tab. 1 - Assurance (10%) of late spring frosts on Republic of Moldova’s territory
Administrative territorial -5...-4 -4..-3 -3...-2 -2...-0 0...1 units 1 Briceni 70 25 5 2 Ocnita 60 20 10 8 2 3 Edinet 60 30 9 1 4 Donduseni 60 30 10 5 Soroca 40 30 20 10 6 Riscani 50 30 19 1 7 Drochia 60 30 10 8 Floresti 40 30 20 10 9 Soldanesti 30 30 30 8 2 10 Glodeni 50 30 20 11 Falesti 35 35 20 8 2 12 Balti Mun. 70 20 10 13 Singerei 30 30 30 8 2 14 Telenesti 35 20 20 20 5 15 Rezina 30 30 30 10 16 Camenca 50 25 20 5 17 Ribnita 45 25 25 4 1 18 Ungheni 25 40 20 10 5 19 Calarasi 10 40 25 15 10 20 Orhei 25 40 25 8 2 21 Dubasari Transnistria) 50 30 19 1 22 Dubasari 40 30 20 10 23 Nisporeni 15 35 30 15 5 24 Straseni 15 30 25 25 5 25 Criuleni 20 35 35 9 1 26 Grigoriopol 50 30 18 2 27 Hincesti 20 30 30 18 2 28 Ialoveni 25 30 30 14 1 29 Chisinau Mun. 25 35 35 5 30 Anenii Noi 25 30 30 14 1 31 Tiraspol Mun. 100 32 Leova 20 30 30 18 2 33 Cimislia 25 35 30 9 1 34 Causeni 25 35 25 13 2 35 St.Voda 35 30 30 4 1 36 Cantemir 20 35 30 10 5 37 UTA Gagauzia 40 25 25 8 2 38 Basarabeasca 20 55 20 5 39 Taraclia 20 35 25 18 2 40 Cahul 30 35 20 14 1 41 Slobozia 50 40 5 4 1 42 Tigina Mun. 50 45 5
Republic of Moldova’s zonation by climatic risk level 43
Fig.1 - Late spring frosts (10% - assurance) manifested on Republic of Moldova’s territory
Glodeni – once in 10 years on 30-50% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-5ОС. Falesti – once in 10 years on 35% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-5ОС. Mun.Balti – once in 10 years on 70% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС. Singerei – once in 10 years on 30% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-5ОС.
44 Maria Nedealcov, Valentin Răileanu, Rodica Cojocari, Olga Crivova
Telenesti – once in 10 years on 35% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС. Rezina – once in 10 years on 30% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-5ОС. Camenca – once in 10 years on 50% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС. Ribnita – once in 10 years on 45% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС. Ungheni – once in 10 years on 40% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-4ОС. Calarasi – once in 10 years on 40% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-4ОС. Orhei – once in 10 years on 40% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-4ОС. Dubasari – once in 10 years on 30-40% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-5ОС. Nisporeni – once in 10 years on 30-35% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС. Straseni – once in 10 years on 25-30% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС. Criuleni- once in 10 years on 35% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС. Grigoriopol – once in 10 years on 50% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС. Hincesti – once in 10 years on 30% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС. Ialoveni – once in 10 years on 30% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС. Mun. Chisinau – once in 10 years on 35% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС. Anenii Noi – once in 10 years on 30% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС. Mun. Tiraspol – once in 10 years on 100% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -4÷-5ОС. Leova – once in 10 years on 30% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС.
Republic of Moldova’s zonation by climatic risk level 45
Cimislia – once in 10 years on 30-35% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС. Causeni – once in 10 years on 25-35% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС. Stefan-Voda – once in 10 years on 30-35% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-5ОС. Cantemir – once in 10 years on 25-40% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС. Gagauzia – once in 10 years on 30-35% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-5ОС. Basarabeasca – once in 10 years on 55% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-4ОС. Taraclia – once in 10 years on 25-35% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -2÷-4ОС. Cahul – once in 10 years on 30-35% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-5ОС. Slobozia – once in 10 years on 40-50% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-5ОС. Mun. Tighina – once in 10 years on 45-50% of the region’s territory are registered critical temperatures during spring within the limits of -3÷-5ОС. Thus, the inhomogeneous manifestation of climatic risk phenomena on the example of late spring frosts, would allow in future elaborating adequate measures for the mitigation of climatic risk factors which can substantially decrease agricultural ecosystems productivity. The intensity and frequency of climatic risk factors manifestation is increasing due to the global warming impact and climatic regional changes, which leads to society’s increased vulnerability in general and agriculture’s in particular to these unfavorable phenomena. In this context, climatic risk factors manifestation’s intensity, duration and area knowledge can contribute to the mitigation of their consequences for various practical agricultural activities.
Bibiliography: . Nedealcov M. (2010), Climate Risks and Informational database : 2010- 033 Conference on Water Observation and information sistem for decision support, Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia www.balwois.com/2010. Daradur M., Nedealcov M., Monitoring and dynamics of climatic extremes. //Zesz. Nauk. Uj, Prace Geogr., 108, - P.125-130.
46 Maria Nedealcov, Valentin Răileanu, Rodica Cojocari, Olga Crivova
Constantinov T., Nedealcov M., Borta I.(2006), Aspect of using GIS in the complex analysis of the thermical anomalies and of the type of atmospherical circulation. În: Geographia technica. Cluj-Napoca: Cluj University Pres, 2006, nr. 2, p. 7-12. Constantinov T., Daradur M., Nedealcov M., Răileanu V., Mleavaia G., Ignat M.(2006), Change of climate and risk of climatic disasters (Example for republic of Moldova). Conference of water observation and information system for decision support, Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia, A-126, 23-26 May, 2006 www.balwois.net.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
SOIL PROTECTION OF REPUBLIC MOLDOVA IN THE CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Tamara Leah 1
Keywords: soil, protection, agriculture, erosion, vulnerability.
Abstract. Moldova’s economy is dominated by agriculture. Currently, about 45% of Moldova’s population is engaged in the agrarian sector and about 21% of GDR is generated by agriculture. Experience of the most successful agricultural sector economies has shown that maintaining a prosperous agricultural sector with the participation of more than 10% of the total population is very difficult. The Republic of Moldova is a small country, extremely vulnerable to climate risks, and the processes of soil degradation are increasingly high. The processes and forms of soil degradation change the hydrological regime, and determine the desertification of the territory. The current state of the soil cover is unsatisfactory and on about 10% of the land is critical. Soil protection in Moldova in sustainable development imposes requirements concerning the implementation of sustainable ecological agriculture that includes measures to prevent and combat all forms of degradation and sustainable land protection.
Introduction In the Republic of Moldova agriculture is the most vulnerable economic sector to climate change, due to the dependence on weather conditions. Climate variability is a major cause of oscillating crop yields and one of the inherent risks in agriculture. However, the state of decline of the agricultural sector is explained by macroeconomic and structural tendencies: the development of subsistence agriculture in place of commercial; agricultural exports decline; inadequate structure of prices; lower food consumption with increasing share of income spent for food; inefficient system of subsidies to agriculture, focused on short-term goals; lack of funds for investment; excessive fragmentation of terrains as a result of privatization; the destruction of irrigation systems.
1 PhD Student, Institute of Pedology, Agrochemistry and Soil Protection „N. Dimo”, Chisinau, [email protected]
48 Tamara Leah
An effective sustainable agriculture, based on technologies, can be developed only through a system of production and long-term preservation of the quality and production capacity of the soils. Chernozems occupy an area of 2510 thousand ha or 70% of the total land area and 78% of agricultural land surface (***Cadastrul Funciar, 2011). The country’s food security depends primarily on the quality and level of fertility of these soils. From 1970 until 2010 the score of the agricultural land has decreased from 70 to 63 points. Annual losses as a result of decreasing soil rate is 330 lei for ha of agricultural land and 7.7 milliard lei for the total area studied. Small farms, with an average size of 1.5 ha, divided into 3-4 lots, occupy 28% of the total area of agricultural land and 34% of the privately owned agricultural land. As a result of intensive use, without the application of crop rotation, fertilizers, soil conservation work, soil quality in these households has worsened considerably; making them vulnerable to climate conditions. The practice of world agriculture confirms that high biological productivity of soils in very small farms is impossible to be obtained and kept for a long term. Land reform in Moldova has not created conditions for increasing soil fertility, sustainable land use, increasing agricultural production, exercising therefore together with droughts negatively impact on the economy (***Sistemul informaţional…, 2000).
1. Agropedoclimatic zones Moldova is divided into climatic agro-pedological zones which are characterized by parameters that favor or limit the use of land for crops. Affiliation of the greater part of the country at the sub-humid zone with frequent droughts during the growing season of plant requires a complete adaptation of agriculture to drought conditions, taking into consideration the particularities of each zone for sustainable development. Estimates have shown that drought affects up to 50% of winter crops and up to 80% of spring crops (*** Seceta, 2007). The vulnerability and adaptation of the crops will depend on the conditions of climatic zones that will require the use of drought tolerant crops with application of an adequate system of fertilization and tillage (tab.1). Soils in Moldova are subject to degradation processes, which increase the vulnerability of agriculture to climatic conditions. Areas affected by erosion and landslides, deterioration processes of structure and compaction, dehumification, alkalization, salinization and soil bogging up continue to extend. These processes lead to the disruption of biological cycles, the balance of nutrients and humus, soil profile and decreased damage to their fertility. According to estimates, the damage caused to economy by degradation processes (direct and indirect annual loss) consist of 4801 mln. lei.
Soil protection of Republic Moldova in the context of sustainable development 49
Agricultural land use in accordance with the productive potential of soil and climate recourses of each climatic zone will increase the chances of survival of Moldova’s agriculture in drought conditions. It is also clear that climate change will have dramatic effects on agriculture and the economy of Moldova. New systems are needed for sustainable management of soil resources to reduce the risks of climate and anthropogenic causes that lead to climate change.
Tab. 1 - Climatic indexes and degree of vulnerability and adaptation of zones
Climatic Agropedoclimatic Zones Average Indexes North Center South Precipitation sum, mm 513 488 436 473 Temperature, °C 8,4 9,0 9,7 9,0 Water reserve, t/ha 4010 3620 2920 3517 Hydrothermal coefficient 0,9 – 1,1 0,7 – 0,9 0,5 – 0,7 0,5 -1,1 Drought frequency 1 in10 years 1 in 5-6 years 1 in 3 years - Reduction of harvest < 20% 20-50% > 50% - 70-80% 60-70% < 50% of - Fall precipitation of norm of norm norm Increasing, t°C 1-1,5°C 2°C 3-4°C Vulnerability degree Low Moderate High Adaptation degree High Moderate Low
The south and south-east of Moldova are most vulnerable to climatic conditions. Increasing temperatures and changes observed in precipitation already affect various aspects of agricultural crops, vineyards and orchards, pastures and meadows. Intensification of erosion degree leads to decreasing of surface of agricultural cultures and crops, the surface of meadows on the slopes and hillsides. The degree of vulnerability and adaptation of the crop will depend on agro- climatic zone conditions that will require the use of drought tolerant crops with an adequate fertilizer application and soil tillage.
2. Soil erosion Erosion is the main factor of soil cover degradation and pollution of water resources. According to soil surveys, soil eroded area increased over a period of 40 years with 280 thousand ha (in 1965 - 594 thousand ha and in 2010– 878 thousand ha), increasing annually with 7.1 thousand ha. Together with the erosion degree soil fertility decreases: weakly eroded – 20%, moderately eroded – 20-40%, highly eroded – 40-60%, and very strongly eroded – 60-80% (*** Eroziunea solului, 2004). During the period 1911-1965 ravines surface expanded 2 times (from 14,434 ha to 24,230 ha) and ravines number increased 3 times. After 1965 a part of the
50 Tamara Leah land affected by ravines has been excluded from agricultural use and introduced in the forest fund. This led to a sudden reduction the number and surface of ravines on the agricultural land to 8.8 thousand ha in 1999 and 11.8 thousand ha in 2005 ha. Stopping work of ravines liquidation and irrational management in agriculture conducted to the increase in the recent years of their number and area (Leah T., Cerbari V., 2000). The annual losses of fertile soil are of 26 million tones, which is equivalent to the destruction of 2000 ha of chernozem with full profile and the loss of humus – 700,000 t, nitrogen – 50,000 t, phosphorus – 34,000 t, potassium – 597,000 t. The cost of land damaged by regulatory cost of land (1 ha = 926 496 lei) is about 1850 million lei. Indirect losses, expressed in agricultural production consists stable values from year to year. Currently, agricultural production lost due to soil erosion is 525 thousand tons nutrients per arable land and 57 thousand tons of fruit and grape on plantation land. Based on the price of 1.5 lei per nutritive unit and 1 kg of fruits, the cost of harvest lost due to erosion consists 873 million lei. Annual direct and indirect losses as a result of erosion processes are 2723 million lei. Indirectly, the damage caused by erosion extends to other spheres of human activity (*** Instrucţiune, 2004). Soil erosion in the Republic of Moldova has become a primordial issue that can be solved only at the state level. Measures to prevent and combat soil erosion: - Strengthening privatized agricultural land; - organization and planning of agricultural land (road network, dimension of field size, soil protection forest belts, exhaust system to control surplus of rain water from the slopes, etc.); - implementation of agro-forest-ameliorative measures on agricultural low productive lands and destroyed by landslides, ravines, very highly eroded soils; creating green belts and forest plantations; - implementation phytotechnical measures: crop rotation, cultivation of alternative crops in strips, grassing space between rows in plantations, etc; - using the antierosion agrotechnical processes: soil tillage across the general direction of the slope or contour; implementation of soil conservation works for keeping waste vegetable; cracking; carrying out drainage performance; - application of selective hydrotechnical measures. Deep erosion (ravines) is a complicated and expensive process. Therefore more effective is preventing erosion by antierosion measures. The most simple and effective method of their stabilization is forestation and grassing.
Soil protection of Republic Moldova in the context of sustainable development 51
3. Soil dehumification Dehumification of non eroded arable soils is a global process, and stopping it in current system of agriculture is impossible. Humus is one of the main indicators of fertility, that determines the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil. The soil organic matter contains 95% of the total nitrogen, 45% of the phosphorus and 65% of the sulfur. The ensurance of agricultural crops and biota with mineral nutrition depends directly on the amount of organic matter in soil. Experimentally it was established that an increase of the humus content of 1% ensures 1.0 t/ha of grain corn or 0.8 t/ha of winter wheat. According to the data obtained in 1877, Moldova’s soils contain from 5 to 9% humus (average 5.75%). The humus reserve in the 0-20 cm soil layer was about 200 t/ha. During the 100 years of agricultural use the humus content decreased by 35-45%. In 2007 the average content of humus was 3.2%. During the 130 years (1877-2007) the content of humus in the arable layer of chernozems agriculturally used fell by 2.47% or 43% from the initial content of the fallow soil (1877), the annual humus speed reduction being of 0.019% (tab.2). To form an equilibrated or positive humus balance it is necessary that during the average crop rotation to be incorporated into the soil at least 10 tons of manure. During the agricultural chemical period (1981-1990) were incorporated around 6-7 t/ha of organic fertilizers, 180-210 kg/ha NPK, the rate of perennial grasses consisted of 180-210 thousand ha, crop rotation was respected.
Tab. 2 - Morphological indices and humus content of typical chernozem
1877 1960 2003 2007 Indexes - p.42 p.43 - p.22 A 0-61 0-43 0-44 0-50 0-48 Horizon, B 62-91 44-101 45-92 51-98 49-95 cm C 92 102 93 99 96 Effervescence 92 65 70 70 A 0-61 5,718% - - - - Ahp1 0-22 3,75 3,60 3,32 3,25±0,14 Humus, Ahp2 22-36 3,65 3,30 3,15 2,97±0,13 % Ah 36-49 - - - 2,60±0,13 Bhk1 49-70 2,34 2,73 1,94 2,13±0,29 Bhk2 70-96 1,59 1,57 1,68 1,35±0,28
Humus balance in this period was almost equilibrated. During 1995-2010, the amount of organic fertilizers decreased 60 times and consists 0.1 t/ha, the surface of grasses decreased 4-5 times (***Anuarul Statistic, 2010).
52 Tamara Leah
As a consequence, soil humus balance is negative (minus 0.7 t/ha) and erosion losses account – minus 1.1 t/ha. Annually the total humus losses consist of 2.4 millions tones on the agricultural land. Forecast calculations show that if the present scenario is maintained, in 2025 Moldova’s soil humus content will decrease under the critical level of 2.5-2.8% and cereal crops formed at the expense of natural fertility will reduce to 2.1 t/ha (tab.3).
Tab. 3 - Prognosis of humus content and cereals crops modification
Reserves in 0-30 cm, t/ha N , Yield prognoses, t/ha Year Humus,% mineral humus nitrogen kg/ha winter wheat corn 1897 5-6 200 10 135 - - 1950 4-5 150 8 115 - - 1965 3,5-4,0 180 6 105 3,2 4,2 1990 3,0-3,5 110 5 85 2,5 3,4 2025 2,5-3,0 90 4 70 2,1 2,8
Measures for the remediation of agricultural soil fertility: - minimization of losses of humus by erosion as a result of implementing antierosion measures; - restoring and implementation zonal systems of crop rotation with soil protecting effects, decreasing rate of weeding crops and extending the surface of perennial grasses; - using, production and application of organically fertilizers and composts for an equilibrated humus balance by developing the livestock. - the rational application of mineral fertilizers in doses of 120-130 kg/ha of NPK in average for crop rotation.
4. Nutrients deficiency in soils Moldova’s soils are relatively rich in nutrients that provide yields of 2.5 t of winter wheat, 3.1 t of maize grain. To obtain higher yields of winter wheat from 4.0 to 4.5 t; corn – 5.0-6.0 t is necessary to apply fertilizers. Experimentally it was established that soil fertilization provides a yield increase of 30-40%. Studying the dynamic of applying the fertilizers in agriculture during 1962- 2010 showed the following: during 1961-1965 were applied 19 kg/ha of NPK and 1.3 t/ha of manure. During this period, the nutrients balance in the soils was negative, and crops accounted to 1.6 t of winter wheat, 2.8 t of maize grain, 19.0 t/ha of sugar beet. During the period chemicals were used in agriculture (1965-1970) the amount of mineral fertilizers incorporated into the soil increased 9 times and was 172 kg/ha
Soil protection of Republic Moldova in the context of sustainable development 53 of NPK, and the quantity of manure increased from 1.3 to 6.6 t/ha. During 15 years (1976-1990) for the first time in the history of Moldova’s agriculture a positive balance of nutrients in the soils existed. As a result, soil fertility increased - the content of mobile phosphorus 2 times and the content of exchangeable potassium by 2-3 mg/100 g of soil. In the 1970- 1990 period, as a result of intensive technologies implementation; protection, amelioration and improvement soil fertility measures, the winter wheat yields have increased significantly – 3.5-3.8 t/ha. Farms with advanced agriculture achieved on an average 4.0-5.5 t/ha winter wheat, 5.5-7.5 t/ha maize grain, 45-50 t/ha sugar beet. Post action phosphorus fertilizers applied in agriculture in the chemical period show favorable manifestation on the crops up to present. According to the prognoses, post action of phosphorus residues accumulated in the period 1965- 1990, will manifest up to 2012-2015. Exhaustion of phosphorus residues will lead to lower contents of mobile phosphorus in the soil up to the natural level (low and very low) and increasing the productivity of crops. In 1990-2005 the application of mineral fertilizers decreased 15-20 times. Currently crops annually extract from soil 150-180 kg/ha NPK. With mineral fertilizers in the soil is incorporated 15-20 kg/ha NPK, which consists only 10% of their export crops. The balance of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the soil became again negative. In the last six years the amount of fertilizers applied in agriculture has increased 2-3 times (from 5-10 to 15-20 thousand tones). But these doses of fertilizers applied are insufficient to form a equilibrate balance of nutrients in the soils (*** COD, 2007). Measure to increase the fertility of soils - agrochemical mapping of agricultural land once in 8-10 years to assess the actual fertility of the soil and rationally apply the fertilizers. - implementation of “Complex Program of recovery of degraded lands and increase soil fertility, Part II. Increasing soil fertility”, which includes: optimizing crop rotation; accumulation of biological nitrogen in soil in an amount of 25-30 thousand tons annually by increasing the rate of leguminous in crops rotation to 20- 25%; incorporation into soil of 5-6 t /ha manure, total 9-10 million tons; annual application of mineral fertilizers, inclusively: 190 thousand tons of nitrogen and phosphorus. - implementation of action plan and measures of “Program of conservation and increase soil fertility for 2011-2020”. - rehabilitation of agrochemical service infrastructure, including State Agrochemical Service to monitor soil fertility and rational use of fertilizers.
54 Tamara Leah
5.Alkalization and salinization of soils Ameliorative fund includes steppe solonetzes, slope swamps, irrigated and meadow soils. In 1966-1990 major works were carried out on soil improvement: irrigation, drainage, gypsum amendment etc. The natural conditions of Moldova put irrigation among primary tasks, especially in the south part, where the coefficient of humidity is 0.5-0.6, and droughts frequency is one at 3 years. Irrigation permits to increase yields by 1.5-2.0 times and even more. Irrigated soils in the 90’s made up 308 thousand ha. On the irrigated land were cultivated vegetables (0.8-1.2 millions tons annually), forages and cereals. As a result of irrational privatization and excessive parceling of land, the surface of irrigated soils decreased by 7 times and in 2009 was about 46 thousand ha. Currently the farm land irrigation is performed mainly by local water sources (rivers, lakes, ponds) which are characterized by a high degree of mineralization, alkaline and chemically unfavorable reaction. As a result, appear manifestations of secondary soil alkalization and salinization. In the 1960-1980 a high volume of ameliorative works was done to improve meadow soil, such as drainage, irrigation and gypsum amendment. In the agricultural cycle were included about 180 thousand ha from 230 thousand ha of flood plain and meadow soils. Recovery of large scale agricultural meadows, regularization of river leakage, not respecting the technical norms of operating drainage system have resulted in the intensification of salts accumulation in the “soil-groundwater”, in progressive soil salinization and swamping, compaction and gleyzation. Ameliorative status of alluvial soil is good – 17%, satisfactory – 34% and unsatisfactory – 49%, the surface consist of 90 thousand ha. Damage caused by the processes of soil salinization and meadow go up to 50 million lei. In the north and central part of republic are met soil with excess of moisture on about 50 thousand ha. In the 1970-1990 have been improved over 40 thousand ha. In the last 15-20 years the improvement works of soil with moisture excess and the maintenance of drainage system in the working practice have been conducted only in small areas. As result, the current improvement status or drained soil is unsatisfactory (*** Recomandări, 1996). In the soil cover structure of arable land about 25 thousand ha are occupied by steppe solonetzes which are characterized by low fertility. In the 1965-1990 were made a few attempts to improve these soils after a special technology developed by the Institute of Pedology, Agrochemistry and Soil Protection “Nicolae Dimo”, their essence consisting in applied fertilization and gypsum amendment.
Soil protection of Republic Moldova in the context of sustainable development 55
Ameliorative measures: - performing quality monitoring of ameliorative fund (irrigated, drained, chemically amendment soils) to develop forecasts, highlighting vulnerability and improve them. - carrying out extension of great irrigation works on an area of 100 thousand ha; - resumption of drainage works of swamps soils, restore of soil drainage system, primary the meadow soil of Lower Prut, gypsum amendment of steppe solonetzes according to the national programs.
6.Active landslides Landslides affect 80 thousand ha which are likely, under certain conditions, to pass into the category of active landslides. Dynamic growth areas of active landslides on agricultural land is as follows: 1970-21.2 thousand ha, 1980-48.6 thousand ha, 1900-79.3 thousand ha, 2005-85.0 thousand ha. During 1970-1995, as a result of incorrect human activity, the surface of landslide expanded with 62.6 thousand ha, increasing annually by 2.5 thousand ha. Measures to stabilization landslides: - building channels to excess rainwater drain, drainage of land in various ways, capture the water costal sources; terrains affected by sliding or slopping hazard forestation; - recovery of slides land is very expensive, but more expensive is laxity, abandoning the affected area. The simplest and most effective method of recovery is forestation, which will contribute in time to the stabilization and improvement of the ecological status of environment.
7.Secondary soil compaction The existing system of soil agricultural use leads to compaction of arable stratum. Recently plowed layer of chernozems are characterized by a rough structure with compacted massive structural elements. Under the 0-25 cm layer is highlighted a subarable layer (25-35 cm) very compact, with prismatic, monolithic structure. The content of valuable agronomic aggregates of chernozems is very low (30-50%). The causes of secondary compaction and structural damage are soil intensive tillage with heavy agricultural aggregates, small share of perennial grasses in crop rotation on the field. The negative effects of soil compaction and destruction are: decreased permeability and water retention capacity; worsening of air-fluid settlement system; increasing resistance to plowing; inhibiting the development of root system; unsatisfactory plowing quality of soils. Following these effects, the soil production capacity decreases, intensifies soil droughts.
56 Tamara Leah
Measures to prevent soil compaction: - implementation of crop rotation with a rate of 20-25% of leguminous plants, including perennial grasses – 10-15%. - applying organic fertilizers, vegetable residues, composts, green manure; - autumn plowing once in 4-5 years at a depth of 35-40 cm, to destroy the underlying compacted layer, application of organic fertilizers in optimal doses (40- 50 t/ha) once in 5 years, phosphorus and potassium fertilizers in reserve. - along with the classic work of soil tillage it is necessary to gradually implement “no-till and mini-till” systems for soil fertility conservation and “antierosion agrotechnical system”. Application of these systems requires adequate production of agricultural machines for performing several operations simultaneously, with minimal effect of soil compaction.
Conclusion Soil protection in Republic of Moldova requires implementation of sustainable farming system which includes: 1. Creating farms with large (1000-2000 ha) and medium (400-500) surface in the climatic zones and testing technologies sustainable agricultural system in these households and their gradual implementation on the total territory; 3. Creating the necessary infrastructure for technical and material support sustainable agriculture system (machinery, seeds, fertilizers, fuels, pesticides); 4. Improve the national research and projecting system for the work of organizing and planning and land reclamation in accordance with the needs and requirements of sustainable agriculture system; 5. Creating the infrastructure for training, education, extension and reclamation in sustainable agriculture; 6. Creating a viability mechanism that would provide price policy, tax, credit, and allow farmers implement sustainable agricultural system technologies; 7. Support state implementation of sustainable farming system for all forms of ownership and management. Implementation of elaborated measures and actions will stop soil degradation, increase crop plants productivity and improve ecological status in the Republic of Moldova.
Bibliography: *** (2010), Anuarul Statistic al Republicii Moldova . Statistica, Chişinău, p.315-358. *** (2011), Cadastrul Funciar al Republicii Moldova la 1 ianuarie 2010. Chişinău. *** (2007), COD de bune practici agricole. Pontos, Chişinău. *** (2004), Eroziunea solului. Esenţa, consecinţele, minimalizarea şi stabilizarea procesului. Pontos, Chişinău
Soil protection of Republic Moldova in the context of sustainable development 57
*** (2004), Instrucţiune privind evaluarea prejudiciului cauzat resurselor de sol, nr.381 din 16.08.2004. MO al RM nr.189-192 (1543-1546), 22.10.2004. Chişinău. Leah T., Cerbari V., (2000), Eroziunea solurilor – factor de intensificare a consecinţelor secetelor// Secetele: pronosticarea şi atenuarea consecinţelor. Pontos , Chişinău. *** (1996), Recomandări pentru prevenirea degradării cernoziomurilor irigate. Chişinău. *** (2007), Seceta şi metode de minimalizare a consecinţelor nefaste. Pontos , Chişinău. *** (2000), Sistemul informaţional privind calitatea învelişului de sol al Republicii Moldova (Baza de date), Pontos, Chişinău.
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58 Tamara Leah
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
FOREST ECOSYSTEMS IN REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA: EVOLUTION, PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS
Petru Cocîrţă 1
Key words: forest ecosystems, forests, evolution, status, age and development.
Abstract. This paper describes the findings of the state, evolution and management of forest ecosystems in the Republic of Moldova during the 200 years. In the complex study and analysis of the current situation are presented the basic characteristics of forest ecosystems and their role in environment protection, preservation and conservation of biological diversity and in the national economy, human welfare, etc. The basics of forest management activities and problems over the years and the major tasks to ensure sustainable development of forest ecosystems are tackled. The final part of the paper includes some conclusions and proposals on the sustainable development of forests in the Republic of Moldova in accordance with European and international requirements..
Introduction Enormous changes that have occurred over the past 100 years on Earth were reflected on all aspects and forms of life on our planet. They show very sharply during the past 20 years through enormous changes in climate, environment, social and economic life etc. (GEO4, 2004). The natural environment of the Republic of Moldova is, in general aspects, favorable for life. Biological Diversity (State of the Environment in Republic of Moldova, 2007) in the country is conditioned by its geographical position at the crossroads of three biogeographical regions: Central European represented by the Codry’s Central Plateau (54.13% or 18300 km2 of the territory republic), Eurasian - represented by forest steppe and steppe regions (30.28% or 10230 km2), Mediterranean - represented by regions of xerophyte steppe of the southern part (15.59% or 5 270 km2). In terms of fauna, the Republic of Moldova borders the Balkan region and forms a transition zone between fauna elements of continental Asian steppe and of European forest steppe. In the past biological diversity in the Republic of Moldova was well developed and only forest ecosystems covered about 30%, and according to some opinions they reached to 70% of land area (Pădurea - rădăcina sufletului, 1992). Currently the situation in the country is
1 Sen. Researcher PhD., Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chişinău, Republic of Moldova, [email protected]
60 Petru Cocîrţă different: all natural ecosystems (forest, water, steppe etc.) are very fragmented and modified, and cover a total about 15% of country’s territory. Currently the Republic of Moldova is in the category of the states with a low forest cover. At the end of first decade of XXI century the total area National Forest Fund (FF) was estimated according to statistics, to about 440,000 hectars, equivalent to about 13% of the territory and the area covered by forests, according to the Land Cadastre – 396700 ha or 11.7% of the land (Cadastrul funciar al Republicii Moldova, 2002-2008), which represents a very small hint compared to the EU average (29%) or to countries in the same biogeographical region - Romania (28%), Bulgaria (35%) and Hungary (19.5%).
Fig. 1 - Map of Forest vegetation
Forest ecosystem in Republic of Moldova: evolution, problems and solutions 61
In the present the biodiversity of the Republic of Moldova is specific and fragmented, of about 5600 species of plants, including about 2000 species of higher plants and about 17,000 species of fauna from which 16,500 are invertebrate species (Lumea animală a Moldovei, 2007). In general the forests ecosystem evolution on the Republic of Moldova territory, because of climate interference (Central European, Balkan-Mediterranean and Eastern Europe) and of a protected landscape, has been very beneficial, especially during periods of lack of significant impact from the human population. At the present moment the forests do not form a continuous forest area, which traverse the whole country, but they are grouped into about 800 bodies of forest with surface from 5 to 1500 ha (Fig. 1). Afforestation varies in different geographical zone of the Republic of Moldova: 8.1% in the north, 14.5% in the center and 7.7% in the south. Codry’s region has the highest concentration of forest vegetation (Starea mediului în Republica Moldova, 2007). Currently within the forest fund, the ecosystems have a wide range, comprising 28 biogeocenotic types and subtypes (according to the degree of productivity). A number of woody species are found on limit to the area in Moldova today: Beech, Evergreen oak, Lime, species of Central European origin who occupy the eastern edge of the geographic area, then Downy Oak, Balkan Pontic species, which occur in the northeast edge of the area. In the same situations are species of Carpinus, Euonimus, Prunus etc. (Bindiu, 1992). This paper is intended to approach the problems of forest ecosystems development and in particular, the perpetuation and preservation of their biological diversity. The problems are particularly acute in the Republic of Moldova, a country with high human population density and predominantly agrarian economy, with strong traditions in agriculture.
1. Research methods The research implied the consultation of various archive, statistical and bibliographic data with many facts and figures on the development of forested areas in space and time. Attention was drawn mainly by the integrated information in this domain over about 200 years; forest territories development; bio- and ecological features of plants from forest ecosystems and major factors impact upon them.
2. Important tabs in the history and evolution of forest ecosystems Geographical, geological features, topography and climate have contributed to the rich and diverse natural vegetation of the Republic of Moldova. Deforestation
62 Petru Cocîrţă and burning of forests by human population was often an unwanted phenomenon, but the nature of these actions was different: human settlement, wars, colonization, poor management etc.
Table 1. The dynamics of the forests in the years 1848-1966
Years Forest area, thou. ha 1848 366,2 1861 330,8 1875 305,2 1893 286,0 1914 249,4 1918 230,0 1966 306,1
Table 2. Development indicators of forest ecosystem area. NF forest area, Forests areas Land Years thous. hectares of first group, affores- thous. hectares tation Total Including: Including: degree, area Forests of % covered green by forest areas 1985 386 301 372 102,9 8,9 1990 407 340 407 119 10,2 1995 448 370 448 132 11 2000 489 410 489 146 12,1 2005 530 450 530 160 13,3
It is known that in the 14th-16th centuries, during the fighting with the Tatars and Turks, the burning and logging was widely used in national defense. Later, in the 17-20th centuries, when this territory was then subject to the Turkish and then the Russian empires, the exploitation of forests became more severe and unforgiving. Only in the twentieth century to the present have started some activities to halt total deforestation and restore the green cover, especially forests. According to a complex study presented in the book "Леса Молдавии"
Forest ecosystem in Republic of Moldova: evolution, problems and solutions 63
(Тышкевич, Бордюга,1973), we can find the following: in the 19th century the forests of this area were used to build ships. For example, during the Russo- Turkish War (1806-1812), in accordance with the decree of year 1803 for the construction of ships, the Black Sea fleet was asking annually for 10802 secular oaks (Врангель В. История лесного хозяйства Российской империи. Санкт- Петербург, 1841, quoted by Targon, 2008). Another example is the March 1810 report of master Tarusov to head of Russian military administration on the selection from the forests of Orhei Codry “of 15000 trees of oaks good for ships and frigates" (Тышкевич, Бордюга, 1973). Studies have shown that the forests in this area decreased from 1848 to 1918 with over 130 000 ha (Table 1), and the afforestation according to the Ministry of Agriculture and State Property (Book "О лесах России", СПб., 1900) by the year 1900 was only 6% (quoted by Тышкевич, Бордюга (1973). Also this study states that during the period from 1944 to 1971 inclusive, were created more than 120 thou. ha of forest cultures, including protective strips on 78400 ha. In the chapter "Forest resources and organizational structure of farm forestry in the MSSR" it says that on 01.01.1966 the total area of forest with all the protective forest strips was equal to 306,100 ha, including State forest fund – 266,900 ha and forests of collective farms (Kolkhozes) – 39,200 ha. But the area covered by forests was 247,800 ha and the forest’s wood products reserve was calculated at over 20 million m3.
Fig. 2 - National Forest Fund dynamics and future objectives
The next source of information on the surface of forest ecosystems is a Complex long-term program of environmental protection and natural resource use in the Moldavian SSR in period until 2005 (Ecology - 2005), developed in the 80s
64 Petru Cocîrţă of the XX century. A sequence of this document is referring to forestry - pag.81 (Table 2). After the declaration of independence of the Republic of Moldova in 1991, measures have been undertaken for the development of forest ecosystems, which have been included in various legislative-normative acts and documents of the state. As basic documents serve: National Strategic Action Program for Environmental Protection (1995), First National Report on Biological Diversity (2000), Biological Diversity Conservation National Strategy and Action Plan (2001), the Sustainable Development Strategy in Forestry Sector (Strategia dezvoltării durabile a sectorului forestier din Republica Moldova, 2001), Millennium Development Goals "Ensuring environmental sustainability" (Asigurarea Durabilităţii Mediului 2003) and others. According to the First National Report on Biological Diversity, Biological Diversity Conservation National Strategy and Action Plan, we have the following information regarding forest development and perspectives in Moldova for a period of 200 years (Fig. 2). As it can be seen from Figure 2, compared with 1812 forest ecosystems in the Dniester-Prut area decreased from 450,000 ha to 160,300 ha in 1914: practically been eliminated over two thirds of the forested area. Cutting trees in large areas was practiced without taking measures to protect seedlings installed. In the years following areas of forest ecosystems have started to increase to 325,400 ha in 1999. As for the future objectives (year 2025) it is expected that the areas of these ecosystems will increase to 550 thou. ha. Another document - Sustainable Development Strategy in Forestry Sector in Moldova, developed in 2001, provides for the extension of the areas covered by forest with at least 130 thou. ha, which allows to create: - new forest bodies, extending existing surfaces; - green islands of trees and shrubs; - the interconnection corridors between forested massifs; - protection curtains along the rivers, roads and around industrial facilities. Many other materials available on this issue have been analyzed, but it was found that many data and sources don’t have a true correlation. That's why we will refer only to some official statistics. According to the data of the Land Cadastre of the Republic of Moldova, in 01.01.2010 the total area covered by forest vegetation was 462,700 ha or 13.7% of the country: forest fund – 410,200 ha (12.1%); surface covered with forests – 365,900 ha (10.8%); forest vegetation outside forest fund – 52,500 ha. It is obvious that the evolution of land covered with forests, afforestation degree and some of their structural features are specific for the Republic of Moldova (Tab.3). In line with the Program “Ecology - 2005”, the activities to increase the Forest Fund and forest planting have been done in parallel with the maintenance of forests. By virtue of historical events, USSR existed until 1991, so the performance
Forest ecosystem in Republic of Moldova: evolution, problems and solutions 65 of the Program"Ecology - 2005", mentioned above, has failed. Mentioned Program provided that territory of Republic of Moldova to be afforested until 2005 by 13%, ecological norm being 27-30%. According to estimates made in 1994-1995, by 1994 only 38411 ha were planted, of which 13791 in the State Forest Fund and 18620 on land taken from other owners, for to achieve the figure of 450 thou. ha, was needed to be planted 154 thousand ha.
Table 3. Characteristic of forest fund of the Republic of Moldova* Wood Forest Fund Forest Class volume / wooded Avera Annual growth Year cover % productio Consistency total, land (Thou. ge age (m3/ha) of FF n mln. m3/ha ha) m3 1957 207,8/179,0 86 30 2,7 0,72 16,61 93 3,2 1985 322,8/271,3 84 40 2,3 0,73 33,53 124 3,3 1999 394,4/325,4 82,5 40 2,3 0,73 35,14 108 3,2 2005- 400,6/362,5 90,5 40 2,3 0,73 45,29 124 3,3 2009 * Source: First National Report on Biological Diversity, 2000; Agenția pentru Silvicultură Moldsilva, 2010; Galupa, 2008.
Were analyzed many other materials available on this issue but it was found that many data and sources don’t has a true correlation. That's why we will refer in continuous only to some official statistics. According to data of the Land Cadastre of the Republic of Moldova, in 01.01.2010 total area covered by forest vegetation was 462700 ha or 13.7% of the country: forest fund - 410200 ha (12.1%); surface covered with forests - 365900 ha (10.8%); forest vegetation outside forest fund - 52500 ha. It is obvious that the evolution of land covered with forests, afforestation degree and some of their structural features, is specific for the Republic of Moldova (Tab.3). Afforestation degree is increasing over the last 60 years and the surface of forests over the years exceeds 80% of the land of the Forest Fund, which confirms the general development of Moldova's green carpet. To highlight some specific characteristics: median age of forests over many years is 40 years, consistency - 0.73 and class of production - 2.3, average annual growth is ranging between 3.2 and 3.3 m3 per hectare etc.
66 Petru Cocîrţă
Fig. 3 - Forest structure in functional subgroup, ha (Forestry Agency “Moldsilva”, 2010).
In accordance with the views of specialists (Pădurea – rădăcina sufletului, 1992, Forestry Agency “MoldSilva”, 2010) and legislation (Cocîrtă, Clipa, 2008), the forests in the Republic of Moldova have exclusively environmental protection functions (class I ) and is divided into the following functional categories (Fig. 3). Unfortunately, these features of the forests are not fully observed and forest resources are often misused to solve economic problems. According to the studies ( Fourth National Report on Biological Diversity (2009), ICAS (2010), ecosystems from FF limits have the following forest types: Oak, downy oak, beech, water meadows and a number of variations thereof. In the forest ecosystems were identified 123 associations of which over 25 taxa of phytocenosis, which are valued as phytocenosis-standard. According to the data source (Pădurea – rădăcina sufletului, 1992), of the approximately 40 species of trees and a series of about 60 bushes that grow larger and spread naturally in Moldova, we mention a few of those of trees more important in ecological and economic point of view (tab. 4). In accordance with the data and biological properties, indigenous species in the past had an optimal evolution and age of most of them exceeded 100 years. Species of oak (Quercus) and beech (Fagus) reach the age of 500 years (Pădurea – rădăcina sufletului, 1992), however, it can be meet oak specimens more older in Cobîlnea village (Şoldaneşti rayon), Căpriana (Străşeni rayon) and others. There is information that in some countries, specimens of oak reach the age of 700, 1200 and 1500 years (Wikipedia, Quercus). However, a great example, described in articles on Tree of the Year in Romania (Bătrânul Carpaţilor, 2011), is oak from Brasov county, called Old of Carpathians (Bătrânul Carpaţilor) or Oak from Merckeasa (Stejarul din Mercheaşa), whose age exceeds 900 years.
Forest ecosystem in Republic of Moldova: evolution, problems and solutions 67
Other species of trees, for example, from the genus Acer reach age 100 to 300 years, the genus Tilia (Lime) 200-250 years, respectively, of the genus Salix reach the age of circa 200 years (Wikipedia, Willow) etc.
Table 4. The most important genus and species of trees in Moldova, the average age (years)* Name Code **) Age 1 Beech – Fagus sylvatica L. Fa 96 2 Genus Quercus L (Oaks): St 53 a) Oaks – Quercus robur L. b) Evergreen oak – Quercus petraea (Matt) Liebl. Go c) Downy oak – Quercus pubescens Willd. Stp Introducent: Red Oak - Quercus rubra L. Str 3 Genus Tilia L. (Lime): Te 52 a) Lime – Tilia tomentoza Moench., b) Sulfur lime tree – Tilia cordata Mill. Tep c) Large linden tree – Tilia platyphyllos Scop. Tem 4 Hornbeam – Carpinus betulus L. Ca 52 5 Genus Fraxinus (Ash): Common Ash – Fraxinus excelsior L. Fr 52 Introducenți: Frv Green ash (F. viridis Michx.) Fluffy ash (F. pubescens Lam.) 6 Genus Acer L (Maples): Common maple – Acer campestre L. Ju 32 Field maple – Acer platanoides L., Pa 19 Wood species of azonal type 9 White willow – Salix alba Saa 27 10 White poplar – Populus alba Pl 27 Aspen – Populus tremula, Plt 41 Introducents of major importance 13 Acacia (White) – Robinia pseudacacia L. Sa 12 *) – Established in Moldova average age, years ( Pădurea – rădăcina sufletului, 1992, Galupa, 2008). **) – Code in Romanian.
Currently the Republic of Moldova also has some very fragmented bodies of old forest, in our opinion, normal or usual forest of such territory, the majority being placed in reserve and is approximately 6000 ha, of which oak - 4900 ha, ash - 600 ha, beech - 300 ha, hornbeam - 100 ha (Galupa, 2008). În accordance with Law no. 1538-XIII of 02.24.1998 (with new amendments) on State Protected Areas
68 Petru Cocîrţă
Fund, 4.65% of the Republic of Moldova's territory is protected areas, but the protection of forest ecosystems is only 18.8% of all protected areas. Also this law is stipulated that 433 old trees in all districts of the country are treated as natural monuments, subcategory C) Botanic point b) Trees secular /Annex 3 of the law /. Most of these old trees are of the genus Quercus, arguments in addition to its dominance in our forests.
Fig. 4 - Information on forest expansion in Moldova during 2002-2008 (Galupa, 2009)
The much smaller number or a few units are represents other native and azonal species of trees and shrubs of the varios genera or families: Beech, Ash, Cherry, Maple, Planes, Poplar, Wild Pear, Pine, Lime (Linden), Elm, Hazelnut, Fir, Chestnut, Cedar, Mulberry, Douglas-fir, Glade, Osage-orange, Spruce, Mountain ash, European Hackberry. However, these old trees are true witnesses of the tragic events that happened or spend in the Prut - Dniester space with native forests, important of points of view biogeographic, ecological etc. This “de facto” means that now we don’t have in almost the normal native forests, which would be in optimal development, specific for each species. In the XX century in forest ecosystems were continued the extensive exploration of native tree species that is confirmed by decreasing their surface and the high share of forests in the shoots. In case of Qvercinee that until the XIX century still represented the main tree species, in the next period is observed the essential decrease of its from 56.9% of total area in 1925 to 39.6% in 2006. The major changes also suffered other tree species such as the genera Carpinus, Tilia and Fagus: share of Carpinus surface was reduced from 11.4% in 1925 to 2.6% in
Forest ecosystem in Republic of Moldova: evolution, problems and solutions 69
2006, of Tilia from 7.2% in 1925 to 0.9% in 1998, of Fagus from 1.2% in 1925 to 0.2% in 1998. In the same period has crucial increased the share of introducente species Robinia pseudacacia L. (genus Acacia) from 900 ha in 1925 to 131000 ha in 2006, or respectively from 0.4% to 36.1%. It has increased the surface of Coniferous species from 0.03% in 1995 to 2.1% in 2006. Some quantitative changes have trees species of ash, poplars and others (Fourth National Report on Biological Diversity, 2009). As regarding the age of tree species in forest ecosystems, it currently ranging from 19 years at Field maple to 96 years at Beech ones, as well as the average age at the tree species in the Republic of Moldova is 40 years (see Tables 3 and 4). In addition it should be take into account that in the current pedo-climatic conditions of the Republic of Moldova in the risk zone are found 512 endangered plant species, which constitute 27.4% of the total number. From all vascular plant species that are in the risk zone, most independent at current climate or dependent on region’s weather conditions are plants from zonal forest ecosystem - 126 species (Fourth National Report on Biological Diversity, 2009). It is known that the losses of 20% of the total of biological species causes destruction of ecological balance, but the preservation of 10% of the natural ecosystems areas permit the conservation of 50% from all species (First National Report on Biological Diversity, 2000). According to (Bindiu, 1992), the country’s natural conditions with dominated by hills and plains and without mountains, the optimal afforestation grade is 25-30%. How far from this goal is the Republic of Moldova, it is demonstrated by analyzing the current and future activities.
6. Considerations on indigenous forest view Perspective of forest ecosystems in the Republic of Moldova in terms of anthropogenic impact is determined mostly by: • conducting of an environmental management in line with sustainable development of forestry strategy as part of National strategy of biological diversity conservation; • environmental education and active participation of the people in addressing the forestry sustainable development. However, the examples below show a different picture and a different perspective. 1. Activities to extend the forest cover in recent years and implementation of national strategies and programs, in 2002-2008 have resulted in increasing the surface area covered by forest with about 60 thou. ha, including 7100 ha in the Forest Fund and 53thou. ha in degraded land (Forestry Agency ”Moldsilva”, 2010, Galupa 2008, 2009). However, general spectrum analysis of planting activities in the years 2002-2008 shows us an amazing picture (Fig. 4): major and absolute
70 Petru Cocîrţă attention given to planting introducente species (SC - Acacia, GL - Glad, NU - Walnut, NUN - Black walnut), which together account for 48881 ha, as for the local forest species (ST - Oak, FR - Ash, CS - Cherry, etc..) - only 11,119 ha. An important indicator of forest quality is compliance of stands to stationary growth conditions. It was established that about 40% of them not meet the growth conditions, including: acacia - 52%, hornbeam - 8%, ash - 15%, other species - 20%. Most of stands are of vegetative origin: the shoots - 56.5% and 43.5% of the seed (Galupa 2008). One can safely assume that the following future activities to expand land will implement the same tactics of planting for the next 130 thou. ha - tasks established to run until 2020. 2. Logging is the main problem, which takes place within centuries in this territory. If the total clearing of forests in XIX century was a clear purpose, then currently the planned cuts and illegal raising a concern over the fate of the general evolution of forest ecosystems. Analysis of data from the past 35 years shows that deforestation in recent years are increasing and in many cases exceed the planting area (Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Moldova, 2002, Moldova Statistics, 2010). An example might be the information of Government Decision no.1381 of 10.12.2007 on the activity of the Agency for Forestry "Moldsilva" in year 2006 and in nine months of 2007 (Monitorul Oficial, 2007): ... "In 2006 and nine months of 2007 were performed maintenance and care of existing forests on an area of 32126 ha, including: cutting care - 26309 ha; regeneration, conservation and ecological restoration cutting - 5092 ha; different cuts - 725 ha." The same document states: "In total, during 2002-2007 (spring), to achieve the above decisions were made planting works in an area of 45000 ha, including 39387 ha - on degraded lands in outside the forest fund and 5639 hectares - in its boundaries" (Note: disclosures we belong - PC). Here we should mention that what is planted not have a full warranty on plants growth: depending on the circumstances and environmental factors a large number of seedlings (10-30%, in some cases even more), are cut or not reaching maturity, and what is cut can not be saved. A difficult problem is also illegal loggings which ignore the value of trees, but are quite frequent and large. 3. The impact of invasive species. In Moldova specific diversity of invasive species is of about 460 species, forming 43 communities from class Festuceta, Brometa, Secalineta, Chenopodieta and other (Fourth National Report on Biological Diversity, 2009). A great danger is backed invasion of acacia (Rubinia pseudoacacia), less of pine (Pinus silvestris), of spruce (Picea abies) and invasion of other species, which in addition to introduced species and those cultivated by man, occur independently by migration, transportation from other regions and/or infiltration in forest ecosystems. Since they are: American maple (Acer negundo), species of nettle (Urtica), hemp (Cannabis), orache (Chenopodium and Atriplex species), which increasing the secondary succession in ecosystems, contribute to
Forest ecosystem in Republic of Moldova: evolution, problems and solutions 71 expanding the area occupied by synanthropic and aggressive species and by secondary phytocenosis with a reduced specific composition. 4. Forest vegetation pests and diseases. The total area of defoliation pest outbreaks is diverse and varies depending on the conditions and factors from 10000 to 100000 ha. In the past 15 years by pests are affected annually between 15 and 30% of forests (Raport tematic privind ecosistemele forestiere, 2002). There is a periodic change in the specifical composition of outbreaks and in dominant species of defoliation pest. 5. Other sources of impact on forest ecosystems can be mentioned: illegal grazing, forest pollution with household waste, and tourism irregular. Generally, we note that the obvious increase in the flora of Moldova of the anthropofil element caused significant changes in the vegetal cover structure. Synanthropic species invasion into the degraded natural ecosystems impends the processes to restore natural biocenoses, especially forest ecosystems, and affect their functionality.
Conclusions and recommendations 1. All trees populations and forest associations, biocenoses and forest ecosystems generally have supported radical qualitative and quantitative changes through: defragmentation and impairment of the ability of natural reproduction, stimulation of the vegetative shoots development, reducing of diversity of the forms within dominant tree species, erosion of biodiversity in general within the invasion of alien species, persistent pests and diseases, anthropogenic pollution and others. However, in these conditions it makes impossible to connect to the international requirements for solving a basic task as it is "Protection of 50% of the most important areas in terms of plant diversity". 2. For to establish a true system of the forest patrimony preservation are need the cardinal efforts to expand local forest area at about 25% of the territory with the radical changes of the principles in environmental education, public participation in decision making and management in the relevant field. 3. Restoring the balance in forest ecosystems requires an urgent introduction of the priority principles to support the development of native species and their conservation at the biocenoses and ecosystems levels, the creation of a green carpet of native forests without fragmentation, and the promotion "de facto" of the sustainable development strategy in forest field of the Republic of Moldova.
Bibliography: Bîndiu C. (1992), Argument pentru mai multe păduri. În: Pădurea – rădăcina sufletului. Editura Uniunii Scriitorilor, Chişinău, pp.188-194. Cocîrtă P., Clipa Carolina. (2008), Legislaţia ecologică a Republicii Moldova: Catalogul
72 Petru Cocîrţă
documentelor. Ştiinţa, Chişinău. Galupa D. (2008), Remodelarea managementului forestier – obiectiv strategic al dezvoltării durabile a economiei naţionale. Teză de doctor în economie. Chişinău. Web: http://www.cnaa.md/thesis/8064/. Accesed: 09/03/2010. Galupa D. (2009), Climate change and the national forest fund. Institute for Forestry Research and Arrangements. ChangeAndNationalForestFund_EN Galupa.pdf. Web: www.worldbank.md. Accesed: 10/03/2010. Tarhon P. (2008), Din istoria pădurilor pe teritoriul Basarabiei. Buletinul Științific a Muzeului Național de Etnografie și Istorie Naturală a Moldovei. Vol. 8 (21), Serie nouă, Studiile naturii, Chișinău, pp.35-39. Тышкевич Г.Л., Бордюга В.Г. (1973) Леса Молдавии. Картеа Молдовенеаскэ, Кишинев. *** (2010), Agenția pentru Silvicultură Moldsilva. Web: www.gov.md. Accesed: 05/03/2010. *** (2002), Anuarul statistic al Republicii Moldova. Editura ”Statistica”, Chișinău. *** (2011), Bătrânul Carpaților. Web: http://www.facebook.com/Batranul.Carpatilor. Accesed: 04/10/2011. *** (2010), Cadastrul funciar al Republicii Moldova. Копия01_fond_func_2002_2008. Web: www.arfc.gov.md/upfiles/kfm_catalog/Directia...si.../1zem_2008.xls. Accesed: 09/03/2010. *** (2007), Global Environmental Outlook. GEO4. Environment for Development. United Nations Environment Programme, Progress Press, ITD, Valetta, Malta. *** (2010), ICAS. Fondul Forestier Web:http://www.icas.com.md/index.files/fond_forest.htm. Accesed: 10/03/2010. *** (2010), Legea Republicii Moldova Nr. 1538-XIII din 24.02.1998 (cu modificările ulterioare) privind Fondul Ariilor Protejate de Stat. Web: http://lex.justice.md. Accesed: 09/03/2010. *** (2007), Lumea animală a Moldovei. Vol.1, Nevertebrate. Î.E.P. „Ştiinţa”, Chișinău. *** (2007), Monitorul Oficial al Republicii Moldova. Nr. 198-202, art Nr: 1439. *** (2003), Obiectivele dezvoltării ale mileniului. Studiu preliminar: „Asigurarea Durabilităţii Mediului”, Chişinău. *** (1992), Pădurea – rădăcina sufletului. Editura Uniunii Scriitorilor, Chişinău. *** (1987), Programul complex pe termen lung de protecţie a mediului înconjurător şi de folosire a resurselor naturale din RSS Moldovenească pe perioada de până în anul 2005 (”Ecologia – 2005”. Cartea Moldovenească, Chişinău. *** (1995), Republic of Moldova. The National Strategic Action Plan for Environmental Protection. Publising House of Writer’s Union of Moldova. Chisinau. *** (2000), Republic of Moldova. First National Report on Biological Diversity. Ştiinţa, Chişinău. *** (2001), Republic of Moldova. Biological Diversity Conservation National Strategy and Action Plan. Știința, Chişinău.
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*** (2009), Republica Moldova. Al Patrulea Raport Naţional cu privire la Diversitatea Biologică. Chişinău. *** (2002), Republica Moldova. Raport tematic privind ecosistemele forestiere. Web: http://bsapm.moldnet.md/Romana/c_h.html. Accesed: 05/03/2010. *** (2010), Starea mediului în Republica Moldova în anul 2006. (2007), Chişinău.Statistica Moldovei. Mediul Înconjurător. Web: http://www.statistica.md/pageview.php?l=ro&idc=324&id=2302. Accesed: 05/03/2010. *** (2001), Strategia dezvoltării durabile a sectorului forestier din Republica Moldova. Hotărârea Parlamentului Republicii Moldova nr.350 din 12.07.2001. Monitorul Oficial al Republicii Moldova din 8 noiembrie 2001, nr.133-135. *** (2010), Wikipedia, Quercus. Web: http://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quercus_robur. Accesed: 09/03/2010. *** (2010), Wikipedia, Salcie. Web: http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salcie. Accesed: 09/03/2010.
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PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
LEARNING GEOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM OR TO DISTASTANCE?
Helena Maria Sabo1, Ivana Jinjig2
Key words: school, distance education, capacities, school curricula, plan.
Abstract: This article present the results from classroom learning and distance learning between the Romanian students , UBB Cluj and the students of Serbia, University of Novi-Sad.Teaching and learning strategies are central components in teaching technology. The design and organisation of the lesson is done according to the strategic of the teacher. Consequently, this approach will follow a predetermined plan and puts the student in learning in the most favourable situation in a context of application, conditions and resources enabling skills foreshadowed by objectives. We will define distance education and we will illustrate the stages of that form of organization.
Introduction As E. Planchard shows, the principle of instruction through action asserted in the practice of modern didactics because' to know means to do and not to recite ". Student's personality is built through action, cooperation, confrontation and communication. The student must become an active constructor of his intellectual structures. One of the main requirements of modern education is a self-study training to students, which highlight the ability to think, to be creative, to operate freely. Without underestimate the value of teacher involvement, its stimulatory interventions, school performance depends directly on the participation of students both to the absorption and the transmission of knowledge and skills training.
Material and method The traditional school meant mainly explanatory teaching, reproductive or responsive genre. Traditional school was and is present both in the teaching system
1 Lecturer, Ph.D., Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, ”Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, [email protected]. 2 Lecturer Ph.D., Faculty of Philosophy, Novisad University, Serbia.
76 Helena Maria Sabo, Ivana Jinjig in Romania and Serbia as well. The main activity was the lesson type, department- desk, based upon the idea that science is a final result, an amount of knowledge developed, that education must submit as it builds. Training is limited to the transmission of ready-made knowledge, exposure of ready-made conclusions. Learning students to think and act freely was not a concern to the foreground. Expository forms were predominant and students were thinking exactly like the teacher . They also weren't encouraged to undertake their own investigations. Teacher transmits knowledge as an absolute authority and the student receives and assimilates regardless of creativity and cooperation. Concluding that inducing students to learn by heart was easier than driving them to a range of judgment. The teacher has the dominant role and the student has the role of a spectator and of a reproductive listener. Binomial type education teacher-student dialogue is done very rarely. Criticism and personal searches are almost nonexistent, they finally bring tiredness and they have a low formative efficiency. According to Piaget, thinking appears as a game not a simple operation and assimilation of images and concepts. Teaching and learning are based on training students on independent actions, on their assertion as the subjects of education that cease to be only receivers of knowledge. In modern school, the quality of teaching is given by the ability to avoid those situations learning and memory exercises type. The teacher should not "tame" the student after his own willing but to determine him to be a part of his own training. As Berger says (1973, p 32) "the best disciples of a teacher is not the one who repeats the lessons after him, but those whom he awakened their enthusiasm, whom he cultivated their lack of quietness , whom he developed their forces to go alone on their way. " As a matter of education, the student develops actions by personal activity, which means familiarizing students with the logic of scientific investigation, development of cognitive strategies without removing the correct course of scientific knowledge acquisition. So to take part in a good geography lesson, but not only, means to cause to be active. The teacher should ask and make the best, to combine the knowledge, the action and the senses of students. Teaching is a didactic approach for the establishment and education of students. It is not about a simple data mediation it but must be driven to discovery, demonstration, application, simultaneously with the formation of skills and abilities, and attitudes. Through direct teaching a teacher tries to form students a behavior such as preparing for learning. Teaching involves direct interaction so organized and
Learning geography in the classroom or to distance? 77 regulated that objectives are achieved, there is a cooperation and control of student efforts. Teaching and learning. These two components are related to the educational process. Teaching is defined as the teacher' behavior during the lessons and learning within the desired response: acquisition, knowledge, skills, abilities, attitudes and skills. The professor causes a change in the students behavior. For the common approach of the teacher and students to be successful it is necessary to finding a strategy for action. Thus each teacher should put their questions: How have they worked for the student to learn better? What methods are the most appropriate? Due to the new objectives of education is necessary to reconsider teaching methodology with clear guidance for active-participative strategies. Acquiring knowledge is better accomplished by personal action directed by the teacher than by repetition of simple procedures which were received and heard. Thus we can say that the lesson is the place where you can exploit one or more teaching strategies, depending on its objectives. The teacher should always be prepared to be faced with more choices of action, having to choose as: objectives, content, resources available, .... etc.. most favorable. Practice shows, both in Romania and Serbia as well, that a large number of students on courses such as Day-attend courses less, for various reasons (work, not motivated, they have the course support etc. ..). Especially for teaching geography students must possess psychological, pedagogical, logical and geography skills, if they partially lack them, they manifest difficulties in learning geography as well as in learning and teaching geography in practice later. So I conducted an experiment through which we want to check if the form of day students, through self-study and face to face meetings with the teacher has better results than those who have ongoing support and attend less courses. Thus support for distance education course should be noted that it is organized on several units. The main elements are: title, content unit, unit objectives, content, test statements, work verification, synthesis, bibliography. After Petrescu Iordan, the support for distance education course is divided into several units. Each learning unit has the following features: -integrates some specific components, -the formation of a specific behavior at students -includes objectives specifying expected learning outcomes, - In terms of a theme it is unified, - Is carried out systematically
78 Helena Maria Sabo, Ivana Jinjig
- Ends with the assessment ( Petrescu, Jordan, 2011). Content is the most important for the process of learning . Content recommended part for reading and part for memorizing has different texts (ex. informative, narrative, explanatory, descriptive, which must be written in an accessible language and structured in small paragraphs. To facilitate understanding of learning in the text it is recommended to be included the so-called "learning tasks" related to learning skills of the unit. Such tasks must be structured as: logical content, the progression from simple -complex word , teaching methods and used means. An example is: self- assessment tests. Quite different is the case of exercises or solving problems. In this case the student is asked to perform a task more complex than for the tests. This is where paragraphs with personal views, develop a chart, watching a video, etc. Web search. Self-assessment tests and their introduction in the distance course is important because it helps the student to memorize, while solving exercises is designed to develop practical skills by application of knowledge covered by the unit. Check paper found at the end evaluate the level of the skills training the unit is concerned by. Finally we find the summary or synthesis of ideas presented in the unit and bibliography which contains a minimal list that the student should explore in studying the unit. For example: Self-assessment Test Answer the following questions: 1.What is to analyze a map? 2.What is to interpret a map? 3.Specify the differences between the analysis and interpreting a map? Self-assessment quiz 1.To analyze a map is to study it item by item. Map analysis means to notice its visible elements on the map and their visible features. 2.To interpret a map means deciphering, understanding and explaining the reality of a territory or a process with the help of graphics used on the map. Interpretation of the map is a mental process which is usually visible after analysis of elements and their identification on the map. It often involves making judgments based on prior knowledge from various sources (textbook, teacher, colleagues ... etc) and information extracted from the map. 3.The differences between analysis of the map and interpreting one are: -to properly interpret a map we need other knowledge obtained and extracted outside the map.
Learning geography in the classroom or to distance? 79
- map analysis can be achieved without interpretation, but interpretation of the papers cannot be achieved without an analysis.
Conclusions In both countries, Romania and Serbia, the research results are almost identical. Distance education includes all forms of education: both teacher and students as well are situated at a distance, between teacher and student there is a bidirectional system of communication. Communication can be done either by telephone, electronic platform, postal mail or through face to face meetings. In both countries it is noticed that better results are obtained from those students who attend classes and adopt a modern teaching strategy that allows the student to develop himself and get involved in the study and does not focus only on memorizing. By analyzing the students support material, argued through a small example, our research confirms. Students from the day- courses through self-study and regular face to face meetings, through a course of Teaching Geography (and others) designed according to the requirements of distance education will get very good or good results compared to studying a regular university course. If the support course is being organized from the powers envisaged to be formed, they can achieve skills at a medium level. However, it is recommended restructuring of all education courses for students from the day- courses in the specific format of distance education.
Bibliography: A. Berger, G. (1970), Modern man and his education, Didactic and PedagogicPublishing House, Bucharest Piaget, J., (1982), Psychology and Pedagogy, Didactics and Pedagogic Publishing House, Bucharest Petrescu, Iordan (2001) Distance education course instruction, project " The training of teachers in university education for career development opportunities", Bucharest Petrescu, Iordan (2001), Guidelines for developing learning resources in distance education technology, project " The training of teachers in university education for career development opportunities", Bucharest Sabo, H. (2010), Elements of Teaching Geography (Elemente de Didactica Geografiei ), Casa Cărţii Publishing, Cluj-Napoca www.edu.ro-school programs for classes IX-XII, accesat in data de 10.07.2009.
80 Helena Maria Sabo, Ivana Jinjig
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
AMBIENT WELL-BEING PARAMETERS IN THE INDOOR SPACES OF OFFICE BUILDINGS. CASE STUDY
Nicoleta Ionac 1, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc2, Paula Tăbleţ3
Keywords: indoor office space, ambient well-being parameters, hourly and daily measurements..
Abstract. This study highlights the variation values of several important microclimatic parameters inside an office building. This way, during one year time period, from February 2010 to February 2011,, we have recorded the natural wet temperature, the predicted mean vote – PMV, the predicted percent of dissatisfied people– PPD, WBGT indoor, WBGT outdoor, the draught risk, the luminous intensity and the sound level. Then, we could calculate the monthly, daily and hourly variation of these microclimatic and ambient comfort parameters. The recordings of the data were made by means of a microclimatic indoor station, a sound level meter and a light meter. The results helped us understand better how the values of these microclimatic parameters may influence the working conditions inside an office building, if the microclimate is one of thermal comfort or discomfort, or if it is beneficial or harmful to the development in good conditions of working activities within collective environments.
Introduction The present study aims at assessing the state of well-being as reflected by different ambient parameters in the indoor space of an office building. This study originates from the idea of observing the effect of these parameters on work efficiency especially that there were obvious differences between the data that were recorded inside the office building and those recorded outside the building in the neighboring surroundings. Therefore, we wanted to analyze the extent to which the indoor air-parameters were influenced by the outer climatic factors and also to show the contribution (as reflected by its positive or negative effects on human body and well-being) of the industrial air- conditioning facilities existing in the building, to creating an artificial climate which may be beneficial or, on the contrary, harmful to its inhabitants’ health [2]. Data were recorded for approximately 1 year-long period (from February 2010 to February 2011). Due to unforeseen conditions (such as electric blackouts, holidays, building closures and impossibility of physical presence in certain
1Prof. PhD., University of Bucharest, Romania, [email protected] 2 Ph.D. Student, University of Bucharest, Romania, [email protected] 3 Ph.D. Student, University of Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
82 Nicoleta Ionac, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc, Paula Tăbleţ moments to make analysis) the data of certain parameters could not have been collected throughout the entire period. However, we have filled the gaps with data that were calculated on mathematical methods of homogeneity.
1.Location and period of instrumental observations All instrumental records were made in 5, Fabrica de Glucoza Street, Bucharest sector 2. Here lies an office building (NOVO F) with two underground and 13 ground floors (Figure 1). Located in the northern part of the capital-city, it makes part of a modern technology park, in which numerous multi-national companies from various domains, like IT or banking, are carrying out their activities [4]
. Fig. 1 - NOVO F Office building
Fig. 2 - Office cubicles (11th floor, NOVO F)
Ambient well-being parameters in the indoor spaces of office buildings 83
The actual measurements were made on the 11th floor of this building and, more precisely, the measurements with the indoor weather station, were performed in cubicle no. 18 on this floor (Figure 2), which contains a total of approximately 270 cubicles (this number increased throughout the period of measurements by adding new cubicles to the old ones and, thus, by reducing the indoor space of one individual cubicle).
7. Instruments and methods used Instrumental measurements were made by means of three scientific equipments of high accuracy: an indoor air weather station, a sound level meter and a light meter. The most important equipment we used was the Casella Microtherm microclimatic indoor weather station which allows the automatic monitoring of microclimatic parameters (radiant temperature, dew point temperature, vapor pressure, speed air currents) as well as of ambient comfort parameters (PPD, PMV, intensity of turbulent exchange) [1]. Thus, we could calculate various other ambient parameters of distress (human body heat exchange, heat stress index, allowed exposure time, effective heat load, sweat rate, pulse and blood pressure etc). The MICROTHERM - INDOOR CLIMATE SYSTEM (Figure 3) is made of a central unit at which we can connect, through a serial port, a hub with 6 specific locations for different micro-environmental sensors. This can be installed directly on the upper surface of the central unit or on a tripod. Each sensor is mounted on a sustaining arm of the hub, being connected to the corresponding port. The system also has a power cord and a serial port which can be connected to a PC or laptop. It also contains an incorporated battery which allows a functioning autonomy of approximately 2 months. The main unit allows the monitoring and continuous recording of data, as well as their calculation by means of an integrated software in its internal memory. This has a limited capacity so that once the internal memory is completed, the new data overwrites the old data. The data-logger allows the interruption of records not only directly through the front panel and the incorporated LCD display, but also with the assistance of the PC WinIAQ software [3]. We preferred the continuous recording of data for a period of approximately 30 days (the period in which the memory reached almost 100% of its capacity), of course mentioning that they have been gathered every 30 minutes. The base sensors of the MICROTHERM – INDOOR CLIMATE SYSTEM allow the continuous monitoring of some important microclimatic parameters like radiant temperature, air temperature (both dry and wet), air humidity, speed air currents, intensity of turbulent exchange, etc., and they consisted of a black globe thermometer, a probe for measuring the unidirectional air-flows and a sensor of measuring air temperature and humidity of solid bodies.
84 Nicoleta Ionac, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc, Paula Tăbleţ
The measurement programming was possible with the aid of WinIAQ software installed on Windows Vista operating system (32-bits). The measurements profiles are pre-established, but the communication parameters between the central unit and laptop must be defined first for a correct functioning. After making the connection, the sensors and measurement times are selected and the command is sent to the main unit. The data are manually downloaded with the same software.
Fig. 3 - Casella MicroTherm – Indoor Climate System
The parameters recorded and automatically calculated by the indoor weather station, which are of interest for this study, were the following: NW Natural wet (0C) – the actual temperature of the surrounding air, depending on the dry air temperature, effective air speed of the air currents surrounding the operator, air humidity and medium radiant temperature. PMV Predicted mean vote (units) – the index which expresses the medium sensation of thermal comfort/ discomfort of a larger group exposed to the same type of environment. PPD Predicted percent dissatisfied (units) – the quantifying index of the satisfaction/ dissatisfaction state of a certain number of people towards the thermal comfort of the environment they are located in.
Ambient well-being parameters in the indoor spaces of office buildings 85
WBGT in WBGT indoor (0C) – the effective temperature which a subject perceives during the period of time in which he undertakes an activity inside a building which is not directly exposed to solar radiation. WBGT out WBGT outdoor (0C) – the effective temperature which a subject perceives during the period of time in which he undertakes an activity inside a building which is directly exposed to solar radiation. DR Draught risk (%) – the percent of potentially affected people by the draught sensation. The TESTO 545 LUX METER (luminous intensity measuring instrument - Figure 4) has a silicon photodiode sensor and a resolution from 0 to 100,000 lux (10 lux) (Fig. 6). The measuring times were daily, at 10, 14, 18 hours, Monday to Friday. Two measuring locations were chosen, one in the middle of the floor (to capture the values of artificial light intensity), the other one near the window (to evaluate the difference from the natural light).
Fig. 4. Testo 545 Lux Meter
Fig. 5 - Testo 816 Sound Meter
86 Nicoleta Ionac, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc, Paula Tăbleţ
3.Results and discussions Variation of monthly means. Significant fluctuations have been recorded for all observed parameters. However, we can distinguish a pattern of variation for each one of these, even if the external meteorological and climatic influence is, nevertheless, obvious. Natural wet, WBGT indoor and WBGT outdoor indices have a similar trend, with a maximum in August, of over 26 °C, and a minimum in October, of only 23 °C. October and December 2010 have shown to be the coldest months, due to the external factors which determined low exterior temperatures all that period. A progressive increase is observed starting with December, until August, and then a sharp decrease (Figure 6).
Fig. 6 - Variation of NW (°C) monthly means
Fig. 7 - Variation of PMV (units) monthly means
The same pattern is detected for PMV too. However, values indicate a neutral to optimum environment (Figure 7), with significant differences between spring-summer and autumn-winter. Among the external influences, we can also add the technical ones: intervention of air-conditioning installations which were set
Ambient well-being parameters in the indoor spaces of office buildings 87 to start functioning at a temperature of 22 °C during summer and at 23 °C in winter (of course these values oscillated depending on daily outdoor air-temperatures). The predicted percent of thermally satisfied / dissatisfied people (PPD) (units) measured similar values. A sudden decrease can be seen in September, in contrast with the gradual increase from March-August, as well as major differences also appear between the summer months and the autumn and winter ones (Figure 8). The draught risk has an irregular pattern of evolution throughout the period of instrumental observations. In this respect, the higher values from September 2010 and lower values of February and December 2010 are relevant (Figure 9).
Fig. 8 - Variation of PPD (% - units) monthly means
Fig. 9 - Variation of DR (%) monthly means
The luminous intensity has values which differ from spring (when values of 200- 250 lux have been measured) to autumn and winter (when the corresponding values decrease to 100-150 lux), as it is shown in Figure 10. These pretty high differences are given not only by the atmospheric conditions from the autumn and winter months, but also by the technical ones, and here we refer especially to the shielding of the windows
88 Nicoleta Ionac, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc, Paula Tăbleţ with vertical blinds which absorb most of the sun-rays, depending on exposure, and the neon light devices which are most intensely used in winter.
Fig. 10 - Variation of luminous intensity (lux) monthly means
Fig. 11 - Variation of noise intensity (dB) monthly means
Noise is the only parameter with a relatively constant variation throughout the analyzed period, with values between 52 to 54 decibels (Figure 11). Of course, we have one exception, August 2010 with a monthly average of little over 50 decibels. This low value can be explained by the absence of the employees from work, due to their time off for holidays; from the daily notes we took, we could clearly see that most of the employees preferred taking their vacation in August. Variation of daily means. To clearly point out the difference of variation between the parameters taken into consideration, we have chosen two characteristic months with continuous data series, February 2011 and July 2010. The measurements were ended on February 25, 2011; hence the graphical representation is missing for the last 3 days. However, the evolution trend of each parameter is clear enough so that the automatic calculation of the missing data was
Ambient well-being parameters in the indoor spaces of office buildings 89 neither necessary nor wanted (this way we wanted to establish a concrete data series, without any change). The effective indoor (WBGT in) and outdoor (WBGT out) temperature has a similar trend for both considered months, with a progressive growth from the beginning to the end of the interval, for July 2010 (with a slight decrease after the 25th, then a new increase). The automatic station has recorded almost 25 °C in the first days of the month (5 and 8), then 27 °C (18 and 24) (Figures 12 and 13). February 2011 has a more irregular evolution with lows below 24 °C (5 and 19), but for a singular high value which reaches 26 °C (9). Although the values keep around 25 °C, in three occasions these increased over the values from July, in 8, 9 and 10 (with the maximum in the 9th). Natural wet shows similar values to those shown above.
Fig. 12 - Variation of WBGT out (°C) daily means
Fig. 13 - Variation of WBGT in (°C) daily means
The predicted mean vote, as well as the predictable degree of thermal satisfaction or dissatisfaction had a similar trend, with higher values throughout the interval, especially during the summer months rather than the winter ones. February had a relatively linear evolution (between 0.3 and 0.5 for PMV, and
90 Nicoleta Ionac, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc, Paula Tăbleţ
Fig. 14 - Variation of PMV (units) daily means
Fig. 15 - Variation of PPD (% - units) daily means
Fig. 16 - Variation of DR (%) daily means around 10 for PPD); the only upward trend has been recorded between days 6 and 9 (when it almost reached the July values), followed by a descending line until the 12th day, after which the same linear path is back again. July has a more
Ambient well-being parameters in the indoor spaces of office buildings 91 pronounced evolution especially for PPD (with values between 20% and 35 %), while PPD values keep around 1 (with repeated ups and downs), as can be seen in Figures 14 and 15. The luminous intensity shows much lower values for February (under 125 lux) than for July (with values between 175 and 275 lux). Noise intensity has a similar trend for both months, with values between 50 and 52 dB, the maximum reaching 58 dB. The draught risk (Figure 16) has the most irregular pattern especially for July, with sudden increases and decreases from one day to another (usually between 0 to 2%), and in two occasions (days 5 and 9) they even exceeded the 3 % threshold. February varies a little less, with values between 0 and 1.5%. Variation of hourly means. Natural wet varied between 25°C and 26.5 °C for July. We can see a pattern with a temperature decrease from 26°C to 25°C from midnight to 9 in the morning, then an increase to 26.5 °C until two at midday, where it keeps constant until 11 late at night, when it starts decreasing again.
Fig. 17 - Variation of NW (°C) hourly means
February has a similar pattern, but for the fact that values decrease from 24°C to 23.5 °C until 6 in the morning, then again increase over 26°C until 12 at noon, when the values remain constant until almost 6 in the evening, when they progressively start decreasing to almost 24°C at 11 pm (Figure 17). Effective indoor and outdoor temperatures had a similar pattern of evolution for both months. The predicted mean vote (PMV) had values between 0.9 and 1.1 for July, and from 0.3 to 0.7 for February, much like the predicted mean vote of thermal satisfaction or dissatisfaction (between 20 to 30% in July, and between 5 to 15% in February). The draught risk has shown an interesting pattern of evolution especially for the hours 6-10 in the mornings of July, with a sudden increase from 0 to 5%, then a sudden decrease until 12 at noon to 2%, when it continued to drop after 5 pm, reaching 0 at 11 pm. February had a similar evolution with a constant growth from 6 in the morning (0%)
92 Nicoleta Ionac, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc, Paula Tăbleţ until 2 in the afternoon when it reached the maximum of 3%, when it began to decrease from 6 until 8 in the evening when it reached 0% (Figure 18).
Fig. 18 - Variation of DR (%) hourly means
Fig. 19 - Variation of luminous intensity (lux) hourly means
Fig. 20 - Variation of noise intensity (dB) hourly means
However the noise intensity had much higher values for all the three intervals in February, when we have recorded approximately 54 dB in the 10th day, 52 dB in day 14, and 52 dB in day 18. It’s interesting to notice the high difference between
Ambient well-being parameters in the indoor spaces of office buildings 93 the two months for this last interval, when we recorded an average value below 47 dB, mainly because most employees were off for their holidays and few still remained at work (Figure 20). The luminous intensity had higher values in July for all the three measurement intervals. So, for July, the values kept constant around 200 lux, while for February, around 150 in days 10 and 14, and below 120 in the 18th day (Figure 19).
Conclusions Following the preliminary data gathered in this study, we have noticed similarities for certain periods of the study for 8 measured parameters. If analyzing the monthly variation, we may notice high differences of values between October and September, but especially in August (for air-temperature parameters, these differences were higher than 3 degrees). The daily and hourly variations have similar patterns which overlap at the hours when employees come to and leave the location, but with a general trend of increase in the morning, stagnation at midday, and decrease in the evening. This is highly visible especially in summer, for the draught risk in particular.
Bibliography: Ciulache S. (2005), Măsurarea parametrilor microclimatici şi fiziologici cu ajutorul echipamentului Casella Indoor Climate, „Comunicări de Geografie”, vol. VIII, Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti, Bucureşti, p. , ISSN 1453-5483 Ionac N., Ciulache S. (2003), Influenţa microclimatului spaţiilor închise asupra confortului şi sănătăţii umane, “Comunicări de Geografie” vol. VII, Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti, p.129-134; ISSN 1453-5483. *** (2002), Microtherm Indoor Climate System & WinIaq Application Software – User Manual, Casella Cel Limited, Bedford, UK. *** (2011), Wikimapia.
94 Nicoleta Ionac, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc, Paula Tăbleţ
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND THE PROTECTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS – FUNDAMENTAL OBJECTIVES OF THE MARRAKECH AGREEMENT CONCERNING THE CREATION OF THE WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION
Gheorghe Durac, Nicolae-Horia Ţiţ2
Key-words: sustainable development, international relations, environmental protection, natural resources. - Abstract. One of the objectives of the multilateral international trade system created within the World Trade Organization is the sustainable economic development, taking into account the need to protect the environment. For this purpose, the lawful rules created through the Marrakech Agreement and its annex agreements allow WTO member states, in certain situations, to derogate from the general obligations referring to trade, to which they have to adhere, by adopting measures meant to protect the exhaustible natural resources. This article analyzes the conditions in which such measures can be adopted, through derogation from the general obligations concerning international trade.
1. Creation and Objectives of the World Trade Organization The World Trade Organization was created by the Marrakech Agreement, which came into effect on January 1, 1995 (Macovei, 2010; Sută, 2002). Romania is an original member of the World Trade Organization, and the agreement was confirmed by Law no. 133/1994, for the ratification of the Marrakech Agreement concerning the creation of the World Trade Organization, of the international Agreement concerning beef, and of the international Agreement concerning dairy, all signed in Marrakech, on April 15, 1994. WTO is a relatively young international organization, but it has a considerable influence in the sphere of international relations (Carreau and Juillard, 2005). WTO is practically the continuator of the institutional structure created in order to apply the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade – GATT 1947. WTO insures the institutional frame for the application of the main multilateral agreements that govern international goods trade, international services trade, and
Ph.D. Professor, “Al. I. Cuza” University of Iasi, [email protected] 2 Teaching Assistant, “Al. I. Cuza” University of Iasi, [email protected]
96 Gheorghe Durac, Nicolae-Horia Ţiţ commercial aspects concerning intellectual property rights, the system for solving international trade disputes, and the evaluation system for commercial policies. All these agreements and procedures are annexes to the Marrakech Agreement regarding the creation of the WTO (Narlikar, 2005). The reason for creating the World Trade Organization and the policy of this organization are established through the Preamble to the Marrakech Agreement, according to which the parties agree on its provisions and decide to create the WTO, aiming at the following main objectives: - raising standards of living; - ensuring full employment; - increasing real income and demand; - expanding the production of and trade in goods and services. Therefore, the Preamble to the Marrakech Agreement states: “Recognizing that their relations in the field of trade and economic endeavor should be conducted with a view to raising standards of living, ensuring full employment and a large and steadily growing volume of real income and effective demand, and expanding the production of and trade in goods and services, while allowing for the optimal use of the world’s resources in accordance with the objective of sustainable development, seeking both to protect and preserve the environment and to enhance the means for doing so in a manner consistent with their respective needs and concerns at different levels of economic development. Recognizing further that there is a need for positive efforts designed to ensure that developing countries, and especially the least developed among them, secure a share in the growth of international trade commensurate with the needs of their economic development”. However, meeting these objectives must take into account the need to protect the environment as well as the special needs of the developing countries. The Preamble also stresses the importance of a sustainable economic development, respectively of a development that takes into account the natural and social environment (Charnovitz, 2007) and the integration of the developing countries, especially those that are less advanced in the world economic system (P. Sampson, 2005). The values promoted through the preamble to the WTO Agreement come therefore to contradict a series of critical opinions concerning the fact that the WTO exclusively promotes the liberalization of trade, without taking into account the dangers on the environment or the poverty level existing in certain parts of the world (Jones, 2004). The Preamble also establishes the manner in which the objectives presented above can be reached. For this, The Preamble to the WTO Agreement states: “Being desirous of contributing to these objectives by entering into reciprocal and mutually advantageous arrangements directed to the substantial reduction of tariffs
Sustainable development and the protection of environmental factors 97 and other barriers to trade and to the eliminations of discriminatory treatment in international trade relations, Resolved, therefore, to develop an integrated, more viable and durable multilateral trading system encompassing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, the results of past liberalization efforts, and all of the results of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations, Determined to preserve the basic principles and to further the objectives underlying this multilateral trading system”. The main two instruments for reaching the objectives stated in the preamble are the reduction of the tariff and non-tariff barriers in trade and the elimination of the discriminatory treatment from international commercial relations. At the same time, these were two of the main instruments provisioned by GATT 1947, but, unlike them, the WTO aims to set the bases of an integrated system of international trade, more viable and sustainable. In the Ministerial Declaration of Doha, of November 14, 2001, the WTO member states established, in relation to the objectives of the Organization and to the instruments for attaining these objectives: “We therefore strongly reaffirm the principles and objectives set out in the Marrakech Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, and pledge to reject the use of protectionism. International trade can play a major role in the promotion of economic development and the alleviation of poverty. We recognize the need for all our peoples to benefit from the increased opportunities and welfare gains that the multilateral trading system generates. The majority of WTO members are developing countries. We seek to place their needs and interests at the heart of the Work Programme adopted in this Declaration. Recalling the Preamble to the Marrakech Agreement, we shall continue to make positive efforts designed to ensure that developing countries, and especially the least-developed among them, secure a share in the growth of world trade commensurate with the needs of their economic development. (...) We strongly reaffirm our commitment to the objective of sustainable development, as stated in the Preamble to the Marrakech Agreement. We are convinced that the aims of upholding and safeguarding an open and non- discriminatory multilateral trading system, and acting for the protection of the environment and the promotion of sustainable development can and must be mutually supportive.”
2. Legal Measures Concerning the Preservation of Exhaustible Natural Resources Concretely, the general objectives referring to protecting the environmental factors and sustainable duration are met through a series of measures that, although
98 Gheorghe Durac, Nicolae-Horia Ţiţ infringing other general obligations that result from the status of WTO member, are justified by the need to protect values or interests considered primary. Therefore, Art. XX of GATT 1994 regulates the general exceptions from the principles applicable to international trade in goods. They refer, among others, to protecting important non-economic values, such as public health or the environment. Generally, Art. XX is relevant and can be invoked by a WTO member only if it is considered that a measure adopted by the respective member infringes an obligation regulated by GATT 1994, in order to justify that measure (the GATT panel in the lawsuit US – Section 337 of the Tariff Act of 1930). However, the general exceptions to the rules applied to international trade are, on the one hand, limited, their listing in Art. XX of GATT 1994 being exhaustive, and on the other hand, they are conditioned, being able to operate only to the extent in which the situations and circumstances to which the text of the agreement refers can be found in reality. Giving member states the possibility to adopt measures that promote or protect other important values or social interests, Art. XX practically allows states to derogate from the engagements they had taken as WTO members, which has lead to numerous disputes concerning the interpretation and application of this article, both under the auspices of GATT 1947 and after the adoption and application of the Marrakech Agreement (Petros C. Mavroidis, 2007). Although the general exceptions provisioned in Art. XX of GATT 1994 are limitative and conditioned, and according to the general interpretation regulations, exceptions are strictly related to interpretation, in practice it was considered that such an interpretation would still be inappropriate in what concerns the exceptions referring to the application of restrictive measures to protect public health and the environment, and that an interpretation that considers a balance between the liberalization of trade and other social values is more appropriate (The Report of the Appellate Body in the lawsuit US – Gasoline). Art. XX let. g) of GATT 1994 regulates the measures referring to the preservation of exhaustible natural resources. This exception allows the WTO member states to adopt measures that contravene to the general rules concerning trade in goods and that aim to protect the environment (C. Mavroidis, 2007). In order to be under the incidence of this exception, a measure adopted by a member state must fulfill two conditions: refer to the preservation of exhaustible natural resources and be applied with restrictions on internal production or consumption. In what concerns the former condition, in order to determine if a measure is under the incidence of the exception stated in Art. XX let. g) of GATT 1994, it is necessary to establish the meaning of the term “preservation of exhaustible natural
Sustainable development and the protection of environmental factors 99 resources”, and then to establish whether the respective measure refers, reports, or is related to this purpose. Exhaustible natural resources are not necessarily non-regenerative, so that this phrase should be interpreted in a broad sense, as including not only mineral natural resources, but also living resources. While most natural resources are non- regenerative, although plants or animals are able to reproduce, this does not necessarily mean that the measures mentioned in Art. XX let. g) of GATT 1994 cannot be taken into account, especially in the case of endangered species. This interpretation is all the more grounded that, as mentioned above, one of the objectives stated in the Preamble to the Marrakech Agreement concerning the creation of the World Trade Organization refers to sustainable development, an objective that necessarily includes environmental protection. As a result, for a correct interpretation, which would be close to the current needs and expectations of the international community, we must take into account the dynamics of the international regulations, both in what concerns trade and in what concerns environmental protection (Constantin, 2010). Although Art. XX has not been modified in the Uruguay Round, the preamble to the WTO Agreement proves that the signing parties of these agreement were, in 1994, perfectly aware of the consequences and legitimacy of environmental protection as an objective of their national and international policy. The preamble to the WTO Agreement – which applies not only to GATT 1994, but also to the other multilateral agreements – explicitly mentions the objective of sustainable development (...). From the perspective included in the preamble to the WTO Agreement, we consider that the general term of “natural resources” mentioned in Art. XX let. g) is not static, but rather evolutional by definition. It is therefore pertinent to acknowledge that the modern international agreements and declarations frequently refer to natural resources as including both living and mineral resources (The Report of the Appellate Body in the lawsuit US – Shrimp). In what concerns the condition for the measure to “refer to” the preservation of exhaustible natural resources, Art. XX let. g) does not mention the extent to which the measure must be relative to the purpose aimed. In comparison to the dispositions comprised in the other paragraphs of Art. XX, which refer to the need or essential nature of the measure, there results that in the case mentioned in let. g), the relation between the adopted measure and the purpose aimed can be less tight than in other cases. However, a too broad interpretation may contravene to the purpose to which the general exceptions from the rules concerning the international trade in goods have been expressly regulated, respectively that to establish limits within which the member states may derogate from the obligations they must comply with, as WTO members, in order to defend important social values. Considering these aspects, although, in order to be under the incidence of Art. XX
100 Gheorghe Durac, Nicolae-Horia Ţiţ let. g), a measure must not be necessary or essential for the preservation of exhaustible natural resources, it must be however directed, first of all, to meeting this objective (The Report of the GATT Panel in the lawsuit Canada – Herring and Salmon). In other words, there must be a tight and real relation between the measure and the objective, that is, the measure should be reasonably connected to the objective (The Report of the Appellate Body in the lawsuit US – Shrimp). The second condition that a measure must fulfill in order to be under the incidence of Art. XX let. g) of GATT 1994 refers to its being adopted together with restrictions concerning internal production or consumption (Van Den Bossche, 2008). This condition states that the measures adopted on imported products to the purpose of protecting exhaustible natural resources must be appropriately imposed on domestic products or production as well. This does not mean, however, that imported and national products must necessarily benefit from equal treatment, but an equitable way of applying these measures, both on imported and on internal products, should be taken into account, and which would serve the same common purpose. In case that the treatment applicable to imported products is actually equal to that applied to national products, then the problem of applying a general exception would no longer be posed, as the rules concerning the application of the national treatment according to art. III par. 4 of GATT 1994 are met (The Report of the Appellate Body in the lawsuit US – Gasoline). Nevertheless, in case no restriction applies on national products, either, not only would the second requirement of Art. XX let. g) of GATT 1994 not be complied with, but it would also be impossible to state that the measure is mainly directed towards protecting the exhaustible natural resources, and it would be nothing more than a case of discrimination of the imported products, to the purpose of protecting the national industry (Luff, 2004).
Conclusions In the end, we consider that there must be an equitable relation between the restrictive measures imposed on imported products and those imposed on domestic products, so that both sets of rules mainly lead to achieving the purpose of the environmental protection policy, and especially of exhaustible resources. An equal treatment would make the need to invoke an exception become useless, while the lack of a measure applied to national products, although less restrictive, but mainly imposed in order to meet the same objective, would lead to the inapplicability of this exception.
Sustainable development and the protection of environmental factors 101
List of cases: The Report of the GATT Panel in the lawsuit US – Section 337 of the Tariff Act of 1930, par. 5.9., available on the site http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/87tar337.pdf. The Report of the Appellate Body in the lawsuit US – Gasoline (Appellate Body - United States - Standards for Reformulated and Conventional Gasoline), p. 16 – 17, available on the site http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds4_e.htm. The Report of the Appellate Body in the lawsuit US – Shrimp (United States - Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products), par. 121, available on the site http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds58_e.htm. The Report of the GATT Panel in the lawsuit Canada – Herring and Salmon (Canada – Measures Affecting Exports of Unprocessed Herring and Salmon), par. 4.5 – 4.6, available on the site http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/87hersal.pdf.
References: Carreau, Dominique and Juillard, Patrick (2005), Droit International Économique, 2e Edition, Dalloz, Paris, p. 54. Charnovitz, Steve (2007), The WTO’s Environmental Progress, in “Journal of International Economic Law”, Vol. 10, Nr. 3/2007, p. 685. Constantin, Valentin (2010), Drept internaţional, Universul Juridic, Bucharest, pp. 492 and next. Jones, Kent (2004), Who’s Afraid of the WTO, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p. 15. Macovei, Ioan (2010), Tratat de drept al proprietăţii intelectuale, C.H. Beck, Bucharest, p. 21. Mavroidis, Petros C (2007), Trade in goods, Oxford University Press, p. 254. Narlikar, Amrita (2005), The World Trade Organization, A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, pp. 22 and next. Sampson, Gary P (2005), The WTO and Sustainable Development, United Nations University Press, Tokyo, pp. 54 and next. Sută, Nicolae –coord- (2002), Comerţul exterior şi politica comercială a României în perioada de tranziţie la economia de piaţă, Strategii de dezvoltare, Editura Economică, Bucharest, p. 202. Van Den Bossche, Peter (2008), The Law and Policy of World Trade Organization, Text, Cases and Materials, Second Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 637.
102 Gheorghe Durac, Nicolae-Horia Ţiţ
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
THE BIOCLIMATIC STRESS DUE TO OVERHEATING IN THE SOUTHERN DOBRUDJAN TABLELAND AREA
Nicoleta Ionac1, Elena Grigore2
Key words: bioclimatic indices; space and time variation; bioclimatic stress due to overheating; Southerrn Dobrudjan Tableland area.
Abstract. The present study, regarding the extent and intensity of bioclimatic stress due to overheating in Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area, is based on the analysis of the geographical distribution and of time variation of some relevant bioclimatic indices for the summer period: The Summer Scharlau Index (ISE), The Relative Strain Index (RSI) and the Summer Simmer Index (SSI). In order to highlighten the areas of bioclimatic discomfort, we have processed the air-temperature and humidity data from six weather stations in the area of reference, for 30 years (1971-2000). The results we have obtained, fully concordant with world-wide approaches, emphasize that the bioclimatic stress due to overheating gets more intense in the central-continental and eastern sea-side parts of the territory under study, in July and August.
Introduction The development of more detailed researches based on the analysis of bioclimatic indices proved quite necessary to modern society, in our modern times, especially because no matter how complex the studies on the influence of the climatic factors on physiological, psychological or behavioral reactions of humans might be, they don’t fully reveal its state of comfort or dicomfort, but their continuous action and permanent change really make human body do great efforts to adapt to ever-changing weather and climatic parameters. The analysis of spatial and temporal actions and variations of bioclimatic factors is generally approached from a wholistic perspective, referring to all environmental factors that might differently influence human health and well-being. And this present type of analysis, dealing with the bioclimatic stress due to overheating, offers credible information about the intensity of physiological comfort or, on the contrary, of discomfort, that people living in a specific geographical area actually feel day by day, during the warm season, in the long run of their lives.
1 Prof. PhD., University of Bucharest, [email protected] 2 Assistant Ph.D., University of Bucharest, [email protected]
104 Nicoleta Ionac, Elena Grigore
The subjective perception of the bioclimatic comfort that human body really feels under certain environmental conditions may quantitatively be expressed by some biometeorological and/or bioclimatic indices, which can reflect the weather’s or climate’s effect on human health either from the point of view of each individual factor’s specific way of action on human body (such as air-temperature, humidity, air pressure, solar radiation , wind etc.) or from the perspective of a combined action between two, three or more such factors of influence. The detailed analysis of the space and time variation of such bioclimatic indices on a unitary scale of reference is extremely useful to identify the main areas and periods of bioclimatic stress or risks which the people in the region of study are exposed to. In this respect, we must also add that we have specifically chosen the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area mostly because of its greatest thermal and wind potential in Romania [2] and consequently, because of its risk potential to human health and well-being. Therefore, we have analyzed the space and time distribution of some relevant bioclimatic indices specific of the warm season: the Summer Scharlau Index (ISE), the Relative Strain Index (RSI) and the Summer Simmer Index (SSI) and we have accordingly identified the areas of bioclimatic risk due to overheating in the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area, showing that the dynamics of the bioclimatic factors depend both on the periodical (namely annual climatic changes) and on the unperiodical (depending on weather contexts) variations of climate’s characteristics. To be more convincing, our analysis visually renders information, in the form of accompanying tables and maps, not only about the extent of the potential harmful bioclimatic areas, but also about their intensity, which may represent useful items of assessment when appreciating the climatic and touristic potential of the region under study.
1. Input data and methods The present study was basically developed by computing the air-temperature and humidity monthly means for a 30 years’ period (1971-2000). These weather data were collected from all the six weather stations functioning in the region of reference (Cernavodă, Medgidia, Adamclisi, Constanţa, Mangalia and Hârşova). Then we have calculated the corresponding values of three relevant bioclimatic indices specific of the warm season (ISE, RSI and SSI) and, by taking into account their characteristic limits of appliability, we could ultimately contour the bioclimatic areas of risk due to overheating in the region of study. However, according to their specific ranges of application, we could validate as correct only the values falling within the June-August interval for the RSI and SSI indices and June-September for the ISE index [6].
The bioclimatic stress due to overheating in the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area 105
2. Results and discussions The Summer Scharlau Index (ISE), experimentally derived by K. Scharlau [11] in order to calculate the critical temperatures, which represent the corresponding air-temperature values above which, according to the actual values of air-humidity, the human body feels physiologically uncomfortable because of the heating processes, clearly reflects that the hot-humid climatic conditions may be harmful, by greatly increasing the radiation and evaporation exchange rates of the human body. Therefore, this index may be calculated only for air-temperature values ranging from + 170C to +390C and for air-humidity values higher than 30%. By strictly observing these limits, the corresponding values of the ISE index on the Southern Dobrudjan territory could be relevantly validated only from June to September and their spatial distribution during these four summer months, visualised in a coloured scale of grades [7] clearly shows the prevalence of the comfort area all over the region of study (Fig 1).
Fig. 1 – Spatial distribution of the ISE index (units) in the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland Area (1971 – 2000)
106 Nicoleta Ionac, Elena Grigore
However, one may notice that both June and September are wholly characterized by comfortable bioclimatic conditions, allthough these are weaker to the eastern seaside areas and stronger to the western Danubean and inner- continental areas. The corresponding values of the ISE index accordingly range from a maximum of 3,76 units in September, to a minimum of 0,37 units in June [3]. In June, the lowest ISE value reached 0,37 units at Mangalia and its highest value exceeded 1,87 units at Adamclisi, while in September, the lowest ISE value maintained around 2,18 units at Constanţa, and its highest value reached 3,95 units at Adamclisi. In July, the area of bioclimatic discomfort due to overheating extends well from the eastern seaside areas to the central-continental areas of the region under study, mostly due to the increase of the evaporation rates over the Black Sea, while the western areas, bordering the right banks of the Danube River, still maintain under comfortable bioclimatic conditions from Adamclisi to Cernavodă. The area of bioclimatic heat stress extends widely to the central, southern and northern rims of the region under study and gets more intense to the sea-shore areas, where the ISE values go as low as – 1,18 units at Mangalia. In August, the area of bioclimatic comfort, characteristic of the south-western and central tableland areas, extends gradually to E, becoming dominant all over the western (Adamclisi, Cernavodă, Hârşova) and central areas (Medgidia). In the same month (August), the ISE values range from -1,23 units at Mangalia and 0,83 units at Adamclisi. We must also notice that, both in July and August, the heat- stress area is milder in the central parts of the Dobrudjan territory and more intense on the seaside strip along the Black Sea [4]. In September, the whole Dobrudjan territory is under the influence of comfortable bioclimatic conditions again, mainly due to the general yearly trend of air-temperature decrease towards fall. By analyzing the ISE values from June to September for the whole period of reference (1971-2000), one may easily notice that they range from -1,23 units at Constanţa and Mangalia (on the Black Sea shore) in August, to +3,95 units at Adamclisi, in September. For reference, the actual values of the ISE index are shown in Table 1, for each weather station and summer month. The mean multiannual value of the ISE index for the whole period of reference (1971-2000) roughly range from +0,005 units at Mangalia to +1,73 units at Adamclisi. The yearly variation of the ISE values reveal: neutral bioclimatic conditions (comfort) in June and highly different conditions from July to September, as follows: bioclimatic comfort in 61,1% cases (for all the three summer months at Adamclisi; in August and September at Hârşova, Cernavodă and Medgidia; in September only at Constanţa and Mangalia), overheating conditions of bioclimatic stress in 38,9% cases (starting with warm sensations at Hârşova, Cernavodă and
The bioclimatic stress due to overheating in the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area 107
Medgidia in July, leading to overheating risks at Constanţa and Mangalia, in July and August).
Tab. 1 – The annual variation of the ISE index (units) on the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area, 1971 – 2000
WESTERN DANUBEAN CENTRAL CONTINENTAL EASTERN SEASIDE Period / AREA AREA AREA month HARŞOVA CERNAVODĂ ADAMCLISI MEDGIDIA CONSTANŢA MANGALIA VI 1,21 1,42 1,87 1,03 0,88 0,37 1971 VII -0,23 -0,08 0,27 -0,13 -1,07 -1,18 - VIII 0,15 0,44 0,83 0,34 -1,23 -1,23 2000 IX 3,76 3,73 3,95 3,51 2,18 2,26 1. Mean 1,22 1,37 1,73 1,18 0,19 0,05
The periods and areas of bioclimatic overheating stress, characteristic of the warm season (June-August), could also be highlighted by means of the Relative Strain Index (RSI), whose values may quantitatively be derived from air- temperature (0C) and vapour pressure (hPa) according to Kyle’s formula [8]. As the RSI could only be applied for air-temperatures values higher than +260C, even if relative humidity values were highly variable, we could compute its corresponding values solely for the three specific summer monts: June, July and August. If air- temperatures maintain below +26,0°C, then the RSI values automatically indicate only comfortable bioclimatic conditions and, as far as the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland Area is concerned, we could see that air-temperatures kept below +23,0°C all over the summer months, meaning that the corresponding values of the RSI index point to generalised conditions of bioclimatic comfort all summertime. However, by taking a closer look at the spatial distribution of the RSI values on the Dobrudjan territory, we can notice a slight increase of values from its south- western to its north-eastern areas. The precise values of the RSI index actually range from -0,002 units to +0,005 units. In June, the RSI values are negative and the value difference between weather stations hardly reaches 0,02 units, with a slight increase northward. In July and August, the RSI values become positive, being higher in July (when they reach almost 0,05 units at Cernavodă) and lower in August (when they get as high as 0,03 units at Cernavodă too). The maps presented in Fig. 2 confirm the spatial direction of increase of the RSI values during both summer months (July and August), from SW to NE. The analysis of the monthly values also confirms this tendency of warm sensations
108 Nicoleta Ionac, Elena Grigore increase from June to July, shortly followed by a corresponding gradual decrease from July to August.
Fig. 2 - Spatial distribution of the RSI index (units) in the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland Area (1971 – 2000)
By analyzing the RSI values from June to August for the whole period of reference (1971-2000), we can notice variations from -0,02 units at Adamclisi and Mangalia, in June, to +0,05 units at Cernavodă, in July; the actual values computed for each weather station and month being given in Table 2. The mean multiannual (1971-2000) values of the RSI index, which could be computed on condition that air-temperature values exceeded +26,0O C, range from +0,00 units at Adamclisi, Medgidia and Mangalia, to +0,02 units at Cernavodă. The annual variation reveals that all summer months are characterized by comfortable bioclimatic conditions, with positive values of the RSI index in July and August, and negative values in June. The maximum values were recorded in July all over the Southern Dobrudjan territory.
The bioclimatic stress due to overheating in the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area 109
Tab. 2 - The annual variation of the RSI index (units) on the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area, 1971 – 2000
WESTERN DANUBEAN CENTRAL EASTERN SEASIDE Period / AREA CONTINENTAL AREA AREA month HARŞOVA CERNAVODĂ ADAMCLISI MEDGIDIA CONSTANŢA MANGALIA 1971 VI -0,00 -0,00 -0,02 -0,01 -0,01 -0,02 – VII 0,03 0,05 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,02 2000 VIII 0,01 0,03 0,00 0,00 0,02 0,02 Mean 0,01 0,02 0,00 0,00 0,01 0,00
The Summer Simmer Index (SSI), presented by W.J. Pepi [9, 10] at the 80th AMS Conference, which took place in 2000, best describes the bioclimatic stress due to overheating, especially on condition that air-temperature values range from +220C to +530C and, since the analysis of this bioclimatic index shows little variation in the area of reference in June, we could therefore compute its values only for some of the weather stations taken into consideration (namely: Hârşova, Cernavodă, Medgidia şi Constanţa) in July and August, when air-temperatures maintained higher than the threshold required (+ 22,0°C). The spatial distribution of the SSI values shows that in June, unlike the previously-mentioned bioclimatic indices, the bioclimatic stress due to overcooling becomes dominant over most of the Dobrudjan territory, but for an island-area of comfort around Cernavodă city (Fig. 3). However, the cooling bioclimatic conditions are quite intense in the south-western parts of the tableland area, where the SSI index reaches its lowest value (23,69°C at Adamclisi) and get milder to the north-eastern parts, where the SSI index reaches its highest value (25,01°C at Cernavodă). In July, the SSI values are more differently distributed in space, approximately 75% of the tableland area of study being characterised by comfortable bioclimatic conditions (especially the central-continental, south-western and north-eastern parts), while the remaining 25% of the territory (namely a rather narrow strip stretching from Cernavodă in the NW to Constanţa in the SE), keeps under the influence of bioclimatic stress due to overheating, responsible for warm physiological perceptions all day long. In August, due to the general cooling trend of air-temperatures, all the Dobrudjan territory falls back under the influence of comfortable bioclimatic conditions, with the SSI values ranging from 25,64°C at Adamclisi to 27,60°C at Constanţa. Nevertheless, the corresponding physiological sensations are closer to comfort in the south-western parts, and get weaker and weaker, that is comfort turns into a rather temporary state, to the north-eastern parts, mainly because the
110 Nicoleta Ionac, Elena Grigore climatic continentalism gets more intense to the drier central parts of the Dobrudjan territory [5].
Fig. 3 - Spatial distribution of the SSI index (0C) in the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland Area (1971 – 2000)
Tab. 2 - The annual variation of the SSI index (0C) on the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area, 1971 – 2000
WESTERN CENTRAL Period / EASTERN SEASIDE AREA DANUBEAN AREA CONTINENTAL AREA month HARŞOVA CERNAVODĂ ADAMCLISI MEDGIDIA CONSTANŢA MANGALIA 1971 VI 24,86 25,01 23,69 24,35 24,40 23,88 – VII 27,61 28,47 26,71 27,16 28,04 27,25 2000 VIII 26,42 27,38 25,64 25,82 27,60 27,29 Mean 26,29 26,95 25,34 25,77 26,68 26,14
The bioclimatic stress due to overheating in the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area 111
If analyzing the results obtained by computing the corresponding values of the SSI index during summer months (June-August), for the whole period taken into consideration (1971-2000), we may notice that it ranges between +23,69˚C at Adamclisi (in June) and +28,47˚C at Cernavodă (in July). The actual values of the above-mentioned bioclimatic index, as they have been calculated for each weather station and summer month, are given in Table 3. The mean annual value of the SSI index for the same period of reference ranges from +25,34˚C at Adamclisi to +26,95˚C at Cernavodă. The annual variation proves that the comfortable bioclimate dominates over almost all of the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area, but for some small island-areas of bioclimatic discomfort due to overheating which become evident during midsummer (July), around the Constanţa and Cernavodă towns. However, we must also notice that this warming trend is very slow, since, at the beginning of summer (June) the central and eastern parts of the territory under study are characterised by a discomfortable bioclimate due to overcooling.
Conclusions The main conclusion of this study is that the bioclimatic risk due to overheating generally depends not only on the variation of radiative and dynamic climate-inducing factors, but also on the local physical, geographical factors which play an important role in diversifying the climatic and, consequently bioclimatic, conditions of the Southern Dobrudjan Tableland area. Human comfort directly depends on weather and climate as long as their ever-changing spatial and time changes require a permanent effort of adaptation from all physiological systems of integration and control. Therefore, during summer, that is more precisely between June and July, when the advections of hot, dry tropical air from the southern and south-western parts of Europe get more intense [1], a general state of bioclimatic strain due to overheating becomes dominant in the south-eastern parts of the country, unlike the rest of the territory, thus generating stressful reactions of response. The state of well-being that human body actually perceives in certain conditions of air- temperature and humidity greatly depends on the heat exchange processes between the human body and the surrounding environment, especially on hot and humid days , when the heat loss of the human body is increased by the intense evaporation of sweat at skin surface.
Bibliography: Ciulache S., Ionac Nicoleta (2004), Main Types of Climate in Romania, Analele Universităţii din Bucureşti, seria Geografie, LIII, pp. 15-23.
112 Nicoleta Ionac, Elena Grigore
Ciulache S., Torică V. (2007) Clima Dobrogei, Analele Universităţii din Bucureşti, seria Geografie, Anul LII/2003, p. 81-103, Bucureşti. Grigore Elena (2011) Potenţialul bioclimatic al Podişlui Dobrogei de Sud -Teză de doctorat susţinută public, Bucureşti. Ionac Nicoleta (2007) Main Bioclimatic Characteristics of the Romanian Shore on the Black Sea, Analele Universităţii din Bucureşti, seria Geografie, Anul LII/2003, Bucureşti, p. 119-130. Ionac Nicoleta (2007) Stressul bioclimatic în Dobrogea, vol. Lucrările Seminarului Geografic “Dimitrie Cantemir”, nr. 27/2007, Editura Universităţii “Al.I. Cuza” din Iaşi, pag. 128-134, Iaşi. Ionac Nicoleta, Ciulache S. (2008) Atlasul bioclimatic al României, Editura Ars Docendi a Universităţii din Bucureşti. Kyle W.J. (1992) Summer and winter patterns of human thermal stress in Hong Kong in: Kyle W.J. and Chang C.P. (eds.). Proc. of the 2nd Int. Conference on East Asia and Western Pacific Meteorology and Climate, Hong Kong. World Scientific, Hong Kong, 557-583. Pepi W.J. (1987) The Summer Simmer Index, Weatherwise, Vol 40, No. 3, June. Pepi W.J. (2000) The New Summer Simmer Index. International audience at the 80th annual meeting of the AMS at Long Beach, California, on January 11. Scharlau K. (1950) Einführung eines Schwülemasstabes und Abgrenzung von Schwülezonen durch Isohygrothermen, Erdkunde, v.4, p.188-201.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
PRESENT PROBLEMS REGARDING URBAN ROAD TRAFFIC NOISE AND MITIGATION POSSIBILITIES
Theodora Ardeleanu1, Theodor Ghindă2
Key words: noise, road traffic, urban, protection.
Abstract: Noise level measurements performed in several locations in Bucharest for high road traffic conditions are presented with relevant details. Calculation methods give comparable data sets for the different studied locations. Some applicable measures for noise mitigation are analysed, comparing estimated results and looking for significant effects.
Introduction Studies for inhabited areas protection against road traffic noise became important because of the continuous increase of the number of road vehicles. Road traffic noise comes from a permanently variable combination of different sources: cars, buses, trucks, trolleybuses, trams, motorcycles. Noise is generated by motion over the pavement, by engines and exhaust pipes. Noise level depends on speed, specific features of the vehicles, their technical condition, local characteristics of the traffic flow. Noise attenuation depends on distance from the source, but it is also influenced by roadway, buildings and obstacles (including the neighbor cars). Structures reduce or block noise propagation behind them, and increase noise level in front of them due to reflection phenomena, depending on geometrical features and surface characteristics. There are many factors that influence noise level on streets and permanent changes, so that field studies are absolutely necessary in order to get noise data for real traffic and urban road conditions.
1. Present noise levels measured on main streets Noise level was studied in several locations in Bucharest, looking for high traffic conditions.
1 Sen. Res. Ph.D., National Institute for Research and Development in Environmental Protection, Bucureşti, Romania [email protected] 2 Sen. Res. PhD., National Institute for Research and Development in Environmental Protection [email protected]
114 Theodora Ardeleanu, Theodor Ghindă
Location 1 is in the area where Şoseaua Virtuţii crosses Calea Apeductului. These streets have vehicle traffic in both directions, as usual for most streets. Şoseaua Virtuţii can be considered a U-shaped street, having P+8 high buildings on each side. There are tramways along Şoseaua Virtuţii, with concrete plate support, in the middle of the street, and vehicles pass along side ways. The buildings have complex front shapes as can be seen in Figure 1.
Fig. 1 - Morning traffic near the area where Şoseaua Virtuţii crosses Calea Apeductului
P+8 3m 5m P+8 building building Calea Apeductului 4 green area 9m green area 5 6 7 sidewalk sidewalk 3m
Soseaua Virtutii 7m
Lujerului Passage Tram 41 Crangasi 6m
7m
3 3m sidewalk 2 sidewalk 1 green area 5m5
green area
Calea P+8 Apeductului P+8 building building
Fig. 2 - Location 1: Cross area of the streets Şoseaua Virtuţii and Calea Apeductului, and measurement points
Present problems regarding urban road traffic noise and mitigation possibilities 115
Road traffic in one direction on Calea Apeductului in the morning was congested, with slow velocity; stop at the cross area and intermittent flow at about 30 seconds intervals. 87 vehicles passed in 10 minutes, including 3 minibuses. On the other direction, 10 vehicles were observed, including 1 bus, 1 minibus and 3 trucks. Vehicles stop before the cross area. Şoseaua Virtuţii is considered street of 1st technical category, main street, according to STAS 10009-88 regarding Urban Acoustics. Therefore, allowed limits for equivalent noise level Leq are 75…85 db(A). For Calea Apeductului, considered street of 3rd technical category, collecting street, according to STAS 10009-88, allowed limit for equivalent noise level is 65 db(A).
Tab.1 - Measured noise levels in points of location 1 in the morning
Crt. Noise Measured Equivalent Allowed limit for Leq No. measurement noise levels noise level [dB(A)] points [dB] (Leq) [dB(A)] 1 Point 1 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 740 64.4 – 83.5 71.0 75…85 2 Point 2 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 750 62.3 – 77.5 69.8 75…85 3 Point 3 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 800 65.7 – 73.4 70.3 75…85 4 Point 4 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 815 60.6 – 73.2 68.0 75…85 5 Point 5 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 820 65.3 – 83.9 76.3 75…85 6 Point 6 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 825 66.3 – 95.4 83.8 75…85 7 Point 7 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 830 61.3 – 81.6 71.2 75…85
Noise level was measured in 4 points in the evening (Tab. 2) between hours 2015-2035, counting also the number of passing road vehicles. Along one direction on Şoseaua Virtuţii, road traffic was fluent and comprised 218 vehicles in 10 minutes, including 4 trams, 2 trucks, 10 minibuses. In the opposite direction, road traffic on Şoseaua Virtuţii was fluent, 287 vehicles passing in 10 minutes, including 4 trams, 2 buses, 4 trucks, 12 minibuses and 3 motorcycles.
116 Theodora Ardeleanu, Theodor Ghindă
Road traffic on Calea Apeductului in the evening was reduced. 10 vehicles (including 2 minibuses) passed in one direction in 5 minutes, and 6 vehicles (including 1 minibus) passed in the other direction in 10 minutes.
Tab. 2 - Measured noise levels in points of location 1 in the evening
Crt. Noise Measured Equivalent Allowed limit for Leq No. measurement noise levels noise level [dB(A)] points [dB] (Leq) [dB(A)] 1 Point 1 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 2015 63.1 – 72.4 67.3 75…85 2 Point 3 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 2020 66.3 – 83.6 77.9 75…85 3 Point 4 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 2025 58.6 – 74.2 68.5 75…85 4 Point 5 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 2030 65.0 – 78.2 73.6 75…85
Fig. 3 - Location 2: Cross area of the streets Turda, Ion Mihalache Avenue and Alexandru Averescu avenue, and measurement points
P+10 Domenii Market 3m 3m building, Ana Gabriela P+7 building shop 10 0 green area 11 3m sidewalk 12 8m Avenue Tram 20,24, Ion Mihalache 42,45 13 sidewalk 3m
Avenue Turda Street Alexandru 7m Averescu
Grant Tram 41 Triumphal Bridge Arch 6m
7m
50 m
15 sidewalk 3m 17 0 8m 14 sidewalk 5 16 0 0 9
P+10 8 P+10 building building BCR; Sensiblu Galla shop Victoriei Square
Present problems regarding urban road traffic noise and mitigation possibilities 117
Noise levels were measured in 10 points numbered from Point 8 to Point 17, in the morning, at noon and in the evening (Fig. 4, Tab. 3). The number of vehicles was also observed.
Fig. 4 - Cross area of Turda Street, Ion Mihalache Avenue and Alexandru Averescu Avenue
The measured values are generally within the allowed limits for the streets. The highest noise values were observed in the morning, when road traffic is most congested. Similar noise measurements were carried out in many other locations on streets with high road traffic. Location 2 is in the area where Turda Street crosses Ion Mihalache Avenue and Alexandru Averescu Avenue (Fig. 3). These are U-shaped streets, having P+10 or P+7 buildings on their sides. Noise level was measured in 7 points shown in Figure 2, in May between the hours 740-835 in the morning and between the hours 2015-2035 in the evening (Tab.1). Traffic flow rate was also counted during the measurements on Şoseaua Virtuţii and Calea Apeductului. Road traffic in the morning was congested. 290 vehicles were counted passing with slow velocity along one direction on Şoseaua Virtuţii in 10 minutes, including 3 trams, 4 buses, 5 trucks, 7 minibuses, 5 motorcycles and 1 ambulance. Traffic in the opposite direction was normal, with average velocity. 250 vehicles were observed in 10 minutes, including 4 trams, 3 buses, 5 tractors with trailer and a loader of Fadroma type, 6 trucks, 10 minibuses and 6 motorcycles.
118 Theodora Ardeleanu, Theodor Ghindă
Tab. 3 - Measured noise levels
Crt. Noise Measured Equivalent Allowed limit for Leq No. measuremen noise levels noise level [dB(A)] t points [dB] LQE [dB(A)] 1 Point 8 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 900 63.0 – 77.2 69.7 75…85 hour 1230 62.6 – 74.2 68.9 75…85 hour 1900 62.6 – 74.4 69.4 75…85 2 Point 9 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 905 64.3 – 78.8 70.8 75…85 hour 1235 62.7 – 73.6 66.9 75…85 hour 1905 65.7 – 82.3 73.7 75…85 3 Point 10 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 910 62.8 – 73.0 67.7 75…85 hour 1240 65.8 – 75.5 70.6 75…85 hour 1910 61.5 – 71.3 65.9 75…85 4 Point 11 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 915 66.6 – 83.1 74.1 75…85 hour 1245 62.6 – 73.6 67.9 75…85 hour 1915 64.0 – 79.7 71.2 75…85 5 Point 12 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 920 63.9 – 78.3 70.3 75…85 hour 1250 65.9 – 78.7 70.5 75…85 hour 1920 59.7 – 78.7 69.8 75…85 6 Point 13 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 925 66.5 – 87.4 73.5 75…85 hour 1255 66.5 – 81.0 74.5 75…85 hour 1925 67.5 – 78.9 73.0 75…85 7 Point 14 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 930 64.0 – 79.3 72.7 75…85 hour 1300 63.5 – 78.5 71.0 75…85 hour 1930 62.1 – 76.5 67.8 75…85 8 Point 15 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 935 64.5 – 83.7 74.2 75…85 hour 1305 65.3 – 85.9 73.5 75…85 hour 1935 65.6 – 74.9 70.8 75…85 9 Point 16 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 940 65.5 – 74.6 69.5 75…85 hour 1310 61.6 – 72.3 67.8 75…85 hour 1940 61.0 – 70.4 65.8 75…85 10 Point 17 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 945 63.1 – 81.6 71.1 75…85 hour 1315 64.7 – 74.7 71.9 75…85 hour 1945 61.5 – 77.6 70.7 75…85
Present problems regarding urban road traffic noise and mitigation possibilities 119
Location 3 is in the cross area of Ion Mihalache Avenue and P. I. Pavlov Street, where there are also other streets. There are green areas with trees and shrubs in front of the buildings on one side. Ion Mihalache Avenue can be considered L-shaped street in this area (Fig. 5). Buses and trams pass along Ion Mihalache Avenue, together with other vehicles.
P+7 building
P+7 36 building green area green area 30m
34 sidewal sidewal sidewalk 3m k k 37 green area 35 green area green area 2m Av. Vasile Bus stop Fuica Street C.S. Aldea Avenue Ion Mihalache 7m Tram stop Aviator Popisteanu
Clabucet Piata Street Tram 20,24,42,45 Domenii 6m
7m I. Emanoil A. Pappia Street Street Bus stop 33 31 Aviator P.I. Pavlov sidewalk sidewalk sidewalk 5m Popisteanu Street 32 30 5
P+1 P P building P+1 building building building Calea Grivitei
Fig. 5 - Location 3: Cross area of Ion Mihalache Avenue and P. I. Pavlov Street
Noise levels were measured in 8 points, numbered from 30 to 37, on Ion Mihalache Avenue, and in 2 points (numbered 38 and 39) on P. I. Pavlov Street (Tab. 4), and also the number of road vehicles was observed, in the afternoon. Noise levels on Ion Mihalache Avenue are generally within allowed limits and are higher than on P. I. Pavlov street. The noise levels measured in the different locations, even if within the allowed limits for roads, are in some points 20-30 dB higher then the limits allowed in the standard for the inhabited building faҫade. This fact also resulted from the monitoring of exterior noise in Bucharest [1].
120 Theodora Ardeleanu, Theodor Ghindă
Tab. 4 - Measured noise levels
Crt. Noise Measured Equivalent Allowed limit for Leq No. measurement noise levels noise level [dB(A)] points [dB] (Leq) [dB(A)] 1 Point 30 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 1530 60.8 – 77.8 71.6 75…85 2 Point 31 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 1535 64.2 – 76.3 71.2 75…85 3 Point 32 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 1540 60.3 – 71.8 67.8 75…85 4 Point 33 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 1545 61.2 – 79.0 71.8 75…85 5 Point 34 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 1550 58.8 – 74.3 64.6 75…85 6 Point 35 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 1555 58.3 – 78.0 70.7 75…85 7 Point 36 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 1605 57.5 – 62.6 60.5 75…85 8 Point 37 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 1610 57.1 – 77.2 70.4 75…85 9 Point 38 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 1645 49.1 – 72.0 62.2 60 10 Point 39 according to STAS 10009-88 hour 1655 49.1 – 72.5 61.1 60
2.Estimations of noise level on streets with high road traffic Taking into consideration the presence of buildings on both sides of the streets where noise was measured, a simple formula was used, having the following structure [2]:
Lech A 10logQVU BQVG 10logl k where QVU is the representative flow of light vehicles per hour QVG is the representative flow of heavy vehicles per hour B is a noise equivalence factor between light vehicles and heavy vehicles l is the total street width between opposite high buildings k is a correction term (e.g. for height, velocity, etc.) A is a calibration parameter. Noise level estimation using this method for the studied locations gives results that are generally close to measured values for most of the observed traffic
Present problems regarding urban road traffic noise and mitigation possibilities 121 situations. However, the range of measured values is influenced by the heterogeneity of the light vehicles flow, and also of the heavy vehicles. Moreover, different results occurring sometimes at comparable traffic flow values can be explained by differences of other data (especially various velocities during time intervals when vehicles start or stop), because the method was tested for conditions that are difficult to be characterized, with traffic pulses, sometimes far from a fluent traffic situation (Fig. 6, 7, 8). It is important to remark that traffic velocities in the studied locations are highly variable.
80
75
70
65
Leq estimated 60
dB(A) Leq measured
55
50
45
40 Fig. 6 - Measured and estimated noise in points of Location 1 – Şoseaua Virtuţii
80
75
70
65
Leq estimated 60
dB(A) Leq measured
55
50
45
40 Fig. 7 - Measured and estimated noise in points of Location 2 – Ion Mihalache Avenue at crossing with Turda Stree
122 Theodora Ardeleanu, Theodor Ghindă
80
75
70
65
Leq estimated 60
dB(A) Leq measured
55
50
45
40 Fig. 8 - Measured and estimated noise in points of Location 3 – Ion Mihalache Avenue
3. Analysis of some possibilities to reduce noise level from urban road traffic Field measurements and observations show that there are some noisier sources, e.g. some motorcycles, or some trucks. They are important for the noise level. For example, a source with 10 or 15 dB(A) higher noise level dominates the traffic noise (Fig. 9). Maintenance and finally guiding the noisiest vehicles to other streets can reduce noise level on main streets of inhabited areas.
100
90
80
70
60
Traffic noise 50 Traffic noise with additional high noise source
Noise level [dB(A)] 40
30
20
10
0 Fig. 9 Effect of a high noise source
Noise level depends on the total traffic flow (Fig. 10). There are some possible measures to reduce the traffic flow: guiding some incoming vehicle flows to other streets, time schedule of traffic lights so that to avoid simultaneous traffic in both
Present problems regarding urban road traffic noise and mitigation possibilities 123 directions, guidance towards the use of vehicles with lower noise, increase of public transport capacity and coverage.
Noise difference [dB(A)] 0 1 2 3 4
Noise difference Flow of vehicles
Flow of vehicles [fraction]
Fig. 10 - Differences of noise level for fractions of the total number of vehicles
If vehicles are guided to move along a larger street, noise level is lower at the buildings because of the distance increase (Fig. 11).
Noise for a wider street with 100% Noise for a wider street with 50% Noise
40 50 60 70 80 90 Noise level [dB(A)]
Fig. 11 - Reduced noise levels on wider streets
In some locations with high noise from road traffic, noise barriers can be used. They can result in significant noise reduction as observed in locations with such existing protection (Fig. 12).
124 Theodora Ardeleanu, Theodor Ghindă
According to the formula, reducing the total traffic flow on a main street leads to an estimated noise level decrease of up to 5 dB(A). Guiding road traffic to larger streets, noise level decreases by 2 – 5 dB(A).
90
80
70
Road traffic noise Reduced by noise barriers
60 Nivel de zgomot [dB(A)]
50
40
Fig. 12 - Effect of noise barriers
Guiding the noisiest vehicles to other streets results in significant decrease of noise, even with 10 dB(A) or more. Noise barriers are very effective, with generally more than 10 dB(A) decrease of noise level.
Conclusions The results of noise level measurements in several locations in Bucharest show that the highest values are comparable for many main streets. Noise levels from urban road traffic are high for inhabited areas and for people walking along the streets, even if noise is within the allowed limits for streets with high road traffic. Application of calculation methods also results in comparable data sets for the different studied locations. Calculation methods can be used for analyzing possibilities of noise level mitigation at receptors because the calculated results are generally in agreement with most of the measured data sets of road traffic noise. Among possibly applicable measures, guiding the noisiest vehicles to other streets and introducing noise barriers where necessary can result in obvious decrease with 10 dB(A) or more, significantly lower in comparison to the present noise levels.
Bibliography: Virginia Ciobotaru, Ana Maria Socolescu (2006), Priorităţi ale managementului de mediu. (Priorities of environmental management). Meteor Press, Bucureşti.
Present problems regarding urban road traffic noise and mitigation possibilities 125
J. Quartieri, N. E. Mastorakis, G. Iannone, C. Guarnaccia, S. D’Ambrosio, A. Troisi, T.L.L. Lenza (2009), A Review of Traffic Noise Predictive Models, Recent Advances in Applied and Theoretical Mechanics, WSEAS Press.
126 Theodora Ardeleanu, Theodor Ghindă
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
CURENT TRENDS OF FOREST AREAS DESIGNED TO PROTECT BIODIVERSITY AT GLOBAL AND REGIONAL
Eugen Rusu1
Key words: forest biodiversity, conservation, protected area.
Abstract. The forest biodiversity provide many ecosystem services, such as protection of plant, water and soil ressources. Forest biodiversity has also important to maintenance of natural ecosystems, contribution to climate stability and social benefits. In forests, biological diversity allows species to adapt to the continuously evolving dynamic environmental conditions, to maintain and improve breeding opportunities for species and to promote ecosystem functions. The long evolution of the primary forest in a relatively stable and undisturbed by human impact environment, biodiversity has been preserved properly. According to FAO estimations, forest area for protection and biodiversity conservation in the last decade has increased by approx. 96 million ha, with an accelerated pace in the last 5 years. These forests represent about 12% of the total area, or 386 million hectares, and are located mostly within national forest parks and protected areas.
Introduction Forests are dynamic systems, subject to cyclical changes under the influence of periodic disturbances, senescence and ecological succession. Their genetic diversity, particularly in forest formations relatively complex, due not only to the number of species present in a given area, but also the stages of succession (Kemp,1997). Forest biodiversity can be considered at different levels including the regional forest, ecosystem, species and interactions occur within and amongst levels. The forest is the most eloquent example of biodiversity, which includes a variety of existing life forms, their ecological role and their genetic diversity. In forests, biological diversity allows species to adapt to the continuously evolving dynamic environmental conditions, to maintain and improve breeding opportunities for species and to promote ecosystem functions. Forest biological diversity and complexity is maintained naturally by changing generations of trees and shrubs. In
1 Prof. PhD., University “Al.I.Cuza” of Iasi, Faculty of Geography and Geology, [email protected]
128 Eugen Rusu a forest, an old tree that collapses makes other trees fall and creates a major breakthrough. The open space is quickly occupied by pioneer species of all kinds, taking advantage of new light, growing fast and vigorously. Biological diversity is illustrated particularly in the equatorial forests, which hold over 70% of all known plant species in the world (with many endemism) and their inventory is far from complete.
1. Global review According to the Convention of biological diversity, “we can no longer see the continued loss of biodiversity as an issue separate from the core concerns of society: to tackle poverty, to improve the health, prosperity and security of present and future generations, and to deal with climate change. Each of those objectives is undermined by current trends in the state of our ecosystems, and each will be greatly strengthened if we finally give biodiversity the priority it deserves”. The mechanisms and the most important factors associated with the decline of forest biological diversity are of human origin. The forest biodiversity are in danger by the conversion of forest to agricultural use, unmitigated shifting cultiuvation, overgrazing, introduction of invasive plant and animal species, unsustaineble forest management, pollution an climate change, anthropogenic forest fires, infrastucture development are all negative impacts to the biological variety. Bidiversity loss and forest degradation its weakening resistance to natural and human agression. The rapport of WWF 2010 shows the incredibile an amazing biodiversity in the Amazon. In the decade 1999 – 2009 more than 1200 new species of plants and animals were discovered in the Amazon forest biome. The new species include 637 plants, 257 fish, 216 amphibians, 55 reptiles, 39 mammals and 16 birds. The Amazon is now a vulnerable region because of the progressive disappearance of large areas of forest and biodiversity loss. Primary forests, or forests composed of indigenous species, where anthropogenic interference is not visible and where ecological processes have not been disturbed sensibly, occupy approx. 36% of the total global forest cover loss. The long evolution in a relatively stable and undisturbed by human impact environment, biodiversity has been preserved properly. These forests have lost over 40 million ha in the last decade, mainly by selective cutting trees with high economic value and forest conversion into agricultural land. A positive aspect in the evolution of forest area is the increase in the number of protected areas by creating new national parks and reserves. From 1990 to present, area parks and forest reserves have increased by over 90 million ha, representing 13% of the total number of forests in the world. This slight improvement of the overall situation of forests in the past decade was made
Curent trends of forest areas designed to protect biodiversity at global and regional 129 possible by joint efforts, both locally and regionally and internationally or globally. For the first time in modern society, the pace of deforestation has decreased considerably. All states have contributed to this success by improving forest policies and by giving forest management to local communities or local populations.
Fig.1 - Evolution of primary forest surface at regional and global level (mil.ha, data source FAO)
Fig. 2 - Evolution of forest areas for biodiversity conservation at regional and global (thousand ha, data source FAO)
130 Eugen Rusu
Forest area for protection and biodiversity conservation in the last decade has increased by approx. 96 million ha, with an accelerated pace in the last 5 years. These forests represent about 12% of the total area, or 386 million hectares, and are located mostly within national forest parks and protected areas. National parks, wildlife reserves, natural areas and other protected areas currently occupy over 13% of total forest area. Besides having the main function for biodiversity conservation, they also fulfill the role of protection for the soil, water and cultural heritage (Forest of Fontainebleau).
2. Regional review Between 1990 and 2010, according to the FAO, forest area of Europe region increased continuously, with rates varying from 989.5 million to 1005 million ha ha, with an average annual addition of approx. 800 000 ha. Expanding forest areas is primarily the result of new plantations, and natural expansion of forests into agricultural areas abandoned. This increase is due almost exclusively to the contribution of the old continent, with a net total of 15 million ha in the range mentioned. In the Russian Federation, the increase was not significant (1 million ha) in relation to the total forested area and it was made in the decade from 1990 to 2000. Among the countries that recorded important additions to their national forests in the decade 2000 – 2010, we include Spain (118 000 ha / year), Sweden (81 000 ha / year), Italy, France, Norway and Bulgaria. Countries with low forest blanket, such as Iceland and Moldova have registered the highest rates of addition relative to the total area. Instead, Estonia, Finland and the Russian Federation recorded a reduction in forest cover in the last decade.
Tab.1 - Evolution of total areas of forest in Europe (thousand ha, data source FAO)
1990 2000 2010 Russian Federation 808 950 809 269 809 090 Europe without RF 180 521 188 971 195 911 Europe 989 471 998 239 1 005 001
In Europe, the primary forests occupy about. 26% of the total area, being located mostly in the Russian Federation, due to vast empty spaces or with poor human presence in Siberia. On the old continent only 3% of the forests are considered primary, the rest of them being affected by anthropogenic activities to varying degrees. Forest areas are located in inaccessible areas of the northern continent and in the mountains with rugged terrain.
Curent trends of forest areas designed to protect biodiversity at global and regional 131
In the developed countries of Europe, primary forests were mostly converted into or secondary forests. Some fragments of primary forests are also found in inaccessible mountain areas.
Tab. 2 - Evolution of primary forest areas in Europe (mil.ha, data source FAO)
1990 2000 2010 Russian Federation 235 220 260 Europe without RF 5 6 6 Europe 240 226 266
Global efforts to allocate increased proportions of Forest Biodiversity Conservation Area, have found a positive echo in the European Region, where, according to FAO assessments, the area reserved for this purpose increased to over 37 million ha, between 1990 and 2010. This means that the areas affected by this type of protection increased by 35%. During that period, the old continent, the area of forest to preserve the biodiversity doubled and now represents 10% of forests. In the Russian Federation, designated area increased less in the same period, reaching 2.2%, which represents an absolute of 17 million ha.
Tab. 3 - Evolution of forest area for biodiversity conservation in Europe (thousand ha, data source, FAO)
1990 2000 2010 Russian Federation 11 815 16 190 17 572 Europe without RF 6 840 13 203 19 407 Europe 18 655 29 393 36 979
Forest spaces included in the various types of European protected areas in the region occupy about 40 million hectares, which means about 4% of the total. The highest proportion is found still throughout the old continent, which introduced 12% of its forests into protected areas. Forest areas to protect soil and water have increased in the last two decades, currently reaching 9% of the total forest in this region, Russian Federation contributed substantially to this share (7%). In Africa, according to the data provided by FAO, forests and other wooded areas, occupied in 2010 approx. 675 million ha (23% of the total area of the continent), which represents 17% of the total global forest area. At regional level there are differences insofar areas occupied by forests are concerned, as well as differences in terms of their use and management. Central African Continental represents 37% of the continental forest, Southern Africa 29%,
132 Eugen Rusu
12% North Africa, East Africa 11% and West Africa 11%. Uneven distribution is determined, on the one hand, by natural conditions and, on the other hand, by the human densities and by the type of forest recovery. African Forest area has decreased continuously in recent decades. FAO recorded that only between 1990 and 2000 in Africa, there disappeared about. 60 million ha of forest, which means an annual loss of approx. 0.7% of the forest. Between 2000 and 2010, losses were diminished to approximately 35 mil.ha, which represents an annual decrease of approx. 0.5%. The reduction rate of disappearance of forests is more evident in northern Africa, where measures to reduce cutting and planting annual net loss decreased from 540 000 ha, 41 000 ha. Countries with large forest areas have had the greatest losses: Cameroon, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe. To these states with smaller areas of forest are added, but the massive disappearance of forest area has been registered in: Togo, Uganda, Mauritania, etc. At the opposite end, there is a series of states where forest areas have increased considerably, due to planting and efficient administration of the forest: Ivory Coast, Tunisia, Morocco, Rwanda, etc.
Fig. 3 - Evolution of total areas of forest in Africa (thousand ha, FAO data source)
Primary forest represents about. 10% of the total forest areas in Africa, a figure probably underestimated due to the lack of statistics in some countries in the central continent. The highest percentage, characterized R.D. Congo, Gabon, Madagascar, Central African Republic, Sudan, etc Of the total African forests, 14% are for biodiversity conservation and 3% for soil and water protection. Areas affected by the forest biodiversity protection have
Curent trends of forest areas designed to protect biodiversity at global and regional 133 increased over the past decade in most African states, through the integration of the growing areas in this category.
Fig. 4 - Evolution of primary forest areas in Africa Region (mil.ha, data source FAO)
However, the same forest areas with multiple functions are sometimes declared and recorded several times statistically. If these areas have increased by 27 mil.ha, at global level, in Africa there has been a loss of approx. 1 million ha, in the last decade.
Fig. 5 - Evolution of forest areas for biodiversity conservation in Africa (thousand ha, FAO data source)
134 Eugen Rusu
North and Central America is a forest region in which forests occupy 34% of the territory, representing a share of 17% of the world total. In 2010 the total forest area was estimated by FAO at 705 million ha. Canada and the U.S. record sensitive areas equal (310 and 304 respectively mil.ha) and Mexico participate in the regional total to 65 million ha, followed far away from the rest of Central America and the Caribbean with 19 million ha with 7 million ha . The evolution of forest between 1990 - 2010 puts in opposition a substantial increase in forest cover in the U.S. to the significant decreases in the forests of Mexico and the rest of Central America, while Canada maintains a balance between exploitation and plantings. Central America reported the disappearance of 54 000 ha of primary forest per year in the decade from 1990 to 2000 and 74 000 ha / year in the decade from 2000 to 2010.
Fig. 6 - Evolution of total areas of forest in North America and Central (thousand ha, FAO data source)
North American States have large areas of forests located in remote areas of human habitats, allowing the operation of many forest ecosystems in their natural state. Forests occupy 41% of the total continental primary forest, which is approx. a quarter of the world's primary forests. In Canada and Mexico more than half of the forests are classified in this category, and in the U.S., a quarter of the forests are considered without visible traces of human activity. The smaller areas for this purpose in Canada are not to be explained by the lack of concern, but by the Canadian boreal forest relative monotony and status of primary forest in the north, which is very sparsely populated, and where protection is intrinsic.
Curent trends of forest areas designed to protect biodiversity at global and regional 135
Forests designated as biodiversity conservation areas, adding up 15% of the total, but with major regional differences, are to be found: 25% of U.S. forests, 13% in Mexico and 5% in Canada.
Fig. 7 - Evolution of primary forest areas in North and Central America region (mil.ha, FAO data source)
Fig. 8 - Surface Evolution for biodiversity conservation in North America and Central Region (thousand ha, data source FAO)
In Canada and the U.S., the concern for the preservation of natural values of ecosystems has become a modern generalized one. There are countries with high
136 Eugen Rusu financial potential that can afford to allocate substantial funds to the designation and management of large protected areas. More than 31 million ha (8%) of forest or other wooded land in Canada are within protected areas, and 30 million ha are considered strictly protected (industrial activities such as forest harvesting, mining and hydroelectric development are prohibit). They have established a functional legal system in this field and provided an education, mass awareness and effective monitoring of the functioning of forest parks and nature reserves. Over 8% of Canadian forests, 10% of the U.S. and 13% of Mexican forests have currently protected forest area status, which is about one tenth of the continental forest. South America. Forest resources of this region are richer from a quantitative point of view, but they stand out especially in terms of biological diversity. From this perspective, Amazonia is to be mentioned, a region with a remarkable and relatively compact forest biodiversity. In 2010, almost half (49%) of South American territory was covered by forests, in absolute numbers as assessed by FAO, the forest area occupied 864 million hectares, the equivalent of 22% of the world total. This distribution reveals the dominance of Brazil states, the state which has the largest equatorial and tropical forests, almost 13% of global forests. Other well-forested countries are Peru, Colombia, Venezuela and Bolivia, which together with Brazil have 84% of forest area.
Tab. 4 - Evolution of total areas of forest in South America Region (thousand ha, FAO data source)
1990 2000 2010 South America 946 454 904 322 864 351
The forest area of South America continues to decrease. At the regional level, the forest lost approx. 88 million ha between 1990 - 2010, having an average loss of 4.2 million ha annually. These reductions represent 64% of the total concern worldwide and although losses have taken place at a slower pace, they are still at a high level. Primary forests of South America are located in difficult-to-reach areas or in protected areas. They are remarkable due to the Amazon rainforest biodiversity and to the long evolution in natural regime reaching the stage of biostazie and due to the enormous area they occupy in the same morphological-pedological-climatical conditions. According to FAO data, the overall percentage of primary forest region is very good, representing 75% of the forests of South America and about. 57% of
Curent trends of forest areas designed to protect biodiversity at global and regional 137 the world total. But in recent decades, especially in Amazonia, large areas of primary forest have been converted to other uses or have been cleared for timber exploitation. Central America in turn reported the disappearance of 54 000 ha of primary forest per year in the decade from 1990 to 2000 and 74 000 ha / year in the decade from 2000 to 2010.
Tab. 5 Evolution of primary forest areas in South America Region (mil.ha, FAO data source)
1990 2000 2010 South America 690 670 630
Integrating general current understanding of the necessity of preserving the forest as a guarantee of maintaining the environmental planetary balance South American states have adopted effective measures to protect forest areas of high interest in terms of biological diversity and soil and water protection. In this context, areas totaling approx. 18% of total regional forest were declared protected areas of different types. Areas of biodiversity conservation occupy about. 14% of forest area and these areas recorded during 1990 to 2000 an annual increase of approx. 1 million ha and since 2000 an annual increase of approx. 3 million ha, according to FAO assessments.
Tab. 6 - Surface Evolution for biodiversity conservation in South America Region (thousand ha, FAO data source)
1990 2000 2010 South America 40 683 52 548 84 222
Asia is presented at a regional level without Siberia, which is included in FAO statistics presented in the Russian Federation and Europe region. Asia is the continent with the largest expansion latitude and longitude, occupying nearly one hemisphere in both directions. This progress has helped to install the world in all climates known latitudinal direction (longitudinal and multilevel nuanced altitude) and accordingly, all forest formations. The forest diversity depends on the diversity of physical and geographical conditions, displaying from the equator to the Arctic Circle equatorial forests and mangrove forests as well as deciduous tropical moist, subtropical forests, temperate forests and mountain forests, each having different local composition imposed by local conditions. According to the data provided by FAO in 1990, the Asian forests occupied 576 million ha, and in 2010 the area increased to approx. 592 million ha.
138 Eugen Rusu
Regionally, the most spectacular growth has been in East Asia, which has added nearly 50 million ha in the last two decades. By contrast, in Southeast Asia there were quantitative losses of over 30 million ha. In each country, major discrepancies are found in the area occupied by forests: China (206 million ha), Indonesia (95 million ha), India (95 million ha) Myanmar (31 million ha) and Japan (24 million ha) have the largest forest areas. At the opposite pole there lies the states on the Arabian Peninsula (Quatar, Oman, Bahrain) with minor areas of forest. Highest proportions of forests in national territory are recorded in some member monsoon, with a favorable climate for forest ecosystems: Brunei (72%), Bhutan (69%), Japan (69%), Laos (68%) and Malaysia (62%).
Fig. 9 - Evolution of total areas of forest in Asia (thousand ha, FAO data source)
Primary forest is about 130 million ha, namely a proportion of 22% of the total forest in the region. The general trend of the last two decades has been to reduce the area occupied by this type of forest. Significant losses were recorded in Southeast Asia, amounting to about 8 million ha, followed by East Asia with approx. 3mil. ha. In other sub-regions there are low variations. At regional level, protected forest areas occupy large areas, representing about 24% of all forests. The highest rates are recorded in Southeast Asia, which represents 32% of the total. Biodiversity protection areas affected have increased from about 60 million ha in 1990 to over 78 million ha in 2010. According to the data provided by FAO in 1990, the Asian forests occupied 576 million ha, and in 2010 the area increased to approx. 592 million ha. Regionally, the most spectacular growth has been in East Asia, which has added nearly 50 million ha in the last two decades. By contrast, in Southeast Asia there
Curent trends of forest areas designed to protect biodiversity at global and regional 139 were quantitative losses of over 30 million ha. In each country, major discrepancies are found in the area occupied by forests: China (206 million ha), Indonesia (95 million ha), India (95 million ha) Myanmar (31 million ha) and Japan (24 million ha) have the largest forest areas. At the opposite pole there lies the states on the Arabian Peninsula (Quatar, Oman, Bahrain) with minor areas of forest. Highest proportions of forests in national territory are recorded in some member monsoon, with a favorable climate for forest ecosystems: Brunei (72%), Bhutan (69%), Japan (69%), Laos (68%) and Malaysia (62%) Primary forest is about 130 million ha, namely a proportion of 22% of the total forest in the region. The general trend of the last two decades has been to reduce the area occupied by this type of forest. Significant losses were recorded in Southeast Asia, amounting to about 8 million ha, followed by East Asia with approx. 3mil. ha. In other sub-regions there are low variations.
Fig. 10 - Evolution of primary forest areas in Asia (mil.ha, FAO data source)
Region Oceania includes Australia, New Zealand, Papua - New Guinea and archipelagos scattered in the warm Pacific. Except for reef and volcano-origin islands, the large continental fragments were part of Gondwana and southern mega- continent had a common trend until late Mesozoic. The evolution policy and subsequently in other isolated systems have favored preservation of the Gondwana ecosystems, flora and fauna elements, which are unknown on other continents. According to FAO statistics, in the entire region, the loss of forest areas, in the last two decades, have decreased from about 200 million ha in 1990 to 191 million ha in 2010. Losses due to logging and land use change to forestry vocation, especially
140 Eugen Rusu in Australia (0.5 million hectares lost between 2000 to 2010) and Papua - New Guinea (loss of 300 000 ha between 1990 - 2010).
Fig. 11 - Evolution of forest areas for biodiversity conservation in Asia (thousand ha, FAO data source)
Tab. 7 - Evolution of total areas of forest in Oceania Region (thousand ha, FAO data source)
1990 2000 2010 Oceania 198 744 198 381 191 384
Primary forests are still to be found in significant proportions in Oceania and occupy approx. 38% of the total forest of the region. In the last two decades, however, there was a decrease in natural forests from 41 million ha in 1990 to 37 million ha in 2010. The decrease occurred by changing the use of forest land and practiced selective exploitation into commercial purposes. The most affected one was the Papua - New Guinea, where some primary forest were consumed by wild instant fires and deforestation by fire was applied.
Tab. 8 - Evolution of primary forest areas in Oceania Region (mil.ha, FAO data source)
1990 2000 2010 Oceania 41 38 36
Curent trends of forest areas designed to protect biodiversity at global and regional 141
Mainly affected areas of biodiversity conservation have increased in the decade 1990 - 2000, from 7.1 million hectares to 8.4 million ha, but in the last decade, these types of forests have contracted slightly by the passage of land use category or by assigning multiple other functions. The same thing happened to forests to protect soil and water, which after a slight increase between 1990 -2000, had a significant decrease in the last decade, from 1 Mil. ha to 890 000 ha, due to mining in accessible areas.
Tab.9 - Evolution of forest areas for biodiversity conservation in Oceania Region (thousand ha, FAO data source)
1990 2000 2010 Oceania 7 196 8 412 8 234
Land and s oil protection
Water protection
E ndomaged factors protection R ecreation fonction
P rotected and s cientific interes ting area
Fig. 12 - Structure of forest surfaces included in the Functional Group I (%, data source: MADR)
Protected forest areas in Oceania reach a proportion of 22% of the total in the last decades due to the attention given to preserving natural forests in the state of functionality. The top country in the region is New Zealand, where almost a third of the forests are protected through general awareness and environmental imperatives of subordination of all activities. In Romania, in accordance with current guidelines in the European and world forestry, biodiversity conservation function has become extremely important, given that this feature is threatened by the expansion of vital forest habitat and human activities. In Romania, this function is performed by “protected and scientific
142 Eugen Rusu interesting area” in Functional Group I. These forest areas occupy 10% of this group (0.350 million ha) and are spread all over the country. Located in the temperate continental moderate climate, having the interference of different types of other climates, the flora and fauna elements are preserved in Romania in a different way, Ponto-Caspian, Mediterranean and Western Europe, which gives a greater biodiversity than in European regions affected by typical climates. Its territorial diversity, from the delta and steppes, the deciduous forests, boreal and alpine meadows Carpathian, favors the presence of many elements of biodiversity, some of which are endemic, in the Romanian space. The forests in functional Group II, production and protection forests, account for 47% of the total forest area of the country. According to FAO assessments, Romanian has a different functional structure, with 48% of forests for the production function, 39% allocated to soil and water protection, 5% to biodiversity conservation and 6% is designated to cover social function.
P roduction
S oil and water protection B iodivers ity cons ervation S ocial fonction
Other function
Fig. 13 - Functional structure of forest surfaces in Romania (%, data source: FAO)
Protection and Biodiversity Conservation is achieved primarily in legislative protected territories such as national parks, natural parks, protected areas and nature reserves. This function is also fulfilled by other forests belonging to Group I function. In Romania there were established over 20 national parks and natural protected areas and more than 1,000 nature reserves, some of which are of world importance, included in UNESCO. All these territories include protection forest areas of great scientific importance for biodiversity conservation. According a 2003 inventory, the Carpatian Mountains are home of the wider of virgin forests in Europe, with more 250.000 ha.
Curent trends of forest areas designed to protect biodiversity at global and regional 143
Evaluation and forest certification ensures responsible management of forests and social and economic benefits for local communities. In Romania is developing projects to protect forests and promote forest certification as a tool for their efficient management. By 2010, over 700,000 hectares of private and state forest FSC were in Romania. This guarantees that forests are managed responsible, based on social, economic and environmental.
References: Birot Y, Lacaze J.F. (2006), La forêt, Ed. Flamarion, Paris. Briant G. et al. (2010), Habitat fragmentation an the desication of forest canopies. A case study of eastern Amazonia. Biological conservation. Butler, R. (2011), Rainforests, Create Space. Kemp, R.H, Palmerg-Lerche C., (2007), Conservation des ressources genetiques forestieres, Dossiers FAO, Rome. Kemp, R.H. (1992), La conservation des ressources génétiques des forêts tropicales aménagées. Unasylva, 43(169). Lawrence et al., (2000), Forest loss and fragmentation in the Amazon : implications for wildlife conservation, Oryx, 34 Radu Stelian (2002), Inventar preliminar al pădurilor virgine şi cvasivirgine din teritoriul arondat şi învecinat Parcului Naţional Retezat, APNR Stănescu, V. (1997), Flora forestieră lemnoasă a României. Ceres, Bucureşti Whitmore, T.C. (1990), Tropical rain forests. Oxford, Clarendon *** MADR, 2007 – Raport privind starea pădurilor României, Bucureşti *** FAO, 2011 -Situation des forets du monde 2011, Rome *** FAO, 2010 – Evaluation des ressources forestières mondiales 2010, Rome *** WWF – Ecoregion Carpatian montane coniferous forests *** WWF – Raport anual 2010 WWF Romania *** WWF – Amazon alive. A decade of discovery 1999-2009.
144 Eugen Rusu
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
SELENIUM IN SOILS OF THE DANUBE DELTA NORTH- WESTERN PART
Radu Lăcătuşu1,, Mihaela Monica Stanciu-Burileanu2, Ion Rîşnoveanu3, Anca- Rovena Lăcătuşu4, Nineta Rizea5, A. Vrânceanu2, Rodica Lazăr6
Key words: selenium, Danube Delta.
Abstract. Soils from the dyked precincts Sireasa and Pardina of the Danube Delta were analyzed, belonging to the Calcaric Fluvisol, Calcaric Gleyosol, Mollic Calcaric Gleyosol, Mollic Fluvisol, Calcaro-Calcic Kastanozem, and Calcaro-Calcic Chernozem7 types. The soils are slightly alkaline, with a moderate carbonates content, low up to average humus and total nitrogen ones, and diverse, from very low to very high, of mobile phosphorus and potassium. Some of them have a salinization level up to 688 mg soluble salts per 100 g soil. The mobile and total selenium contents are high, superior to the average general content of the World’s soils and to the contents of the South-Eastern Romanian Plain and Central and South Dobrogea soils. In fact, they are the highest values registered so far in Romania’s soils. In general, the soils within the built-up area have higher values than those of the outside built-over one both for selenium and other chemical elements. Direct proportionality relations were established between the total selenium content and some of the agrochemical soil properties (indirect with the pH), all of them statistically ensured, and also between the total and mobile selenium contents, on one hand, and the micro elements (heavy metals) contents on the other hand. The ensuring degree of the selenium’s correlations with some heavy metals increases by depth which shows the geogenic origin of the chemical elements in the Delta soils. Although the Danube Delta is a deprived area the selenium content of the analyzed soils is high without reaching, though, toxicity levels.
Introduction Selenium is a micro element with numerous qualities in animal and human nutrition, with an anti-infections and anti-oxidant effect as a component of the glutation-peroxidase enzyme, and anti-tumor effect (Deélstra et al., 1982; Gissel-
1 Prof.Ph.D., “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, Iaşi, Romania, [email protected] 2 Researcher Ph.D., ICPA Bucureşti, Romania 3 Senior researcher Ph.D., ICPA Bucureşti, Romania, [email protected] 4 Sen res. PhD, Romania 5 Senior researcher Ph.D., ICPA Bucureşti, Romania [email protected] 6 Sen. res. Ph.D., ICPA Bucureşti, Romania [email protected]
146 Lăcătuşu, Stanciu-Burileanu, Lungu, Rîşnovanu, Lăcătuşu, Rizea, Vrânceanu, Lazăr
Nielsen et al., 1985). Its physiological and biochemical role in plant nutrition was also outlined (Läuchli, 1993; Turakainen et al., 2005), and yield increases were obtained when selenium was administered on the seed, in soil, or on plant (Lăcătuşu et al., 2002). Selenium abundance in the environment components is low. Thus, the average content oscillates between 50 and 90 g·kg-1 in the lithosphere, between less than 100 and 2,000 g·kg-1 in the pedosphere, from less than 50 up to 15,000 g·kg-1 in the biosphere, and around 0.2 g·l-1 in the hydrosphere (Kabata-Pendias and Pendias, 2001). Selenium abundance in soil depends on a series of chemical and physical factors such as reaction, organic matter and macro and micro elements contents, the parent material nature. The content interval of the total selenium content in the upper horizon of the World’s soils is 5-3,500 µgkg-1, with an average value of 383 ± 255 µgkg-1 (Kabata-Pendias and Pendias, 2001). The extreme values of the content interval belong to selenium deficiency, respectively toxicity areas. Selenium deficiency leads to the occurrence of some diseases in living beings such as: ovine myodystrophy, hepatic necrosis with swine, white muscle disease with horses, exudative diathesis with poultry, and the excess determines the alkaline disease occurrence with animals and people (Gissel-Nielsen et al., 1985). Selenium deficiency with people is implied in a series of Cardiovascular and Digestive Systems diseases and in many tumor diseases. Its major role for human health lies in the anti-oxidant effect of its compounds (Reilly, 2006). The fact is known that large areas of the North (Finland, Sweden, Norway; Hartikainen, 2005), Central (Germany; Hartfiel and Bahners, 1988), South-Eastern European countries (Serbia; Maksimovic, 1992), and from Russia (Ermakov, 1992) are affected by the selenium deficiency. Romania also lies in a World’s area with deficient selenium contents registered with animals and even with people. Thus, Salanţiu, even since 1970, highlighted the selenium deficiency in calves, lambs, sucking pigs, and young buffalos in large areas of the Transylvania Basin. More recently, Serdaru and Giurgiu (2007) analyzed 1,548 fodder samples, 1,175 cattle blood serum samples, 1,030 sheep blood serum samples, and 600 human blood serum samples collected from the Ardeal area and concluded that only 3.7% of the fodder samples, 5.0% of the cattle blood serum samples, none of the sheep blood serum samples, and only 3.3% of the human blood serum samples have normal contents, while the differences belong to the deficiency domain. Alike, Serdaru et al. (2003) analyzed 185 fodder samples from 41 Dobrogea localities and concluded that only 6.5% of them belong to the normal content domain, and the difference belongs to the deficiency domain. This situation required the introduction of selenium in the animal feed premixes. The deficiency level mostly occurs because of some low soil selenium contents.
Selenium in soils of the Danube Delta North-West part 147
Among the first data regarding total selenium content in Romania’s soils there are those concerning the Oriental Carpathians Mountain soils and some river sediments (Ababi and Dumitrescu, 1973; Lăcătuşu and Ghelase, 1992). The authors found 640 µgkg-1, respectively 380 µgkg-1 average values, the latter in hematurigenous areas. Determinations carried out in Dobrogea soils highlighted total selenium concentrations between 211 and 585 µgkg-1, with an average value of 314 µgkg-1, and mobile selenium concentrations, soluble in ammonium acetate lactate solution (AL) at pH = 3.7, between 0.9 and 74 µgkg-1, with an average value of 10 µgkg-1 (Lăcătuşu et al., 2009, 2010 a,b). In the Central-Eastern part of Dobrogea, in the Sibioara area, where cases of ovine myodystrophy have been registered, the average total and mobile selenium contents, soluble in AL, were 140 µgkg-1, respectively 5 µgkg-1 (Lăcătuşu et al., 2002). Total selenium determinations carried out in samples of the upper horizon of the soils from the South-Eastern part of the Romanian Plain, predominantly Chernozems, highlighted higher values than those of the Dobrogea soils, with 64%, on an average (Lăcătuşu et al., 2010). Unlike these ones, in the Solonchaks and Solonetz of the Buzău and Călmăţui Valleys Lăcătuşu et al. (2011) determined total selenium contents with values around 800 µgkg-1, twice as much as the average of the selenium contents from many non-halomorphic soils of the World and three up to five times more than the total selenium content of the upper horizon of the South-Eastern Romanian Plain or Dobrogea soils. Continuing the researches regarding selenium abundance in the Romania’s soils the present paper highlights this chemical element’s contents in some of the most recent soils of the Country, namely in the Danube Delta North-Western part.
1.Materials and methods The researches had an expeditionary character, and soil samples were collected by the 0-20 and 20-40 cm depths, from the Danube Delta North-Western part, more precisely from the Sireasa and Pardina dyked areas (Figure 1). 60 samples were collected from outside the built-over area and 16 from within the built-up one. The latter from the localities: Tudor Vladimirescu, Ceatalchioi, Pardina and Chilia Veche. The soil samples were analyzed in the laboratory from the general chemical characteristics (pH, humus, total nitrogen, mobile forms of phosphorus and potassium, soluble salts, carbonates, total an mobile micro elements forms) and of the total an mobile selenium contents point of view. The general chemical characteristics were determined by standardized (STAS and ISO) methods: pH – potentiometrically, with double glass and calomel electrode, in aqueous solution with the soil:water ratio 1:5; humus content by the Walkley-Black method
148 Lăcătuşu, Stanciu-Burileanu, Lungu, Rîşnovanu, Lăcătuşu, Rizea, Vrânceanu, Lazăr modified by Gogoaşă; total nitrogen contents by the Kjeldahl method; mobile forms of phosphorus and potassium, soluble in ammonium acetate-lactate, after Ègner-Rhiem-Domingo. Total an mobile micro elements contents were determined by atomic absorption spectrometry in the hydrochloric solution obtained after soil digestion with a concentrated mineral acids (HNO3 and HClO4) mixture respectively solubilization in extractive EDTA-CH3COONH4 solution at pH = 7.
Fig. 1 – The localization of the soil sampling points on the soil map elaborated by Munteanu and Curelaru (1996)
For the determination of the total selenium content the samples were digested with a strong mineral acids (nitric and perchloric) and peroxide (H2O2) mixture. The selenium content was determined then by atomic absorption spectrometry using the natrium boron hydride (NaBH4) reduction procedure and the analyze of the hydrogen selenide which forms. The mobile selenium of the samples was extracted in an 1 n ammonium acetate (CH3COONH4) and 0,01 m etilen-diamino-tetraacetic (EDTA-H2) solution at pH = 7.0 (after Lăcătuşu et al., 1987), and was measured by the already described method. The analytical data were statistically computed and spreading parameters (xmin, xmax, cv,) and the grouping centre parameters ( x , xg, Me, and Mo) were determined as well as the mobile selenium content correlation with several soil chemical characteristics.
Selenium in soils of the Danube Delta North-West part 149
2.Results and discussions 2.1. The investigated soils and their general characteristics The 38 investigated soils belong to the Calcaric Fluvisol (12), Calcaric Gleyosol (9), Mollic Calcaric Gleyosol (7), Mollic Fluvisol (7), Calcaro-Calcic Kastanozem (2), and Calcaro-Calcic Chernozem (1) types. They have a predominantly loamy, clayey-loamy up to sandy-loamy texture, sometimes clayey, especially the Gleysols. The statistical parameters of the main chemical characteristic of the dominant soils are presented in Table 1.
Tab. 1 – Statistical parameters of the main chemical characteristics of the soils from the Danube Delta North-Western part
Statistical CaCO3 Humus Total N PAL KAL pH -1 parameter H2O % mgkg
Calcaric (mollic) gleyic Fluvisol, n = 42 Xmin 7,3 0,6 0,5 0,025 3 60 Xmax 8,5 11,3 6,3 0,584 23 656 X 7,9 7,2 2,9 0,144 14 200 σ 0,2 2,5 1,7 0,119 10 118 cv (%) 35 35 58 83 76 59 Xg 7,8 7,0 2,8 0,138 12 189
Calcaric (mollic) fluvic Gleyosol, n = 30 Xmin 7,4 1,0 1,7 0,097 5 64 Xmax 8,1 10,5 7,9 0,525 235 620 X 7,8 6,3 4 0,23 39 224 σ 0,2 2,3 1,8 0,117 53 137 cv (%) 3 36 44 51 136 61 Xg 7,7 6,1 3,7 0,224 36 220
The soils have alkaline reaction, no exceptions, and belong to the slightly alkaline domain, with pH (measured in aqueous solution) values ranging from 7.3 to 8.5. The calcium carbonate (CaCO3) content is medium, almost no exception, with values ranging between 4.2 and 11.3%. The exception is represented by eight values ranging from 1.0 to 1.9%. The humus, assessed depending on the texture, has a large values domain, significant for very low, low, and medium contents out of which low and medium contents are equally dominant. The total nitrogen contents vary alike, in the low and medium values zone. As regards the mobile phosphorus and potassium forms supply, soluble in the ammonium acetate lactate solution at pH 3.7, they belong to large values intervals, between 3 and 7 mg·kg-1
150 Lăcătuşu, Stanciu-Burileanu, Lungu, Rîşnovanu, Lăcătuşu, Rizea, Vrânceanu, Lazăr in the outside built-over areas and between 9 and 235 mg·kg-1 in the soils within the built-up area for phosphorus and between 6 and 656 mg·kg-1 in the outside built-over areas and between 92 and 620 mg·kg-1 in the soils within the built-up area for potassium. Practically, these values cover the whole supply domains both for phosphorus and potassium. Some of the analyzed soils (6) contain soluble salts beyond the 100 mg per 100 g soil limit, considered to be the threshold between non-salinized soils and the saline ones. The latter’s salinization level reaches 688 mg/100 g soil. The dominant salts are: calcium sulphate (CaSO4), with values up to 66.1%, magnesium sulphate (MgSO4), with values up to 15.8%, and natrium sulphate (Na2SO4), with values up to 24.7%. Calcium bicarbonate (Ca(HCO3)2), with values up to 23.7%, magnesium bicarbonate (Mg(HCO3)2), with values up to 9.6%, and different proportions of natrium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium chloride, reaching maximum values of 19.6; 50.8; 13.5; respectively 6.1% occur secondarily. The mentioned maximum values belong to different samples. Therefore the Danube Delta analyzed soils, mainly located in the Sireasa and Pardina dyked areas, are made up of Fluvisols and Gleysols, both calcaric, with a slightly alkaline reaction, with a medium carbonates content, with low and medium humus and total nitrogen contents, and diverse levels of mobile phosphorus and potassium supply, from very low to very high. Some of the soils are salinized, reaching up to 688 mg/100 g soil. The soluble salts consist mainly of sulphates, mostly calcium, and bicarbonates and chlorides follow in a decreasing order.
2.2. Total and mobile selenium contents The statistical parameters of the total selenium content in the analyzed soils highlight a value interval between 0.307 and 1.776 mg·kg-1, with medium values of 0.600 mg·kg-1 for the arithmetic mean ( x ) and 0.576 mg·kg-1 for the geometric mean (xg), median (Me), and module (Mo). Separately by the two geometric horizons (0-20 and 20-40 cm) one can notice that the first one contains more selenium than the underlying one (Table 2). If these values are compared to the average total selenium contents in the World’s soils (from Kabata-Pendias and Pendias, 2001), of 0,383 0,255 mg·kg-1, one can notice that the Danube Delta analyzed soils contain 1.6 times more selenium in the 0-40 cm layer and 1.7 times more in the 0-20 cm layer. As compared to the Romania soils from the South-Eastern Romanian Plain and Central and Southern Dobrogea (Lăcătuşu et al., 2010), the Danube Delta analyzed soils contain, on an average, 2.5, respectively 4.2 times more total selenium. The phenomenon can be easily understood if the fact is taken into account that the Danube Delta soils are formed by the Danube alluvia which
Selenium in soils of the Danube Delta North-West part 151 consist, in their turn, of diverse natural materials transported by the river in its course and of anthropic materials discharged in its waters by the riverside countries’ inhabitants.
Tab. 2 – Statistical parameters of the total selenium content (mg·kg-1)
Statistical Depth, cm parameter 0-40 0-20 20-40 n 78 39 39 xmin 0,307 0,377 0,307 xmax 1,776 1,776 0,980 x 0,600 0,648 0,552 0,201 0,239 0,141 xg 0,576 0,619 0,536 cv (%) 34 37 26 Me 0,576 0,584 0,552 Mo 0,575 0,538 0,552
Analyzing and comparing the statistical parameters of the mobile selenium content (Table 3) with the average mobile selenium content in the South-Eastern Romanian Plain and Central and Southern Dobrogea (Lăcătuşu et al., 2010), the same conclusion is reached: the analyzed Delta soils contain more mobile selenium, 1.7 times, than those of the South-Eastern Romanian Plain and 6 times as compared to the Central and Southern Dobrogea ones. The phenomenon’s explanation is the one mentioned above.
2.3 Selenium correlations in the analyzed Delta soils Proportionality relations were established between the total selenium content of the Delta analyzed soils, on the 0-40 cm depth, and the main soil agrochemical characteristics (pH, humus and total nitrogen content, mobile phosphorus and potassium, soluble in the ammonium acetate lactate solution at pH = 7, supply level), entirely statistically ensured (figures 2-6). The total selenium content – reaction (pH) correlation is reverse, and the correlation coefficient has a negative value (r = - 0,465**). The real pH domain in which the correlation is significant is 7.2-8.5. Therefore, in the alkaline reaction domain the total selenium content decreases as the pH value increases, at least for the mentioned reaction interval. The other total selenium correlations, with humus, total nitrogen, and mobile phosphorus and potassium forms, are direct and have high, distinctly significant values both for the correlation coefficient (r) and ratio (). The correlations with
152 Lăcătuşu, Stanciu-Burileanu, Lungu, Rîşnovanu, Lăcătuşu, Rizea, Vrânceanu, Lazăr humus and total nitrogen stand out as being tighter as compared to those with mobile phosphorus and potassium. In the latter case most of the values are distributed in smaller content intervals, otherwise normal for such soils.
Fig. 2 – Correlation between the total selenium content and soil reaction (pH) in the analyzed soils, on the 0-40 cm depth
Fig. 3 – Correlation between the total Fig. 4 – Correlation between the total selenium and the humus contents in the selenium and the total nitrogen contents in analyzed soils, on the 0-40 cm depth the analyzed soils, on the 0-40 cm depth
Selenium in soils of the Danube Delta North-West part 153
Significant correlation ratios and coefficients were also computed between the total and mobile selenium contents, on one hand, and the micro elements (heavy metals) ones, on the other hand (Tables 4 and 5). High values are noticed, of over 0.500, both for the correlation ratios () and coefficients (r), most of them distinctly significant, except for the correlation ratios and coefficients of the manganese and cadmium (Table 4) which are insignificant in the case of the total selenium correlations.
Fig. 5 – Correlation between the total Fig. 6 – Correlation between the total selenium content and the mobile phosphorus selenium content and the mobile potassium one, soluble in ammonium acetate lactate at one, soluble in ammonium acetate lactate at pH = 7 in the analyzed soils, on the 0-40 cm pH = 7 in the analyzed soils, on the 0-40 cm depth depth
Tab. 4 – Correlation ratios (r) and coefficients () of the total micro elements (heavy metals) and selenium contents in some soils of the Danube Delta
Zn Cu Fe Mn Pb Ni Co Cr Cd 0,566** 0,745** 0,721** 0,279 0,389* 0,693** 0,467** 0,681** 0,296 r 0,525** 0,739** 0,721** 0,100 0,371* 0,719** 0,466** 0,681** 0,160
The correlations of the mobile selenium with these chemical elements (Table 5) have much lower values of the correlation ratios and coefficients and are insignificant for some chemical elements (copper, iron, manganese, chromium on the 0-20 cm depth and zinc, copper, iron, manganese, nickel on the 20-40 cm depth). Obvious and distinctly significant are the mobile selenium correlations with the heavy metals (in the true meaning of the word) lead and cadmium both on 0-20 and 20-40 cm depth. It is clearly
154 Lăcătuşu, Stanciu-Burileanu, Lungu, Rîşnovanu, Lăcătuşu, Rizea, Vrânceanu, Lazăr
Tab. 5 – Correlation ratios (r) and coefficients () of the total micro elements (heavy metals) and mobile selenium contents in some soils of the Danube Delta 0-20 cm Zn Cu Fe Mn Pb Ni Co Cr Cd 0,334* 0,259 0,120 0,164 0,395** 0,317* 0,285* 0,406 0,557** r 0,308* 0,169 0,114 0,163 0,314** 0,204 0,276* 0,401 0,463** 20-40 cm Zn Cu Fe Mn Pb Ni Co Cr Cd 0,311 0,322 0,317 0,228 0,472* 0,208 0,553** 0,417* 0,603** r 0,306 0,321 0,258 0,199 0,456** 0,191 0,551** 0,384* 0,533** noticed that the correlation intensity is stronger at the 20-40 cm depth for the statistically ensured correlations. This mainly certifies the geogenic origin of the chemical elements, including selenium, in the analyzed soils.
Conclusions The analyzed Delta soils of the Sireasa and Pardina dyked areas belong to the following types: Calcaric Fluvisol, Calcaric Gleyosol, Mollic Calcaric Gleyosol, Mollic Fluvisol, Calcaro-Calcic Kastanozem, and Calcaro-Calcic Chernozem. They are slightly alkaline, have a moderate carbonate content, low up to medium humus and total nitrogen contents, and diverse, from very low to very high, of mobile phosphorus and potassium. Some of the soils have a salinization level up to 688 mg soluble salts per 100 g soil. The salts are predominantly calcium, magnesium, and natrium sulphates. The analyzed Delta soils have high mobile and total selenium contents, superior to the general average content of the World’s soils and to the South- Eastern Romanian Plain and Central and South Dobrogea soils contents. The higher selenium values were registered out of the Romania’s soils analyzed so far. Generally, in the soils within the built-up area higher values were registered than in the outside built-over areas ones both for selenium an other chemical elements. Between the total selenium content and some of the soils agrochemical features direct proportionality relations (reverse with the pH) were established, entirely statistically ensured. Between the total and mobile selenium contents, on one hand, and micro elements (heavy metals) contents, on the other hand, direct proportionality relations were established, mostly statistically ensured.
Selenium in soils of the Danube Delta North-West part 155
The increase of the insurance degree of the selenium correlations with some micro elements (heavy metals) with the soil profile depth certifies the geogenic origin of the chemical elements in the Delta soils. Although the Danube Delta is a deprived area the selenium content of the analyzed soils is high without reaching, though, toxicity levels.
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Lăcătuşu R., Aldea M. M., Lungu M., Rizea N., Stroe V. M., Lazăr R. (2009), Selenium în rock-soil-plant system, Trans. Of Symp. „Environment and agriculture în arid arias”, 3-4 9. 2009, Constanţa, 119-124 (published in Romanian). Lăcătuşu R., Oancea F., Stanciu-Burileanu M. M., Lăcătuşu A. R., Lungu M., Stroe V. M., Manole D., Sicuia O., Iliescu H., Jinga V., Lany S. Z. (2010a), Selenium în the soil-plant system from the south-eastern part of Romania, Proc. Of the 15-th World Fertilizers Congress, Bucharest, 29.8.-2.9.2010, 67-78. Lăcătuşu R., Lungu M., Aldea M. M., Lăcătuşu A. R., Stroe V. M., Lazăr R. D., Rizea N. (2010b), Selenium în the rock-soil system from south-eastern part of Romania, Pres. Env. and Sustainable Development, 4, 145-158. Läuchli A. (1993), Selenium în plants: uptake, functions and environment toxicity, Bot. Acta, 106, 455-468. Lin Z., Zayed A., Terry N. (1999), Role of selenium volatilization în the management of selenium-laden agricultural drainage water, Trans.of 5-th Intern. Conf. Biogeochem. Trace Elements, Vienna, 878-879. Maksimović Z. J., Djujić I., Jović V., Rsumović M. (1992), Selenium deficency în Yugoslavia, Biol. Trace Elem. Res., 33,187-196. Munteanu I., Curelariu Gh. (1996), Soil map of the Danube Delta, anexa la lucrarea Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve (I. Munteanu). Poll E. (1968), Contribuţii la rolul seleniului în patologia puilor de găină, Doctor’s degree dissertation, Inst. Agronomic Bucureşti. Pourbaix M. (1963), Atlas d’équilibres électrochimiques, Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 554-559. Reilly C. (2006), Selenium în food and health, Springer Science + Business Media, New York. Salanţiu V. (1970), Carenţele în seleniu la viţei, miei, purcei şi malaci, Doctor’s degree dissertation, Inst. Agron. Cluj-Napoca. Schrauzer G. N. (2004), Selenium, în „Elements and their compounds în the environment” (Ed. Merian, Anke, Ihnat, Stoeppler), Wiley-VCH Verlag, Weinheim. Serdaru M., Vlădescu L., Avram N. (2003), Monitoring of feed selenium în a southeast region of Romania, J. Agric., Food Chem., 51(16), 4727-4731. Serdaru M., Giurgiu G. (2007), The selenium status assessment în the trophic chain plant-animal-human în Ardeal, Bull. USAMV-CN, 64(1-2), 576. Turckainen M., Hartikainen H., Seppänen M. (2005), Selenium în plant nutrition, Proc. „20 Years of Selenium Fertilization”, Agrifood Research Reports, 69, 53-60.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IMPROVEMENT POSSIBILITIES FOR SMALL HYDROPOWER PLANT PROJECTS
Theodor Ghindă1, Theodora Ardeleanu2
Key words: small hydropower plant, environment, water intake
Abstract.The existing solutions for small hydropower plants were considered convenient from the technical point of view over a long period, while general environmental concerns of society increased in all directions during the last decades. This paper refers to how to include environmental protection measures during the selection of the sites for a small hydropower plant and its water intake, during the preparation of the project, and then during operation. Investments for modernization of old small hydropower plants have to also include improvements regarding especially the protection of the river ecosystem.Specific environmental training for those who will be designers of small hydropower plants can be useful for environmental protection improvement in such projects.
Introduction River hydropower potential is an important resource in many countries and various technical solutions and specific equipments were developed for its use. A large number of hydropower plants having very different total powers, according to local conditions, were built in several European states, and also in Romania [12]. In the last decades, the hydro-energy producers with smaller installed power have been called small hydropower plants, the present limit for this category being generally up to 10 MW. Small hydropower plants, which produce clean energy, allow the avoidance of fossil fuels consumption increase, and therefore act towards environment protection. However, this does not result in automatic compliance with environmental protection requirements, because many of them need constructions in river
1 Sen. Res. PhD., National Institute for Research and Development in Environmental Protection [email protected] 2 Sen. Res. Ph.D., National Institute for Research and Development in Environmental Protection, Bucureşti, Romania [email protected]
158 Theodor Ghindă, Theodora Ardeleanu channels and on river banks and they influence water flow [2][3][4][8], with various effects [5] that have to be analyzed for each case. Actually, the existing solutions for large hydropower plants and small hydropower plants were considered convenient from the technical point of view over a long period, while general environmental concerns of the society increased in all directions in the last decades, in order to avoid long term degradation of some environment factors or components, with serious effects, caused by the whole range of human activities. Environmental legislation of the European Union and Romania comprises now high environmental requirements for economic activities, with the purpose of orienting economy and society towards sustainable growth models, environment protection becoming one of the main concerns. Hydropower plant projects, technically very good, have to follow environmental procedures that are more complicated than stakeholders expected, with public discussions and sometimes encountering difficulties in the approval by environmental protection authorities. That is why it is necessary, even in the preparation phase of a small hydropower plant project, to know the applicable environmental requirements and to develop solutions in order to comply with them and avoid important difficulties and delays in the subsequent phases. The need to provide support and orientation in environmental problems to those who prepare small hydropower plant projects has been recognized by groups of specialists concerned with sustainable development in hydro-energy use. The present paper shows some more frequently applicable requirements, and some approaches towards complying with these demands.
1. Consideration of environmental protection during the selection of the sites for a small hydropower plant and its water intake, and during the preparation of the project A project for a small hydropower plant has to be prepared step by step, taking into consideration the environmental legislation (Fig. 1). From the point of view of designing hydropower plants, the most important change of environmental legislation has been generated by the Water Framework Directive, implemented in the Law of Waters in Romania. According to these new legal provisions, water bodies, e.g. rivers or lakes, have to be protected, enhanced and restored with the aim of achieving good surface water status by 2015, or, for artificial and heavily modified water bodies, to be protected and enhanced with the aim of achieving good ecological potential and good surface water chemical status in a certain period.
Environmental protection improvement possibilities for small hydropower plant 159
This means achieving an adequate quality of the biological elements (for rivers: aquatic flora, benthic invertebrates, fish fauna), hydro-morphological elements (hydrological regime, river continuity, morphological conditions), chemical and physical-chemical elements (thermal conditions, oxygenation conditions, salinity, acidification status, nutrient conditions, priority pollutants, other specific pollutants). Some impacts of small hydropower plant projects are related to fish fauna and hydro-morphological conditions. Modifications of water bodies may be hardly accepted under the provisions of this directive, and only if several conditions are met: adverse impact mitigation, explanation of reasons, overriding public interest, lack of other significantly better environmental options because of technical feasibility or disproportionate cost. The main problems faced by small hydropower plant projects (Fig. 2) are related to: . water flow quantity . longitudinal continuity . migration possibility for some fish species. Another important change in environmental legislation is due to the Habitats Directive and the development of the corresponding network of natural protected areas. Direct impact on natural protected areas can be prevented or limited by avoiding to locate the constructions of the project or the access roads in such areas or near them. For projects and their auxiliary constructions that are proposed to be located in such areas, it is necessary to carry out a very detailed assessment of potential adverse impacts on every protected habitats and species of that area. In order to improve environmental protection in a small hydropower plant project, it has to be in agreement with the management measures for the protected area. Therefore, it would be better to select a site for a small hydropower plant outside the natural protected areas and so that to avoid as much as possible the potential impacts on such areas. Such an approach saves time in the environmental impact assessment procedure for the project. If a site within a natural protected area is taken into consideration, it is absolutely necessary to discuss with the specialists who take care of that protected area, so that to know if they can agree to the proposed project with some technical requirements, or if they cannot agree because of specific features of the natural protected area. Actually, the site for a small hydropower plant and its auxiliary constructions has to be selected so that it is both technically convenient and environmentally acceptable, as for other types of investments [11].
160 Theodor Ghindă, Theodora Ardeleanu
The really usable hydropower potential results after taking into account the necessary flow to the downstream river sector for the protection of the water body ecosystem and for other uses. Sufficient downstream flow is necessary for avoiding modifications of some habitats and this is very important for the protection of biodiversity [6]. The downstream water flow can be specified as a minimum value, or by a set of values, taking into consideration some hydrological conditions.
Selection of a technically and environmentally adequate site
Preparing a small hydropower plant project Design the scheme and components so that to answer to the environmental legislation requirements
Ensure an adequate flow to the downstream sector of the river
Fig. 1 – Project preparation steps considering environmental legislation
Quantity and dynamics of water flow
Requirements related to the water body where a small hydropower plant is River continuity located
Fish migration possibility
Fig. 2 – Main requirements for water body protection
Environmental protection improvement possibilities for small hydropower plant 161
To select the site, it is advisable to start from a classification of river sectors, taking into account their ecological importance for the whole river and the hydropower potential. It is also necessary to know that the project can be compatible with the river basin management plan, which has in view certain objectives regarding the state of the water body, according to the environmental legislation. During the selection of the site and preparation of the project, it is necessary to take into account the users of water from the respective river. Where it is the case, the correlation with the background elements of the management plans for natural protected areas and with the provisions of these plans is useful. The preferable zones are those where activities are possible in order to prepare the access roads and the water intake, and for construction, with an impact on the environment as low as possible. Therefore, site selection criteria that take into account only technical and economical aspects can lead to difficulties and a longer duration for going through with the procedure to obtain the environmental agreement. Under the present environmental legislation, for preparing a project for a small hydropower plant that can be approved without many modifications, it is absolutely necessary to take into consideration the environmental criteria, besides the technical and economical aspects. Actually, this leads to schemes that include some costs for the environment. This approach is in agreement with the policy of orientation towards sustainable development, preparing medium-term and long-term sustainable projects without unacceptable effects on environment and society. Finally, selecting with care the site for a small hydropower plant and its water intake and auxiliary constructions, it is possible to reduce as much as possible present and future potential environmental costs, which would consist of: -environmental monitoring contracts -environmental reports to authorities -discussions with the public -modifications of constructions and components in order to answer to some requirements that will appear later -eventually, compensation measures if the project is located in a natural protected area. Moreover, there are more chances to comply with future requirements of environmental legislation and to have long operation duration. Adequate selection of the site and of technical and construction solutions for a small hydropower plant is decisive for environmental effects, because only management is flexible in the operation period.
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In comparison with the projects for new water intakes, the impact is smaller in case of modernization of old small hydropower plants where repairs or replacement of equipments have to be done. The investments for such old production plants have to also include environmental protection improvements, for example fish passes and the specification of the needed flow towards the downstream river sector taking into account the conclusions of specialists with regard to the ecosystem. During the operation period of a small hydropower plant, some project proposals can be useful for the environment, for example referring to: - Measures for correction of negative effects, immediately after they are observed. - Modernization from time to time, taking into account the present requirements and the expected ones, on the basis of existent or proposed environmental legislation and best practices. Consideration of environmental protection while designing a small hydropower plant and its auxiliary constructions has to be based on experience regarding good technical solutions, looking also for possible answers towards complying with present environmental requirements. Besides technical and economic aspects, optimization of solutions for each case has also to be guided by reasonable limitation of the environmental impact. There are different types of small hydropower plant schemes: . Small hydropower plant with water intake and water supply canal, then energy generation and water discharge. . Small hydropower plants on the river. . Small hydropower plants located at man-made lakes with multiple uses. . Small hydropower plants set in action by water for irrigation or by water discharged after use in some industrial installations. A small hydropower plant does not contribute to the impact on the water use in such cases. A proposed scheme for answering to the requirements of longitudinal continuity and protection of migrating fauna, presented in the figure below (Fig. 3), keeps a free flow part of the river cross-section.
Environmental protection improvement possibilities for small hydropower plant 163
Water flow to the small hydropower plant
Downstream sector
Longitudinal continuity Fish pass
Fig. 3 – Local scheme for keeping longitudinal continuity in a part of the river cross-section and protection of migrating fauna
For diminishing the impact of the constructions of a small hydropower plant on the natural environment, it is recommended to integrate them into environment as much as possible, taking into account local landscape features and using local materials: cover with location - specific materials, e.g. stone from that zone, use of wood for some auxiliary constructions. The water intake installations provide water for electric energy production and can also be useful for some environmental problems: - Cleaning the river by removing some wastes that do not have to go farther in the environment (PET bottles, other plastic materials, packages, etc.), collecting them from the water intake grid. - Additional point for observing and communicating some accidental pollution. The mentioned ideas can also be taken into consideration for modernization and adaptation of some existing small hydropower plants to environmental requirements for the next period. Modernization can improve environmental protection and offer higher energy production from a renewable source (river water flow) using more efficient generators. It is advisable to take into account environmental aspects as much as possible in a small hydropower plant design, following notes from the authorities or the public, and to take into consideration the requirements of the existing or planned water users. Proceeding in this way, it will be possible to go through the procedures in a shorter time for obtaining the necessary approvals for construction, putting into service and operation of a proposed small hydropower plant. Moreover, the
164 Theodor Ghindă, Theodora Ardeleanu approvals will probably specify less obligations regarding environmental protection if the project answers better the environmental requirements.
2. Environmental protection improvement during construction and operation of a small hydropower plant Environment protection measures during the construction of a small hydropower plant with its water intake and all the other components are especially important for preventing and limiting effects on the natural environment. Various measures are needed (Fig. 4).
Measures for environmental protection during the necessary activities for implementing a small hydropower plant project
Environmental protection Dismantling of the measures during buiding site, fulfiling the field the regulations and preparation obligations activities regarding environmental Measures for Environmental protection environmental protection protection during during the activities for the construction Measures for water intake preparation and installing environmental and auxiliary activities at the protection during constructions small hydropower activities for plant installing electric lines microhidrocentrală
Fig. 4 – Project implementation steps that need measures for protecting the environment
Environmental protection during the operation period of a small hydropower plant
Environmental Important documents for management environmental protection during the operation
Monitoring relevant Maintaining adequate elements for state of constructions environmental protection, and equipments, for during the operation avoiding negative effects period on environment
Fig. 5 – Measures for ensuring protection of the environment during the operation period
Environmental protection improvement possibilities for small hydropower plant 165
Specific environmental training for those who will be designers of small hydropower plants can be useful for environmental protection improvement in such projects. Environment protection measures are also necessary during the operation period of a small hydropower plant (Fig. 5).
Conclusions New projects of small hydropower plants have to comply with the environmental legislation, and the most difficult steps refer to the Water Framework Directive and to the legislation for natural protected areas. The decisive steps for preparing a small hydropower plant project to meet environmental requirements are: selection of a technically and environmentally adequate site, design the scheme and components so that they answer to the environmental legislation requirements, ensure an adequate water flow to the downstream sector of the river. Selection of a site in a natural protected area has to be in agreement with the management plan and conservation objectives of the protected area. For projects proposed in natural protected areas, more detailed studies are needed because the main subjects are habitats and species for which the areas have been delimited. Small hydropower projects can be prepared and implemented faster for sites outside natural protected areas. Projects of small hydropower plants have to be compatible with the objectives for water bodies. Especially fish migration, river continuity and downstream flow are the problems of a hydropower plant project in relation to the river state. Environmental protection improvement possibilities focus on fish pass and water intake design, which are very important for answering to these requirements. Water intake solutions proposed to allow the natural river flow through a part of the cross-section would be good for preserving river continuity and fish migration. To have a well-argued value of an adequate flow to the downstream sector of the river, it has to be identified on the basis of a specialized study after examining the specific fauna and conditions of the river. The needed downstream flow can be specified as a minimum value, or by a set of values for different periods of the year and different hydrological conditions. Modernization of old small hydropower plants offers the possibility to include positive environmental actions for improving the state of the water bodies where they are located. Following the objectives of the Water Framework Directive, investments for modernization of small hydropower plants can also contribute to: - improvement of river continuity and migration possibility for some species of aquatic fauna
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- ensure adequate flow values (ecological flow) for the downstream aquatic ecosystem according to a specialized study. Construction of a fish pass has to be included in such projects where it is the case, as concluded by a specialist in biodiversity after examination of the river state and fauna. Replacement of old equipments by new more efficient ones results in clean energy production increase, which is a contribution to environmental protection, and also covers costs related to environment protection. Small hydropower plants can be better integrated in the natural environment by using natural materials specific to the zone where they are located. In addition to energy production, small hydropower plants can contribute to environmental protection by collecting wastes (e.g. plastic materials) brought by the river to the water intake, and also by observation and communication of unusual effects on the river that may be due to an accidental pollution from upstream. Environment protection measures during the construction of a small hydropower plant with its water intake and all the other components are especially important for preventing and limiting the effects on the natural environment. There are various necessary measures and their application can be supervised periodically. Specific environmental training for those who will design a small hydropower plants can be useful for environmental protection improvement in such projects. Environment protection measures are also necessary during the operation period of a small hydropower plant. Especially the water flow to the downstream river sector and the state of the fish pass are important.
References: Virginia Ciobotaru, Ana Maria Socolescu (2006), Priorităţi ale managementului de mediu. (Priorities of environmental management). Meteor Press, Bucureşti. Dumitru Cioc (1983), Hidraulică. (Hydraulics). Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti. Simion Hâncu, Gabriela Marin (2007), (Theoretical and applied hydraulics). Hidraulică teoretică şi aplicată. Cartea Universitară, Bucureşti. Simion Hâncu, Mihail Popescu, Didi Duma, Paul Dan, Emil Rus, Eugen Zaharescu, Alexandru Danchiv, Alexandru Constantinescu (1985), Hidraulică aplicată – Simularea numerică a mişcării nepermanente a fluidelor. (Apllied hydraulics – Numerical simulation of unsteady fluid flow). Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti. Ioniţă Ichim, Dan Bătucă, Maria Rădoane, Didi Duma (1989), Morfologia şi dinamica albiilor de râuri. (Morphology and dynamics of river channels). Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti.
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Ildiko Ioan, Florina Bran, Carmen Valentina Rădulescu (2009), Dimensiunea managerială a conservării naturii. (Managerial dimension of nature conservation). Editura Universitară, Bucureşti. Octavian Luca, Theodora Ardeleanu (2000), Relaţii dintre un lac de acumulare cu folosinţă complexă şi mediul înconjurător. (Relationships between a man-made lake with complex use and environment). Lucrările primei Conferinţe a hidroenergeticienilor din România, 26-27 mai 2000, Universitatea Politehnica Bucureşti, Facultatea de Energetică, p. 799-807. Octavian Luca, Gabriel Tatu (2002), Environmental impact of free surface flows: evaluation and protection. Editura Orizonturi Universitare, Timişoara. Ion Pişota, Liliana Zaharia, Daniel Diaconu (2005): Hidrologie. (Hydrology). Editura Universitară, Bucureşti. Richard B. Primack, Maria Pătroescu, Laurenţiu Rozylowicz, Cristian Iojă (2008), Fundamentele conservării diversităţii biologice. (Foundations of biological diversity conservation). Editura AGIR, Bucureşti. Maricica Stoica (2005), Investiţiile şi dezvoltarea durabilă. (Investments and sustainable development). Editura Universitară, Bucureşti. Petru Şerban, Viorel Al. Stănescu, Petre Roman (1989), Hidrologie dinamică. (Dynamic hydrology). Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti.
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PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
DISPARITIES IN MUNICIPAL WASTE MANAGEMENT ACROSS EU-27. A GEOGRAPHICAL APPROACH
Florin-Constantin Mihai1, Liviu Apostol2
Key words: territorial disparities, municipal waste, spatial-temporal analysis
Abstract. Inadequate waste management leads to many environmental issues and the adoption of an efficient and sustainable waste management has become a priority objective of the EU. However, besides the demographic factors, the various socio-economic and geographical conditions of this complex space lead to major disparities in municipal waste management between North and South, East and West. This paper aims to do a spatial-temporal analysis of the Eurostat indicators using ascending hierarchical cluster analysis that divides the member states into five typological classes. The resulted maps highlight territorial disparities among Member States on municipal waste management and also reveal the evolution of environmental policies between 2003-2009 related to the EU acquis.
Introduction Municipal waste and similar are the waste generated in urban and rural areas respectively: in households (household waste), commerce and trade, small businesses, offices and institutions, (similar waste), yard and parks waste, bulky waste, street waste, construction and demolition waste. As far as municipal waste is concerned, the differences between countries arise for two main reasons: the differences found in specific categories to be included in this stream (the most relevant being 'household' and ‘similar’ waste, from shops, offices, etc.) and the differences found in the collection system applied in each country. (Eurostat, 2001) The share of waste from households ranges for most countries between 60 % and 90 % depending on the amount of other waste collected under the responsibility of the municipality, the percentage of commercial waste in municipal waste ranges for most countries between 10 % and 35 %. (EC, 2005). Europe has more experience with waste prevention than other regions, and recycling and materials recovery are well supported in Northern Europe. This is much less true in the southern EU countries and in the transition economies of the
1 PhD student ”Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, [email protected] 2 Prof.PhD ”Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, [email protected]
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Eastern Europe (UNEP, 2005). Household waste management schemes adopt economic, regulatory or incentive based instruments that are widely acceptable across Europe (Husaini et al., 2007). One person’s waste can be a resource to others, particularly in different geographical, temporal and cultural contexts (Davies, 2003). Though waste prevention is at the top of the EU waste hierarchy, waste management (separate collection) and landfill limitation policies have prevailed, if not dominated the field (Mazzanti and Zoboli, 2008). Improving household waste management behaviour has been identified as an important component of reducing the volume of the produced waste. (Fahy and Davies, 2007)
1. Materials and methods This article proposes a geographical approach to highlight territorial disparities in the EU-27 on municipal waste generation, municipal waste disposal (landfilling and incineration), recycling and composting. Changing methodologies concerning waste statistics since 2001 and the implementation of the EU acquis in the new EU member states have led to a progressive improvement of quality data on municipal waste management. However, a spatial-temporal analysis requires caution because the relevance of these data is questionable and leads to difficulties in interpreting the results. Thus, the period chosen for such an analysis is 2003- 2009, although the Eurostat database contains available data since1995. We have to take into account that in the new Member States, on the one hand the population is not fully covered by sanitation services and on the other hand, the reported values are estimated. Often these data are calculated according to the volume of waste or applying general indicators of waste generation for the population unserved by sanitation services. Moreover, the differences among countries on waste fractions that are included in the category of municipal waste slow down the geographic analysis of waste management. The introduction of weight systems in waste management facilities and the increasing access to sanitation services lead to improved waste indicators. In this context, the spatial-temporal analysis takes into account the following indicators: municipal waste generation (kg / inhabitant / year), landfilled waste (kg / inhabitant / year) incinerated waste (kg / inhabitant / year). For each indicator, statistics are processed using ascending hierarchical cluster analysis that divides the member states in five typological classes that are mapped. Each class has different values (standard deviations) related to the EU-27 average, allowing deduction of qualitative conclusions. The charts are designed to support the maps obtained and to facilitate the interpretation of results. In order to assess the current systems of municipal waste management, an ascending hierarchical cluster analysis regarding the share (%) of landfilled, incinerated, recycled and composted waste of the total
Disparities in municipal waste management scross EU-27 171 municipal waste generated in 2009 (the last Eurostat available data, updated in 2011) is achieved.
2. Results and discussion 2.1 Spatial-temporal analysis of municipal waste generation The indicator of municipal waste generation per capita is particularly important in planning actions for a sustainable waste management. It is also the basis of references for forecasting and modeling future waste generation in correlation with different economic and socio-demographic parameters (Beigl et al., 2008). Applying ascending hierarchical cluster analysis, the EU-27 members were divided in the following typological classes:
Fig.1 – Disparities in the municipal waste generation in the EU-27
Class 1- includes most new member states of the EU, municipal waste generation per capita is significantly lower (300 kg/per capita/yr) than the EU-27
172 Florin-Constantin Mihai, Liviu Apostol due to increased disparities on the economic situation and standard of living. The multi-annual average of GDP per capita <100 (in PPS EU27 = 100); urban population is lower and life expectancy as well. Low values for these countries are explained by the fact that the population is only partially served by sanitation services and waste quantities are usually estimated and not weighed due to the lack of infrastructure in this regard.The trend of a slight increase in waste generated since 2004 is due on the one hand to the improvement of waste statistical methodology and development of waste collection services and on the other hand to the economic growth, which stimulates the consumption patterns.
Fig.2 – Municipal waste generated – the annual average of classes compared with the EU-27 average
Class 2 – France and Italy have waste generation values very close to the EU -27 average (over 500 kg/ per capita/yr) and a chronological evolution approximately constant from 2003 to 2009. This shows that the primary waste management measures were oriented to waste disposal and less to recovery or prevention of waste generation. Class 3- per capita waste generation is lower than the EU-27 average (400- 500 kg/ per capita/yr); the data for Hungary, Slovenia and Bulgaria have improved since 2002 with their harmonization with the EU legislation; however, precautions are necessary in their interpretation. Also in Portugal, since 2001, conditions have been created to obtain more reliable data at national level (Magrinho A et al. 2006). Prevention and waste reduction policy is poorly implemented and recycling has a low efficiency. In Estonia, the share of similar (commercial) waste is higher than household waste (EC, 2005). The quantity of solid waste generated in Greece continues to be somewhat lower than in other European countries, reflecting less intense
Disparities in municipal waste management scross EU-27 173 consumption patterns (Papaioannou and Economopoulou, 2004). In the Northern Europe countries (Sweden and Finland), although they generate less waste than the EU-27 average, the values are high compared to low population densities. So far, in Finland, the national targets on MSW reduction have been set fairly low. (Sokka et al 2007) Class 4-. Includes on the one hand the states with the highest living standards in Europe (Denmark and Luxembourg) and on the other hand Ireland and Cyprus where consumption growth in recent years have led to significant increasing of waste generation, higher than the EU 27 average (over 700 kg / per capita /yr) with a continuous ascending trend. Denmark policies focused on changing the method of waste disposal from land filing to incineration with energy recovery, supplemented by recycling programs measures and less on instruments which encourage waste prevention or reduction. Municipal waste management policy in Ireland has stimulated the increasing quantities of waste generated, far beyond EU average, due to the growing consumption. Opposition to charges on waste treatment and landfilling and low prevention and recycling programs have led to this situation. (Davies, 2005). Cyprus, with a population of 949 000, generates waste far above the average of the EU-27, including waste from tourists, having only a 3% recycling rate. (Athanassiou and Zabaniotou, 2007) Class 5-This class is represented by high-income countries Netherlands, Germany, Austria, above the EU 27 average (GDP> 100 in PPS for EU 27 = 100), public access to waste collection services is 100%, (OECD, 2008) waste management systems are based on incineration, recycling and waste recovery. In the UK, waste management is changing from waste disposal to recycling. After 2003, there has been a slight decrease in waste generation that is due to economic instruments (charges on landfills or on the amount of waste generated), financial incentives for the private sector, the legal framework which aims to reduce waste generation. Unlike these countries, waste management policy in Spain was more oriented towards waste disposal in landfills. The high values are due to the progressive growth of the economy favoring consumption growth.
2.2 Spatial-temporal analysis of municipal waste landfilled Waste landfilling is still an important option in waste management systems, but its share varies across the EU -27, emphasizing the following categories: Class 1 - EU high-income countries, which can afford to dispose the municipal waste generated in incinerators equipped with facilities which ensure energy recovery and limit the environmental impact. Furthermore, the lower proportion of biodegradable waste and also the cooler climate favor the incineration and not the landfilling for Northern Europe (Denmark, Sweden).
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Landfill of waste is diminished due to legal regulations and economic instruments adopted (high charges for waste disposal facilities), waste incineration, biological and mechanical treatment and recycling programs being economically viable alternatives for Germany, Austria, Netherlands and Belgium. In Germany, waste disposal decreased significantly in recent years due to the improved recovery and recycling programs (Dongqing et al, 2010). The amount of waste landfilled per capita continuously decreases, suggesting the performances of waste management systems implemented in each state.
Fig.3 – Disparities in municipal waste landfilled
Class 2- Includes the new Member States where most of the generated waste is landfilled (Romania, Lithuania, Estonia), the southern states where the landfiling still has an important role in waste management options along with waste recycling and composting (Italy and Portugal) and Finland, where incineration is not as well developed as in Denmark or Sweden.
Disparities in municipal waste management scross EU-27 175
Fig.4 – Municipal waste landfilled – the annual average of classes compared with EU-27 average
Class 3 - Landfill of waste significantly above the EU-27 average with double values (over 600 kg / inhabitant / year) for the island states Malta and Cyprus with an ascendant trend since 2006. This is caused by the increased municipal waste generation, far above the EU average (fig.1), due to consumption growth and tourist inflows and on the other hand to the lack of measures to minimize their generation. Class 4 - Most of the waste generated and collected is directly disposed in landfills (Bulgaria, Hungary, Slovenia, Lithuania) and recycling is poorly developed. Grecce depends strongly on sanitary landfills, although the need for increased recycling and new waste management facilities is recognized by the authorities in the Regional Plan. (Perkoulidis et al, 2010). The adoption of the acquis communautaire leads to an improvement in waste management. The focus is on alternative solutions regarding disposal of waste, for example replacement of non-compliant sites with sanitary landfills, construction of transfer stations or incinerators with energy recovery. The waste prevention measures implemented so far are not significant and the amounts of waste generated and landfilled are expected to increase in the future. Class 5 - Landfill of waste is done under the EU-27 average (respectively 200kg/per capita/yr), but it has the largest share in the treatment of waste generated for the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Poland. In Poland, the registered quantities of waste collected and disposed of are often deliberately underestimated, as a result of informal trading between the involved companies. (Den Boer et al., 2010). In France, the need of landfills decreases because the waste management plans support the development of incineration plants and recycling facilities.
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2.3. Spatial-temporal analysis of municipal waste incineration The incineration of municipal waste is often more expensive than waste landfilling, not being economically viable for the Southern and Eastern Europe. Also the higher share of biodegradable waste and lower amounts of waste generated encourage the waste landfilling and composting. Thus, in some Member States there are no incineration plants for municipal waste disposal (Romania, Bulgaria, Lithuania, Cyprus, Greece), but only for the industrial waste sector. The EU-27 average of incinerated municipal waste does not include these countries; the disparities are outlined by the following classes:
Fig.5 – Disparities in incinerated municipal waste
Class 1 - Since 2001, Denmark benefits from modern infrastructure able to meet the specific needs of waste incineration in terms of environmental protection (Burcea, 2009). Also Denmark generates large amounts of waste (600 kg / per
Disparities in municipal waste management scross EU-27 177 capita / yr): 2/3 is incinerated (about 400 kg / per capita / yr), the rest is recycled or treated; landfilling is almost inexistent. Class 2 - includes countries where municipal waste incineration takes place in pilot programs or is in its early stages with very low amounts per capita (<10 kg/per capita/yr) compared to the EU-27 average, and the landfill of waste prevails. Class 3 - Sweden has developed facilities on municipal waste incineration, the amount of incinerated waste is of 250 kg/per capita/yr, far above the EU-27 average (100 kg/per capita /yr). Class 4 – includes high-income countries with a modern infrastructure on municipal waste management. Waste incineration is above the EU-27 average (150 kg/per capita/yr), waste landfilling is limited for recycling or mechanical-biological treatment.
Fig.6 – Municipal waste incinerated - the annual average of classes compared to the EU-27 average
Class 5 - countries where municipal waste incineration is developing against landfill of waste (Finland, UK), the incinerated municipal waste is half of the EU- 27 average respectively 50 kg/per capita/yr). In Italy, there are regional disparities regarding waste management issues. (Mengozzi, 2010). The incineration plays an important role in waste management options in the industrial regions from the North, unlike the Central and Southern Italy, where waste landfilling is the main method of waste treatment causing governance issues (e.g. the Naples case).
2.4. Current municipal waste management options across the EU-27 Class 1 – includes the countries where waste landfilling has become insignificant, being replaced by incineration with energy recovery (Denmark,
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Sweden), co-incineration, recycling and composting having a significant share in waste management options in Belgium, Holland, Germany and Austria. These Member States have the most advanced waste management systems of the EU-27. Class 2 - new EU members of Central and Eastern Europe, where waste landfilling is still the main choice in waste management, recycling and composting of waste is in its early stages; these countries have difficulties in the implementation of the EU acquis. Class 3 - states which have developed composting facilities for biodegradable waste; recycling is not very developed and waste landfilling still prevails.
Fig. 7 – Disparities in current waste management systems in the EU-27
Class 4 - waste landfilling is still significant, but improvements were noted on the development of recycling programs in recent years, in Ireland and Slovenia.
Disparities in municipal waste management scross EU-27 179
Class 5 - the share of incinerated waste increases over the EU average and the amount of landfilled waste decreases (Finland, France); waste recycling and composting have an important role in waste management systems.
Conclusions Disparities regarding the economic and living standards between the member states of Northern and Western Europe compared to the Southern and Eastern Europe are reflected in municipal waste management systems with various environmental implications. The main measures to reduce the generated waste and the landfilling are the adoption of regulations and the economic instruments (charges for waste landfilling, taxes on the amount of waste generated), financial incentives, incentives to encourage waste producers to minimize waste etc. These measures are successfully adopted by western countries having a healthy economy which allow the best practices in waste management. Also, municipal waste management does not depend only on the income of the population; the socio- demographic factors and the implemented environmental policies may have a significant contribution to reducing or increasing the amount of waste generated. The quality and timeliness of data on waste statistics play an important role in waste management planning. The waste collection services of the new member states are poorly equipped to weigh the collected waste and often the reported values are calculated according to the volume of containers or transporting facilities. The improvement of the waste management infrastructure and the orientation of the environmental policies towards waste prevention and reduction should be a real objective in the coming years for most EU members.
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the European Social Fund in Romania, under the responsibility of the Managing Authority for the Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources Development 2007-2013 [grant POSDRU/CPP 107/DMI 1.5/S/78342].
References: Athanassiou, M., Zabaniotou, A. (2007), Techno-economic assessment of recycling practices of municipal solid wastes in Cyprus, Journal of Cleaner Production, 16 , 1474-1483. Beigl P., Lebersorger S., Salhofer S., (2008), Modelling municipal solid waste generation: A review, Waste Management, 28, 200–214 Burcea,S.G., (2009) - Managementul deşeurilor urbane: Perspectivă europeană comparată, Edit ASE, Bucureşti
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Davies,Anna, (2003) - Waste wars– public attitudes and the politics of place in waste management strategies ,Irish Geography, 36(1), 77-92 Den Boer, E., Jedrczak, A., Zygmunt K., Joanna Kulczycka, Szpadt, R., (2010) - A review of municipal solid waste composition and quantities in Poland, Waste Management, 30, 369–377 Fahy, F., Anna Davies. (2007) Home improvements: Household waste minimisation and action research, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 52, 13–27 Husaini, G., Garg A., Kim K.H., Marchant, J., Pollard., S.J.T., Smith R., (2007) European household waste management schemes: Their effectiveness and applicability in England, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 51, 248–263 Magrinho, A., Didelet, F., Semiao V., (2006) - Municipal solid waste disposal in Portugal , Waste Management ,26, 1477–1489 Mazzanti, M., Zoboli,R., (2008) -Waste generation, waste disposal and policy effectiveness Evidence on decoupling from the European Union, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 52, 1221–1234 Mengozzi, A., (2010) - Waste Growth Challenges Local Democracy. The Politics of Waste between Europe and the Mediterranean: a Focus on Italy, California Italian Studies Journal, 1(1), 1-21 (http://escholarship.org/uc/item/53v28242) Papaioannou, M., Economopoulou, A., 2004. Hellenic ministry for the environment, Physical planning and public works, Department of International Relations and EU Affairs. In: Proceedings of the National Reporting to the Twelfth Session of the Commission on Sustainable Development of the United Nations (UN CSD 12), Athens. Perkoulidis G., Papageorgiou,A.,Karagiannidis, A., Kalogirou, S., (2010) - Integrated assessment of a new Waste-to-Energy facility in Central Greece in the context of regional perspectives,Waste Management, 30, 1395–1406 Sokka, L., Antikainen, R., Pekka, Kauppi E., (2007) Municipal solid waste production and composition in Finland—Changes in the period 1960–2002 and prospects until 2020, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 50, 475–488 *** EC 2005 - Waste generated and treated in Europe Data 1995-2003, Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities *** Eurostat 2001 - The development of waste indicators at European Union level: some recent Eurostat experiences, Joint ECE/Eurostat Work Session on Methodological Issues of Environment Statistics (Ottawa, Canada, 1-4 October 2001 *** (2008), OECD - Environmental Data, Compendium 2006-2008, Waste chapter. *** (2005) UNEP - Solid Waste Management (Volume II: Regional Overviews and Information Sources) CalRecovery, Inc. California 94520 USA.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
HEAT WAVES: METEOROLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND BIOMETEOROLOGICAL INFLUENCES (CASE STUDY: ROMANIA, 14-16TH JULY 2011)
Nicoleta Ionac1, Paula Tăbleţ 2, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc3
Keywords: hot weather; heat waves; air-temperature; humidity; heat stress.
Abstract. Some definitions describe heat waves as periods of excessive heat and humidity, which generate the human heat stress due to overheating. For this reason, heat waves can be deadly, and they rank among the world’s top 10 natural disasters. European countries have already experienced some severe heat waves in the 21st century (in 2003, 2006, 2010 and 2011) and climate models predict an increase in the frequency and intensity of mega heat waves in the years to come. That is why, case studies may be very important in the reconstruction of climate models. This paperworks debates on the synoptic conditions that generated the heat wave affecting Romania’s territory on 14-16 July 2011. Moreover, it presents the distribution and evolution of air-temperatures which, in combination with high humidity, contributed significantly to the discomfort people felt during the heat wave. This was quantitatively assessed by the Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) and UV Index, with corresponding values given below.
Introduction The word canicula (meaning hot weather), which can be found in many languages, comes from the Italian word canicula, naming the star Sirius or the Dog’s star, from the Canis Major constellation, which is the brightest star in the evening sky. It seems that the association between the star Sirius and hot weather originates in the Middle Ages, when August was, as it still is nowadays, the hottest month, when the Sirius star just rises up and sets down at the same time with the Sun [1]. When hot weather, often associated with high air-humidity, persists for more consecutive days and over more extended territories, it may turn into a heat wave. There is no universal definition of heat waves yet, but according to the World Meteorological Organization, it may be roughly defined as: a massive invasion of hot air or the intense warming of air over vast territories [2]. However,
1Prof. PhD., University of Bucharest, Romania, [email protected] 2 Ph.D. Student, University of Bucharest, Romania, [email protected] 3 Ph.D. Student, University of Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]
182 Nicoleta Ionac, Paula Tăbleţ, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc the same WMO developed a more accurate definition of heat waves as being: weather episodes in which, for at least five consecutive days, maximum air- temperatures exceed, by more than 50C, the climatological means of the maximum values recorded between 1961 and 1990 [3]. This way, air-temperatures that are being perceived as normal by the inhabitants of some countries with warmer climates, may as well be perceived as extreme in other regions, generating the so-called heat waves. Lately, hot weather and heat waves are more frequently defined in association with other meteorological parameters that describe thermal human comfort or the human body’s effective temperature which depends on air humidity. For example, The US National Weather Service defines a heat wave as three or more consecutive days of highs reaching at least 90 F (320C), while the weather service's parent organization, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), also defines it as simply a prolonged period of excessive heat and humidity [4]. In this respect, bioclimatic indices are used to quantitatively assess the human body stress due to overheating. In the US, the Heat Index is used to tell how hot it really feels when relative humidity is added to the air temperature. Exposure to direct sunshine can also affect the heat index, increasing it by up to 15F, according to NOAA) [5]. In Romania, the highest air-temperature values are recorded from mid-June to late August and hot weather is characterised by the persistence of high air- temperatures all day and night long and by low day-to-night air-temperature ranges or amplitudes. Romania’s National Administration of Meteorology (ANM) defines weather as being hot, when maximum air-temperatures exceed 35°C during the day and maintain around 20°C at night [6].
1. Heat waves: latest impacts and trends So while there is no universally agreed upon definition for what constitutes a heat wave, there is no doubt that it can be deadly. A 'pre-designed' summary and profile of disasters reported that heat waves are particular weather hazards ranking among the world’s top 10 natural disasters. A summary of events from 1980 to 2008 shows that human and economic losses due to heat waves are quite consistent (Table 1 and 2, Figure 1) [7]. As we can see, the heat wave in 2003 represented, for all Europe, a major climatic event, with great negative effects on the ecosystems, population and infrastructure in many of its countries. The most affected countries were Italy, France, Spain, Germany and Portugal, where the extremely long heat wave (from June to August), following a dry spring and continuing until late Sepetember, made many victims. The first heat wave was felt in June, in Portugal, Spain, Italy and southern France. The second, in mid July, extended over northern France, Germany
Heat waves: meteorological characteristics and meteorological influences 183 and Great Britain. According to a World Health Organization (WHO) report, the 2003 heat wave caused over 70,000 deaths in more than 16 European countries [8].
Tab. 1 - Worldwide Heat Wave Effects, 1980-2008
No of events: 126 No of people killed: 89,889 Average people killed per year: 3,100 No of people affected: 4,614,411 Average people affected per year: 159,118 Ecomomic Damage (US$ X 1,000): 21,989,859 Ecomomic Damage per year (US$ X 1,000): 758,271
Fig. 1 - Total number of heat waves reported in the world, 1980-2008
The 2006 European heat wave was a period of exceptionally hot weather that arrived at the end of June 2006 in certain European countries: the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Italy, Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Germany and western part of Russia. In the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Ireland, and the UK, July 2006 was the warmest month since official measurements began [9]. In Belgium, July was the warmest month since records began in 1830, with average maximum temperatures of 28.6°C (83.5°F) in Brussels. This was 1.8°C (3.24°F) warmer than the previous record set in July 1994 and 7°C (12.60°F) warmer than the 30-year meteorological average for Belgium. July 2006 was also one of the sunniest months in Belgian history, with 316 hours of sunshine, or more
184 Nicoleta Ionac, Paula Tăbleţ, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc than 140 hours more than normal. Before 1990, a heat wave occurred in Belgium about once every 8 years, but during the last decade, the country averages one heat wave per year. On 19 July 2006, temperatures throughout the entire country rose to 36°C (97°F), making it the hottest July day in almost 60 years. In the Netherlands, where the monthly air-temperature average is 22.3°C (72.1°F), temperatures went up to to 37.2°C (99.0°F) in July 2006. The highest temperature was recorded on 19 July, when temperatures reached for most of the country the mid- to upper 30's°C (mid- to upper 90s°F), especially in the south- east. The all time record for the month of July was broken [9]. A UN report published on 30 January 2007 showed that the Netherlands ranked the fourth among the countries with most deaths related to natural disasters, with a total loss of more than 1,000 victims.
Tab. 2 - Worldwide Number of Affected and Killed People by Heat Waves, 1980-2008
Heat Wave Date Affected People Heat Wave Date Killed People Australia 1993 3,000,500 Italy 2003 20,089 Australia 1994 1,000,034 France 2003 19,490 Australia 1995 500,100 Spain 2003 15,090 Australia 1994 100,150 Germany 2003 9,355 China P Rep 2002 3,500 Portugal 2003 2,696 Japan 2007 3,000 India 1998 2,541 Peru 1983 2,700 France 2006 1,388 Romania 2005 500 United States 1980 1,260 Cyprus 2000 400 India 2003 1,210 Japan 2004 300 Belgium 2003 1,175 Turkey 2000 300
But the intense heat wave that centered on western Russia in 2010 was truly a record breaker. It surpassed even 2003's scorcher in western and central Europe. From late July until the second week in August 2010, record heat settled over 2 million square kilometers in Russia and Eastern Europe. In Moscow, the daytime temperatures reached 38.2oCelsius, in Kiev, nights reached 25oC, and estimates put the Russian death toll at more than 55,000 [10]. By studying different climate models, the researchers predict an increase in mega heat waves similar to the ones in the 21st century (2003, 2006 and 2010) for two regions within Europe. Researchers, led by David Barriopedro of the Instituto Dom Luiz at the University of Lisbon in Portugal, compared the 2010 mega heat
Heat waves: meteorological characteristics and meteorological influences 185 wave with the one that struck western Europe seven years earlier (2003), and found that 2010's heat wave was not only more severe, but also covered a greater area. Even taking into account the uncertainties in the reconstruction of climate models, they found that 2010 and 2003 were, most likely, the warmest summers since 1500. And together, both of these mega heat waves have secured a place in the 500-year weather history of Europe, according to their analysis [10]. Barriopedro and his colleagues used 11 climate models to examine the outcome of climate change and all models projected an increase in the frequency of mega heat waves during the 21st century in parts of Europe. In particular, they found that mega heat waves of magnitude similar to 2003 would increase by a factor of five to 10 for regions of western and eastern Europe (the western European region included France and parts of surrounding countries, and the eastern region included northwestern Russia and parts of the Baltic nations).
3. Synoptic conditions Heat waves are definitely a complex form of extreme climate event with substantial impacts. In this respect, case studies cannot but be beneficial in assesing future evolution trends of heat waves. And this paperworks analyzes the heat wave episode that affected Romania, in July 2011. In fact, this was a preliminary opening of a greater heat wave that extended later (end of September till October) over other countries (as UK) [11]. The July 2011 Romania heat wave was mainly due to the fact that the Icelandic Low, greatly extending from north-western Europe into scattered low- pressure nuclei all over central Europe, was blocked by the warmer high-pressure ridge advancing from northern Africa, over eastern Europe, up to the northern parts of Russia. This synoptic context favoured the transport of hot, north-African air- masses in the lower and intermediate levels of the troposphere, over eastern Europe, Romania included. In fact, Figure 2 shows the retrograde trajectory of the air-masses at three different atmosphere levels (1,500 m; 3,000 m and 5,000 m), as it could be reconstructed by means of NOAA Hysplit Model. The backward trajectory was simulated for the 96 hours before 16th July 2011, UTC 12.00 hrs., with Bucharest as reference point. This explains that, in fact, the massive advection of hot air from northern Africa was initiated ever since the 14th July and continued for at least two more days. This air-masses circulation type also explains the extensive cloud system developed over most of Central Europe, as we may notice on MSG satellite maps (Figure 4a-c) for all the three consecutive days of reference. However, Romania has clear skies, only a peripheral cloud nucleus affecting its territory on 16th July, inside the Carpathian Arch. Under the circumstances, high air-temperatures, characteristic of
186 Nicoleta Ionac, Paula Tăbleţ, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc tropical hot air extending from northern Africa over central Europe, are being recorded in Romania ever since the 14th July 2011, especially in the Western Plain, lying closer to the core advection. The highest air-temperatures reached 34oC and 36oC on 14 and 15 July, respectively (Figure 5a-c).
Fig. 2 - Backward trajectory of air masses, ending at Bucharest, 12.00 UTC, 16th July 2011
This is also confirmed by the wind speed pattern (m/s) at 700 mb isobaric surface (Figure 3 a-c), showing that, over the Romanian territory, the airstreams were very slow, with speeds ranging from 6-4 m/s on 14th July (Fig. 3a), then they almost came to a halt on 15th July (Fig. 3b) and rapidly increased their speed to 6- 12 m/s, especially on the north-western parts of the country (fig. 3c), as they totally changed into the opposite direction (from NE to SW into SW to NE). In fact, Figure 2 shows the retrograde trajectory of the air-masses at three different atmosphere levels (1,500 m; 3,000 m and 5,000 m), as it could be reconstructed by means of NOAA Hysplit Model. The backward trajectory was simulated for the 96 hours before 16th July 2011, UTC 12.00 hrs., with Bucharest as reference point. This explains that, in fact, the massive advection of hot air from northern Africa was initiated ever since the 14th July and continued for at least two more days.
Heat waves: meteorological characteristics and meteorological influences 187
Fig. 3 - Airstream wind-speed at 700 mb level (a – 14 July; b – 15 July; c – 16 July 2011)
This air-masses circulation type also explains the extensive cloud system developed over most of Central Europe, as we may notice on MSG satellite maps (Figure 4a-c) for all the three consecutive days of reference. However, Romania has clear skies, only a peripheral cloud nucleus affecting its territory on 16th July, inside the Carpathian Arch. Under the circumstances, high air-temperatures, characteristic of tropical hot air extending from northern Africa over central Europe, are being recorded in Romania ever since the 14th July 2011, especially in the Western Plain, lying closer to the core advection. The highest air-temperatures reached 34oC and 36oC on 14 and 15 July, respectively (Figure 5a-c). The persistence of this circulation and the continuous air-temperature increase during daytime, as the high values of potential energy show, were also responsible not only for the extent of the hot air-mass over the Romanian Plain, but also for high air-temperatures (34,4ºC and 35,4ºC) being recorded here the following days (15 and 16 July 2011). A closer look at the spatial distribution of potential energy (gpdm) at the isobaric level of 500 hPa (that is approximately 5,500 m), where the atmosphere’s leading airstreams form, reveals that, in fact, on 14th July (12.00 UTC), Romania was under the influence of a high-pressure system (1,015 hPa) extending from northern Russia to northern Africa, which generated not only high potential energy values (increasing from E-564 gpdm, to W-576 gpdm), but also high air-temperatures (between 16oC in the E to 20oC in the W) at the 850 hPa level (that is approximately 1,500m) (Fig. 6a and 7a – Source: www.wetter3.de ). On the 15th July, the Siberian High advanced farther southwards, determining the steep increase of both potential energy (584 gpdm) and air-temperatures (20-22oC) especially in the western parts of the country (Fig. 6b and 7b). Finally, on 16th July, the
188 Nicoleta Ionac, Paula Tăbleţ, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc
Fig. 4 a-c. Cloud systems over Europe Fig. 5 a-c. Air temperatures at selected a – 14 July; b – 15 July; c – 16 July weather stations in Romania
Icelandic Low pushed fresher air southwards, so that the hot, tropical air withdrew more eastwards, meaning that, in Romania, air cooled off in the Western Plain but still kept hot in the Romanian Plain, where air-temperatures still maintained high (Fig. 6c and 7c).
Heat waves: meteorological characteristics and meteorological influences 189
Fig. 6 – Distribution of geopotential Fig. 7 – Air temperature distribution at 850 energy(gdm) at the 500 hPa level(14-16 hPa (14-16 july; up to bottom) july; up to bottom)
190 Nicoleta Ionac, Paula Tăbleţ, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc
4. Meteorological characteristics As air-temperature is one of the basic elements of weather and climate, the heat wave affecting Romania on 4-16 July 2011, can best be described in terms of air-temperature values (Figure 8).
Fig. 8 - Air-temperature values in Romania on 16th July 2011(12.00 – 18.00 UTC)
Therefore, on the 16th July 2011, while the western parts of the country recorded air-temperatures ranging from 20 to 24oC, the south-eastern parts recorded highs surpassing 32oC in most areas along the Danube River and even 33
Heat waves: meteorological characteristics and meteorological influences 191 oC in Bucharest (Filaret), where the severity of the heat wave was greater because of the urban heat island, resulting from the accumulation of a large amount of heat within the inner city, as compared to the outer rural areas. The following hours, the heat stress got greater as air-temperature values increased to 34 oC and 35oC at 16.00 hrs and kept stagnant until evening (18.00 hrs.). The highest air-temperature values (36 oC) were recorded both on the southernmost peripheries of the country, along the Danube’s left bank and in Bucharest capital city (as the ANM maps presented in Fig. 8 show).
5. Biometeorological influences High humidity contributes significantly to the discomfort people feel during a heat wave. Hot, muggy days are uncomfortable because humans are warm-blooded creatures who maintain a constant body temperature regardless of the temperature of the environment. The human body prevents overheating by perspiring or sweating. However, this process does little to cool the body unless the perspiration can evaporate. It is the cooling created by the evaporation of perspiration that reduces body temperature. Because high humidity retards evaporation, people are more uncomfortable on hot and humid days than on hot and dry days. Generally, temperature and humidity are the most important elements influencing summertime human comfort. Several bioclimatic indices combine these factors to establish the level or degree of comfort or discomfort. One index widely used by Romania’s National Administration of Meteorology (ANM) is called the Temperature-Humidity Index (eng. THI = ro. ITU), expressed in units, which indicates how hot an average person feels on given various conditions of temperature and relative humidity. To note that, as the relative humidity increases, the heat stress increases as well. To advise the public on the potential danger from heat stress, the THI is used to determine the level of human discomfort, in order to categorize the impact that heat will have on the well-being of individuals. It is, however, important to note that factors such as the length of exposure to direct sunlight, the wind speed, and the general health of the individual greatly affect the amount of stress a person will experience. Romania’s legislation includes regulations concerning the specific ways of identifying and reporting on biometeo-climatic risks, according to their character and amplitude of manifestation in given geographical, seasonal and meteorological conditions. This is being done on the basis of the Emergency Order nr. 99, issued by the Romanian Government in 29 June 2000 (the methodological application norms of the above-mentioned order being later established in the Government Decision nr. 580 in 6 July 2000), which identifies the hazardous weather conditions and establishes the „measures to be taken in periods with extreme air-temperatures in order to protect the working persons”; but this has a rather limited area of application since it refers only to
192 Nicoleta Ionac, Paula Tăbleţ, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc the fact that specific authorities, as the National Administration of Meteorology, are obliged to publicly report on dangerous weather events, such as cold or heat waves.
Fig. 9 - THI values in Romania on 16th July 2011 (12.00 – 18.00 UTC)
And since the 14-16 July 2011 heat wave episode was considered hazardous to human health, actual THI values were reported to mass-media every hour, in order for the population to adopt protective measures. For instance, if taking a closer look at the spatial distribution of THI values on 16th July (Figure 9), we’ll notice that, at noon (12.00 hrs.) the upper critical value of 80 THI units was exceeded only towards the southern border of the country, but later in the after-noon (16.00 hrs.), the heat stress became not
Heat waves: meteorological characteristics and meteorological influences 193 only more opressive (with THI values exceeding 84 units), but also more extensive, large areas from the central and eastern parts of the Romanian Plain being influenced by heat stress due to overheating.
Fig. 10 - UVI values in Romania on 16th July 2011
On the previously-mentioned warm days, the sky was cloudless and bright, therefore, sunshine was at its maximum. But too much sunshine (specifically too much ultraviolet-UV radiation) can lead to serious health problems. For this reason, the UV Index was issued to warn the public on the potential health risks of exposure to sunlight. The UV Index is determined by taking into account the predicted cloud cover and reflectivity of the surface, as well as the Sun angle and atmospheric depth for each forecast location. The UVI values lie on a scale from 0 to 11 and higher, with larger values representing greater risk. On the 16th July 2011, the UVI values in Romania ranged from below 8 in the Western Plain, to 9 on most of the country’s territory and to values surpassing 9 units on the south-eastern regions (Figure 10). All these UVI values indicated very high exposure of outdoor people, who were advised, by the authorities, to avoid the Sun during noon hours, otherwise to take all precautions to cover up, use sunscreens, hydrate intensely,wear sunglasses etc.
Bibliography: Georgescu Florinela, Canicula si valul de caldura, www.meteoromania.ro [World Meteorological Organization (1992) – International Meteorological Vocabulary, Geneva. www.wmo.ch Remy Melina (2010), Cruel Summer. The Science of Heat Waves, www.livescience.com www.noaa.gov.org
194 Nicoleta Ionac, Paula Tăbleţ, Adrian-Cătălin Mihoc www.meteoromania.ro [EM-DAT: The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database, Universite Catholique de Louvain, Brussels. Georgescu Florinela, Valurile de caldura din Europa din vara anului 2003, www.meteoromania.ro *** (2011) - 2006 European Heat Wave – www.wikipedia.com [10] Wynne Parry (2011) -Recent Heat Waves Likely Warmest Since 1500 in Europe, www.livescience.com *** (2012), Autumn 2011 United Kingdom heat wave, www.wikipedia.com
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PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
ANALYSIS OF GASEOUS POLLUTANTS IN THE ATMOSPHERE OF BOTOSANI TOWN
Liviu Apostol1, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru2, Paul-Narcis Vieru3
Key words: pollutants, immissions, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, air quality.
Abstract. Immissions of carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) were measured in the central area of Botosani municipality, since January 2008 until December 2009 (Environmental Protection Agency, Mihai Eminescu Avenue, at the altitude of 160 m). The data represent hourly average of the three pollutants concentrations, the measurements being performed with the automatic station – urban background type, from the agency endowment. The purpose of this work is to present the air quality and the connection between concentrations and tendencies of gaseous pollutants in the climatic conditions and in anthropic activities specific in Botosani town. Yearly averages of carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) for the years 2008 and 2009 were: 0.250 mg/m3 and 0.280 mg/m3; 7.26 µg/m3 and 8.29 µg/m3, respectively 37.71 µg/m3 and 30.53 µg/m3. Generally, the maximum values of the pollutants immissions are registered in the cold semester of the year, and the minimum values of the immissions, in the warm semester. The medium value of the ratio CO/ NOx = 5,03 indicates the predominant contribution of the mobile sources in the atmosphere pollution process, and the value of the ratio SO2/NOx = 0.14 indicates the fact that the punctiform pollution sources are responsible of the pollution with SO2 in Botosani town.
Introduction At the level of Botosani municipality, the observations over the air quality are assured by the Environmental Protection Agency (APM/EPA), by its own monitoring system, with an automatic station urban background, with analyzers of carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), placed on Mihai Eminescu Avenue, n. 44, in a populated area, without the direct influence of the industrial emission sources (situated at a distance longer than 2 km) and a traffic area (at a distance longer than 200 m). The station is placed on an open, grassy area without major obstacles in the representativeness area. The urban area
1 Prof.Phd., Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iaşi,[email protected] 2 PhD.Stud., Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iaşi, [email protected] 3 Botoşani Town – Hall, [email protected]
196 Liviu Apostol, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru, Paul-Narcis Vieru is residential and commercial. The height of the sampling point is at 3,7 , from the ground, the sampling time is 24 hours, continuously, and the calibration is automatically. The pollutants life cycle implies emission, dispersion, transport, chemical transformation and their submission to the surface of the ground. The spread of contaminants emitted and their transformation in immission is dependent on weather conditions and closely related with regional relief where the pollution sources, climatic factors, respectively meteorological, are situated, being able to action on the atmosphere pollutants, directly or indirectly. Directly, the physical parameters of the atmosphere act by increasing or decreasing speeds of reaction, by oxidations, favoring hydrolysis, determining „the resistance time” in the atmosphere for every noxa. Indirectly, it influences the propagation, dispersion or stagnation of the atmospheric noxae, along with the dynamics, statics and transformations wich occur in the air masses that contain it (Apostol et al, 1995).
2. Results and discussions Sulphur, carbon and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere, generally, come both from anthropic activities and from natural processes. Carbon monoxide emissions in the atmosphere contribute to generating the greenhouse effect and the main sources at the level of Botosani town are cars and the thermal energy systems (heating stations, individual households). The main compounds with sulphur are inorganic pollutants resulted from fuels burned in stationary sources (population heating systems which do not use marsh gas, from industrial processes, from the sewage combustion from rural and urban areas) or on a small scale from mobile sources (emissions come from diesel engines). Natural sources are the bacteria (bacterial fermentation in swampy areas), oxidation of sulphur-containing gas resulted from decomposition of biomass. Immissions of sulphur dioxide in Botosani county, result, in quantitative, from: industrial combustion plants (92,23%), combustion in energy industry and transformation industry (7,57%), combustion in processing industry (0,09%), waste treatment and storage (0,05%), production processes (0,019%) and other mobile sources and equipments (0,041%) according to the report concerning status of environmental factors in 2009, of Botosani Environmental Protection Agency. The nitrogen oxides (NOx) are very reactive gases, which contain nitrogen and oxygen in variable quantities. From the varieties of nitrogen oxides, N2O (nitrous oxide), NO (nitrogen monoxide), NO2 (nitrogen dioxide), N2O3 (dinitrogen trioxide), only NO si NO2 play an important part in the atmospheric pollution problems. Immissions of nitrogen oxides which are registered in the atmosphere of Botosani county come from: waste treatment and storage (59,93%), traffic
Analysis of gaseous polluants in the atmosphere of Botosani town 197
(20,03%), non-industrial combustion plants (17,64%), energy industry and transformation industry (2,29%), processing industry (0,08%) and the production processes (0,008%). Monitoring air quality in Botosani town was performed according to the law provisions concerning the surrounding air quality in Romania (Law n. 104/2011), and the pollutants monitored, measuring methods, limit values and alert thresholds are established according to the requirements stipulated by the European regulations (tab. 1).
Tab. 1 - Evaluation of CO, SO2 and NOx concentrations in the surrounding air in a certain area or urban agglomeration
Critical Daily limit value, Hourly limit value Alert level 24 hours, for for human health threshold human health protection protection CO - 10 mg/m3* - - SO2 20 µg/m3 125 µg/m3 350 µg/m3 500 µg/m3** NOx 30 - - 400 µg/m3** µg/m3*** *daily maximum value of the averages on 8 hours **measured for 3 consecutive hours, in points representative for the air quality, for a surface of at least 100 km2 or for an entire area or agglomeration; ***yearly critical level for vegetation protection; Legea 104/2011, extras Anexa 3
The town has a surface of 4.135 ha (from which 1.910 ha within incorporated area), a slightly elongated profile on the north - south direction and a medium altitude above sea level of 163 meters (fig.1). The climate is temperate – continental, with winds predominant from North- West and South-East ditections, with a yearly medium temperature of 9,2oC, an average of the atmospheric precipitations of 567.9 mm/a year and a town population of about 116.110 inhabitants. In fig. 2, fig. 3 and fig. 4 are presented the evolutions of the monthly medium concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx) specific of the years 2008 and 2009, in Botosani town. Yearly medium concentrations of carbon monoxide in 2008 (0.252 mg/m3) and 2009 (0.278 mg/m3), didn’t exceed the limit value for human health protection. Instead, this indicator has a positive evolution, in the sense of increasing monthly averages in 2009 in regard to 2008, because of increasing the traffic emissions and the number of apartment heating stations.
198 Liviu Apostol, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru, Paul-Narcis Vieru
Carbon monoxide (CO) is influenced by the nitrogen oxides concentration in the atmosphere through both capacity to react with hydroxyl ions (Weinstock et al, 1980; Parrish et al, 1991). The transformation CO in CO2 is facilitated by the intervention of hydroxyl radicals (OH), a radicals concentration of only 10-9 – 10-8 being enough to transform CO emitted in CO2. The CO resistance time in the atmosphere of approximately 1 – 3 months, represents the slow mixing and consumption rhythm through the reaction with OH.
Fig. 1 - Slopes map – Botosani sector
Also, the existence of some soil bacteria which absorb appreciable quantities of CO influence the atmosphere purification process. SO2 monthly medium concentrations sustain the ascending trend of the yearly medium concentrations beginning with 2000, but they didn’t exceed the limit value, daily or hourly for human health protection. But it was exceeded the critical level for vegetation protection 22 times in 2008 and 9 times in 2009. The level of sulphur dioxide immissions depends, on a very small scale, of the traffic, the registered values are due exclusively to the technological processes in the industrial sector and to the town heat power plant which ensures the heating necessary, technological steam and hot water for urban and industrial consumers. The highest values are registered in May and November. The high values registered in summer are due to the industrial activities, and in winter, to the
Analysis of gaseous polluants in the atmosphere of Botosani town 199 heating sources and thermal inversions which favour the pollutants stagnation to the ground. The SO2 immissions evolution is influenced by the temperature and precipitations evolution. The temperature has the role to increase the reactivity, and the water vapours drive to formation of sulfuric acid (H2SO4). In 2008 and 2009, the monthly NOx medium concentrations exceeded the critical level for vegetation protection, especially in cold months, because of combustion processes and of the heating sources which function at maximum capacity. The daily medium concentration exceeded the critical level 116 times in 2008 and 183 times in 2009. The meteorological conditions and photochemical reactions which took place, may be considered factors which influenced the occurrence of pollution processes in Botosani town.
Fig.2 - Monthly medium concentrations Fig.3 - Monthly medium concentrations of 3 3 of CO (mg/m ) in 2008 and 2009, in SO2 (µg/m ) in 2008 and 2009, in Botosani Botosani
The report of the Environmental European Agency, concerning the thematic evaluation of air quality in Europe in 2010, shows that the energetic sector remain a great source of air pollution, responsible for almost 70% of the sulphur oxides (SOx) in Europe and 21% of the nitrogen oxides (NOx), despite the significant reduction of these emissions in 1990 until present. There is known the fact that a combustion realised in mobile sources is characterized through a raised level of CO and NOx emissions, ant that realised in punctiform sources is highlighted through a raised level of SO2 and NOx emissions. Taking into account this thing, it is expected that for the ratio CO/NOx to obtain a raised value at the mobile pollution
200 Liviu Apostol, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru, Paul-Narcis Vieru sources, and for the ratio SO2/NOx to obtain a low value, a thing valid in reverse, for the punctiform pollution sources.
Fig.4 - Monthly medium concentrations of NOx (µg/m3) in 2008 and 2009, in Botosani
The results of daily measurements performed in 2009, at automatic stations – urban background type, by the environmental protection local agencies, in the main towns in the North-East part of the country, we present as ratio CO/NOx and SO2/NOx, in tab.2. Analyzing comparatively the ratio CO/NOx and SO2/NOx, is highlighted the fact that the mobile sources contribute most to air contamination with CO and NOx in Piatra Neamt, Vaslui, Bacau town in relation to Botosani town, and the punctiform sources, in the same towns are due to SO2 pollution. In Botosani town, in 2009, the yearly CO medium concentration represents 42,3% of the one of Iasi town, and the SO2 concentration had the highest value in the six towns in the NE part of the country.
Tab. 2. CO, SO2 and NOx yearly medium concentrations in 2009
Town CO(mg/m3) SO2(μg/m3) NOx(μg/m3) CO/NOx SO2/NOx Bacău 0.21 5.84 18.36 11.43 0.31 Botoşani 0.26 8.27 37.73 6.89 0.21 Iaşi 0.45 4.90 40.50 11.11 0.12 Piatra Neamţ 0.21 4.67 13.07 16.06 0.35 Suceava 0.16 4.08 20.31 7.87 0.20 Vaslui 0.28 6.24 24.00 11.66 0.26 Source: ARPM Bacau, Yearly report concerning the environmental factors condition (2010)
Analysis of gaseous polluants in the atmosphere of Botosani town 201
From the analysis of the daily and monthly CO and NOx medium concentrations evolution, it is observed how these ones increase and decrease simultaneously (fig.5).
3 3 Fig. 5 - NOx (µg/m ) and CO (mg/m ) monthly medium concentrations during the years 2008 and 2009, in Botosani
If there exists a relation between the CO and NOx concentrations and how tight is the relation between them, there can be demonstrated drawing the straight line of regression, which is the result of the way in which the two data sets co-vary and calculating the Pearson (1) correlation coefficient.
(1) Where: - n is the size of the sample formed of pair measurements (xy); - xi represents the individual measurements of x variable (NOx – independent values set) - yi represents the individual measurements of y variable (CO –dependent values set) - x represents the arithmetic average of x variables; - y represents the arithmetic average of y variables; - sx represents the standard deviation for x values; - sy represents the standard deviation for y values; Standard deviations corresponding to the two variables is calculated with the help of the relation:
; (2)
The regression straight line equation establishes the following static correlation: 2008, =19.331 , R2=0.257
202 Liviu Apostol, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru, Paul-Narcis Vieru
2009, = 75.429 , R2=0.6873, and the value of Pearson correlation coefficient, r NOx,CO = 0,50 in 2008 and r NOx,CO = 0,82 in 2009, indicates a positive correlation between the two variables (fig.6 and fig.7).
Fig. 6 - Daily CO medium concentrations Fig. 7 - Daily CO medium concentrations (mg/m3) comparative with NOx ones (mg/m3) comparative with NOx ones (μg/m3) in 2008 (μg/m3) in 2009
Similar to all statistic tests, r, can’t control deformations or effects of other variables, but in case of a sample of over 300 cases, the rejection of the null hypothesis is possible with a weak correlation coefficient (0.118 at the level 0.05 and 0.148 at the level 0.01), that indicates the presence of a positive statistically semnificative correlation between the two variables. So, in 2008, 25% of CO concentration variation was due to the linear relation with NOx, and in 2009, 68%.
Conclusions The continuous measurements of the carbon monoxide immissions (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx) were performed in the central area of Botosani town. Excesses of monthly and yearly limit values weren’t registered during the period analyzed, except of nitrogen oxides (NOx). NOx and SO2 monthly medium concentrations exceeded the critical level for vegetation protection, according to the European rules, especially in the cold months of the year. NOx daily medium concentration exceeded the critical level in 116 cases in 2008 and in 183 cases in 2009, and SO2 concentration in 22 cases in 2008, respectivelly 9 cases in 2009. In 2009, CO yearly medium concentration in Botosani town represented 42,3% of the one of Iasi town, and SO2 concentration had the highest value of the six towns in the NE part of the country. Analyzing comparativelly the ratio CO/NOx and SO2/NOx, it is highlighted the fact that the mobile sources contribute
Analysis of gaseous polluants in the atmosphere of Botosani town 203 the most at the air contamination with CO and NOx in Piatra Neamt, Vaslui, Bacau towns in relation to Botosani town, and the punctiform sources, in the same towns, are due to pollution with SO2. Comparing the yearly medium concentrations of the three pollutants with the immissions of the other towns in the North-East of the country (Iasi, Bacau, Piatra Neamt, Suceava and Vaslui), at the level of the year 2009, Botosani town occupies the Ist place at the immissions of sulphur dioxide (8.24 µg/m3), the IInd place at the immissions of nitrogen oxides (24.81 µg/m3), and respectively the IIIrd place at the immissions of carbon monoxide (0.26 mg/m3). 68% of CO concentration variation, in 2009 and 25% of the year 2008 variation, were due to linear relation which was established between the CO and NOx concentrations. This analysis was based on hourly measurements performed at a single urban location. We admit that there is necessary a global study, with a bigger spacial and temporary coverage, in order to realise an objective analysis of correlations which can exist between pollutants and to evaluate air quality in a town.
References: Apostol, L., Catană C., Maxim Brandior Niculina (1995), Influenţa factorilor climatici în propagarea şi dispersia poluanţilor atmosferei în Subcarpaţii Moldovei, Lucrările seminarului „Principii şi tehnologii moderne pentru reducerea poluării atmosferice”, Agenţia de Protecţie a Mediului – Staţiunea Stejarul, Piatra Neamţ. Apostol L., (2004), Clima Subcarpaţilor Moldovei, Editura Universităţii ,,Ştefan cel Mare”, Suceava. Apetrei M., Groza O., Grasland C.(1996), Elemente de statistică cu aplicaţii în geografie, Editura Universităţii „AL.I: Cuza”Iaşi. Bruhl CH., Crutzen PJ.,(1999), Reduction in the antropogenic emission of CO and their effect on CH4 , Chemosfere Global Change Science, 1:249-254. Parrish DD., Trainer M.,Buhr MP., Watkins BA.,Feshenfeld FC (1991), Carbon monoxide concentrations and their relation to concentrations of total reactive oxidized nitrogen at two rural US sites, J. Geophys Res, 96:9309-20. Seinfeld JH (1986), Atmospheric chemistry and physics off air pollution, NewYork, Wiley. Weinstock B., Niki H., Chang TY (1980), Chemical factors affecting the hydroxyl radical concentration in the troposphere, Adv Environ Sci Technol 10:221-258. Warneck P. (1988),Chemistry of the natural atmosphere, NewYork, Academic Press. Viney P. Aneja, Agarwal A., Paul A. Roelle, Sharon B. Phillips , Quansong Tong, Nealson Watkin, Richard Yablonsky (2001), Measurements and analysis off criteria pollutants in New Delhi, India, Environment International, 27: 35-42. * * * (1999), Directiva Consiliului nr. 1999/30/EC privind valorile limită pentru dioxidul de sulf, dioxidul de azot şi oxizii de azot, pulberile în suspensie şi plumbul din aerul înconjurător (Directiva fiică 1)
204 Liviu Apostol, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru, Paul-Narcis Vieru
* * * (2000), Directiva 2000/69/EC privind valorile limită pentru benzen şi monoxidul de carbon din aerul înconjurător (Directiva fiică 2) * * * (2011), Legea privind calitatea aerului înconjurător, nr. 104/2011 *** (2010), Raport anual privind starea factorilor de mediu în Regiunea 1Nord-Est *** (2012), The European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register, http://prtr.ec.europa.eu/DiffuseSourcesAir.aspx
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
IS THE BIOCLIMATE OF SUCEAVA PLATEAU COMFORTABLE OR UNCOMFORTABLE? ANALYSIS BASED ON TEE AND THI
Elena Teodoreanu1, Dumitru Mihăilă2
Keywords: Equivalent Effective Temperature, Air baths, Temperature Humidity Index
Abstract: The present study approaches in the first part the bioclimatic comfort or discomfort of the Suceava Plateau during the hot season based on the two most representative bioclimatic indexes (equivalent effective temperature - TEE and Temperature Humidity Index (THI). The study is completed in the second part by the analysis focused on the cold season, a period for which two other major bioclimatic indexes have been used (cooling wind power - P, equivalent temperature cooling wind power - TPR) plus an index derived from previous indices (skin stress index). We used a fifth index (pulmonary stress) to see whether the bioclimate in Suceava Plateau is stressful for the human body. The study was completed by the calculation of the total stress index and the degree of stimulation of Suceava Plateau bioclimate.
Introduction Suceava Plateau is a geographical area in the North-East of Romania, lying on an area of approximately 9000km2, with an average altitude of 250-450m, a forest and steppe area inhabited by about 660000 people (Romanian Geography, Vol IV, 1992). From the economic and infrastructural point of view, it is considered a well developed and arranged geographical subunit. In Suceava Plateau or in the immediate vicinity, numerous sights are located, of which we mention: the Saint John Monastery of Suceava, Suceviţa, Putna, Arbore, Slatina, Probota, Dragomirna monasteries, weather resorts Cacica, Solca, Gura Humorului, a lot of hotels, tourist pensions which annually attract a large number of visitors. The continental climate with Baltic influences, cold winters, rich snow layer and comfortable summers in a varied landscape of gentle hills well wooded, meandering wide valleys with rich and quality water resources, is also a reason to
1 Prof. PhD., Ecological University, Bucuresti, [email protected] 1 Lect. PhD., University ,,Stefan cel Mare” Suceava, Department of Geography, [email protected]
206 Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă spend a pleasant holiday or vacation for rest, relaxation or training and conditioning. Previous studies on the bioclimatic characteristics of the Romanian regions (Bogdan, 1983; Teodoreanu, 1993; Berlescu, 1996, 1998) revealed a sedative, tonic and relaxing bioclimate in Suceava Plateau, with stimulating and tonic properties, especially in the western part of the region, useful to climatic-therapy during all months of the year. Several bioclimatic indices – the most representative for the year or for summer (Part I) or for cold (part II) – were analyzed to detail the average bioclimatic features or the most particular periods of time and to highlight the annual and night-day regime in Suceava Plateau.
1.Data and method. The database used focuses on meteorological observations related to temperature, humidity and wind speed from the weather stations of the Suceava Plateau between 1960 - 2008. If applicable for the case studies, we used daily or hourly data for shorter samples. The formula used to calculate TEE was the Missenard formula (1937) and the THI formula for moisture temperature index expressed in units and recommended by WMO. The level of analysis descended from general (system/distribution, based on average data outlined) to case studies (as exemplified by the hourly data and daytime objective). Since the subject is very large, we had to divide the analysis into two parts: one mainly dedicated to the warm season of the year (based on bioclimatic indexes equivalent effective temperature – TEE and temperature-humidity index – THI) and the other part dedicated to the cold season (in this case based on the following research bioclimatic indexes: cooling power of the wind – P and, closely related, we have examined the stress of the skin, the equivalent temperature cooling power of the wind – TPR, and for the unity of the approach, the study is completed by the total lung stress analysis and the stimulation degree of the Suceava Plateau climate).
2.Results and Discussions 2.1. TEE - equivalent effective temperature. TEE is a bioclimatic indicator representing the effective temperature experienced by the human body in different climatic environmental conditions. It can be followed with good results during the warm season (summer), expressing the relation [1] given by the air temperature in the dry bulb - T(0C), the wind speed - v (m/s) and the relative humidity f (%) in accordance with the Missenard formula, 1937 (Krawczyk, 1975; Teodoreanu 2003, 2007).
Is the bioclimatic of Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? 207
[1]
The thermal comfort is given by a narrow range between 16.90 and 20.80 TEE, where under normal conditions, wearing relaxing clothes, whose albedo is average in rest position, the body doesn’t lose or gain significant heat. Under or above this range, the body is feels cold or hot, which brings metabolic changes, in order to maintain the internal body temperature constant (thermal homeostasis). The intervals of thermal comfort vary on the globe depending on latitude and human race (14.4 to 20.60TEE - United Kingdom, 16.7 to 21.80TEE – Yakovenko region of the Russian Federation, 18 - 220TEE - U.S., 23.3 – 29.40TEE – tropical countries - Teodoreanu, Bunescu, 2007).
Tab.1 – The weather stations in the Suceava Plateau (position and altitude)
N. Z. Mihailov (Baibakova et. al, 1964, according to Teodoreanu, 2002), classified the air baths according to TEE, as it follows: - Cold baths 1 – 8.90TEE, - Moderately cold baths 9 – 16.80TEE, - Comfortable air baths from 16.9 – 20.80TEE, - Moderately warm air bath from 20.9 – 22.90TEE, - Hot air baths 23 – 270TEE, - Hot air baths > 270TEE.
Calculating the average values of TEE based on data from the weather stations of the Suceava Plateau (Table 1), on a period of 48 years, we can observe that although the geographical location (altitude, latitude, longitude - tab. 1) is quite different, the results are similar (the monthly and annual average TEE was lower in the northern plateau with approximately 20TEE in Radauti, city situated in a depression, compared to the southern plateau, at Roman ÷ tab. 2, Fig. 1).
208 Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
Fig..1 – The evolution of the annual TEE values (0C) at the meteorological stations of the Suceava Plateau (1960-2008)
Tab.2 – Monthly average values of TEE (0C) in Suceava Plateau (1960-2008) TEE I F M A M I Rădăuţi -9,1 -8,1 -3,5 3,2 9,8 13,5 Suceava -8,2 -7,5 -3,0 3,4 9,8 13,4 Fălticeni -7,6 -6,5 -1,8 4,5 10,5 14,4 Roman -7,9 -6,6 -1,8 5,5 11,5 15,5 TEE I A S O N D Rădăuţi 15,2 14,9 10,3 4,6 -1,3 -6,3 Suceava 15,3 14,8 10,4 4,8 -1,8 -6,0 Fălticeni 15,9 15,6 11,3 5,8 -0,4 -4,8 Roman 17,4 17,1 12,8 6,7 0,3 -5,0
Moreover, if we analyze the obtained data, we will determine that only in July and August and in the southern plateau (Roman, Fig. 1), there are comfortable outdoor baths, which underlines what the researchers found, namely that in
Is the bioclimatic of Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? 209 bioclimatology, average values are not edifying. This is explained by the fact that the human body can bear higher temperatures during the day and lower temperatures during the night. In addition, certain periods, depending on the atmospheric circulation, are colder or warmer, and the body is exposed to instantaneous conditions of temperature – humidity – wind and not to average values, which are only required for comparisons to other regions. For a more real result of thermal comfort, daily average values of TEE were calculated for 38 years at the Suceava weather station (Fig. 2) and then the daily values for 2000 (warm year t0C annual average = 9.30C; 1.50C above the annual average), at the same weather station (Fig. 3).
Fig.2 – Annual average values of TEE in Suceava (1970 - 2008)
We conclude that the TEE evolution outlined through average daily values is not a relevant way to valorise this bioclimatic index. The unification and limitation of these TEE index values underneath certain thresholds could even lead to wrong conclusions about the nature of the air thermal baths (which during summer days, according to the classification in question, are only moderately cold). The level of particularization of the analysis on diurnal average values is not relevant enough. Fig. 3, applied only for the year 2000, is more probative and allows us to see a concrete case that since April-May moderate cold-air baths have often been recorded, the approximate thermal comfort is asserted during the summer months and in September and October the air baths become again moderately cold air, the average ratings being interrupted on short periods of time by periods of slight cold
210 Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă or warm discomfort. In the cold season, in Suceava, even in warm years like 2000, air baths are cold.
Fig.3 – The evolution of the diurnal annual values of TEE to Suceava in 2000
For more details, the hourly TEE values were calculated over a period of four years at the Suceava weather station (by positioning them in the centre of the plateau, this station can be considered the most representative geographical subunit ever investigated) for each month of the year, which allows us to find that discomfort by cooling is predominant in most of the months, both during the day and the night. Only in June and on the diurnal range 7-8 a.m. ÷ 6-7 p.m. weather condition is close to thermal comfort, and in July and August, the thermal comfort is recorded on a shorter interval between 8-9 a.m. and 5-6 p.m. (Fig. 4). An analysis of the July 2007 heat wave period, which covered the whole country, affecting a large part of the population especially in the plains and hills in the south and east of the country, proved that this period was uncomfortable even in the plateau area of the northeast of the country, hourly average values of the period July 16 – 22, 2007 fitting in the area of a heat discomfort over 210TEE to almost 280TEE. Even during the night hours before sunrise, at 4 a.m., when there was minimal daily average for this period, the effective temperature felt by the human body exceeded the limit of comfort (Fig. 5).
Is the bioclimatic of Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? 211
2.2. Temperature Humidity Index (THI) There are two methods for calculating this index and for its expression: "dimensionless", "by unit" or calibrated on the temperature scale, i.e. “C degrees”. The significant values start from the point where the discomfort is high (80 units, respectively 400C). The weather parameters required to calculate the thermal comfort index (ITU),
Fig.4 – Average diurnal evolution (2005 - 2008) hourly values of TEE (0C) to Suceava expressed both in units and in the one calibrated in degrees are the air temperature at 2m height and the relative humidity.
Fig. 5 Evolution of TEE value in Suceava during the heat of 16-22.VII.2007
212 Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
The moisture -temperature index expressed in units recommended by the WMO (Dragotă, 2003, Marina 2006, Teodoreanu and Bunescu, 2007) is obtained using the formula [2]:
ITU = (T x 1,8 + 32) – (0,55 – 0,0055 x U) [(T x 1,8 + 32) – 58)] [2], where:
T = temperature (0C) meteorological shelter height (2m); U = relative humidity (%) at the same level. Thermal comfort or discomfort is assessed in accordance with the following scale values: THI ≤ 65 units indicates the comfort, 66 ≤ THI ≥79 indicates the alert and THI ≥ 80 units shows discomfort. This index has a limited applicability in the Suceava Plateau for the warm season of the year. Its utility is especially validated in situations of discomfort during the summer, and it is an ideal indicator of the time conditions when the temperature-humidity complex exceeds the alert threshold of discomfort. However, situations of discomfort caused by high values of temperature – humidity complex, have a lower frequency in the Suceava Plateau compared to other subunits/geographical units (the Plain of Moldavia, Cris Plain, Baragan). Calculating the monthly average values of the THI index at the weather stations, we can find the comparable bioclimatic conditions in the entire plateau, and also the inefficiency of the index in all months of the year showing values below the alert threshold, except in July and August, when in the south of the plateau, the values are above the alert threshold (fig. 6, tab. 3). If we calculate the daily values of the THI for the daily values during the year on a longer period of time (39 years, Suceava weather station), we can notice that for the maximum values (theoretical values which result from calculations that included daytime maximum values of every month for a period of 39 years of air temperature and relative humidity), the alert threshold is exceeded only during the summer months, while the average values remain within the comfort range (fig. 7). Calculated for one year (in 2000, which was a very warm year), the average daily values of THI show that on some days and specific days groups, they can exceed the alert threshold (Fig. 8). An isopleth of the THI index for average values is also totally inconclusive, showing a nucleus during the summer months, during the day hours possibly ranging within the alert group (Fig. 9). The analysis of hourly values by months for a period of several years is more conclusive, showing the alert state in the summer months during the hot sunlight hours (Fig. 10).
Is the bioclimatic of Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? 213
Fig.6 – The regime of the annual ITU values (units) at meteorological stations in SuceavaPlateau (1960 - 2008) Tab.3 – Average monthly values of ITU (units) in Suceava Plateau (1960-2008) ITU I F M A M I Rădăuţi 27,0 29,7 36,5 47,3 56,8 62,1 Suceava 28,9 30,8 37,7 48,1 57,2 61,9 Fălticeni 29,0 31,2 38,2 48,8 57,4 62,7 Roman 26,9 30,4 38,6 50,4 59,1 64,2 ITU I A S O N D Rădăuţi 64,2 62,8 55,6 47,2 38,1 30,2 Suceava 64,4 63,2 56,5 48,3 38,2 31,3 Fălticeni 65,0 64,0 57,3 49,0 39,5 32,3 Roman 66,7 65,7 58,9 49,3 39,4 30,5
Besides, we should note that the state of alert, which would mean a possibility of thermal discomfort and potential health problems, (highlighted by the media especially during those periods) is generally the result of temperatures of 25-300C (normal for summer months in our country, for which the body is adapted), which shows that this index is only usable under conditions of high heat waves (due to anticyclonic periods, invasion of continental and maritime tropical air and highlighted through the succession of days and tropical nights or canicular days).
214 Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
Fig.7 – The annual trend of the maximum, medium and maximum diurnal average values of ITU (units) to Suceava from 1970 to 2008
Fig.8 – Annual evolution of ITU (units) diurnal values in Suceava in 2000
But even in these cases, respectively during the canicular weather on July 16 to 22, 2007 in Suceava Plateau, the THI values exceeded the critical threshold of 80 units only at noon hours (Fig. 11). This aspect differentiates the Suceava Plateau from a bioclimatic point view, where summer heat waves have not the size and intensity of the other Romanian extra-Carpathian subunits.
Is the bioclimatic of Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? 215
Fig. 9 The ITU isopleth (units) in Suceava for the period 2005-2008
Conclusions TEE as bioclimatic index has a greater relevance for the warm season of the year, because the classifications in terms of the thermal air baths (Mihailov, 1961; Baibakova, 1964; Teodoreanu, 2002), are limited to positive temperatures. The thermal character of the winter air baths in Suceava Plateau is more uniform and located below the high value of cold baths, although the actual change in TEE allows us to appreciate the detailed nature of atmospheric air heat related to the human body. For the warm period (and especially for summer days) we notice that, given the comfortable character of the average air baths, during an anticyclonic period (Fig. 5), in Suceava Plateau, TEE values exceed by far the upper thermal comfort threshold, especially during the day. Moreover, during the night, heat discomfort can occur several nights in sequence, not being cancelled during the diurnal period specific to the minimum daytime values. The uncomfortable alternations of days and nights due to high levels of TEE are therefore highlighted for the Suceava Plateau too, a geographical subunit regarded as having a cool climate. We did not intend to highlight/emphasize this aspect, but in the last 30 years, in the current climate trends, such episodes have become more and more frequent. This index proves its usefulness especially for such synoptic situations. THI is a bioclimatic index for Suceava Plateau which has a limited temporal applicability in the summer months. Only in these months and only in the southern half of the plateau, the THI index can exceed the threshold of 65 units, which biologically indicates the body entrance in the alert state. Considering this situation, the limited timeframe of 7 – 9 a.m. ÷ 18 – 20 p.m. from June to August, there may be days and nights (single or in groups) when the THI values are above the threshold of 80 units, case in which the body experiences discomfort. Although
216 Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă less frequent in the Suceava Plateau compared to other extra-Carpathian geographical areas, the weather conditions characterized by discomfort while
Fig.10 – Diurnal regime of the ITU (units) to Suceava for the months May to August(2005 -2008)
Fig.11 – The trend of diurnal ITU values in Suceava between 16th - 22.VII.2007 heating under high atmospheric humidity, can create significant problems in the overall socio-economic system or human body in particular.
Is the bioclimatic of Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? 217
References: Ardeleanu I., Barnea M., (1973), Elemente de biometeorologie medicală, Edit. Medicală, Bucureşti Dragotă Carmen (2003), Indicele de confort temperatură-umezeală (ITU), Indici şi metode cantitative în climatologie, Edit. Univ. din Oradea, 47 Licht S. (1964), Medical climatology, Elisabeth licht Publ., New Haven Ionac Nicoleta, Ciulache S. (2008), Atlasul bioclimatic al României, Edit Ars Docendi, Bucureşti Mihăilă D., Tanasă I. (2007), Particularitati climatice ale semestrului cald la Suceava, Analele Univ. Stefan cel Mare, Sect. G., T. XVI., Suceava Munn R. E. (1970), Biometeorological methods, Acad. Press, New York and London Teodoreanu Elena (1987), Les bains d’air en conditions de topoclimat montan, III Sympos.”Le topoclimat de montagne” Bucureşti-Buzău Teodoreanu Elena, Bunescu Iulia (2007), Thermal confort, Present environment and sustainable development, Nr. 1, Iaşi, 134-142 Teodoreanu Elena, Bunescu Iulia (2008), Canicular days in the summer of 2007 at Iasi, Present environment and sustainable development, Nr. 2, Iaşi, 195-203 *** Geografia României (1992), Vol.IV, Edit. Academiei Române, Bucureşti.
218 Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
EVOLUTION OF WATER RESOURCES IN FLOODPLAINS OF EMBANKED RIVERS
Lăcrămioara Mirela Vlad1, Petru Deliu2, Iosif Bartha3
Keywords: Hydrological regime, embankments, floods.
Abstract The paper analyzes the evolution of water resources in the floodplain of the Prut river, corresponding to the Trifesti Sculeni sector: the hydrological network, under natural flow regime and under anthropic modified regime, the hydraulic arrangements realized (embankments, drainage, draining, irrigation, etc.) and their impact on the hydrological and hydric regime of the studied area are inventoried. The impact of damming on the river flow regime during floods is exemplified using data recorded at hydrological gauging stations in the natural flow and in the dammed regime: comparative graphs of floods were prepared for the Prut and Jijia Rivers.
Introduction In Romania, for flood protection, many rivers have been dammed using the Saligny solution (non-submersible embankments).This principle was also applied along the rivers of the Prut basin (Fig 1). In this paper, the hydrological network, under natural flow regime and anthropic modified regime, the hydraulic arrangements realized (embankments, drainage, draining, irrigation, etc) and their impact on the hydrological regime of the study area are inventoried. The purposes of these arrangements were flood protection and the increase of agricultural areas.
1. Methodology / Study area The Sculeni Trifesti dammed enclosure (Fig. 2) is part of the hydraulic works series carried out in the Prut basin for flood protection [1]. It is located in Iasi County, bordered on the north by the Trifesti locality, at east by the defense embankment built along the Prut River, at south by the defense embankment built along the Jijia River and at west by the defense embankment against high waters
1 Lecturer Ph.D., “Gh. Asachi”Technical University, Iaşi, Romania, [email protected] 2 Researcher, ”Romanian Water” National Administration, Iaşi, Romania 3 Lecturer Ph.D., “Gh. Asachi”Technical University, Iaşi, Romania
220 Lăcrămioara-Mirela Vlad, Petru Delia, Iosif Bartha from the river valleys Frasin and Optoceni. Prut River is the last first-order tributary of the Danube and it confluences with it at 150 km upstream of the Black Sea. Jijia River is the most important tributary on the right side of the Prut River.
Fig.2 – Prut River Basin; Location Fig. 1 – Prut basin of the Trifesti Sculeni dammed enclosure; Dammed works; Hydrometric station placement.
2. Results Prut and Jijia floodplain area, in natural flow regime, was a regulator of the hydrological regime of the rivers as a "valve" during great floods, but also as a "tank" that provided complete flow in periods when the rivers had low flows. Looking at maps since 1965, before the building of flood protection embankments, the initial courses of Cerchezoia, Pruteţ, Frasin Rivers, abandoned meanders, dead arms of these rivers as well as of rivers Prut and Jijia were identified. The meadow was characterized by the existence of many oxbows, backwaters, permanent ponds, swamps, river meanders and abandoned river arms. The diversified relief resulted on one hand due to the sudden enlargement of the floodplain downstream Zaboleteni, on the other hand due to Jijia River action,
Evolution of water resources in floodplains of embanked rivers 221 whose backwater wave at high waters prolonged the longer stagnation of flood water. The pre-terrace area, which generally lacked the natural drainage that sometimes overlaps with the central area, especially near ponds and oxbows portions under the terrace, was fed by water from springs and from the Cerchezoaia, Frasin and Optoceni Valleys, and in time of floods by the Prut River and by Jijia River action. All these maintained a regularly water excess area, feeding low micro relief forms. [1]. The floodplain water surfaces have been anthropogenically altered by the hydraulic works of defense (Fig. 2): longitudinal dams on the Prut, Jijia, Frasin Rivers, by building the Stanca-Costesti storage on the Prut River and an accumulation on Cerchezoaia River. The hydrologic regime from enclosure was modified and it was dependent then, by hydroameliorative arrangement applied in order to increase the agricultural area: drainage, draining, irrigation, regulation of runoff form slopes, etc.
3. Discussion 3.1. Researches on changes in the hydrological regime of the Prut River Protection against flooding on Prut River basin was designed by building the Stanca-Costesti storage and by carrying out embankments as the enclosures: Trifesti-Sculeni, Prisecani-Gorban, Drânceni, Albita-Fălciu, Upper Brates and Lower Brates.
800
700
600
500 1975 1976
/s) 400 1961 3
300
Qmax Qmax (m 200
100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Timp (months)
Fig.3 – Monthly flow hydrograph at the H. S. Ungheni on natural regime and dammed regime Stanca-Costesti accumulation was put in operation in 1978 [3] and the Trifesti Sculeni enclosure was embanked during 1972-1974. The defense embankment has
222 Lăcrămioara-Mirela Vlad, Petru Delia, Iosif Bartha a length of 30 km, average top width of 4 m, average height of 3 m, embankment slopes interior / exterior 1:2 / 1:3 and it protects against floods an area of 8982 ha. For examples of hydrological changes in the Prut River, we used the hydrological data recorded at the Ungheni hydrometric station (Fig. 2) since 1961, in the natural flow regime of the river and since 1975, 1976 (Fig. 3) in the case of the embankment and data since 1961 and 1991, 2008, 2010 (Fig. 4) in the case of the embankment and controlled regime by operation of Stanca Costesti storage. By constructing the Stanca-Costesti Hydrotechnical Junction both the flow and the extreme levels were changed, resulting in changes of the hydrograph shape in required limitations.
Fig.4 – Monthly flow hydrograph at the H. S. Ungheni on natural regime and dammed and controlled regime
Level(cm) P(mm) Flow(m3/s) 800 100.0 700 750 660 90.0 620 700 580 650 80.0 540 600 70.0 500 550 460 500 60.0 420 450 50.0 380 400 340 350 40.0 300 300 260 30.0 250 220 200 20.0 180 150 140 10.0 100 100 50 0.0 60 20 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Fig.5 – Annual hydrograph of the Prut River levels / Precipitation at Ungheni H.S.-2008 (left); Annual hydrograph of the Prut River flows (right)
An increase of peak flows due to embankments can be observed, although the Stanca Costesti accumulation reduces the flood flow.
Evolution of water resources in floodplains of embanked rivers 223
Spring flood hydrograph shape is asymmetric: rapid growth and slow decline and the summer hydrographs have a bell-shape (Fig. 5).
3.1.Researches on changes in the hydrological regime of Jijia River In the south of the enclosure, the damming on both sides of Jijia river were completed in 1974, on a length of approx. 6.4 km, with average top width of 4 m, average height of 3 m. For examples of hydrological changes in the Jijia River, we used hydrological data recorded at hydrometric station Victoria (Fig. 2) since 1960 and 1964, in the 3 natural flow regime of the river and since 1985 (Q max = 130m /s, in 24.06.1985 date), 1988 in the case of the embankment regime (Fig. 6).
FLOW (m3/s) 140.00
120.00
100.00
1960 80.00 1964 1988 60.00 1985
40.00
20.00
T (months) 0.00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Fig.6 – Monthly flow hydrograph at H. S. Victoria on natural regime and dammed regime
Currently, the Jijia River hydrological regime during floods, on the sector of river afferent to the Trifesti-Sculeni enclosure, depends by controlled exploitation of I-VI Tiganas polders, built (upstream of the area under study) to attenuate the flow of Jijia River with a probability of 1%, from 500 m3 / s to the value of 220 m3/s (Fig. 2). These six embanked (polders) enclosures can hold together a volume of 79,67 million m3 of water. The total length of the arrangement is 11 103 km. The IV, V and VI polders were put into operation in 1996, the I Tiganasi polder in 2008 and the II Tiganasi polder in 2003. The I, II and V Tigănasi polders are inundated in case of floods higher than 5%. The III and IV polders are flooded by floods higher than 10% and the IV
224 Lăcrămioara-Mirela Vlad, Petru Delia, Iosif Bartha polder will protect against floods higher than 1%, because in this site there are the pumping station and the transformer that serves the irrigation system Tiganasi – Perieni [3].
Flow(m3/s) 120.000 110
100 100.000
90
80.000 /s) 80 3 60.000
70 Flow (m Flow 40.000 60
50 20.000
40 0.000 30 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 T (months) 20 10 Fig.7 – Flow hydrograph at H. S. Victoria in T(days) 0 June-July 2010 (left); Annual flow 21- 24- 27- 30- 3-Jul 6-Jul 9-Jul 12-Jul 15-Jul 18-Jul 21-Jul 24-Jul 27-Jul 30-Jul Jun Jun Jun Jun hydrograph at H.S. Victoria in 2010 (right)
For flood protection and reduction of solid leakage from the slope, the left side of the Frasin River was dammed and on Cerchezoaia Valley, south of Trifesti village, an accumulation was made (Fig. 8). The diffluent flows from the Cerchezoaia accumulation discharges in the CCS7 drainage channel, placed at the terrace base, which ensures the transit of flows to the CC NORTD Balteni channel, in order to evacuate the water excess in the Prut River by the discharge pumping station (DPP) Bălteni.
Tab.1 – Tharacteristics of Cerchezoaia accumulation [3]
NRL ATTENUATION CAPACITY (between Level m above Black Sea Volumemil.m3 N.R.L and verification level) mil.m3 54.20 0.160 0.820
The balance of water regime was modified by drainage, draining arrangement too, for eliminating the excess water inside the embanked enclosure. Completion of the drainage works (collection - disposal channels) and pumping plants for evacuation was achieved during 1974-1975. The works consist in a network of open drainage channels that are designed to take surface water from precipitation that stagnates in the lowlands with no possibility of escape. They were made on an area of 8130 ha, in two functionally independent systems, NORTH Bălteni system (3 900 ha) and SOUTH Bălteni
Evolution of water resources in floodplains of embanked rivers 225 system (4 230 ha), consisting of a collecting channels network with a total length of 153.0 km. The drainage network is provided with a central collector traced across the meadow in the middle enclosure, near Bălteni, down to the Prut embankment. The collector takes the water from the north of the enclosure (the NORH Bălteni sector), collecting from the secondary collecting channels; the distance between them is 400 m. The collected waters are discharged into the Prut River by the DPP Bălteni. The excess waters in the south of the enclosure (the SOUTH Bălteni) are collected by the second collector, which is drawn parallel to the transversal embankment, taking the water from the secondary collectors, which are drawn at 400 m. Drainage of water from the enclosure over the embankment into the Jijia River is performed by the DPP Sculeni [1]. Some of the pools intercepted by collecting channels went into farming.
Fig. 8 – Trifeşti Sculeni embankment enclosure; draining channels; evacuation of excess of water in the Prut and Jijia Rivers
Arable land was obtained by grubbing the pastures and natural grassland, clearing forests, bushes and hybrid vineyards as well as by drainage and leveling of ponds that have small depth and are intercepted by the drainage sewers, realizing the total drainage of water from them.
226 Lăcrămioara-Mirela Vlad, Petru Delia, Iosif Bartha
The deep oxbows and the abandoned former meanders of the Prut River, e.g. Potcoava, Rediu Lakes, due to the functioning of the draining system, became terrains without water, ground water levels at 1 to 1.4 m depth and the total content of salts on the soil surface of 0.500 g/l. It was proposed that the negative forms of micro-relief located in the shore’s sand bank area, where water level and its quality are directly influenced by water changes of the Prut or Jijia Rivers be left as pools for fishing. It is the case of the Pruteţ Balatău and Teiva Vişina ponds, which are declared water reserves at the national level [4]. Pruteţ Bălătău Lake is characterized by special conditions for the reproduction of sheatfish (Silurus glanis), bream (Abramis brama brama), carp (Cyprinus carpio carpio), gold fish (Carassius auratus gibelio), pike (Esox lucius) and gudgeon (obtusirostris gobio) [4]. Teiva – Vişina Pool: the characteristic of this biotope is the presence of tench (Tinca tinca), carp (Cyprinus carpio carpio), gold fish (Carassius auratus gibelio), perch (Perca fluviatilis) and pike (Esox lucius). After 1990, the use of irrigation was drastically reduced, favoring the salt soils appearance. The inventory of hydraulic works and water network, of the Trifesti Sculeni sector of the Prut River major meadow, under natural and man-modified system, is needed to research the evolution of water resources and quantify the anthropogenic changes impact over the hydrologic regime of the study area. By removing the effect of flooding from the major river bed, thus reducing the territories covered by water, the land use and the biotope specific to flood fluctuations were changed; the land of the protected soil is used in positive ways, of agricultural productivity growth.
Acknowledgement: This paper was supported by the project PERFORM- ERA "Postdoctoral Performance for Integration in the European Research Area" (ID-57649), financed by the European Social Fund and the Romanian Government.
References: ILRI, (1976), Irrigations and drainages in Trifesti Sculeni area, Iasi County, Project no. 3189/1 (in Romanian), Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement Iasi, Romania, 10-40. ILRI, (2000), Refurbishment and upgrading of Sculeni and Balteni pumping stations from inside Trifesti-Sculeni dammed and drained enclosure, Iasi county, Project no.167/1 (in Romanian), Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement Iasi, Romania, 12- 14.
Evolution of water resources in floodplains of embanked rivers 227
Prut-Barlad W.B.A., (2010), The Regulation of exploitation of Prut-BARLAD river basin district, (in Romanian), Prut-Barlad Water Basin Administration, National Administration “Romanian Waters”. REPAI, (2004), Mutual management Romania – Republic of Moldova for biodiversity conservation on the border between the two countries, Phare Project, CBC RO2004/016.941.01.01.02, (in Romania), Regional Environmental Protection Agency Iasi, Romania, 15, On line at: http://biodiversitatecbcapmis.ro/new/down/starea%20de%20conservare/APM_BOOK_Star ea_de_conservare_Interior_ART.pdf .
228 Lăcrămioara-Mirela Vlad, Petru Delia, Iosif Bartha
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
IS THE BIOCLIMATE OF THE SUCEAVA PLATEAU COMFORTABLE OR UNCOMFORTABLE? ANALYSIS BASED ON WIND COOLING POWER INDEX AND SKIN AND LUNG STRESS INDEX
Elena Teodoreanu1, Dumitru Mihăilă2
Key words: wind cooling power index, skin and lung stress index
Abstract. The second part the study sets out the main focus on the cold season and weather critical conditions that may occur during it. The summer months are not excluded from the analysis, but the climatic indexes analyzed (cooling power of the wind - P temperature equivalent to the cooling power of the wind - Tpr) point out, through their values, the bioclimatic discomfort especially in winter months. The skin stress is felt from November to April when dominant time is hypertonia which is imperative in the processes of the human body thermogenesis. In January- February in the northern half of the plateau, the cold stress the human body is exposed to is a severe one. From May to October, the weather is mild. Mention should be made that the exception is July, in the southern extremity of the plateau (Roman) where the weather becomes hypotonic, so that the physiological activities in the human body work well, initiating the thermolysis processes. The November to March months present a dehydrating lung stress, which dries out the mucous membranes, while the cold air mass, the actual amount of water vapor is reduced, and May-September, when the amount of water vapour air increases, stress lung is hydrating, as they are mucous softeners. The lung stress, according to the bioclimatic average statistics is absent in April and October. The cold season months (especially in winter) are more stressful for the human body than the warm season (of which the summer months stand out). Episodes of stressful weather in winter (cold stress) are more frequent and more representative than during summer (heat stress). Positive stress gives the total stress index. The total stress in Suceava Plateau is moderate, favorable to the life and work of its inhabitants.
Data and methods. Using data on temperature, wind speed, water vapor pressure, Beçancenot's formulas (1974), Siple and Passel (1945), Becancenot's classification (1974) we calculated the values of yearly, monthly, daily or hourly main bioclimatic indexes
1 Prof. PhD., Ecological University, Bucuresti, [email protected] 2 Lect. PhD., University ,,Stefan cel Mare” Suceava, Department of Geography, [email protected]
230 Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
(P - cooling power of wind, TPR - temperature equivalent to wind cooling power), derivatives (skin stress index), associates (pulmonary stress index) and synthesis (total stress index and the degree of stimulation of climate). Their temporary evolution and their spatial distribution allowed us to identify the periods of the year and of the day when critical thresholds of these indicators are exceeded. We also identified the plateau areas where the complex temperature-wind speed, water vapour content can determine discomfort to human body.
2) Results and discussions. 2a) The cooling power of the wind (stress index skin). The human body, by its exposed parts (skin,) comes into direct contact with the Earth's atmosphere whose parameters (light, radiation, temperature, humidity, wind etc.) impose an adaptation to the meteo-climatic complex by triggering thermolysis or thermogenesis. In some cases, thermoregulation is not required. In 1974, Beçancenot, repeating the formula for wind chill index, determined by a formula [1] an index called the wind cooling power that takes into account two meteo- climatic parameters: the air temperature and the wind speed. It represents a meteoro-physiological concept expressing in objective terms the combination of air temperature and the wind speed on the heat balance of the human body (Ciulache, Ionac, 2008). Simplified formula for calculating the wind cooling power:
P = (10 v +10,45-v) x (33-t) [1] where:
P = cooling power expressed in kcal/m2/h, v = wind speed in m/s, t = air temperature in meteorological shelter reported to conventional threshold 330C.
Then, the values of wind cooling power, classified in classes (Tab. 1) were determined according to the reactions of the human body, comfort or discomfort index with different values and signs (negative, zero or positive). They are called indices of skin stress. They give the character of the weather/climate and the degree to which the human body is subjected to stress caused by lower values or higher cooling power of the wind (Tab. 1). Out of technical and methodological considerations, the two indices (cooling power of wind, skin stress index) will be analyzed together or alternatively because the relations between them are more than obvious.
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? 231
According to the monthly averages calculated for the plateau stations, May, June, July, August, September and October are relaxed, the rest of the months require thermogenesis due to both lower temperatures and wind speed even when the values are not very high (Tab. 2 corroborated with Tab.1).
Tab. 1 – The cooling power of the wind (kcal/m2/h) and the significance of the biostress index skin (P. A. Siple, J. P. Beçancenot, 1974) The cooling Indices Character power of the of stress Type of stress (significance) wind (kcal/m2/h) skin (I) stress by triggering thermolysis 0-149 -2 hypotonic during the summer stress by triggering thermolysis 150-299 -1 hypotonic during the summer 300-599 0 relaxing not require thermoregulation stress by triggering thermogenesis 600-899 +1 Hypertonic in winter stress by triggering thermogenesis 900-1199 +2 hypertonic in winter stress by triggering thermogenesis 1200-1499 +3 hypertonic in winter stress by triggering thermogenesis > 1500 +4 hypertonic in winter
Tab. 2 – Monthly average values of wind cooling power (kcal/m2/h) in Suceava Plateau* I II III IV V VI Rădăuţi (1961-2006) 923.5 907.3 796.7 635.0 482.8 399.9 Suceava (1961-2006) 919.9 898.8 793.8 631.2 476.7 390.1 Fălticeni (1961-1998) 877.7 859.3 748.8 599.3 450.3 364.5 Roman (1961-2006) 876.7 858.8 751.6 583.7 431.4 337.7 VII VIII IX X XI XII Rădăuţi (1961-2006) 355.9 361.3 463.5 599.3 737.3 846.6 Suceava (1961-2006) 346.9 354.5 456.7 592.9 743.3 855.9 Fălticeni (1961-1998) 334.0 341.0 435.1 562.4 707.6 812.9 Roman (1961-2006) 293.1 301.3 399.3 526.7 674.9 793.7 *resulting from consideration of the monthly average temperature and monthly averages of wind speed
A closer analysis (Fig. 1) captures some differences among the weather stations in Suceava Plateau: hypertonia with higher intensity of requested thermogenesis during the winter months in northern and central plateau and the emergence in the far south, at Roman, in July, of periods of hypotonic stress states, which the body bears more easily by triggering thermolysis.
232 Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
Legend
Fig.1 – Types of time classified after the indices of stress skin in meteorological stations of Suceava Plateau (1961-2006)
The maps of the skin stress in the Suceava Plateau, indicate moderate annual average values - Fig. 2a, and so does the map that was published in 1984, related to the annual skin on climatic stress in Romania - Teodoreanu et al. 1984). On that map, annual values are included for most of the Moldavian Plateau, between 20 and 50 conventional units. A more detailed analysis of this parameter indicates somewhat higher values in the northern plateau and lower ones in the south. In the coldest month, January, the skin stress fall is moderately hypertonic (Fig. 2b) and in the hottest month, July, the values remain relaxed and only in the south extremity they go down easily in the category of weak hypotonic stress, possibly exercing on the human body a slight stress that requires heat loss (e.g. sweating), thermolysis, respectively (Fig. 2c). We must emphasize that the differences between the northern and southern plateau are reduced and therefore less significant, generally about 50kcal/m2/h (Fig. 2). The annual regime, calculated for the largest monthly stress values, indicate for the winter months a cooling power generally over 1000-1100kcal/m2/h (maximum in February to Radauti), showing a pronounced skin stress from November to March and the relaxing months May to September, April and October being slightly hypertonic (Tab. 3). The maps of the skin stress in extreme months (February and July), show relatively small differences between the northern and southern plateau, higher in
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? 233 winter (about 150kcal/m2/h in February - Fig. 3a), lower in summer (70kcal/m2/h in July - Fig. 3b).
Fig. 2a Fig. 2b
Similar findings can be seen in Fig. 4. Calculation of the skin stress frequency for the four considered meteorological stations (we exemplified with Rădăuţi stations - Fig.4 and Roman - Fig. 4b), shows a very low percentage of high hypertonic stress (+3) in the north, in February a stress of (+2), of 30-50% in January and less in February, March and December, a moderate stress of (+1), in 80-100% in March and November, a relaxed state (0) up to 100% in May and September and less in other months and a reduced hot and hypotonic stress (-1) by 10-60% in July and especially August (Fig. 4). The analysis of daily average value of skin stress over a period of 38 years in Suceava shows a cooling wind power between 1000 and 600kcal/m2/h from January to late March, with average daily variations of 20 - 100kcal/m2/h. From early spring (April 1st), with some exceptions, the index of stress falls into the relaxing category until late autumn (31 October), with daily variations 10- 50kcal/m2/h (fig. 5). In November and December, the diurnal values of the wind cooling power range from 600-900kcal/m2/h under the conditions of a slightly hypocaloric stress,
234 Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă the interdiurnal top values of the investigated bioclimatic parameter range from 10 to 70-80kcal/m2/h.
Fig.2 – Spatial distribution of mean annual values of cooling power of wind (kcal/m2/h) and stress skin in Suceava Plateau (1960- 2006) – a, in January - b and in July - c
Fig. 2c
2 Tab.3 – The highest monthly average cooling power of wind (kcal/m /h)* I F M A M I I A S O N D Rădăuţi (1961-2006) 1192.3 1226.1 1001.4 762.2 584.2 484.0 451.7 450.7 538.9 687.7 901.4 1089.2 Suceava (1961-2006) 1121.9 1171.1 951.1 752.9 579.3 446.1 431.9 441.1 537.5 680.8 883.9 1067.3 Fălticeni (1961-1998) 1040.0 1112.4 894.7 733.8 562.0 417.0 402.6 425.3 559.0 662.6 829.1 946.1 Roman (1961-2006) 1043.2 1081.0 917.6 735.5 546.4 392.4 379.7 401.6 478.0 619.3 833.7 1012.6 *taking into account the results of monthly average temperature and the lowest monthly averages the highest values of wind speed
The same index for the maximum daily cooling power of wind, shows (Fig. 6) values that rarely reach 2000kcal/m2/h, especially in February, but researchers show that stress of over 1400kcal/m2/h (as it can be recorded in the winter months in Suceava), can cause freezing of the exposed skin (face, ears, hands). On very cold and windy days, hypertonic skin stress (700-1200kcal/m2/h) is present even during the summer months, requiring thermogenesis, therefore processes that make the body strive for heating (e.g. shivering).
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? 235
Fig.3 – Spatial distribution of the maximum monthly values of the wind power cooling (kcal/m2/h) and stress skin in Suceava Plateau in February – (left) and in July – (right)
Fig. 4a
The analyzed average hourly values for a period of several years repeat the previous observations, namely that during the winter months, hypertonic stress, with little difference from day to night, while during the winter months, the time is relaxing, with some more pronounced differences, about 100kcal/m2/h between the minimum at night, generally recorded at around 4 and the maximum daily value is recorded after an hour or two, after the sun passes at meridian (Fig. 7).
236 Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
Fig.4b Fig. 4 Frequency (%) of months with different values of wind /cooling power (kcal/m2/h) in Radauti -4a and Roman - 4b (1961-2006), the related indexes of comfort or discomfort (the biostres skin),the time (weather) character
Fig. 5 Daily average* annual trend of cooling power of the wind, the related indexes of comfort or discomfort (the skin biostres), the time (weather) character in Suceava (1971-2008); *results by entering in the calculation of diurnal average temperature and the diurnal averages of wind speed
Similar findings, but more detailed, can be noted in the calculation of hourly values for all months for one year i.e. reduced daily variations of 50 - 100kcal/m2/h in the winter months and, more pronounced ones of up to 150-180 kcal/m2/h between night and day, during the spring (Fig. 8).
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? 237
Fig.6 – Annual course of daily maximums of the cooling power of the wind*, the related indexes of comfort or discomfort (the biostress skin), the time (weather) character in Suceava (1971-2008); * results by entering in the calculation of average temperature with lowest diurnal and diurnal averages of wind speed with the highest value
Fig.7 – Diurnal evolution of wind power cooling (kcal/m2/h) to Suceava (2005-2008)
Isopleth representations (Fig. 9) of the skin stress index show that in a typical year (1999), the hypertonic weather is specific to winter days, to relaxed summer days, except for the summer days when the weather becomes hypotonic.
238 Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
Fig. 8 Evolution of the diurnal values of wind cooling power, in Suceava in 1999; Period January to June (left); Period July to December (right).
Fig. 9 The isopleth of skin stress index in Suceava in 1999
Fig. 10 The cooling power of wind (kcal/m2/h) to Suceava (20 to 24 January 2006)
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? 239
In a very cold period, with strong wind, skin stress index can reach high values of wind cooling power, causing a very high hypertonic stress, with implications on the health of the exposed persons (Fig. 10). Thus, we should mention that on January 23, 2006 at 8 and 9 a.m. the cooling power of the wind increased up to 1752, respectively 1768kcal/m2/h! Such values may quickly cause frostbite of the unprotected human body parts exposed to direct atmospheric air 2b) Temperature equivalent to wind cooling power Tpr. Wind cooling power index is complemented by another one called temperature equivalent to wind cooling power - TPR. This is the temperature that air reaches at certain values of the wind speed. The formula for TPR (by P.A. Siple and C.F. Passel, 1945, quoted by Ionac and Ciulache in 2008) is given by [2]:
Tpr = [33 + (Tusc-33) x (0.474 + 0.454 v -0.0454v)] [2] where:
0 Tp.r. = temperature equivalent to the wind cooling power expressed in C, 0 Tusc = air temperature measured with dry thermometer expressed in C, v = wind speed in m/s.
Tab. 4 The cooling power of wind, temperature equivalent to wind cooling power and physiological effects induced by it (after Ionac and Ciulache, 2008) Equivalent The cooling temperature of power of wind P Physiological effects 2 cooling power of (W/m ) 0 wind – Tpr C P = 200-400 Tpr > +10 No discomfort (comfort)
P = 400-600 +10 ≥ Tpr > -1 slightly discomfort
P = 600-800 -1 ≥ Tpr > -10 increased discomfort
P = 800-1000 -10 ≥ Tpr > -18 very cold
P = 1000-1200 -18 ≥ Tpr > -29 stress hypocaloric Risk to frostbite in
P = 1200-1400 -29 ≥ Tpr > -50 prolonged exposure conditions
P > 1400 Tpr ≤ -50 Risk to instant frostbite
The intervals of P values correspond to intervals with certain values of TPR (Tab. 4). The effects of P (and related TPR) on human physiology depend on the intensity of caloric losses suffered by the human body (Tab. 4). Table 5 indicates that between May and September, the monthly averages of this indicators show comfort condition, while from November to March, they show
240 Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă increased discomfort, the remaining months (October, April) being classified as slightly uncomfortable.
Tab. 5 Monthly* and annual averages of temperature equivalent to wind cooling power (0C) in Suceava Plateau I F M A M I I A S O N D Annual Rădăuţi (1961-2006) -8.9 -8.2 -3.2 4.2 11.1 14.9 16.9 16.6 12.0 5.8 -0.5 -5.4 4,6 Suceava (1961-2006) -8.7 -7.8 -3.0 4.4 11.4 15.3 17.3 16.9 12.3 6.1 -0.7 -5.8 4.8 Fălticeni (1961-1998) -6.8 -6.0 -1.0 5.8 12.6 16.5 17.8 17.5 13.3 7.5 0.9 -3.9 6.2 Roman (1961-2006) -6.8 -6.0 -1.1 6.5 13.4 17.7 19.7 19.3 14.8 8.9 2.0 -3.5 7.1 *for the calculations, we considered the monthly averages of air temperature recorded at the dry thermometer and the monthly averages of wind speed
Territorial distribution of annual average of TPR indicates values within the range of slight discomfort (Fig. 11a). We note again that the average values of annual high degree of generalization imposed by this index are insignificant, as they equalize and unify bioclimatic conditions during a year on large areas. In January, the discomfort is increased (Fig. 11b), and in July, the TPR falls within the range of comfort everywhere (Fig. 11c), with a (insignificant) difference of several units between southern and northern plateau. The same problem of interpretation comes across in July.
Fig. 11 Spatial distribution of annual values (left) January (middle) and July (right) of the Tpr (0C) in Suceava Plateau (1961-2006)
It is hard to accept that in the warm season only the thermal comfort is dominant, because we observed (looking at TEE and ITU) that Suceava Plateau is not avoided by the waves of heat (and rapid cooling), which causes heat waves
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? 241 even if their frequency is not really significant in the investigated subunit. As for January (and winter), we consider that thermal discomfort (given by the TPR values) is normal for the Suceava Plateau.
I F M A M I I A S O N D Annual Rădăuţi -21.1 -22.6 -12.4 -1.6 6.5 11.0 12.5 12.5 8.5 1.8 -7.9 -16.4 -2.4 (1961-2006) Suceava -17.9 -20.1 -10.2 -1.2 6.7 12.8 13.4 13.0 8.6 2.1 -7.1 -15.4 -1.3 (1961-2006) Fălticeni -14.2 -17.5 -7.6 -0.3 7.5 14.1 14.7 13.7 7.6 2.9 -4.6 -9.9 0.5 (1961-1998) Roman -14.3 -16.1 -8.6 -0.4 8.2 15.2 15.8 14.8 11.3 4.9 -4.8 -13.0 1.1 (1961-2006) *for the calculations, the lowest average monthly air temperatures recorded at the dry thermometer and the highest average monthly wind speed were considered
Calculating the monthly average according to the lowest values of temperature equivalent to the cooling power of the wind (as the lowest monthly average air temperature and the highest monthly average wind speed) shows similar observations to the Tab. 8, respectively increased discomfort during the cold season (extended from November - April), comfort in summer months and slight discomfort in May, September and October (Tab. 6).
Fig. 12 Spatial distribution of the of the lowest TPR values (0C) in February – left side and July – right side in Suceava Plateau
The map of the lowest average monthly values distribution of TPR made in February (the coldest month according to this index), indicates very low
242 Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă temperatures (between -10 and -180C TPR) in the southern half of the plateau and " hypocaloric stress" (a quite uninspired and insignificant term for severe winter conditions) (i.e. TPR < -180C), the northern half of the subunit (Fig. 12a). In the hottest month, July, the conditions are comfortable, with a small difference between the south and the north of the plateau (Fig. 12b). Although the lowest monthly average values of the index, represent theoretical combinations, but likely to occur in real synoptic situations of the studied subunit, they still allow us to issue relatively similar observations: hypocaloric stress and very cold in the winter months, increased discomfort in April and October- November, late spring and autumn slight discomfort, comfort in summer (Fig. 13).
Fig. 13 The annual trend of the lowest average monthly temperature equivalent to the power of the wind cooling effect and the physiological effects upon the human body in Suceava Plateau
The analysis of frequency of monthly TPR average values at the four stations in the plateau (we only exemplified Radauti and Roman), shows a maximum frequency for comfort during the warm season, slight discomfort in the intermediate seasons, cold discomfort in winter, with a frequency of 90% in the two categories of increased discomfort and very cold only in Suceava and Radauti, in January-February <5% for hypocaloric stress (Fig. 14). Fig. 15 shows the interdiurne evolution of the index value in the same categories, during an average year. It appears, although they are average values, that from one day to anotheer, variations up to 5-6 degrees of equivalent temperature can occur, especially in winter and early spring, indicating an unstable time, stressful for the human body.
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? 243
Fig. 14 Frequency (%) of the months with different values of temperature equivalent to wind cooling power at Radauti, Suceava, Romania (1961-2006) and Falticeni (1961-1998), the physiological effects induced by each month on the human body (1961 -2006)
Fig. 15 The annual trend of the daily average* of temperature equivalent to wind cooling power and physiological effects induced on human body in Suceava (1971-2008);
*resulted from introducing in the calculations the diurnal average temperatures recorded in the dry thermometer and the diurnal averages of wind speed
The phenomenon is more obvious, if we take into account the diurnal minima of equivalent temperature (calculated using the lowest diurnal thermal average and the highest average diurnal wind speeds), so that differences of 10 -20 degrees equivalent temperature may arise from day to day (Fig. 16). We mention that the values of TPR diurnal minima represent statistical combinations of the two considered elements (daytime temperatures with the lowest values, diurnal speeds with the highest values). However, the probability of such combinations occurence is high over long time intervals, when they can produce profound negative consequences on the human body (frostbite, stress, and discomfort).
244 Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
These combinations with deviations status represent in a transition temperate climate characterized by great variability, normal thresholds which the atmospheric air reaches with negative consequences for the living body. Taking into account the average values of TPR during 24 hours, one can remark small inter-hour differences (5-70Tpr), both in July (when day and night are comfortable), but especially in February, when the differences between day and night are small (2-30Tpr) and the discomfort is increased (Fig. 17).
Fig 16 The annual trend of diurnal temperature minima* of temperature equivalent to wind cooling power and physiological effects induced on human body in Suceava (1971-2008); *resulted from introducing in the calculations the lower diurnal average temperature calculated from observations at the dry thermometer and of the highest average diurnal wind speeds
Fig. 17 Evolution of diurnal Tpr (0C) in Suceava (2005-2008)
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? 245
A more detailed analysis of the evolution of hourly values for each month of the year (Fig. 18), shows the same elements of the index taken into account, the difference between night and day not exceeding a few degrees, more pronounced in the warmer months. The thermal comfort is specific to the whole day (24) only in June-September.
Fig. 18 The evolution of the diurnal hourly values of temperature equivalent to wind cooling power in Suceava for the months of 1999
Calculation of temperature equivalent to the cooling power of the wind for a specific period of time (20-24 January 2006) shows that values of this bioclimatic index can decrease frequently in synoptic situations of severe winter (zero degrees temperatures, wind, snow etc.) to values below -300C (Fig. 19). On shorter time intervals, temperature equivalent to the cooling power of the wind can reach lower values. For example, on 23 January 2006 at 8, 9 a.m. while the air temperature dropped to -24 and -23.20C and wind speed reached 8 to 9m/s, Tpr showed -46.5, respectively -47.20C, corresponding to cooling power of wind with values higher than 1700kcal/m2/h (1759.1kcal/m2/h at 8, 1767.5kcal/m2/h at 9).
Fig. 19 Temperature equivalent to the cooling power of wind (0C) in Suceava (20 to 24 January 2006)
246 Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
It is a thermal value similar to the low values of Siberia or Antarctica. Although such values of TPR are rare, they occur in some severe winter conditions. Such episodes identified by TPR show that in the Suceava Plateau, cold thermal stress being put on the human body is highest during heavy winters (cold and windy).
2c) The pulmonary stress index. Atmospheric air with its particularities (thermal, compositional, water etc.) is inspired by the upper airways and reaches the lung alveoli. Through these, breathing exchanges are done that can be interpreted as diffusion processes (Teodoreanu, 2002). One of the parameters on which a smooth respiratory exchange depends is represented by the atmospheric water vapour pressure (e) and is expressed in mb (hPa). Becancenot calculated in 1974 pulmonary stress indices grouped into seven values intervals (Tab. 10), situated within a scale drawn up by J.P. Nicolas. The scale of Nicolas includes three levels depending on water vapor pressure values. When e < 7.5mb, stress is expressed by the tendency of dehydration or molecular concentration of the blood (usually winter), and when e > 11.7mb, stress is manifested by the tendency of hydration and dilution of plasma (summer). When it is between 7.5 to 11.6 mb, stress is balanced (Tab. 7). The values of e > 31.3mb cause breathing difficulties.
Tab. 7 Index of pulmonary stress depending on the water vapor pressure (Becancenot, 1974) Water vapor Index Type of stress tension (e) 0 – 4.0 (+2) dehydrating in winter 4.1 – 7.4 (+1) dehydrating in winter 7.5 - 11,6 0 equilibrate 11.7 – 15.9 (-1) hydrating during summer 16.0 – 21.1 (-2) hydrating during summer 21.2 – 26.5 (-3) hydrating during summer 26.6 – 31.2 (-4) hydrating during summer
The map of pulmonary climatic stress in Romania published in 1984 (Teodoreanu et al., 1984) shows low values of this index for approximately half of the Moldavian Plateau (the western side, towards the mountains), unlike the eastern one, which has higher values due to lower quantities of water vapor in the air masses.
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? 247
The calculation of the average monthly water vapor pressure (Fig. 20) shows in months like November to March a dehydrating pulmonary stress, which dries the mucous membranes, in circumstances in which in the cold mass, the amount of moisture (water vapor pressure expressed) is reduced and in March-September, when the air masses contain a large amount of water vapor (relative humidity is low though, depending on air temperature, while water vapor pressure expresses, in fact, the actual amount of moisture in the air). Pulmonary stress is moisturizing, emollient for the mucous membranes. In April and October, this index has values that do not generate pulmonary stress.
Desiccati +2 +1 ng time Balanced Legend 0 time Moisturiz -1 -2 ing time Fig. 20 *Monthly averages of pulmonary stress index in Suceava Plateau *based on monthly averages of water vapor tension of Radauti (1961-2008), Suceava (1961- 2008); Falticeni (1961-1998), Roman (1961-2008)
A more detailed situation regarding the watery character of different months and the intensity of pulmonary stress of the center plateau (Suceava) is shown in Fig. 21. Monthly frequencies of specific pulmonary stress index (Fig. 21) respect the general characteristics of its monthly average (Fig. 20), but introduce a greater statistical detail, by including multiple levels and types of stress during the month.
Fig. 21 The average frequency of months with different pulmonary stress index values in Suceava (1971-2006)
248 Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
Analyzing the monthly values of the higher vapor pressure of water, we see that dehydrating months can belong to a more extended interval of the year (October-April). May to September is balanced in terms of water. According to this parameter of pulmonary stress (Tab. 8), only the southern half of the plateau and only July and August may have moisturizing character.
Tab. 8 *Maximum medium monthly averages of lung stress index Suceava Plateau (1971-2006) I F M A M I I A S O N D Rădăuţi 2 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 (1971-2008) Suceava 2 2 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 (1971-2008) Fălticeni 2 2 2 1 0 0 -1 0 0 1 2 2 (1971-1998) Roman 2 2 2 1 0 0 0 -1 0 1 2 2 (1971-2008) *calculated based on monthly averages with the highest values of water vapor tension
Fig. 22 *Monthly average frequency of Fig. 23 *Monthly average frequency of diurnal averages of pulmonary stress diurnal maxima of pulmonary stress index in Suceava (1971-2006); *for the index in Suceava (1971-2006) ;*for the calculations, the multiannual daily average of water calculations, the daily average with the highest vapor tension were used values of water vapor tension were used
The analysis of diurnal regime of pulmonary stress index (Fig. 24) shows the same thing, dehydrating stress during night hours in the cold months and moisturizing during the day in the summer months. The regime is balanced in April, May and October.
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? 249
Fig. 24 Diurnal regime of pulmonary stress index in Suceava in 1999
2d) Total stress index and the degree of climate stimulation Adding the annual positive stress (Besancenot, 1974, according to Teodoreanu, 2002) allows us to boost the annual capacity assessment of the climate of a region (Tab. 9).
Tab 9 The degree of climate stimulation by bioclimatic stress values (Becancenot, 1974)
Sum of positive stress Degree of stimulation < 5 0 5-10 1 10-15 2 15-20 3 20-25 4 > 25 5
Tab. 10 The degree of stimulation of the bioclimate of Suceava Plateau calculated by totaling the positive stress The degree of Meteorological Pulmonary Sum of Skin stress index stimulation of station stress index positive stress climate Rădăuţi (1961-2008) 8 6 14 2 Suceava (1961-2008) 7 6 13 2 Fălticeni (1961-1998) 6 6 12 2 Roman (1961-2008) 5 5 10 2
In the Suceava Plateau, although skin stress index is slightly higher in the north region, the total stress index falls in the same category, namely the moderate total stress, favourable to the residents’ life and work (Tab. 10). These data complement the total bioclimatic stress map, published in 1984, indicating for the Suceava Plateau, moderate values of 40-50 conventional units) compared to both the east and south, with values of over 50 units and with the
250 Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă mountains, where the annual total stress values - reach or exceed 100 conventional units (Teodoreanu et al., 1984).
Conclusion The use of bioclimatic indexes to analyze the general character of the Suceava Plateau climate in relation to the human body, usually shows the same general features, with small differences between the north (slightly cooler and wetter) and the south (slightly warmer and drier) and smaller differences between the eastern and western parts of the plateau, taking into consideration the generally quite similar altitude and the relief. We can appraise that in the cold season the stress is relatively increased, caused by low temperatures and active dynamics of the air, which requires an adaptation of the human body, in order to strengthen the process of thermogenesis, while in the warm period, the relatively high temperatures, especially during the day, the generally reduced speed of the wind and the higher humidity of the air cause a moderate stress, which requires adaptation of the body by thermolysis to reduce internal temperature. In intermediate seasons, the stress is minimal, being relaxing for the skin and and balancing for the lungs. Obviously, these are the results of the analysis performed on average values of bioclimatic indices. In some situations determined by rapid advections of hot or cold weather fronts on certain days or hours, the general nature of stress can be modified (increasing or rising), even only for a short period of time.
References: Ardeleanu I., Barnea M. (1973), Elemente de biometeorologie medicală, Edit. Medicală, Bucureşti Berlescu Elena (1998), Enciclopedia de balneo-climatologie a României, Edit. All, Bucureşti, 258p Besancenot J. P. (1974), Premieres donnees sur les stress bioclimatiques moyens en France, Annales de geogr. Nr. 459, LXXXIII, sept. - oct. Hentschel G. (1978), Das Bioklima des Menschen, Veb verlaf Volk und Gesundheit, Berlin Krawczyk Barbara (1975), Bioklima uzdrowiska Iwonicz, Probl. Bioklimat Uzdrowisk. Praca Zbiorowa, fasc 3-4 Licht S. (1964), Medical climatology, Elisabeth licht Publ., New Haven Mihăilă D., Tanasă I. (2006), Particularitati climatice ale semestrului rece la Suceava, Analele Univ. ,,Stefan cel Mare”, Sect. G., T. XV., pag. 61-72, Suceava Munn R. E. (1970), Biometeorological methods, Acad. Press, New York and London Teodoreanu Elena (1987), Les bains dair en conditions de topoclimat montan, III Sympos.”Le topoclimat de montagne” Bucureşti-Buzău Teodoreanu Elena (1992), The bioclimate of Rucăr-Bran Corridor, Revue Roum. de Geogr., T.36 Teodoreanu Elena (2002), Bioclimatologie umană, Edit. Academiei, Bucureşti
Is the bioclimate of the Suceava Plateau comfortable or uncomfortable? 251
Teodoreanu Elena (2011), Clima şi Omul, prieteni sau duşmani?, Edit. Paideia Bucureşti Teodoreanu Elena, Dacos Mariana (1980), Preliminary data on the average bioclimatic stresses in Romania, RRGGG- Geogr., T. 24 Teodoreanu Elena, Dacos-Swoboda Mariana, Voiculescu-Ardeleanu Camelia, Enache L., (1984), Bioclima staţiunilor balneoclimatice din România, Edit. Sport-Turism, Bucureşti Tromp S. W. (1974), Progress in biometeorology, vol. I, part I A, part I B, Swets et Zeitlinger BV Amsterdam Tromp S.W. (1980), Aspects medicaux de la bioclimatologie humaine, Spectrum international, vol. 23, nr. 4.
252 Elena Teodoreanu, Dumitru Mihăilă
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
THE IMPACT OF MINING INDUSTRY ON THE LANDSCAPE OF MARAMUREŞ COUNTY
1 2 3 Ileana Vasilescu , Irina Smical , Ioan Pop
Keywords: mining, vicinity of mining sites mining perimeter, dumps, mitigation or environmental safeguard measures, environmental mining accidents
Abstract. Having been mentioned for centuries, the mining industry and its activities have been at the same time an important means of economical development in the region and a major source of pollution for the environment. Moreover, it has altered the features of the natural habitat in Maramureş. This study aims to highlight the impact that mining industry has on the environment of the county and to present the main aesthetical consequences of carrying out such activities.
Introduction The rapid development of mining industry in Maramureş caused the spread of ore extraction sites, out of which the best known are Baia Mare, Baia Sprie, Cavnic, Borşa, Ilba, Nistru, Băiuţ and Răzoare. In Maramures county there were two major mining companies - Intreprinderea de Prospectiuni şi Explorări Geologice Maramureş and Centrala Minereurilor Baia Mare. Both companies ceased their activity in the field of non-ferrous and precious metal extraction in 2006 as a direct consequence of drastic subsidy reduction after the nineties. Since 1999 several mine closure and rehabilitation activities have been carried out in order to return the disturbed land in the vicinity of mining sites to its natural landscape. However, the planning and implementation of this process has not succeeded in restoring the original native ecosystem of such sites. Serious environmental problems caused by extraction activities have not been promptly and efficiently solved and accordingly, environmental accidents due to
1 Lecturer Ph.D., Universitatea de Vest ,,Vasile Goldiş‘’, Arad, filiala Baia Mare, Romania, [email protected] 2 Researcher Ph.D., Agenţia pentru Protecţia Mediului Maramureş, Baia Mare, Romania, [email protected] 3 Researcher, Environment Watch Guard Maramureş, Baia Mare, Romania, [email protected]
254 Ileana Vasilescu, Irina Smical, Ioan Pop technical malfunction occurred while handling dumps at Aurul Baia Mare (Jan 30th 2000), Novăţ - Borşa (March 10th 2000), Colbu- Borsa (July 2008). These accidents had a considerable media impact on public perception, highlighting once more that special meteorological phenomena accompanied by errors in the planning and extraction process may cause accidental pollution with major regional or international impact.
1. The impact on geography and landscape In Maramures county prospecting, exploring, extraction and processing of non-ferrous and precious metals generated unwanted aspects that led to difficulty in maintaining the balance of the natural terrestrial ecosystems. The main categories of polluting and disturbing factors that affect the geographical and landscape are:
1.1. Mine spoil dumps and acid mine drainage The activities in mining industry have generated huge amounts of waste material, more precisely, mine spoil (over 100 million tones) which was deposited in the following 18 dumps: Bozânta, Săsar, Aurul, Nistru, Tăuţii de Sus, Flotaţia Centrală, Vrănicioara, Mălăini, Plopiş–Răchiţele, Bloaja, Bloaja Vechi, Leorda, Novăţ, Colbu I, Colbu II, D1, D2, D3 (Figure 1). In our opinion all these dumps can cause international impact with serious consequences on the environment and on the safety of the population in case of hydrologic accidents.
Fig.1 – Tautii de Sus tailings dam Fig2 – Ilba – Valea Băii dp (387 m)
In Maramures there are over 500 mine spoil dumps, out of which only 300 dumps that deposit 4 mil tones are registered in the documents of mine operators. We consider that these dumps present mechanical instability due to the wide angles of the huge piles, due to ditches, spoil washouts, as well as due to the downward
The impact of mining industry on the landscape of Maramureş county 255 migration of pollutants (heavy metals) caused by exfiltration and alkalinisation (Fig 2). A very critical situation is represented by the over half million tone of arsenic pyrite that is directly deposited on the soil. The strong acidification of the flotation waste which contains high level of pyrite led to the acidification of the surrounding soils and to the drying out of the vegetation on the southern side of the dumps in Bozânta, Plopiş, Bloaja, Corbu and D3. A relevant example is the old dump at Bloaja – Baiut where the concentration of deposited pyrite (over 50.000 tones) caused the acidification of a wide surface of surrounding land and led to the corrosion of the evacuation system built for pluvial water on the dump platform (the reverse pumps), causing 4 holes in the dump. On the other hand, the deflation phenomena that affect the flotation waste on the surface of the dump have major negative impact on the surrounding places such as Bozânta, Săsar, Tăuţii de Sus, Baia Mare and Borşa (Fig. 3). At the same time mine waste flows and ditches occurring at such dumps and dams have disastrous effect on the vegetation and on the environment
Fig.3 – “Valea Lungă” Dump (IPEG) Baia Fig.4 – Ilba Mine – Surface mine “Mihai Mare. Nepomuc”
1.1.Surface and underground mining Surface minings at Hanău –Ilba, Mihai Nepomuc – Ilba, 11 Iunie – Nistru, Baia Sprie, Şuior, Măgura – Borşa, Răzoare, are mainly responsible for the appearance and evolution of soil erosion, acidification and migration of harmfull elements into the surface receptors (Figure 4). Underground mining – that consist of over 1000 km galleries in the mines of Ilba, Nistru, Săsar, Herja, Baia Sprie, Şuior, Cavnic, Băiuţ, Băiţa, Borşa and IPEG galleries in all Maramureş county cause underground sinkholes that - under the influence of the interior pressure led to landslide, uncontrolled mine water
256 Ileana Vasilescu, Irina Smical, Ioan Pop accumulation as well as its acidification due to the contamination of surface and underground water with minerals (Figure 5).
Fig. 5 – Sfântul Gheorghe Mine – Băița; Gallery (left), Old stope (right)
1.3. Sinkholes Drilling in the underground caused numerous sinkholes on the mine surfaces at: Purcăreţ, Firizan, Nucuţ – Ilba; Jidovia, 9 May, Lăpuşna – Nistru; Borzaş, Sofia, Aurum, Valea Roşie, Dealul Crucii – Săsar Baia Mare; Herja Superior; Limpedea, Crăpătura Zorilor - Baia Sprie; Cariera Şuior; Breiner, Petru and Pavel – Băiuţ; Gura Băii – Borşa) (Fig. 6). Through these holes pluvial water infiltrates, it acidifies due to contamination with metals in the deposits and, combined with heavy rain it creates huge amounts of water in the underground, as well as violent phenomena such as heavy floods.
Fig.7 – Nistru Mine – Sinkhole Pâlnia, Fig.6 – IPEG Hole – Dealul Crucii Jidovia
The impact of mining industry on the landscape of Maramureş county 257
Fig.8 – Săsar Mine – stope Sofia Fig.9 – Nistru mine – The landslide on the surface at Lăpușna
Fig.10 – “Dealul Crucii” mine - Landslide
Also, infiltration of surface water in the underground can occur through karsts and crevices formed above some mines where the mining activities are run near the surface (Jidovia – Nistru, Băiţa, Valea Roşie – Baia Mare, Conci stream – Băiuţ) (Fig.7, Fig. 8, Fig. 9, Fig. 10).
1.4.Mining related constructions and water transportation pipes. Huge surfaces (hundreds of hectares) on which abandoned constructions and equipment connected to mining industry were left derelict (at present most of them being devastated) will represent a major environmental problem due to the corrosive process they undergo. Such dangerous factors are: buildings, flotation plants, storehouses for mining materials and concentrates, mine access roads, large quantities of scrap iron (rails,
258 Ileana Vasilescu, Irina Smical, Ioan Pop tubes, pipes, cables, metallic structures, anchors); electric cables, electric equipment, tools and installations (trolleys, engines, mining pumps, extraction machine, loading machines, electrical engines) that were not removed because their removal was not profitable. They will be a major environmental issue for a very long time (Fig. 11).
Fig.11 Ilba mine – mining site
Similarly, a negative effect on the environment can be caused by evacuating mining water directly into nature or by the insufficiently purified mine waste waters in the 5 water treatment plants at Toroioaga- Borşa, Tyuzosa – Băiţa, Câmpurele – Nistru, Valea Colbului – Ilba and Herja – Baia Mare (Fig. 12, Fig. 13, Fig. 14, Fig. 15).
Fig.12 – Săsar mine – mine water Fig.13 – Nistru mine – water treatment evacuation plant plant at Câmpurele
The impact of mining industry on the landscape of Maramureş county 259
Fig.14 – Nistru mine – mine water flow Fig.15 Nistru mine – mine water at at Tzuyosa Galbena
Other potential causes of negative impact on the environment are represented by purified water evacuation systems in the waste dams (reverse water pumps) that undergo severe corrosion phenomenon that lead to ecological accidents (relevant examples are the collapse of reverse water pumps at the dams in Tăuţii de Sus, Bozânta, Bloaja vechi, Leorda ). Also, there is the permanent danger of blocking the water transportation galleries under dams situated in the valleys of Novăţ, Colbu (Borşa) and Bloaja (Băiuţ) in the case of heavy floods that can carry branches, logs, garbage from the slopes. At present closure and safeguarding processes are run on such dams built in valleys at Novat, Colbu (Borsa) and Bloaja Baiut, but it requires important financial resources to close and clean all the mining vicinities.
Conclusions Unfortunately for the environmental health and safety, only a regional perspective - and not a global view - was considered in the process of closing the mining perimeters. As for the technical projects of mine closures, the interest of the company involved in this business (REMIN) was prior to other activities such as prospection, geological explorations, mine opening activities executed by IPEG Maramures or by other mine operators. As well, it is obvious that all there is no prioritization from the perspective of assuring a minimal safety when it comes to mining activities and environment and also, it is evident that there are no designing solutions that could lead to the possibility of holding back the pollutants at the source. The present situation in the post-closure process of the mining perimeters reveals the fact that there are many unsolved problems due to lack of regulations when it comes to environment protection. The major problems consist of hundreds
260 Ileana Vasilescu, Irina Smical, Ioan Pop of galleries and vertical mining activities, as well as waste dumps and many surface mines. Vertical mining causes the most dangerous situations as they lead to the formation of sinkholes or landslides that represent a real threat for the animals and especially for the tourists who, too often, get too near, risking falling. The water quality is also a major issue as it acidifies due to the flooding process. In order to solve all these problems, it is necessary to implement the legislation concerning the safety of post-closure process in the case of mining perimeters so as to provide protection both for the environment and for the people and animals that live or happen to go near such areas.
References: Bălănescu, S., Achim, V., Ciolte, A., (2002), Istoria Conducerii Mineritului, a Metalurgiei Neferoase şi Preţioase din Nord-Vestul României, Editura Gutinul, Baia Mare, pp 508 Bud, I., (2006), Poluanţi în Industria Minieră, Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca, pp 153. Paraschiv, I., (1994), Protecţia Mediului în Zonele Miniere, Course, Universitatea de Nord din Baia Mare, Baia Mare, pp 121 *** (2011),Priority Action Plan, Chapter 22, Environment, Maramureş County *** web references: www.apmmm.anpm.ro http://www.google.ro/imgres?imgurl=http://hartamaramures.ro/imagini/harti/harta_maram res_.jpg&imgrefurl=http://hartamaramures.ro.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
A LOCAL APPROACH OF SOME PHENOMENA WITH CLIMATIC EFFECTS AT THE GLOBAL LEVEL. CASE STUDY: PIATRA NEAMT TOWN
Dumitru Letos1, Cristina Letos2
Keywords: Indicator, greenhouse gases, radiative forcing, climate change, energy consumption, sustainable development.
Abstract. Even though on the global level and especially on European plan, climate change problem is tackled with great attention by: United Nations, European Council, European Commission and European Parliament into many official documents concerning with sustainable development, as well as some research institutions and working groups such as EUROSTAT, IPCC, OECD, etc., do it in many reports, analyses and assessments on this theme, local application comes hardly on an efficient level because of a delay and an disparate approach. Global impacts upon climate change have the origin at the local level and therefore any global effect can be mitigated starting from local level through operating upon the original causes. Among local processes generated by human activities with great impacts upon climate change are: greenhouse gases emissions (GHGs) and energy consumption. Monitoring these processes at the local level by using some adequate indicators such as: Local Contribution to Global Warming Potential and Total Local Rude Energetic Consumption can be carried out important steps for an efficient urban audit concerning the sustainable development at the local level and implicitly on the global plan.
1. Greenhouse gases emissions (GHGS) and radiative forcing Human activities result in emissions of the following long-lived GHGs: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous protoxide or nitrous oxide (N2O), together with other substances as halocarbon gases: hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphurhexafluoride (SF6), which destroy the natural stratospheric ozone, increase the quantity of artificial ozone (O3) and increase the radiative forcing. The largest part of these gases result from burning conventional fuel as fossil fuel in different human activities: industry, transport, agriculture etc.
1 Phd student Universitatea „Al. I. Cuza” Iasi, Facultatea de Geografie si Geologie, Romania, [email protected] 2 Phd student Universitatea „Al. I. Cuza” Iasi, Facultatea de Geografie si Geologie, Romania, [email protected]
262 A local approach of some phenomena with climatic effects at the global level
The accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leads to a warming process of the atmosphere brought about by „catching the infrared radiation reflected by Earth surface” (IPCC, 2007). Greenhouse effect upon the Earth’s atmosphere is a natural phenomenon and a necessary precondition for maintaining life on Terra, but without exceeding a certain point, otherwise it can have negative effects. It is known that without atmosphere, the Earth’s average temperature would be lower with about 33oC, but keeping the emissions of greenhouse gases on a high level that natural phenomenon is artificially amplified and conducts irreversibly to fast climate change with dangerous repercussions, sometimes unexpectedly, on the environment generally and the human society especially. Atmosphere pollution with greenhouse gases is a global phenomenon but its causes are at the local level, where the effects come back, therefore the local level is considered as the basic level in tackling the climate change and where there is necessary a permanent monitoring and finding practical solutions to mitigate dangerous effects on short term and even to improve the quality of environment on long term, limiting gradually the causes which generate global effects. According to the Yearly Report of Neamt Environment Protection Agency, (Report 2009), and to the series of data during 2008, the analysis of greenhouse gases emissions in Piatra Neamt area is based on the inventory of emissions recorded at NT1, an urban background station which is located near Piatra Neamt Meteo Station and has automatic analyzers which monitor online the air quality, counting hourly and daily averages. These series of data are delivered to the server of Neamt Environment Protection Agency and then to the public panel in the centre of the town and to Air Quality Evaluation Centre belongs to National Environment Protection Agency at Bucharest (Report 2009). The inventory of long-lived GHGs emissions at the local level of Piatra Neamt points out negligible quantities of halocarbon gases (HFCs, PFCs and SF6), but relative considerable quantities of: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). Because nowadays in Piatra Neamt area there are few industrial factories with GHGs emission potential in technological process due to the phenomenon of deindustrialization during the last decade and because the local production of electric power is based only on hydroenergy, the main fields which generate GHGs are: the production and consumption of thermal energy in industry, the production and consumption of thermal energy for population houses, and the urban transportation. For technical reasons, we changed the emissions of methane and nitrous oxide in carbon dioxide-equivalent (CO2 -eq) according to specific global warming coefficients for every gas established by the working group of Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change (IPCC’s Third Assessment Report, 2001), as in the formulae:
Geo-systems and types of geo-facets in the Transylvanian Plain 263
(1) 1×CO2 = 21×CH4 = 310×N2O
(2) 1t CO2 = 21t CH4 = 310t N2O
During 2008, when economic activities weren’t confronting the rebound generated by economic crisis, the whole quantity of CO2 –eq emissions resulted in the economic sphere, meaning both fields: technological process and production and consumption of thermal energy, was summed about at 103.897,6 t/year (42%), adding the quantity of CO2 –eq emissions resulted from production and consumption of thermal energy in population houses based on mini-centrals and estimated at 67.880,4 t/year (28%) (both district centrals and private centrals), adding also the quantity of CO2 –eq emissions resulted in urban transport activities counted at about 75.000,2 t/year (30%) (indicators 1,2,3 Annex and Figure 1).
30% CO2 -eq from economic field 42% CO2 -eq from domestic activities
CO2 -eq from transport activities
28%
Fig. 1 – The percentage of CO2 –eq emissions in the main activity fields
It is easy to notice that the largest quantity of CO2 –eq is produced by economic activities, while the smallest one by the thermal system for population houses. Among all industrial unities, the highest quantity of CO2 –eq is produced by PETROCART A.S. (factory of cellulose and paper) which generates yearly about 5.000 tons of CO2 –eq. In fact it is the only industrial unity in Piatra Neamt that has an agreement for CO2 emissions, according to Kyoto Protocol, the main emission sources being the thermal central of the factory and drying processes. The whole quantity of CO2 –eq emitted during 2008 in Piatra Neamt was estimated at 246.778,2 tons (indicator A Annex) which meant 2.3 t/per capita/year (indicator 4 Annex), being situated under the national average in 2007 about 4,4 t/per capita/year (IEA Statistics, 2010). A small part of the CO2 quantity is taken off through absorption process in local vegetation, in this case local forests because the other types of vegetation and agricultural lands are negligible as area and absorption capacity. So, according to
264 A local approach of some phenomena with climatic effects at the global level the absorption average capacity of CO2 by forests in the boreal hemisphere (aged 50-70 years) estimated about 0.95 t/ha/year (Global Change Biology, 1998), there is a result of 3.351,6 t/year of CO2 (for those 3528 ha) (indicator 5 Annex) which is taken off from the initial quantity, thus the final balance for 2008 was 243.426,6 t/an CO2 –eq (indicator A Annex). In order to determine the concrete effects of CO2 –eq emissions, we resort to a particular type of Global Warming Potential (GWP), an indicator introduced by SETAC which points out the measure that GHGs contributes to global warming process. IPCC uses a series of mathematical formulae to determine GWP starting from another index, Radiative Forcing Capacity (RF), which is the quantity of energy absorbed by GHGs on area unit and time unit otherwise that would be lost in atmosphere (IPCC, 2007), intending to estimate the future impact potential of GHGs upon terrestrial climate system. According to comparative analyses, IPCC proposes in Climate Change 2007, Synthesis Report, an estimated number for combined radiative forcing generated by increasing of concentration of CO2, NH4 2 and N2O as to be +2.3 [+2.1 to +2.5] W/m for 2005, larger than the radiative forcing generated only by the variation of solar radiation estimated on the average of +0.12 [+ 0.06 la + 0.30] W/m2. In this vision, total radiative forcing depends on many factors: some natural factors as solar radiation, cloud albedo, surface albedo, and so on, but mostly anthropogenic factors, mainly the increase of CO2 –eq concentration in atmosphere, estimated by IPCC at 279 ppm in 2005, with an yearly increase rate of 1.4 ppm/year during 1995-2005. Even though these information give an evidence about the increasing concentration of CO2 –eq at the global level, because the emissions of GHGs happen at the local level, we think that local area has to be introduced into this equation, and because GWP is an indicator having only a global aggregation level, it is necessary to evidence the contribution of local area to GWP, at least as a percentage of local emissions into the national and global quantities of GHGs (IEA, 2010). We propose a complex indicator in order to evaluate a segment of urban sustainable development into an urban audit as Local Contribution to Global Warming Potential, which can gather many specialized indicators referring to local GHGs emissions (Annex). According to the calculations from Table 1, quantitative values of CO2 -eq emissions in Piatra Neamt during 2008 mean 0.000258 % of the total emissions at national level and 0.000000083 % of the total emissions at global level for that year (indicator I Annex). If Romania is situated on 40th place on the Globe as quantity of GHGs emissions, for the local area it is not possible to establish a certain place, but there is a very little contribution to Global Warming Potential with 0.000000083 %. This process can be appreciated from two perspectives which evidence two types of impacts: from its very little contribution to GWP that
Geo-systems and types of geo-facets in the Transylvanian Plain 265 generates a satisfactory impact upon the global environment, but until those GHSs are absorbed into the high atmosphere (accumulating in stratosphere), they are pollution sources in the local level generating air pollution, accumulation of positive entropy and thereby generating a moderate negative impact upon the local environment (indicator A Annex).
Tab. 1 – The ratio among global, national and local levels for some statistical indicators during the 2007-2008 interval
Area Population GHGs emissions Levels Absolute Percentage Number Percentage Quantity Percentage values (km2) (%) inhabitants (%) (Th. tons) (%) Globe 148.939.100 100 6.670.000.000 100 29.321.302.000 100 Romania 238.391 0,16 21.500.000 0,32 94.138.000 0,321 Piatra Neamt 77,47 0,000052 107.000 0,0016 243,4 0,000000083 Sources: National Statistics Institute; Neamt Environmental Protection Agency
2. Energy consumption Energy consumption includes all types of energy that are consumed as: electric power, thermal energy and all kinds of energy resulted from burning gas and liquid fuel for economic, family, public and for other sectors. If inside a society of consumption, energy consumption expresses the economic level and standard of living, in our vision based on sustainable development principles, energy consumption has a double role: a dynamic one for sustaining the economy and society development and a role of impact upon the environment as increasing the radiant energy that is emitted towards atmosphere, contributing to increasing the positive balance recorded at the limit between troposphere and stratosphere on the background of amplifying the radiative forcing. In IPCC’s vision, terrestrial surface and atmosphere function together like a system where there are inputs and outputs of radiant energy and the balance of energy happens in tropopause where are caused variations of radiant energy called also radiative forcing. The experts of IPCC considered 1750 as a mark year in the evolution of radiative balance, and agreed for the acceptance of the term positive radiative forcing for the phenomenon when the inputs are large than the outputs of radiant energy as the term of negative radiative forcing for the phenomenon when the inputs are smaller than the ouputs of radiant energy. Besides solar radiation, cloud albedo, surface albedo and presence of GHGs, the radiative balance is influenced also by the supplementary radiant energy emitted from terrestrial surface to the atmosphere as a result of anthropogenic production and consumption of energy. While the concentration of GHGs in atmosphere is low, the most part of radiant energy would leave the
266 A local approach of some phenomena with climatic effects at the global level system and therefore the radiative balance can be negative or close to zero. But the progressive accumulation of GHGs leads to the growth of radiant energy absorption in tropopause and consequently to a positive evolution of radiative forcing which amplifies the greenhouse effect. As the accumulation of GHGs grows progressively keeping more energy in the atmosphere, the anthropogenic production and consumption of energy brings a supplementary contribution of radiant energy into the system, supplying the positive radiative forcing. In these conditions, energy consumption at the local level has a basic role in the global system as radiant energy generator; even more the ways of energy production together with technological level and consumption efficiency can amplify or diminish the global warming process.
3. Local consumption of electric power Electric power consumption of Piatra Neamt was 448.742.701 KWh/year in 2008, that meant 25% of Neamt county consumption and 0.82% of Romania consumption for that year, while the population of the town held 19% of the county and 0.49% of country population, being a relative high consumption in comparison with its population percentage (indicator B Annex, according to the data supplied by different official documents, 2009). Electric power consumption shared on activities fields in Piatra Neamt during 2008 points out the following values: 6.467.941 KWh/year for public consumption (1%), 82.613.760 kWh/year for domestic consumption (18%) and 359.661.000 KWh/year for economic consumption (81%) (indicators 6,7,8 Annex and Figure 2). The yearly average consumption of total electric power per capita in Piatra Neamt was 4.189 KWh/pc/year during 2008, being higher than Romania’s average estimated at 2.524 KWh/pc/year. The only explication for that difference depends on a high level of economic consumption with a highly consuming power industry (indicator 12 Annex). A detailed quantitative analyses points out that the average consumption per house in Piatra Neamt was about 160 KWh/month during 2008, placing the town close to Romania’s average of 165 KWh/month, and furthermore, associating this with the domestic average consumption of electric power per capita estimated at 771 KWh/pc/year, proves again a standard of living for the inhabitants close to Romania’s average (indicators 8, 9 Annex). The average public consumption of electric power per capita was at 60.37 KWh/pc/year during 2008, proving economical power consumption placed near to the lowest limit for a normal operation (indicator 10 Annex). A short conclusion points out that while public and domestic consumption are placed close to national average, sometimes with economical tendencies; economic consumption has a very high level due to some characteristics of local industry
Geo-systems and types of geo-facets in the Transylvanian Plain 267
1% 18%
Electric power consumption in public activities Electric power consumption in economic field Electric power consumption in domestic activities
81%
Fig.2 – Percentage of electric power consumption on main fields of activities such as high consumptions and low technology. The modest characteristic of total local electric power consumption in association with the ecological way of production (100% hydroenergy) generates a moderate positive impact of that activity field upon the local sustainable development (indicator B Annex).
4. Local fuel consumption Fuel consumption includes fuel for means of transportation and gas for producing thermal energy and domestic consumption. The consumption of fuel for transportation in local area may be analyzed by using some indicators linked to some different types of fuel (traditional and ecological) and the effects upon the environment. The total rude fuel consumption in transport activities of Piatra Neamt during 2008 was estimated at 32,608,782.6 l/year (result of personal investigation which corroborated the analyze of solid fuel with the urban stock of means of transport and CO2 –eq emissions from transport activities) that meant an average fuel consumption in transport activities per capita of 304.4 l/pc/year (indicators 13, 14 Annex). The percentage of ecological fuel in local urban transport was estimated at 3% as an average for all fuel stations in the local area, pointing out an incipient stage in using that kind of fuel (indicator 15 Annex). The local rude gas consumption in 2008 was 81,799,409 m3/year, shared on the following fields: 60.5% of gas consumed in economic and public activities and 39.5% of gas consumed in domestic activities (indicators 16, 17, 18). Summing all conventional fuel consumed reported as tons of conventional fuel (t.c.f.), we can notice that fossil gaseous fuel has 67%, followed by fossil liquid fuel with 32% while the ecological liquid fuel has only 1% as reporting to the whole quantity (Figure 3).
268 A local approach of some phenomena with climatic effects at the global level
32%
Fossile liquid fuel
Ecological liquid fuel
1% Fossile gaseous fuel 67%
Fig. 3 – Percentage of different kinds of fuel consumption
As the majority of economic and domestic activities are based on an unsustainable power support concerning that about 97% of local fuel consumption in transport activities are fossil fuel and over 95% of thermal energy is produced by burning gas, we can conclude that local fuel consumption generates a moderate negative impact upon the local environment and upon the local sustainable development (indicator C Annex).
5. Local consuption of thermal energy The entire local economic field, all public institutions and about 96% of houses in Piatra Neamt were provide with thermal energy during 2008 by burning gas and only 4% by other sources: stoves and minicentrals on wood. Total local consumption of thermal energy was estimated at 470,634 Gcal/year, which meant a per capita consume of 4.4 Gcal/pc/year. That consumption was shared on different fields of activities as: economic field and public institutions held 43% of thermal energy consumption, while houses held 57%, which totalized 15% as thermal consumption connected to public system and 42% as thermal consumption based on private centrals (Figure 4). The thermal public system bore back during the last 10 years due to an explosion of flat-centrals phenomenon, so that for present period in Piatra Neamt, over 70% of houses have their own thermal system and only about 26% of houses are connected to the thermal public system. Even though local administration succeeded to invest during 2006-2008 over 1000 milliard RON to rehabilitate the old thermal public system with 194 new thermal centrals with a power of 200 – 800 KW each one, every central connecting only 2-3 blocks of flats in order to increase the efficiency, more and more householders have been preferring to assemble their own thermal system for a supplementary autonomy. We appreciate that the decreasing of local thermal consumption in association with the growth of consumption efficiency by choosing centrals of small capacity would generate a
Geo-systems and types of geo-facets in the Transylvanian Plain 269
Thermic energy consumption in economic field 42% 43%
Thermic energy consumption through public system
Thermic energy consumption in houses equiped with own themic centrals 15%
Fig.4 – Percentage of thermal energy consumption on main fields of activities moderate positive impact upon the local environment and implicitly upon local sustainable development with better effects over global climate system (indicator D Annex).
6. Total local energetical consumption Applying the equivalence formula concerning local energy consumption in order to change all kinds of consumptions into tons conventional fuel (t.c.f.), (according to ISMU), we obtain the following:
(3) 1 Gcal = 4.18×109 J
3 6 3 (4) 1 m CH4 = 35.5×10 J/m
(5) 1 l liquid fuel = 43.1335 MJ/l
(6) 1 Gcal = 109 cal = 106 kcal = 1.163 x 103 kWh = 1.163 MWh
(7) 1 t.c.f = 7 x 106 Kcal = 8.1414 x 103 kWh = 8.1414 MWh = 7.0Gcal.
Totalizing them at the local level for 2008, we can obtain about 269,553.57 t.c.f., and can appreciate into a sustainable perspective (quantity of fuel, quantity of GHGs, ecological energy, local contribution to GWP) that generating a satisfactory impact upon sustainable development of the local area. Inside the local energy consumption, we can distinguish between unsustainable energy generated from conventional fuel by burning (liquid fuel and gas) which hold about 55% (18% and 37%) and so-called sustainable energy (electric power and thermal energy) which hold about 45% (20% and 25%), that
270 A local approach of some phenomena with climatic effects at the global level
18% 25% Energy generated from liquid fuel
Energy generated from gas
Energy generated from electric power
20% 37% Energy generated from thermic energy
Fig.5 – Percentage of local energy types according to energetic sources does not affect the local environment with chemical emissions but the global climate system with radiant energy, both of those categories of consumption having a small contribution to greenhouse effect and global warming process (Figure 5).
7. Determination of climatical and energetical impact indicator upon the environment All the conclusions detached during the theoretical analyze we tried to concentrate into one analysis model like that proposed by EUROSTAT (Almunia, 2005), based on three levels of indicators: analytical, operational and principal (Annex). Besides we added also a synthetic one, in order to express in a qualitative manner the degree of local sustainable development inside the researched theme. This approach means a unification in stages of quantitative and qualitative indicators, from level 3 to level 1, finally all these levels have to be focused in the synthetic one (Annex, Table 2). Every indicator in upper levels has to receive a special code using the main initials of their names in order to be introduced easy into a diagram (Table 2).
Tab. 2 – Unifying local indicators concerning to climatic and energetic impact upon the environment
Synthetic Indicator Level 1 Indicator Level 2 Indicator Local Contribution to Global Climatic and Energetic Warming Potential (LC-GWP) Total GHGs Emissions (TGHGE) Impact Indicator upon the Local Consumption of Electric Power (LCEP) Natural Environment Local Consumption of Liquid Fuel (LCLF) (CEIINE) Total Local Rude Energy Local Consumption of Gas Fuel (LCGF) Consumption (TLREC) Local Consumption of Thermal Energy (LCTE) Source: Annex
Geo-systems and types of geo-facets in the Transylvanian Plain 271
The graphic unification of operational and principal indicators concerning climatic and energetic impact upon the natural environment in order to obtain the synthetic indicator is made in Figure 6, using five categories of impact: major positive, moderate positive, satisfactory, moderate negative and major negative impact.
Fig.6 – Generative diagram of Climatic and Energetic Impact Indicator upon the Natural Environment (Sources: Annex, Table 2)
Total GHGs Emissions Indicator (TGHGE) at the local level is estimated to have a satisfactory impact upon the environment of global level, that transferring the same level of impact to the upper indicator, Local Contribution to Global Warming Potential (LC-GWP). Because Local Consumption of Electric Power (LCEP) and Local Consumption of Thermal Energy (LCTE) are integrated into the category of moderate positive impact and Local Consumption of Liquid Fuel (LCLF) respective Local Consumption of Gas Fuel (LCGF) are integrated into the category of moderate negative impact, their unification generates an upper indicator, Total Local Rude Energy Consumption (TLREC) integrated into the category of satisfactory impact as an average among them all (Table 2, Figure 6). Unifying the two indicators of level 1 which have the same category of impact generates the synthetic indicator, Climatic and Energetic Impact Indicator upon the Natural Environment (CEIINE) that points out a satisfactory impact upon the sustainability level of the natural environment and implicitly upon the sustainable development of Piatra Neamt (Table 2, Figure 6).
Conclusions The transposal of general principles and rules concerning to sustainable development from the global or continental plan to local level is a responsibility
272 A local approach of some phenomena with climatic effects at the global level
Geo-systems and types of geo-facets in the Transylvanian Plain 273 mainly of local authorities supported by national and regional administration. Inside a globalized economic and environmental system, local level has to play the role of fundamental cell as well as generator of causes with global effects but also as decision centre for implementing new developing models for sustainability. The interdependence between local and global, natural and anthropological, economy and environment brings the request for local authorities to choose the best solutions after a thorough knowledge of the problem for a scientific substantiation of every decision. Inside this vision, the present approach is a small link into a long chain of knowledge and attitude in order to propose a type of analysis in a certain location about the basic causes with global impacts upon climate change, trying to put in quantitative and qualitative relations the two levels, local and global. It is a trial to transpose the European prospect proposed and sustained by European institutions into a useful instrument for local analysis of an acute problem. It can become a main method for investigating the local sustainability referring to causes that affect global climate and implicitly its manifestations on the local plan. While European Commission requests more insistently for local authorities to implement urban audit as a very useful instrument to measure and monitor the level of local sustainability, this proposal comes to welcome that demand and to help local administration to apply an efficient analysis instrument. This approach starts from some results and analysis models proposed by international specialized institutions such as EUROSTAT and IPCC, managing to adapt them at the local level. We used the case study of Piatra Neamt in order to give an example of practical application of the promoted instrument according with this vision. Connecting and summing up the Local Contribution to GWP and the Total Rude Energy Consumption into one synthetic indicator as Climatic and Energetic Impact Indicator upon the Natural Environment allows us to have a good evaluation of the local sustainability and of its impact upon the global climatic system. Even though the analysis inside the case study pointed out a satisfactory impact of the local area Piatra Neamt into the global climatic and energetic circuit where the local level is only a small subsystem, it could become an analysis model for every town and every local subsystem concerning the study theme.
AKNOWLEDGEMENT This article is a result of research carried out by Dumitru Letos and Cristina Harabagiu (cas. Letos) financed by POSDRU Project (POSDRU/6/1.5/S/25).
References: Almunia, M., (2005). Sustainable Development Indicators to monitor the implementation of the EU Sustainable Development Strategy, Communication to the members of the Commission, Brussels, 3-5
274 A local approach of some phenomena with climatic effects at the global level
***Commission of the European Communities, (2005). Sustainable Development Indicators to munitor the implementation of the EU Sustainable Development Strategy, 9-20 ***Commission of the European Communities, (2007). Progress Report on the Sustainable Development Strategy, 5, 6 ***EUROSTAT, (2007). Monitoring Report of the EU SustainableDevelopment Strategy, Statistical books, 66-83 ***EUROSTAT, (2007). Indicators and better policy-making: the case of sustainable Development, Luxemburg, 1-4 ***European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Systems, Informatics and Safety, (1999). An European System of Environmental Pressure Indices, First Volume of the Environmental Pressure Indices Handbook: The Indicators, Part I: Introduction to the political and theoretical background, European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Systems, Informatics and Safety (ISIS), whole document ***Global Change Biology, (1998), Long-term measurements of boreal forest carbon balance reveal large temperature sensitivity, 443-450 ***Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, (2001). Third Assessment Report, 2001, 244,245 ***Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, (2007). Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, 4, 14-17 ***International Energy Agency, (2010), CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion, Highlights, 50 ***Local Commity for Emergency Situations, (2009). Analyse Plan for Risk Covering in Piatra Neamt town, 41 ***Neamt Environment Protection Agency, (2009). Annual Report concerning the quality of environment factors, 23-39 ***Neamt Environment Protection Agency, (2009). Rude data series referring to local GHGs emissions during 2008 ***Neamt Environment Protection Agency, (2009). Inventory of GHGs emissions recorded to NT1 during 2008 ***National Statistics Intitute, (2009), Statistics Data ***Townhall of Piatra Neamţ, (2008). Strategia de Dezvoltare Locală a Municipiului Piatra Neamţ 2008-2015, 56, 57
ABBREVIATION APRC – Analyse Plan of Risk Covering; CO2 –eq – CO2 equivalent; EPA NT – Environmental Protection Agency Neamt; GHGs – Greenhouse Gases; GWP – Global Warming Potential; IEA – International Energy Agency; ISMU – International System of Measure Unities; IPCC - Interguvernmental Panel of Climate Change; NT1 – Neamt Meteo Station No. 1 pc – per capita; RON – Romanian monetary unity; SETAC - Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry; TH – Townhall; t.c.f. - tons conventional fuel.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
IMPLICATIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS OF CORRIDOR AND AXIS DEVELOPMENT
Daniela Iurea1
Key words:development corridors, development axes, urban sprawl, linear spatial development, urban concentration, spatial disparities
Abstract.The subject of corridor and axis development as linear spatial development pattern is a very controversial one. While some see it as a valuable economic development tool at regional level, others associate it with problems like congestion, landscape fragmentation, increasing dependency of private car use, land waste, pollution, or suburbanization. At national level, the territorial development strategy seems to support corridor and axis formation, while the strategy for sustainable transportation expresses the concern about some of the possible negative consequences of this type of development trend. This article examines different points of view regarding corridor and axis development which are present in the literature as well as in the European and national spatial strategies and attempts to emphasize the main opportunities and risks entailed by these spatial development patterns.
Introduction Compact cities, preservation of open spaces, reduction of private car dependency and a spatial structure that encourages the use of public transportation are some of the main European spatial development objectives. „Urban concentration” has been considered a basic principle for combating the current spatial development trends: urban sprawl, ribbon development along the main transportation routes. Corridor and axes development patterns are therefore seen as antagonistic to the compact urban forms that represent the sustainable spatial design recommended by European spatial policies. At the same time, a development corridor is supposed to have an influence on the spatial disparities by shaping investment decisions (Chapman et al., 2003). Albrechts and Tasan-Kok (2009) showed that the terms ‘corridor’ and ’axis development’ carry a variety of meanings that relate to the functions (urbanization, ecological, transportation and economic development corridors), views (geographers, ecologists, spatial policy planners, transport engineers, economists)
1 PhD. Student, University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geography, Romania, [email protected]
276 Daniela Iurea and scale (from global to local). According to these two authors, corridor and axis development have in common spatial linearity as a major feature and they refer to the same types of development. The difference between them would be, according to the same authors, that corridors refer to patterns of spatial development at macro-scale, whereas axis development refers to micro-scale continuity, namely, concentration of urban functions along a linear pattern. At European level, for example, Euro-corridors are seen as “the backbone” of the Trans-European-Networks (TENs), whereas at regional level, the significance of corridors is more closely related to the urbanization processes (Vries, J. de and Priemus, H., 2003). Within the project CORRIDESIGN2, Ipenburg et al. (2000) examined the divergent points of view and showed that there are at least two ways to look at (mega)corridors. Thus, for those who expressed a positive view about the development corridor, this is seen a tool for regional development, while for those sharing a negative perception, the corridor is looked upon as a threat to the quality of life (Ipenburg, 2001). In the document concerning European Regional Planning Strategy prepared for the European Conference of Ministers Responsible for Regional Planning (CEMAT, 1992), Nicholas Momper showed as well that the influence of metropolitan areas and the main development axes can be negative or positive. It is negative if it leads to urban concentration of development potential, which, instead of being distributed throughout all the hierarchical levels of the structure, it is higher within metropolitan areas and around the main development axes. They become positive when performing highly qualified and specialized functions, in the exchange of goods and services between rural and urban areas and between developed and declining regions. According to the same document, the main development axes might have the following functions: - intensification of goods and services exchange between metropolitan areas (liaison functions); - improving the accessibility between regions (functional organization);
2 The project CORRIDESIGN investigated the development of the megacorridors in the north-western part of Europe. Seven megacorridors have been identified: 1) Randstad - Flemish Diamond; 2) Randstad – RheinRuhr; 3) RheinRuhn – Flemish Diamond; 4) Flemish Diamond – Lille; 5) Lille – Paris; 6) Lille – London; 7) London – West Middlands. CORRIDESIGN have analized if and to what extent the process towards the network society is linked, from the spatial point of view, with the transnational megacorridors or with the bundles of infrastructure between big urban regions in north-western Europe. Important questions in CORRIDESIGN were: what type of development corridor should be stimulated, slowed down or forbiddened?; where should corridors be developed and why there?; should the increase of the spatial coherence be followed by institutional coherence? And, if so, which public and private bodies should be involved?
Implications and interpretations of corridor and axis development 277
- stimulating urban development of the urban centers and development axes in order to promote the linear extension of the metropolitan areas (functional concentration) and to reinforce and guide development potential to the junctions situated along the development axes (development functions); - protection and preservation of the open spaces between development axes (protection functions). We will further examine some of these positive and negative perceptions on corridor and axes development.
1. Negative perceptions on corridor and axes development This point of view is determined by the problems with which corridors and axes are being associated with: congestion, urban sprawl, ribbon development along the transport routes and landscape fragmentation. In addition, this type of development pattern is being considered to lead to the reduction or even to the suppression of the economic investments in the inner cities, and it can thus be a threat to the vitality of the cities. This interpretation is strongly present in Holland, Flanders (northern Belgium), Germany and Great Britain (Ipenburg, 2000). Peter Hall (2002) summarizes some of the criticism of these types of development: waste of land, uncontrolled use of natural resources, pollution, increased cost of living resulting from the dependency on private cars, suburbanization. Many spatial planners reject the idea of ribbon development, wishing instead to concentrate the development in the existing urban centers, or, in cases that cannot be avoided, in new urban centers. Unplanned urban sprawl based on a street system has always been rejected by urban planners. First, planners were against the occupation of rural areas with urban functions. Later – the last decades of the 20th century – the fragmentation of landscapes and destruction of green infrastructures became the main reasons for rejecting this model. Studies of different cities have concluded that 1850 represents a peak regarding densities and urban agglomerations (Hohenberg and Hollen Lees, 1995, p. 303). Subsequently, most European cities have sprawled quickly towards their surrounding rural areas, including along the main roads, followed by a speculative development of the lands in the nearby areas. Technological innovations have made this sprawl possible, initially through the emergence of electric trams and trains, and then with the internal combustion engine and with private cars. Although personal automobile led to decentralization in all possible fragmentation patterns, a certain concentration can be seen at a larger scale (Priemus and Zonneveld, 2003).
278 Daniela Iurea
The industrial cities of the 19th century had a relatively compact shape, which made them easy to distinguish from the rural areas and from other cities (Albrechts and Tasan-Kok, 2009). The dynamics of cities during the 20th century resulted in decentralized trends, economic growth, and numerical growth of the population outside the cities beginning with the 1960s. The decentralization process has been supported by economic changes and by the explosion of personal mobility and the emergence of new lifestyles. Many planners consider that compact cities with an optimal density should replace the urban sprawl as the dominant future development pattern. From this point of view, corridors and axes have been criticized as being associated with the decentralization of urban functions (ibid.). Urban sprawl has also been seen as a problem in the European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP): “uncontrolled growth results in increased levels of private transport, increases the energy consumption; makes infrastructure and services more costly; and has negative effects on the quality of the countryside and the environment” (European Commission, 1999, p. 281). The Strategy for Sustainable Transportation in Romania also draws attention upon some of the direct consequences of the development of the residential and commercial areas and of the extension of the urban space along the national roads. In this regard, the document points that the integration of the national roads in the urban street network for tens of kilometers affects the exploitation and safety parameters of the national roads. Also, the document shows that the access to the west, east and south European corridors is being limited by the low travel capacity and by the reduced quality of some infrastructure transport elements, perturbing the free circulation of goods and people and diminishing the international freight and passengers traffic that crosses Romania (Strategy for sustainable transportation for the period 2007-2013 and 2020, 2030, p.12) Momper (1992) considers that metropolitan areas and the main development axes could bring about the following negative effects: - growth of the disparities between rural areas and local centers leading to intensification of the drift from the land by an absorption effect; - ore acute shortages of the infrastructure facilities in the rural areas, resulting in additional transport costs; - increased exchange of goods and services on the main axes between the main conurbations to the detriment of the rural areas; - disorganization and destruction of rural areas by the construction of high- speed roads between major urban centers.
Implications and interpretations of corridor and axis development 279
2. Positive perceptions of corridor and axis development The second interpretation of corridors has a positive connotation, corridors being seen as opportunities for economic development. Well developed and carefully selected nodes along the corridors might support economic development that in other circumstances would not take place. Those using these positive interpretations seek to avoid the ‘pomp and tunnel’ effects that appear in the regions that host the infrastructure, but do not benefit from it (Graham and Marvin, 2001). This point of view is dominant in the North of France and in Walloon region (South Belgium) (Ipenburg et al., 2001). According to Momper (1992), development axes might have the following positive effects on the rural and urban development: - stimulus for the development of the entire territorial structure through the priority development centers situated on development axes; - gradual reduction of the infrastructure imbalances and other shortages; - connection of rural areas, especially in peripheral regions, by stimulating the exchanges of goods and services on long distances, eradicating the shortcomings in the transport infrastructure; - improvement in the access to rural areas of industrial products necessary for agriculture and the transport of the agricultural products to urban areas; - increased entrepreneurial attractiveness in the rural areas; - improved access to recreation and relaxation areas for the inhabitants in the urban environments and equal access for the inhabitants of rural areas to the services provided by big urban areas; - encouragement of decentralization within highly concentrated areas for their benefit as well as for that of the rural areas. In the regional policy exists a strong belief that the increase of the connectivity level stimulates the performance of the regions that were left behind. The European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP) is an organized spatial policy integrated at transnational level. The development of a polycentric urban system and a new urban-rural relationship is one of the objectives of the development strategy of the ESDP that considers the concept of corridor as an instrument of reconciling growth, competitiveness and sustainable development. ESDP offers a geographical image of the European economic space – a polycentric urban system, linked through integrated communication corridors (Albrechts and Tasan-Kok, 2009). ESDP addresses the issue of corridors (Euro corridors) both in the sense of bundles of infrastructures and development corridors. In the document, Euro corridors are being considered to strengthen the spatial cohesion of the EU and to represent an essential instrument of spatial development in supporting the cooperation between cities: “the spatial concept of Euro corridors can establish connections between the sectoral policies, such as transport,
280 Daniela Iurea infrastructure, economic development, urbanization and environment. In the development perspective for Euro corridors, it should be clearly indicated in which areas the growth of activities can be clustered and which areas have to be protected as open space. There are a great number of potential corridors in the EU. Some corridors are already well-developed. In other regions such corridors have to be developed and connected with the existing ones. Important missing links and secondary networks should be established (ESDP, 1999, p. 164). According to the National Strategy for Sustainable Development, the objective regarding spatial planning for the year 2020 is “the constitution at regional level in accordance with the spatial development strategies of the polycentric system of functional urban areas (urban agglomerations) and of the urbanization corridors along the European transport axes (network polycentricity)” (National Strategy for Sustainable Development of Romania Horizons 2013-2020- 2030, (2008), p. 128). Warnish and Verster (2005) point out that the concentration of development initiatives along a transport route determines the emergence of the development corridors. The authors consider logical the intensification, diversification and concentration of land uses and economic activities in areas where most infrastructure and transport services (roads and railways) are available, not only because they require massive capital investment for an efficient functioning, but also because this kind of investments need an intensive use of the lands to recover the investments costs. Traffic and infrastructure do not only derive from the economic and social processes, but they also determine these functions (Priemus and Zonneveld, 2003). Population flows induce the manifestation of a consumption demand in the transit and halting areas. Such a request stimulates numerous traditional activities, being able in certain conditions to spur the economic development of the entire region. Flows of tourists and passengers bring an additional request in the local markets for the food products and for numerous other commercial activities. Along the transport axes, relay cities come to develop accommodation, tourist and catering activities (Pottier, 1963). An improved or a new transport infrastructure can determine the increase of the rural population and the augmenting of the diffusion effects of additional employment opportunities in the rural areas or in their surroundings (Guangqing Chi et al., 2006). The probability for industries and companies to move here increases as a result of better transportation conditions, which means new job opportunities. Under this scenario, the road infrastructure not only contributes to maintaining the residents who would otherwise seek to relocate for a job, but it will also attract people from other places.
Implications and interpretations of corridor and axis development 281
The development of the road infrastructure generates new jobs in the services sector, such as gas stations, service stations, retail centers like strip malls, restaurants and motels.
Fig.1 – Positive and negative perceptions on corridor and axes development
Rural areas that are away from the influence of an urban center could become new growth centers as a consequence of the emergence and centralization of new services and could develop specialized production. Priemus and Zonneveld (2003) argue that the passage areas for large passengers and freight transport volumes are attractive for companies, especially for those that operate in distribution and logistics. This would eventually lead to urbanization in the places situated between the existing urban centers, beginning with a ribbon development, and then creating new urban growth poles. The same point of view seems to be shared by the territorial development vision of the Strategic Concept of the Spatial Development Strategy Romania 2030. In this document, connecting Romania to the European poles and development corridors is one of the main spatial guidelines. The document highlights in this regard the need for balanced structuring and for the development of urban networks through formation, consolidation and balanced distribution of
282 Daniela Iurea development poles. This goal can be achieved, inter alia, by developing and diversifying the relations between urban centers, supported by the configuration of development axes in relation to major transport routes. The main positive and negative perceptions associated to corridor and axis development are being synthesized in the figure below.
3. Alternative concepts Landscape preservation and concentration of development are generally seen as strategies to combat urban sprawl, and to reduce the economic drain and the auto mobility, whereas the intersections of the infrastructure axes are being perceived as key nodes for regional development (Ipenburg et al., 2001). Different concepts have been proposed to symbolize more sustainable urban forms. The concept of “bead” if often mentioned in strategic spatial planning to avoid this type of development (Chapman et al., 2003). This concept can be described in spatial terms as a sequence of compact settlements connected by a high quality public transport axis and is seen as way of reconciling the potentially conflicting objectives to strive towards a more compact urban form, to have a range of residential densities and access to green space (Chapman, D., Pratt, D., Larkham, P., Dickins, I., 2003). Chapman et al. (2003) propose a new term to replace the term corridor, namely “armature”, with the meaning of supporting framework. According to the authors, the advantages of using this concept come from the fact that armature can be conceptualized as multi-layered and multidimensional, where the infrastructure and flows could be represented as the complex matrix that already exists, rather than confining them to a linear area potentially limited. The interactions between different infrastructural and institutional systems in different nodal points could be rapidly represented in this model. The concept also has the advantage of allowing the territory associated with armature at the local level to vary in terms of urbanization and economic development while functioning coherently at transnational level. A variety of institutional relations could be related to the armature concept as supporting framework. The concept could also provide a basis for incorporating more essential connections that do not follow linear corridors, such as air links and telecommunication networks. Another advantage is that it provides a multi-layered model with mega-corridors as the “backbone”, along with a framework that can relate development at national, regional and sub-regional level. Other concepts are proposed to illustrate these dynamic geographic “entities” and which could replace the negative connotations of development corridors and axes: matrix, urban network, polycentricity (Chapman et al., 2003; Zonneveld and Trip, 2003; Albrechts and Tasan-Kok, 2009 ș.a.).
Implications and interpretations of corridor and axis development 283
Conclusions The concepts of development corridors and axes are part of a continuing debate on the urbanization patterns and on the spatial urban structures. Thus, corridors are seen as valuable tools in economic development, but are also associated with the idea of decentralizing the urban functions, with the delays caused by traffic congestion in certain areas, with landscape fragmentation, waste of land, suburbanization, or with additional air pollution caused by the increase of private car use. We consider that a special attention should be given to the implementation of the national territorial development objectives, so that the endogenous qualities of the areas crossed by important transport infrastructures in terms of economic development opportunities are capitalized, and at the same time the negative aspects such as congestion, uncontrolled urban sprawl along strategic transport routes are avoided, and the environmental problems caused by these type of development are minimized. Acknowledgements: This work has been supported by the research grant POSDRU/6/1.5/S/24 – “Financial support for doctoral studies on the complexity of nature, environment and human society”, project co-financed by the European Social Fund within the Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources Development 2007-2013.
References: Albrechts, L., Tasan-Kok, T. (2009), Corridor and Axis Development, International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, MS number 833 Chapman, D., Dickins, I., Larkham, P. and Pratt, D. (2001), Development corridors, transport corridors: stakeholders’ perceptions of links between the West Midlands, London, and Europe, paper presented to the Planning Research 2001 Conference, Liverpool Chapman, D., Pratt, D., Larkham, P. Dickins, I. (2003), Concepts and definitions of corridors: evidence from England’s Midlands, Journal of transport Geography 11, 179-191 Graham, S., Marvin, S. (2001), Splintering Urbanism: Networked Infrastructures, Technological Mobilities and the Urban Condition, Routledge, London/New York. Guangqing Chi, Voss, P. P., Deller, S. C. (2006), Rethinking highway effects on population change, Public Works Management Policy, Vol. 11, No. 1, p. 18-32 Hohenberg, de P. M., Hollen Lees, L. (1995), The making of urban Europe, 1000-1994, Cambridge, MA,. Harvard University Press Ipenburg, D. (2000), Survey Among Key Actors About Megacorridors in the NWMA, Report within the framework of Action 1 of CORRIDESIGN.OTB Research Institute for Housing, Urban and Mobility Studies, Delft University of Technology, Delft. Ipenburg, D., Romein, A., Trip, J.J., Vries, J. de, Zonneveld, W. (2001), Megacorridors in the North Western Metropolitan Area; Transnational Perspectives on
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Megacorridors in North West Europe; Final Policy Report; Report within the framework of Action 18 of CORRIDESIGN.OTB Research Institute, Delft University of Technology, Delft. Kloosterman R. C., Musterd, S. (2001), The Polycentric Urban Region: Towards a Research Agenda, Urban Studies, , 38: 623 Momper, N. (1992), European Regional Planning Strategy, European Conference of Minister Responsible for Regional Planning (CEMAT) Pottier, P. (1963), Axes de communication et dévelopment économique, Revue économique, Vol. 14, Nr. 1, p. 63-95 Priemus, H., Zonneveld, W. (2003), What are corridors and what are the issues? Introduction to special issue: the governance of corridors, Journal of Transport geography 11, 167-177 Vries, J. de, Priemus, H. (2003), Megacorridors in north-west Europe: issues for transnational spatial governance, Journal of Transport Geography 11, 225-233 Zonneveld, W., Trip, J.J. (2003), Megacorridors in North West Europe: investigating a new transnational planning concept, Housing and Urban Policy Studies 27, Delft University Press, Delft Warnish, S., Verster, B. (2005), The answer is: corridor development, but what is the question?, Proceedings on the 24th Southern African Transport Conference (11-13 iulie 2005) Pretoria, Africa de Sud *** Schema de dezvoltare a spaţiului comunitar. Spre o dezvoltare spaţială echilibrată şi durabilă a teritoriului Uniunii Europene (1999), Consiliul Informal al Miniştrilor Responsabili cu Amenajarea Teritoriului, Postdam *** Urban Design for Sustainability (2004), European Union Expert Group on The Urban Environment, Final Report of the Working Group on Urban Design for Sustainability, http://eceuropa.eu/environment/urban/pdf/Q404finaLreport.pdf *** Urban sprawl in Europe-The ignored challenge (2006), European Environment Agency, Report No. 10/2006 *** Carta de la Leipzig pentru Oraşe Europene Durabile (2007), Reuniunea Ministerială Informală privind Dezvoltarea Urbană şi Coeziune Teritorială, București *** Agenda teritorială a Uniunii Europene. Spre o Europă mai competitivă şi durabilă a regiunilor diverse (2007), Reuniunea Informală a Miniştrilor Europeni Responsabili cu Dezvoltarea Urbană şi Coeziunea Teritorială, Leipzig. *** Conceptul strategic de dezvoltare teritorială România 2030. O Românie competitivă, armonioasă şi prosperă, (2008), Ministerul Dezvoltării, Lucrărilor Publice și Locuinşelor, Bucureşti *** Strategia pentru transport durabil pe perioada 2007-2013 şi 2020, 2030, (2008), Ministerul Transporturilor, Bucureşti *** Strategia Națională pentru Dezvoltare Durabilă a României, Orizonturi 2013-2020- 2030, (2008), Ministerul Mediului şi Dezvoltării Durabile, Programul Natiunilor Unite pentru Dezvoltare, Centrul Naţional pentru Dezvoltare Durabilă, Bucureşti *** Peri-urban Land Use Relationships - Strategies and Sustainability Assessment Tools for Urban-Rural Linkages (2010), European Commison, http://www.plurel.net.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
OSCILLATIONS AND CYCLES OF AIR TEMPERATURE IN THE UNITED STATES
Ion Isaia1
Key words:Oscillations of air temperature, cycles of air temperature, Laplace zonal spherical function, tidal potential, Rossby wave
Abstract. The work is trying to demonstrate that in the United States there are the same cycles of air temperature (almost perfect) discovered and presented in Romania and in New Zeeland (Chatham Islands). The great extension in latitude and longitude of the United States records to these oscillations and cycles of air temperature their own characteristics. The lack of some important ranges of mountains situated in a longitudinal way permits the fast and intensive advection of polar, arctic and tropical air masses.Also the lack of some important mountain ranges arranged longitudinally allows the rapid and intense advection of the polar and arctic air masses and also of those with tropical origin. As a result, higher amplitudes of air temperature appear.
Introduction The cycles of daily maximum and minimum temperature discovered in Romania and New Zeeland and described in previous works, have been explained by the atmospheric tidal cycles caused by the Moon and Sun attraction. The same causes underlie the explications and the demonstrations for the cycles of air temperature in the United States. Also the explications are more consistent in the USA area through the Rossby wave propagation, taking into consideration its longitudinal expansion. In some situations can be noticed a phase shift between the characteristics of the thermal oscillations from the west side of the USA and those from the central and eastern areas located on the same latitude. In addition, the characteristics of the thermal oscillations can be found on the European territory, but with a larger phase shift. On the USA territory there are cycles of daily maximum and minimum temperature lasting less than one year, but also cycles lasting more than one year. For the description of these different cycles were chosen points with subarctic climate (Nome), temperate climate (Minneapolis) and subtropical climate (Memphis).
1 Assist. Prof. PhD., Dunarea de Jos University from Galaţi, Romania.
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Cycles of air temperature lasting less then a year All cycles of daily maximum and minimum temperature lasting less than a year which were discovered in Romania and New Zeeland also appear on the territory of the USA. The most important are: The 14-day cycle. This cycle appears to a large extend due to the almost 14- day period (13.66 days, half of the tropical period of the Moon, which is 27.32 days) in the evolution of the Moon, the celestial body which causes the tides of the atmosphere for the same period of time. This cycle appears anywhere on the territory of the USA. Fig. 1 shows graphics of the cycles of daily maximum and minimum temperature, which were recorded at the meteorological stations in Nome (Alaska), Minneapolis (Minnesota) and Memphis (Tennessee) lasting 14 days. From the analysis of these graphics, one can observe that the warm and cold advections reappear after approximately 14 days, no matter which meteorological station is referred to. The six- month cycle (approximately 183 days). In fact, this cycle is due to the six-month period (half of the tropical year, which lasts 365.24 days), in the evolution of the Sun, the celestial body that causes the atmospheric tides for the same period of time. Fig.2 presents graphics which show the evolution of the daily maximum and minimum temperatures at the three meteorological stations. It can be noticed that the main warm and cold advections can be recorded after a 6-month interval.
Fig.1 – The 14-day cycles of air Fig. 2 - The six-month cycles of air temperature in the United States temperature in the United States
In the graphic which shows the evolution of the daily maximum and minimum temperatures from Minneapolis it can be noticed that the warm and cold advections reappear after approximately 6 months (March 1980 - September 1980), even if the
Oscillations and cycles of air temperature in the United States 287 general tendency of the air temperature is to grow (March 1980) or to diminish (September 1980). All these are explained by the fact that, no matter how is the sign of declination of the Moon and the Sun ( +in the North; - in the South hemisphere), at the same absolute values of the declination, the atmospheric tides occur identically. Thus the tropical period of the Moon (27. 32 days) and the tropical year of the Sun (365. 24 days) can be halved.
1.3. The 246-day cycle (approximately eight months) The appearance of this cycle can be explained through the fact that in 246 days (approximately eight months) can occur nine tropical periods of the Moon (27.32 days), according to the calculations: 246:37.32=9.00. This cycle is produced everywhere on the surface of Terra. Figure 3 presents the 246-day cycles of daily maximum and minimum temperatures at the three representative meteorological stations in the United States.
Fig. 3 – The 246-day cycles of daily maximum and minimum temperatures in the United States.
In the United Stated there are also other cycles of daily maximum and minimum temperatures lasting less than a year discovered in Romania and in New Zealand. These have the period of 28; 55; 82; 110; 137; 164; 192; 220; 274; 301; 328 and 355 days. All these cycles represent multiples of the Moon’s tropical period (27.32 days).
2. The cycles of air temperatures lasting more than a year These cycles of daily maximum and minimum temperatures lasting more than a year are clearer, because they represent not only multiples of the Moon’s tropical
288 Ion Isaia period (27.32 days), but they are also cycles for the other Moon’s periods (the anomalistic period = 27.55 days and the synodic period = 29.53 days). These cycles are at the same time cycles of the atmospheric tides. Of these, the cycles of 11 years, 18 years and 11 days (Saros’s Cycle) and the cycle of 19 years (Meton’s Cycle) are more important.
2.1 The 11-year cycle As it is known, there are many cycles in the Sun’s activity, of which the most important is the 11-year cycle (4017.64 days). This cycle is, at the same time, a tidal and month-solar one, because this period is also a multiple for the Moon’s tropical and synodic periods, according to the calculations: 4017.64: 27.32 = 147.0 and 4017.64: 29.53 = 136.0. This tidal and month - solar cycle is one cycle of the daily maximum and minimum temperatures too. Figure 4 presents graphics with cycles of the daily maximum and minimum temperatures recorded in the United States with the 11-year period.
Fig.4 – The11-year cycles of daily maximum and minimum temperatures in the United States.
From the analysis of these graphs it can be concluded that the main hot and cold advections are repeated after an 11 -year period regardless of the region to which we refer. 2.2. The cycle of 18 years and 11 days (about 6585 days) This cycle is known in astronomy as the cycle of Saros. After a period of 6585 days, eclipses of the Sun and Moon are again almost identical. It is a monthly cycle, since it does not have a whole number of years. At the same time, this cycle is a tidal one, whereas during this period of time 241 tropical revolutions, 239 anomalistic revolutions and 233 (periodical) synodic revolutions of the Moon
Oscillations and cycles of air temperature in the United States 289 occur, according to the calculations: 6585:27.32 = 241, 0; 6585:27.55 = 239.0 and 6585: 29.53 = 223.0. Through Rossby waves, this cycle is also reflected in the evolution of daily maximum and minimum temperatures, causing a cycle with the same duration. Figure 5 presents Saros Cycle in the evolution of daily maximum and minimum temperatures in the United States.
Fig.5 – The Saros Cycle in the evolution of daily maximum and minimum temperatures in the United States
We find this cycle everywhere on Earth, but especially in temperate areas, where Rossby waves (planetary) fully occur.
2.3 The 19-year cycles (about 6940 days) This cycle is known in Astronomy as cycle of Meton, which was found in the Ancient Period. After completion of this period of time, phases of the Moon are repeated identically. This cycle is a month-solar one, because it includes a whole number of years, but also a whole number of tropic and synodic revolutions of the Moon, according to calculations 6940: 27.32 =254.0; 6940: 29.53 = 235. 0. Being a tidal cycle too, this is reflected in the evolution of daily maximum and minimum temperatures. For the first time, this meteorological cycle was discovered in Romania, after that it was also demonstrated in New Zeeland. In the United States it has the highest frequency, especially in the temperate climate regions. Fig.6 presents Meton cycle in the evolution of daily maximum and minimum temperatures at the three representative meteorological stations in the USA.
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Fig.6 – Meton Cycle in the evolution of daily maximum and minimum temperatures in the United States
From the analysis of the graphics in figure 6, similar to the other cycles described earlier, it can be noticed that the main warm and cold advections reappear after a period of 19 years. Also can be noticed some similarities (less clear) between meteorological stations from Minneapolis and Memphis, although there is a large distance between them. These similarities might occur because the graphics from the two meteorological stations describe the same months (July 1988 and 2007). From the above mentioned results that the problem of the temperature cycles is a complex one, especially for those with a period of more than one year, because more of these have connections between each other. So the difference between the 19- year cycle and the 11- year one is of 8 years, which is, actually, a cycle too. So, 6940 (the 19-year cycle) – 4018 (the 11-year cycle) = 2922 days (the eight-year cycle). This cycle is a month-solar one, because it has a whole number of years and a whole number of tropical and synodic revolutions of the Moon, according to the following calculations: 2922: 27.32 days = 107; 2922: 29.53 days = 99. With this, the eighth -year cycle (2922 days) is, at the same time, a tidal cycle. With the help of the Rossby waves, this also influences the evolution of daily maximum and minimum temperatures. In the United States, this cycle appears in all regions, regardless of their climate conditions. The graphs in figure 7 shows the evolution of daily maximal and minimal temperatures in the air in an eight -year cycle, in the United States.
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Fig.7 – The eight-year cycle in the evolution of daily maximum and minimum temperatures in the air in the United States
This cycle was discovered and demonstrated for the first time on Romanian territory, but it can also be found in other European regions, regardless of their climate conditions. In all situations, the main hot and cold advections are repeated after an eight-year time, as it can be observed in the graphs in figure 7. If, we take difference between the Meton cycle (19 years) and the Saros cycle (18 years + 11 days), we get a cycle of 355 days, which is part of the one-year length category. Calculations show that 6940 days (Meton cycle) -6585 (Saros cycle) = 355. This cycle is a lunar one, because, during this time, approximately 13 tropical and 12 synodical revolutions of the Moon are produced, based on these calculations: 355: 27.32 = 12.994 and 355: 29.53 = 12.021 In this instance, this cycle is also a tidal one. Just like in the case of other cycles, through the (planetary) Rossby waves, this cycle is also reflected in the evolution of daily maximal and minimal temperatures in air. The existence of this cycle was proved for the first time in Romania, but it appears on the surface of the Earth, regardless of the type of the climate. On the territory of the USA, this cycle appears in all regions, beginning with Alaska and ending with Florida. The graphics from figure 8 outline definitely the existence of this cycle in the evolution of daily maximum and minimum temperatures in air, on the territory of the USA.
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Fig.8 – The 355-day cycle in the evolution of daily maximum and minimum temperatures in the air in the United States
In the following, we will analyze the problem of the similarities between the evolution of the maximum and minimum temperatures from the territory of the USA and from the territory of Europe. We will describe only the similarities that appear around the latitude of 45° North, so in full temperate zone. For understanding the phenomenon more correctly, were taken for comparison the evolution of the daily maximum and minimum temperatures in the air from the meteorological station from Minneapolis (USA) and the meteorological stations from Europe, situated approximately at the same latitude (45 degrees North). These similarities in the evolution of daily maximum and minimum temperatures between Minneapolis and other meteorological stations from Europe are noticed during all seasons. All similarities are produced at a time difference between 10 and 14 days, if we take into consideration localities from the territory/ of Romania. The time difference decreases at the same time moving through West from the territory of Romania. The graphics from figure 9A describe the evolution of the daily maximum and minimum temperatures from Minneapolis (USA) on the 1st to 30th of April 2006, in comparison with the 9th of April - 8th of May 2006 from Milano (Italy) and the 11th of April and the 10th of May 2006 from Braila (Romania). The time difference between Minneapolis and Milano is of eight days. This difference reaches ten days if we count between Minneapolis and Braila. All the three localities are situated around the 45th parallel.
Oscillations and cycles of air temperature in the United States 293
The graphics from figure 9B show the evolution of daily maximum and minimum temperatures from Minneapolis from the period 21.09 - 20.11.1993 in comparison with the period 01.10-30.11 (October-November) 1993 from Galati (Romania). In both situations from figure 9 (A and B) it can be noticed that the main warm and cold advections are produced at a difference in time of ten days for the localities from Romania and only eight days for Milano (Italia) comparative with Minneapolis (the SUA).
Fig.9 – t The similarities in the evolution of daily maximum and minimum temperatures between Minneapolis, Milano and Braila (A); between Minneapolis and Galati (B)
In other situations, similarities in the evolution of daily maxim and minimum temperatures between Minneapolis and the localities from Romania are produced at a difference in the time of 13 and 14 days. The graphs in figure 10 (A and B) show this time difference between Minneapolis (the SUA) and the localities from Romania (Viziru, Bucharest, Iasi and Braila). From the analysis of the graphs in figure 10 it is found that the similarities in the evolution of temperatures are clearer for the localities from Romania situated around the 45° North latitude. For example, the similarities with Minneapolis are
294 Ion Isaia more obvious at Viziru and Galati, situated near the 45 degrees North parallel (as Minneapolis). For Bucharest Baneasa and Iasi, situated at other latitudes, the similarities have a lower clarity.
Fig.10 – The similarities in the evolution of daily maximum and minimum temperatures between Minneapolis (the USA) and localities in Romania
These similarities with Minneapolis can be also observed for the localities situated more to the east from the Romanian territory, but at the same latitude. The graphs in figure 11 present the obvious similarities between Minneapolis, Galati and Krasnodar (Russia). The graphs in figures 9, 10 and 11 show the similarities of the evolution of daily maximum and minimum temperatures from the air between Minneapolis and more localities from Europe situated around the 45° North latitude. The same graphs show the time differences of these similarities, which are between 8 and 14 days, depending on the longitudinal distance between Minneapolis and these localities. For explaining these time similarities and differences we have to take into consideration some characteristics of Rossby (or planetary) wave propagation.
Oscillations and cycles of air temperature in the United States 295
As we know Rossby waves have wavelength (ƛ) of 2000 and 6000 km and characterize the atmosphere dynamic from temperate areas of the Earth , especially from Northern hemisphere.
Fig.11
The similarities in the evolution of daily maximum and minimum temperatures from the air between Minneapolis (USA) = A; Galati (Romania) = B and Krasnodar (Russia) = C. Periods: Minneapolis = 21.09- 20.11.1993; Galati = 01.10-30.11.1993; Krasnodar = 03. 10- 02.12. 1993.
Relative to the environment (atmosphere in this case) these waves always propagate in a negative direction of the axis “x”, such as from east to west.Their propagation speed is reduced, but it grows as the wavelength (ƛ) grows. As the atmosphere in the temperate areas of the Earth has much faster speeds from west to east, Rossby waves will also propagate from west to east, depending on the surface of the continents and oceans. When the wavelength of Rossby waves is 5,400 km, these are static regarding the terrestrial surface. This means that the propagation speed from east to west of Rossby waves with ƛ = 5400 km is equal to the moving speed of the atmosphere from west to east (vice-versa). For the northern hemisphere, a Rossby wave has a maximum barometric situated on the North and a minimum barometric located on the South. The evolution of daily maximum and minimum temperatures from the air and the meteorological phenomena is determined by how the atmospheric circulation occurs in the anticyclone and the cyclone of Rossby wave. The weather patterns generated by the baric and thermal features of Rossby wave propagate once with this, especially from west to east. For the same locality from Romania, for example, Braila, located at 45°12’ North latitude, differences can appear during the time between 10 days (figure 9A)
296 Ion Isaia and 14 days (figure 10B). This phenomenon is explained clearly by the propagation speed of Rossby waves which depend on their wavelength (ƛ). It is understood that at a time difference of 10 days, the length of Rossby waves is smaller than the situation in which the time difference is 14 days. From this it results that in situations when we don’t have similarities between Minneapolis and Braila (even Galati), the wavelength of Rossby waves reached or overcame 5400 km. In this situation other pieces from Rossby wave chain will determine the weather features from Braila.
Conclusion From the analysis of the daily maximum and minimum air temperatures in the United States the next conclusions can be drawn: The daily maximum and minimum air temperature cycles found in Romania and New Zeeland can be found in the United States, too. These cycles aren’t perfect, because neither the astronomical cycles (solar, lunar, lunar-solar), nor the generated tidal ones aren’t perfect. The lack of important mountain ranges with longitudinal orientation in the United States determines very fast and strong advections both to the arctic and polar air masses, and to the tropical ones; the air amplitudes being very high. The most frequent cycles with duration longer than a year are the Cycle of Meton (19 years), the Cycle of Saros (18 years and 11 days) and the cycle of 11 years. The most frequent cycles with duration smaller than a year are ones of 14 days, 6 months, 8 months and 355 days. The time similarities and differences between the evolution of daily maximum and minimum air temperatures in Minneapolis from several localities in Europe situated, approximately, at the same latitude (45°N) are due to the propagation of the Rossby waves. Knowing these time differences of the similarities, we can develop meteorological forecasts on a long time (over 10 days) for several regions of Romania, with a greater probability.
References Airinei, St. (1992), Pamantul ca planeta, Editura Albatros, Bucuresti. Draghici,I. (1988), Dinamica atmosferei, Editura Tehnica, Bucuresti. Holton, A. (1996), lntroducere in meteorologia dimanica, Editura Tehnica, Bucuresti. Isaia, I. (2005), Ciclul lui Meton in meteorologie, Comunicari de Geografie, Vol.IX , Editura Universitatii Bucuresti. Isaia, I. (2006), Solar, Ebb-tide and Meteorological 11 Year-Cycle, ”Dimitrie Cantemir” Geographical Seminary’s Works, Editura Universitatii ’’ Al. I.Cuza’’ – Iasi
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Isaia, I. (2008), The meteorological consequences of the moon cycles lasting less than one year, Present Environment and Sustainable Development, Vol.2, Editura Universitatii ’’ Al. I.Cuza’’ – Iasi Isaia, I. (2009), Saros Cycle in meteorology, Present Environment and Sustainable Development”, Vol.3, Editura Universitatii ’’ Al. I.Cuza’’ – Iasi Isaia, I. (2010), Oscillations and cycles of the air temperature in the Chatham Islands, Present Environment and Sustainable Development, Vol.4, Editura Universitatii ’’ Al. I.Cuza’’ – Iasi Isaia, I. (2011), Applications of Laplace Spherical Functions in Meteorology, Present Environment and Sustainable Development, Vol.4, Editura Universitatii Al. I.Cuza – Iasi.
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PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
DEAD WOOD – AN IMPORTANT ISSUE FOR FOREST BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
Anca Măciucă1, Cătălin Roibu
Key words: wood, biodiversity conservation, forest ecosystems
Abstract. The importance of deadwood in forest ecosystems is widely recognized today and it is used as indicator for the sustainable management of forests. The purpose of researches carried out in five natural reserves and managed Romanian forests was to determine and compare the amount, size, distribution and decay classes of their deadwood. The data obtained in the mixed beech coniferous and beech old growth forests can be used as reference values for the natural dynamic of deadwood and can contribute to set the rules for the restoration of deadwood in forest management.
Introduction In Europe, for an appropriate and sustainable management of forest ecosystems, a reliable monitoring system is an undeniable necessity. The monitoring instruments used at European level are the National Forest Inventories and ICP scheme for monitoring the effects of air pollution on forests. In time, after a series of important events for the forest ecosystems conservation, like the Convention on Biodiversity Conservation, Kyoto Conference, The Ministerial Conferences on the Protection of Forests in Europe (MCPE), new variables became necessary for assessing the state of forests and for establish future ways of action for the best management of these forests. After a period of concerted scientific efforts, criteria and indicators for sustainable forest management were set; between them, dead wood was chosen as an important indicator for the biodiversity conservation criteria (indicator 4.5, adopted by the MCPE). It is also used as indicator in forest certification standards, and it already became a recent added variable in some European National Forest Inventories.
1 Assistent Prof., ”Ştefan cel Mare” University, Suceava, Romania, [email protected]
300 Anca Măciucă, Cătălin Roibu
For a long time, in managed forests, the standing and lying dead wood was considered useless and even dangerous for the forest health, and it was removed during special cutting interventions called “sanitary measures”; plus, the trees are cut and removed before reaching the old stage, and so, the dead wood amount in managed forests is drastically reduced in comparison to natural forests. In the last decades, a completely changed approach occurred, and the crucial importance of dead wood in the forest ecosystem structure and functions is widely recognized. Most often, dead wood components are standing dead or dying trees, fallen logs, twigs and branches, stumps or even components of mature living trees like branches, bark, twigs, roots. Veteran trees, partially rotten, with holes and cavities are also very important for maintaining forest ecosystem structure and functions. The factors which create deadwood in natural forests are natural selection, aging process finalized with natural mortality and various disturbances like windthrows, droughts, fungal or insect disease, fires. In managed forests, clearing and cutting activities came to complete the factors list. Dead wood is playing a complex role in forest ecosystems: from reducing erosion and maintaining slope and soil surface stability, to biodiversity conservation, forest regeneration (seedbed for plants) and carbon storage. Dead wood, especially logs in different stages of decay, lying across slope, are reducing soil and precipitation water movement down slope, i.e. reducing erosion (Mccombe W., Lindenmayer D., 1999). Large logs have a geomorphologic role in both terrestrial and stream ecosystems. In terrestrial ecosystems they accumulate soil and litter on their upslope side creating new habitats for different forest species and speeding decomposition. Logs can modify stream geomorphology creating a chain of new rapidly flowing water and pools, which means new habitats for aquatic species too (Stevens, 1997). Another notable contribution of decaying dead wood is to nutrients recycling process, which assure the forest continuity; this process plays also an important role in the world carbon cycle and climate change. Dead wood, along with trees, bushes litter and soil represent a carbon pool for a certain period, longer or shorter, depending on the dead wood species, dimensions and climate conditions. If the climate is cool, the decomposition of the deadwood is slow (like in temperate and boreal forests) and carbon can remain sequestered for centuries. Anyway it is sure that dead wood is a more suitable carbon pool in comparison with fast-growing rotations of plantations (proposed as solution after the 1992 Kyoto Protocol) because these are accumulating fast carbon, but it’s storage is very short, only a few years; after that the wood is transformed into paper and other quickly degradable products. In addition it can be said that old-growth forests and dead wood are better carbon keeper in comparison with the young forests that replace them.
Dead wood – an important issue for forest biodiversity conservation 301
The decaying process of dead wood has a fundamental influence not only in forest sites geomorphology or carbon storage, but on forest biodiversity too. Decaying takes a long period of time and has a sequence of phases depending on species, position, age of dead trees and climatic conditions. For every phase, different associations of fauna populations are specific: during the first phase, which is shorter, insects and fungi (primary saproxylic species) are colonizing the still hard dead wood (Dudley, Vallauri, 2004; Christensen, 2005). In the second phase, longer than the first one, new species came to settle: secondary saproxylic represented by predators of primary once or partially decomposed matter consumers. This phase is the richest in fruiting fungi, including numerous red listed species (Heilmann-Clausen, Christensen, 2003). In the last phase the decaying process is finished and the scavenging species (millipedes, springtails etc.) are mixing the wood residues with the forest soil. The bryophytes species prefers both second and last phases of decomposition and their diversity is high if they have sufficient air humidity (Soderstrom, 1988). Standing and lying dead wood assure feeding sources and proper places for nesting, mating, loafing and food storage for a large variety of animal species from amphibians and reptiles to birds and mammals (Rahman, M., et al., 2008). To summarize, species depending on all kinds of dead wood are: bacteria or algae (especially in young dead trees), bryophytes, lichens, fungi, ferns, tree plants, even flowering plants (on large woody debris), invertebrates, woodlice, millipedes, flies, hoverflies, xylophages beetles and their predators, large longhorn beetles, birds from large raptors, owls, to species who bore like woodpeckers or species which take over nesting holes, reptiles, mammals like squirrels, martens, wild cats, dormice, wood mice, shrews, bats, deer, even bears (if the snags have major cavities large enough); in rivers and streams, coarse woody debris offer habitat for algae, fly larvae and breeding fish. Once the importance and the role of dead wood established, data regarding its volume and its inhabitant species started to be gathered in numerous countries in Europe and all over the world. In this context, the deadwood related researches in Romanian forests were considered appropriated. Researches in forest reserves are important because they can provide reference values regarding the deadwood and precious information about the related biodiversity that can later be used in the management of other forests.
1. Materials and methods Researches were conducted in five sites, three protected natural old growth forests, and two managed forests. The forests from the natural reserves are one mixed beech-coniferous forest - Slătioara, located on the east side of Rarău Mountain, at 800 – 1300 m altitude (Suceava county) and two beech dominated
302 Anca Măciucă, Cătălin Roibu forests, Suharău (340 m altitude) and Humosu (450 m altitude) located in Ibăneşti hills (Botoşani county), and respectively Dealul Mare (Iaşi county). The managed forests are mixed beech-coniferous forests, more than 80 years old, one located in Obcina Voroneţului, near Gura Humorului town, at 470 m altitude, and the other, Rîşca, located in the east side of Stânişoara Mountains, at 600 m altitude (both in Suceava County). Data were collected in randomly distributed plots of variable dimensions, from 225 m2 to 1.6 ha. Dead wood is considered in this study the standing deadwood or snags and lying deadwood with more than 5 cm diameter. For the standing trees the breast height diameter and height were measured and for the lying deadwood pieces, top, bottom diameters and length. For the lying pieces, the volume was determined using the formula for a frustum of a cone (Roibu, 2010) and for the standing trees, the volume’s double logarithmic equation (Giurgiu, Drăghiciu, 2004). For every piece of dead wood the decay class (Christensen, Hahn, 2003) was determined and registered (table 1). The first two classes of decay correspond to the first phase of the decomposition process described above, the next three to the second phase, and the last class to the last phase.
Tab. 1 – Decay classes (Christensen, Hahn, 2003)
Decay Twigs and Class Bark branches Softness Surface Shape intact or missing only in present hard or knife penetrate covered by bark, 1 small patches, > 50% 1-2 mm outlineintact circle missing or < 50% only present hard or knife penetrate less smooth, outline intact circle 2 branches>3 cm than 1 cm missing missing begin to be soft, knife smooth or crevices circle 3 penetrate 1-5 cm present, outline intact soft, knife penetrate more large crevices, small circle or 4 missing missing than 5 cm pieces missing, elliptic outline intact large pieces missing, flat elliptic 5 missing missing soft, knife penetrate more outline partly than 5 cm deformed soft, partly reduced to flat elliptic - 6 missing missing mould, only core of wood outline hard to define covered by soil
2. Results and discussions As expected, the difference regarding the amount of dead wood of the managed and protected forests is significant. In Slătioara forest reserve, the amount of deadwood reach the value of 163.69 m3/ha, and in Suharău beech forest 186.83 m3/ha. These values are comparable with the ones resulting from similar researches in Romania and other European countries.
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The amount of dead wood was determined in other Romanian natural forests too: in Izvoarele Nerei beech reserve, it varies from 50 m3/ha at high altitude to 223 m3/ha at low altitude, with an average of 87 m3/ha (Tomescu, Târziu, Turcu, 2011). According to another research located in the same reserve the amount of dead wood varies between 78 and 121 m3/ha (Radu, 2006). For Şercaia, Gemenele, and Iauna Craiova forest reserves, the dead wood range from 49-128 m3/ha (Vrska et al., 2000). In Poland, in Bialowieza forest, protected since the 1300’s as a hunting reserve, the dead wood amount varies between 87 and 160 m3/ha, and in Havesova, beech forest reserve from Poloniny National Park, Slovakia, an average of 121 m3/ha of deadwood was found (Saniga, Schütz, 2001). In France, in the well known Fontainebleau forest reserve, protected from logging since 1853, the deadwood volumes are 142 to 256 m3/ha (Mountford, E., 2002). In United Kingdom, at Ridge Hanger, beech forest reserve, the measured deadwood volume was 273 m3/ha (Christensen, Hahn, 2003). A special situation occurs in the other studied beech protected forest, Humosu, where the deadwood amount is smaller, 89.6 m3/ha because a part of it, infested with Lymantria dispar eggs, was removed with the Romanian Academy approval for preventing an outbreak. A supplementary amount was illegally removed by the local population, regardless the protection regime. In Slatioara from the total amount, 129.22 m3/ha was fallen wood and the rest standing dead trees. In Suharău, the amount of lying dead wood is 166.07 m3/ha, and in Humosu 54.54 m3/ha. For the managed forests the amount of total dead wood varies according the human impact intensity: Rîşca forest is far from any human settlement and the amount of deadwood is important (53.23 m3/ha of which 45.01 m3/ha fallen deadwood), while in Humor forest the deadwood value is 20.94 m3/ha (with 14.15 m3/ha lying deadwood). The reason for this diminished value is firewood removal by tourists from the nearby camping area and by Humor inhabitants. The national average amount of dead wood in European managed forests is considerable diminished compared with natural forests and varies from 0.6 m3/ha in Austria to 12 m3/ha in Switzerland (table 2).
Tab. 2 – Amount of deadwood in European managed forests (national averages) Dead wood Dead wood Country volume (m3/ha) Country volume (m3/ha) Austria 0.6 Belgium 9.1 Germany 1-3 Finland 2-10 France 2.2 Luxembourg 11.6 Sweden 6.1 Switzerland 12 (Dudley, Vallauri, 2004)
304 Anca Măciucă, Cătălin Roibu
In the natural old growth beech coniferous mixed forest, Slătioara, the deadwood has diverse sizes and the volume is distributed in all diameter classes (figure 1). The best represented are of course large diameter classes. The volume of deadwood with 34 to 46 cm in diameter represents 33% of the total, and the one with diameters over 54 represents another 40%.
Fig.1 – Distribution of lying deadwood Fig.2 – Distribution of lying deadwood volume by diameter class volume by decay class
Dead wood – an important issue for forest biodiversity conservation 305
This is very important because large trees are the most valuable for biodiversity conservation. A similar volume distribution by diameter can be observed in Suharau beech reserve where the volume of logs over 54 cm diameter is 35% of total.
Fig. 3 - Ripley function for the deadwood spatial distribution in Suharău forest
In Humosu forest, the volume of the over 66 cm diameter class represents 40% of the total amount because of the stumps remained after sanitary measures. For Rîşca managed forest, the 34-38 cm, 50-54 cm and 58-62 cm diameter classes have the most important volumes, each reaching around 13% of total amount indicating possible local wind felling favored by the annosum root rot frequent in the area. The total amount of deadwood over 40 cm in diameter is 25.94 m3/ha amount considered enough for maintaining diverse saproxylic species. In Humor the 22-26 diameter class is the best represented, with 21% of the total amount, indicating a possible past wind felling. Similar to Humosu, the stumps left after thinning or illegal wood removal (over 62 cm), have a notable volume which represents 31% of the total amount. Only in Humor the amount of dead wood over 40 cm diameter is 8.87 m3/ha (under 20 m3/ha) with negative consequences for biodiversity conservation. Regarding the distribution of deadwood volume by decay classes, the most balanced is the Slătioara distribution, the dead wood exists in all decomposition stages illustrating a normal and healthy functioning of the forest ecosystem processes. In Suharău, the transition stages are not very well represented, but the situation will improve because 36% of the volume is in the first class of decomposition and will decay. In Humosu the sanitary removal of dead wood can be easily noticed, the intermediate 3, 4 and 5 decay classes having a small volume each. But in this case too, the first two classes are well represented (56%), promising an improvement of the situation. In Rîşca forest more than one third of the dead wood volume (36%) is in the third decay class, indicating a past disturbance. The small actual amount of dead wood in the first decomposition class
306 Anca Măciucă, Cătălin Roibu for Humor forest is the proof of the human (especially tourists) pressure. Instead, the rest of the deadwood volume has a balanced distribution. Along with the size, volume and decay class of deadwood, the spatial distribution has an influence on biodiversity too. Therefore, the spatial pattern of deadwood was studied in Suharău natural beech forest. The distribution, according to the Ripley function is a random one (L(t)), with partial tendency to aggregation at low scale and to a uniform distribution at larger scale (figure 3). The spatial pattern of the standing and dying deadwood in this natural forest reserve (figure 4) illustrate the general random distribution with greater accumulations near canopy gaps created by natural selection or wind felling.
Fig.4 - Spatial distribution of stumps and logs in the 1 ha plot, Suharău forest reserve
In natural forest reserves like Slătioara or Suharău according to the amount and decomposition stage of dead wood, can be assumed that proper conditions exists for the existence of diverse invertebrate fauna, bryophytes and fungi species, including red listed ones similar with the species found in Izvoarele Nerei forest reserve (Berducou, et al., 2006, in Tomescu, Târziu, Turcu, 2011). In Europe, the State of Europe’s Forests 2011 report indicate that the amount of deadwood varies a lot according to forest types, standing volume of the stands and forest management. A slightly increment of deadwood volume was observed in most of Europe’s regions in the last 20 years, the most likely as a result of the reorientation towards a more nature-oriented management (Larsson, 2011). There is a lack of information regarding the most appropriate volume thresholds, size, decay class and distribution of dead wood for different forest types and management intensity. Until this lack of information will be filled up, the specialist offer some general values considered acceptable in the managed forests for the moment: at least 20-30 m3/ha (Dudley, Vallauri, 2004). For biodiversity
Dead wood – an important issue for forest biodiversity conservation 307 conservation aims, forest areas must contain at least 40 m³/ha of dead wood for sheltering diversified communities of saproxylic organisms (Coleoptera), and for the conservation of invertebrate red list species, fungi, and birds, in forests must remain at least 20 m³/ha of dead wood with a diameter over 40 cm (Winter, 2008). Currently, in our country, the on-going National Forest Inventory collects data concerning the deadwood volume, but information about the situation at national level is not available yet.
Conclusions The views that a clean forest, without dead wood is a healthy and more stable forest, that deadwood brings fire and disease, that deadwood implies a risk for tourists and visitors, and that a forest with downed trees is ugly and poorly managed, are today obsolete. The role of dead wood in maintaining the proper functioning, stability and biodiversity of forest ecosystems is widely recognized. Researches carried in five Romanian forests, three old growth forest reserves and two managed forests shows that the amount of dead wood is considerably higher in the natural forests, and it decreases along with the human impact intensity augmentation: in Slatioara reserve, the dead wood amount is 163.69 m3/ha, in Suharău beech reserve 186.83 m3/ha, in comparison with the managed forests where the amount is 53.23 m3/ha for a moderate human impact and 20.94 m3/ha for a greater human pressure. A special situation occurs in the other beech protected forest, Humosu, where the deadwood amount is smaller, 89.6 m3/ha because a big part of it, was removed with the Romanian Academy approval for preventing an outbreak. The values obtained for natural forests are important as reference values in the future management of forest ecosystems. The on-going National Forest Inventory will play an important role in collecting data about deadwood for sketching an image about it at national level. In the future, the management plans will contain deadwood data too. This will be the base for determining the most suitable management of dead wood. The steps to be followed in the future are: first, completing the researches for determining the amounts, size, decay class and distribution of the dead wood that must be kept in different types of managed forests so that the deadwood could fulfill all his functions in the forest, including in biodiversity conservation; then, a standardized inventory and monitoring system is indicated to be implemented in all the European countries, including Romania, so that the management measures applied for the dead wood to be effective and all the information concerning deadwood – comparable.
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References: Christensen, M., Katrine Hahn [compilers], 2003, A Study of Dead Wood in European Beech Forest Reserves, Nature-Based Management of Beech in Europe project Christensen M., et al., 2005, Dead wood in European beech (Fagus sylvatica) forest reserves, Forest Ecology and Management, 210: 267–282. Dudley, N., Vallauri, D., 2004, Dead wood – living forests, WWF Report, Gland, Switzerland Giurgiu, V., Drăghiciu, D., 2004, Modele matematico-auxologice şi tabele de producţie pentru arborete, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti, 607p. Larsson, T-J., et al., 2011, Deadwood in European Forests, „Deadwood and dying trees: a matter of life and diversity” Symposium, May 15-19, Rouyn-Noranda, Québec, Canada Mccombe W., Lindenmayer D., 1999, Dead, dying, and down trees, in: Hunter M.L. (ed.), Maintaining Biodiversity in Forest Ecosystems, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 335–372. Mountford, E., 2002, Fallen dead wood levels in the near-natural beech forest at La Tillaie reserve, Fontainebleau, France, Forestry: Research note 75 (2): 203-208 Radu, S., 2006, The Ecological Role of Deadwood in Natural Forests, Environmental Science and Engineering, no.3, p.137-141 Rahman, M., et al., 2008, Structure of coarse woody debris in Lange-Leitn Natural Forest Reserve, Austria, Journal of Forest Science, 54, 2008 (4): 161–169 Roibu, C., 2010, Cercetări dendrometrice, auxologice şi dendrocronologice în făgete din Podişul Sucevei aflate la limita estică a arealului, Ph.D. Thesis Saniga, M., Schütz, J., 2001, Dynamics of changes in dead wood share in selected beech virgin forests in Slovakia within their development cycle, Journal of Forest Science 47 (12): 557-565 Soderstrom L., 1988, The occurrence of epixylic bryophyte and lichen species in an old natural and managed forest stand in Northeast Sweden, Biological Conservation,45: 169–178. Stevens, Victoria, 1997, The ecological role of coarse woody debris: an overview of the ecological importance of CWD in British Columbia forests, Res. Br., B.C., Min. For., Victoria, B.C. Work. Vrska, T., Hort, L., Odehnalova, P., Adam, D., 2000, Polom virgin forest after 22 years (1973-1995), Journal of Forest Science 46 (4): 151-178 Winters, Susanne et.al., 2008, Possibilities for harmonizing national forest inventory data for use in forest biodiversity assessments, Forestry, 81(1), p.33-44.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
WATER QUALITY OF SOME DRINKING WATER SOURCES IN RURAL AREA OF BOTOSANI COUNTY
Paul-Narcis Vieru1, Iolanda Sîncu2, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru3
Key words: drinking water, water source, water hardness.
Abstract. A significant risk for human health can result from exposure to natural or toxic non-pathogenic contaminants which are ubiquitously present in the water sources for population. The purpose of this study was to analyze the mineral content of drinking water from surface and subterranean sources in 10 rural localities (Răchiţi, Corni, Vârfu Câmpului, Dersca, Drăguşeni, Rădăuţi Prut, Dobîrceni, Albeşti, Prăjeni, Frumuşica) of Botoşani County. According to the standardized methods, the concentration of important ions, temperature, total pH, dissolved salts, alkalinity, chlorides, hardness and some toxic metals (lead and cadmium) were determined. The ratio of Ca/Mg, Na/total cations, SO4/Cl was recalculated. The study showed variations of the ratio Ca/Mg and the presence of lead in stagnant drinking water. A raised concentration of minerals and corrosivity can restrict the use of water and can influence population health.
Introduction Water is the environmental factor at which the whole population is exposed. An important request for a good health is providing human communities with water, according to the hygienic- sanitary rules. Many affections with higher incidence in certain geographical areas are determined or favored by the chemical composition of drinking water. Water consumption with a low or high content of mineral salts, fluorine, iodine, other chemicals determines, in time, metabolic disorders of mineral salts in the body, endemic goiter, cardiovascular diseases, chronic intoxications, cancer, etc. Drinking water can also contain microelements, some of them with toxic properties, lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu) whose presence can be put in
1 Botoşani Town – Hall, Environmental Protection Department, [email protected] 2 Environmental Protection Agency, Botoşani, Romania 3 PhD.Stud., Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iaşi, Romania, [email protected]
310 Paul-Narcis Vieru, Iolanda Sîncu, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru relation with the distribution systems degradation, with water aggressiveness and/or corrosivity, and less because of natural background.
1. Material and methods Samples collection and analysis was performed together with the specialists of A.P.M. Botosani and D.S.P. Botosani within the above mentioned laboratories. Samples collection. Water samples were drawn (double samples of ground): - in the rural area from individual sources (fountains) and springs in 10 villages of Botosani County; - in the rural localities at the level of the water supply collective systems from phreatic subterranean and surface sources (10 villages of Botosani County, fig.1).
When choosing the localities, we intended to cover a large area of Botosani County, but also the membership at watersheds of the Prut and Siret springs. For metals analysis, water samples were collected in polyethylene vessels conditioned with nitric acid for 24 h, washed and rinsed with doubly distilled water. The samples kept at +5oC were acidified with 05 milliliters concentrated nitric acid.
Water quality of some drinking water sources in rural area of Botoşani county 311
Physical-chemical analysis. Temperature and pH were determined at harvest, and the conductivity was measured with Conductive-meter CD-2002 SELECTA, calibrated with potassium chloride solution 0,01 mol/l, at 25oC. All chemical analyses were performed according to the standard methods stipulated in the Law 458/2002: calcium (Ca) and total hardness (DT) by complexometric methods, magnesium (Mg) by spectrophotometrical method with titanium yellow. Mohr method by titration with silver nitrate was applied for determining the chlorides (Cl-) and by titration with normal hydrochloric acid/10, we dosed the - + + carbohydrates (HC0 3). Sodium (Na ) and potassium (K ) were dosed by the flam- photometric method and heavy metals by atomic absorption spectrometry in acetylene flame. For routine analytic control we used standard control samples (2,5 μg/l Cd and 20,0 μg/l Pb), which were reviewed after each 10 water samples. Measurements for water samples were the average of three determinations and they were accepted if the calculated standard deviation was less than 5%. The analyzed data were processed in Excel.
2.Results It is known that in Romania only 63% of the population is connected at public (collective) systems of water supply, the rest of the population, mostly rural, being dependent of the water quality in public and particular fountains or springs. In Botosani County, too, in the rural area, the fountains are the only water sources for 85% of the localities.
Tab. 1 - The calcium and magnesium level (mg/l) in fountain water
Localities 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Mg2+ mm 93,23 97,30 24,32 20,42 60,31 92,55 105,05 37,97 51,56 79,40 max 242,70 315,90 287,95 156,62 197,31 195,51 240,28 249,04 147,86 352,15 Ca2+ mm 31,47 62,44 76,14 57,89 41,0 95,77 53,80 64,96 81,75 131,42 max 131,42 141,10 428,0 187,55 439,55 270,92 100,0 187,71 180,15 304,08 1.Răchiţi, 2.Corni, 3.Vârfu Câmpului, 4.Dersca, 5.Drăguşeni, 6.Rădăuţi Prut, 7.Dobîrceni, 8.Albeşti, 9.Prăjeni, 10. Frumuşica
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Water quality of some drinking water sources in rural area of Botoşani county 313
Because of the drought of the last years, sources flow decreased, magnesium ions (40,37-221,40 mg/l) and calcium (43,28-151,68 mg/l), chlorides (11-80 mg/l), - HCO3 (396,8 – 762,5 mg/l) becoming predominant (in the samples analyzed) Drinking water from surface sources processed by classic technology (coagulation, filtration, disinfection) was appropriate in terms of chemical parameters, with a reduced level of mineral compounds (Table 2).
Tab. 2 - Values of some chemical parameters of drinking water (surface sources)
2+ 2+ - + + Station Ca Mg Cl DT Alkalinity Na K (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (oG) (ml HCl (mg/l) (mg/l) n/10) 1 (A) 65,72 24,32 33 14,67 3,80 8,34 5,63 2 (A) 46,49 44,75 40 16,81 2,85 11,41 3,48 3 (C) 53,51 30,90 52 11,28 2,92 12,53 3,91 4 (A) 83,85 30,32 53 9,63 3,63 10,75 5,14 5 (C) 62,53 16,53 16 12,64 3,33 25,02 6,23 6 (C) 58,51 62,74 50 22,62 5,46 7,24 3,26 7 (B) 40,07 33,07 25 13,22 3,78 27,11 8,06 8 (B) 40,01 39,88 53 14,78 5,04 52,68 10,94 (A) Accumulation on a river; (B) Natural lake; (C) River; 1. Răchiţi, 2. Corni, 3.Vârfu Câmpului, 4. Dersca, 5. Drăguşeni, 6. Rădăuţi Prut, 7. Dobîrceni, 8. Albeşti
Water chemical analysis of six springs which, because of the constant flow are used by the population in the rural area (Rachiti, Corni, Dersca, Draguseni, Prajeni, Frumusica), showed variations of the investigated chemical parameters: 15-33 mg - 2+ 2+ 2+ Cl , 56,11-159,69 mg Ca /l, 65,2-160,17 mg Mg /l, 83-160,12 mg SO4 /l, 36,11- 50,97 mg Na+/l, 4,73-39,2 mg K+/l. Corrosive water is “aggressive” water that can dissolve materials which it comes in contact with. Water distribution systems to consumers (pipes, branchings and taps) are made of copper, lead or alloys of other metals. Soft water, with low hardness with pH < 7,5 or > 9,5 with a certain content of sulphates, chlorides, alkalinity, can drag along these metals producing modifications of the water physical properties (taste, colour) and affecting health in case of severe corrosion. In order to evaluate the corrosive properties of water circulated through the supply system in a centralized way, the following coefficient was calculated:
314 Paul-Narcis Vieru, Iolanda Sîncu, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru in milli-equivalents/l (the Ratio Larson-Skold). We also calculated the ratio Ca/Mg, Na/total cations, SO4/Cl, the values being presented in Table 3.
Table 3.The ratio between different mineral compounds of drinking water from different sources Drinking Ca/Mg K1 Na/total SO4/Cl water cations Fountains 0,68 - 2,41 0,46 - 0,8 0,094 - 0,25 0,16 - 0,52 water Subterranean 0,58 - 2,74 0,41 - 0,9 0,096 - 0,72 1,23 - 2,21 sources Surface 0,93 - 2,76 0,21 - 0,55 0,091 - 0,58 0,11 - 0,75 sources Springs 0,54 - 2,06 0,31-1,05 0,06 - 0,43 1,56 - 4,72
Heavy metals (Pb and Cd) were determined in drinking water collected in the morning (stagnant water A1) and in the evening (A2) from consumers which live in houses and apartments (Rachiti, Radauti Prut, Albesti). The data analyzed obtained when determining the Pb in the drinking water of Rachiti (houses) are presented in fig.5
Fig.5 - Pb concentration in drinking water samples collected in the morning and in the evening
Water quality of some drinking water sources in rural area of Botoşani county 315
The dotted lines which represent the value of maximum permissible concentration (CMA=MPC) (10 μg/l) divide the graphic in four sectors. Most of the dots are represented in sector 1, where the lead concentration both in the evening and in the morning situated in the limits 0-10 μg/l. In sector 2 the dots represent water samples in which Pb concentration in the morning exceeded MPC, but it is in the MPC limits in the case of the samples collected in the evening. Only in 10% of the samples, Cd was detected in concentrations under MPC (0,001-0,0037 mg/l).
3.Discussions The importance of water consumption with a high degree of mineralization was proved by many studies which revealed a lower incidence of cardiovascular diseases in areas where water is hard (Kousa , Havulinna, 2006). Law 458/2002 doesn’t provide MPC for Ca and Mg, but in some European countries there are recommended minimum and maximum limits for these macro elements 40-80 mg/l Ca and 20-30 mg/l Mg . In the present study, we found out that water in the fountains and subterranean phreatic sources contain Ca and Mg in higher concentrations than water from surface sources, where it exceeded MPC in the morning, but it is within the MPC limits in the case of the samples collected in the evening. Only in 10% of the samples, Cd was detected in concentrations under MPC (0,001-0,0037 mg/l). The ratio Ca/Mg is less than the optimum recommended value (2:1). - 2+ - Obviously, the presence of HCO3 , SO4 , Cl anions in the water of these sources in Botosani County contributes to increasing their mineralization degree. An increased ingestion of Na and more recently an increased ratio of Na/K were associated with hypertension, that’s why the concentration Na at 200 mg/l is normalized in the water. The maximum value for sodium was registered in the drinking water supplied from subterranean sources – 84,53 mg/l. Positive correlations were observed - between the concentration of Na – HCO3 , K – Ca, DT – Cl and negative - - correlations between the concentration of Ca – HCO3 , Mg – HCO3 (table 4). Concentration increases of the sulfate ion were not registered in the drinking water of the surface sources, being known that the aluminum sulfate is used in treating drinking waters. In water distribution systems, metals corrosion (Fe, Pb, Cu) is frequently 2+ produced, the water chemical characteristics circulated pH, alkalinity, TDS, SO4 , Cl-, Ca2+, Mg2+, having a very important role in the process of involving elements with toxic properties. The study showed slight increases of lead concentration in stagnant water (water samples collected in the morning) (0,028 mg/l). Only 10% of
316 Paul-Narcis Vieru, Iolanda Sîncu, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru the analyzed samples contained Cd in concentrations that did not exceed MPC (maximum value 0,0037 mg/l).
Table 4. The correlation matrix for 8 quality parameters of drinking water (subterranean sources) - Temperature Cl HCO3 DT Ca Mg Na K (0C) (mg/l) (mg/l) (oG) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l)
T(C) l
Cl(mg/l) -0.02287 l
- HCO3 -0.44119 -0.14465 l (mg/l)
o DT( G) -0.37262 0.823515 0.308747 l
Ca(mg/l) 0.026473 0.586009 -0.79071 0.258758 l
Mg(mg/l) 0.889166 -0.02462 -0.51986 -0.31431 0.229661 l
Na(mg/l) -0.11897 -0.45659 0.750925 -0.27925 -0.86098 -0.29188 l
K(mg/l) -0.42296 0.319135 -0.25243 0.286016 0.665168 -0.02693 -0.38715 l
Taking into account the values of the K1 coefficient, we appreciate that drinking water is slightly corrosive (subterranean sources) (K1 = 0,2-0,65) and very corrosive in case of springs and some fountains (K1 -0,65).
Conclusions 1. In the chemistry of the phreatic subterranean waters investigated, used for non-centralized (fountains, springs) and centralized supply, we found out that
Water quality of some drinking water sources in rural area of Botoşani county 317 cations predominate, the concentration average (in mg/l) being in the order Mg2+ 2+ + + 3- 2+ >Ca > Na > K , and for the main anions it was HCO > Cl> SO4 . 2. The calculation of the ratio between the main ions showed that Na is not the main cation, being in inferior concentrations MPC, and the ratio Ca/Mg does not have the optimum value recommended in most of the water samples. 3. Slight increases of the Pb concentration in stagnant water were discovered in the drinking water of the locality, and the calculation of the Kl coefficient (Larson-Skold) allowed evaluations of the corrosivity of water from different sources. The analytic control of drinking water quality allows reconsideration of environmental problems, which can appear in some geographical areas, including those in which the drinking water quality is involved, to establish correlations with the health of the exposed population, and where it is the case, establishing long- term health programs.
References: Backer L.C. 2000, Assessing the acute gastrointestinal effects of ingesting naturally occurring high levels of sulphate in drinking water, Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci, 37(4): 389- 400 Cech I., Smolensky M.H., Afsar M., 2006, Lead and cooper in drinking water fountains - information for physician South Med J, 99(2): 137-42 Kousa A., Havulinna A.S., 2006, Calcium:Magnesium ratio in local groundwater and incidence of acute myocardial infection among males in rural areas, Environ Health Perspect, 114(5): 730-734 Sarin P., Snoeyink V.L., Bebee J., 2004, Iron release from corroded iron pipes in drinking water distribution system, Water Res, 38(5): 1259-1269 Roseborg J., Nihlgard B., 2006, Concentration of inorganic elements in 20 municipal waters in Sweden before and after treatment - links to human health, Environ Geochem Health, Rylander R., 2005, Magnesium in drinking water and cardiovascular disease – anepidemiological dilema, Clin Calcium, 15(11): 1773-77 Zietz B.P., deVergara J.D., 2003, Cooper concentrations in tap water and possible effects in infant's health - results of a study in Lower Saxony-Germany., Environ Res, 92(3): 129-138 ***Legea 458/2002 privind calitatea apei potabile.
318 Paul-Narcis Vieru, Iolanda Sîncu, Nicoleta-Delia Vieru
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
CONTRIBUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTIONS SPECIALISTS TO SUSTAINABLE LOCAL AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ROMANIA
Liliana Petrişor1, Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor2
Key words: GIS, university centers, potential influence, territorial development, sustainable spatial development
Abstract. While sustainable development involves acquiring the equilibrium of four pillars – economic, social, environmental and cultural, it also has a spatial dimension, which must also balance these criteria. To achieve it, urban and spatial planning, though different by scale and objectives, represent participative processes demanding the presence of inter- and multidisciplinary teams. The paper examines in detail the particular issue of the involvement of specialists with a background in environmental protection in the elaboration and coordination of such plans, focusing on their spatial distribution and potential area of influence. The results of GIS-based spatial analyses indicate that the distribution and influence are uneven, concentrating around large university centers.
Introduction If attempting to summarize the essence of the “sustainable development” concept, it can be described by balancing three traditional pillars – economic, social and environmental (Bugge and Watters, 2003), to which a fourth cultural one was added by the Oagadougou Summit of Francophony (Iliescu, 2005). Such a balance must be achieved by the development policies also in a territorial perspective (Petrişor, 2008). The spatial policies are materialized in urban and spatial planning, differing by scale, but also by aim – urbanism refers to punctual interventions, while spatial planning provides for the general guidelines (Petrişor A.-I., 2010). Regardless of their scale and specific objectives, both aim for a sustainable spatial development.
1 Lecturer Ph.D., “Ion Mincu” University of Architecture and Urbanism, Bucureşti, Romania, [email protected] 2 Ph.D., Romanian Registry of Urban Planners, Bucureşti, Romania, [email protected]
320 Liliana Petrişor, Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor
The process of spatial planning is participative (Lacaze, 1990). Meeting economic, social and environmental needs in a spatial perspective requires a tight collaboration of specialists with different backgrounds (Petrişor, 2006). Nevertheless, the planning process must be coordinated by an urban planner specialized in urbanism, who can interpret the scientific evidence provided by the specialists with different backgrounds from a spatial perspective and use their conclusions in the decision making process. The planning process requires in addition negotiation skills in order to defend the project in front of the authorities habilitated by law to approve it (Lacaze, 1990). This paper aims to use statistical evidence to look at the contribution of specialists in environmental protection (ecologists, engineers and geographers) to spatial planning by analyzing their spatial distribution. Since the urban areas are at the core of environmental deterioration, generating pollutants and expanding over the natural systems (Petrişor and Sârbu, 2010; Petrişor et al., 2010), a particular attention will be given to the presence of environmental protection specialists attested to contribute to urban and spatial plans in large cities and their potential areas of influence.
1. Urban planners In the beginning, several legal definitions must be stressed out (Romanian Registry of Urban Planners, 2010). First of all, the concept of “urban planner” needs to be explained. The term is preferred to “urbanist” for two reasons. First, it expresses clearly that the person is a practitioner, as urbanists could be also theorists (Choay, 2011). Second, since the concept of “urbanism” has many definitions, ranging from art or science to activity and system of regulations (Petrişor A.-I., 2010), the term points again toward the practical side. An urban planner is a practicing specialist in urban planning, with legally attested rights of signature. While professionals with a background in planning – architecture or urbanism (the latest are relatively new in Romania, as the first class has graduated in 2002) – are entitled by law to coordinate the process based on their specific qualification proven by the academic transcripts, connected professionals – engineers, sociologists, ecologists, geographers, economists etc. – are mainly responsible for the elaboration of specific chapters, based again on their background, and can coordinate entire plans only in specific circumstances. Both categories are entitled to add the qualification “urbanist” to their professional background upon the attestation of their rights of signature by the Romanian Registry of Urban Planners. While those with a background in planning receive the attestation immediately, after the verification of their educational background and professional portfolio, connected specialists must in addition be
Contribution of environmental protections specialists to sustainable development 321 examined by a commission and prove their extensive knowledge of the legal requirements related to urban and spatial planning and present in detail their specific work experience in this field (Fig. 1). Upon the attestation of their rights of signature, their professional title becomes, as stated before, “engineer-urbanist”, “sociologist-urbanist”, “ecologist-urbanist” etc.
2. Specialists in environmental sciences involved in urban and spatial planning By law (Romanian Registry of Urban Planners, 2010), urban and spatial planning specialist responsible for the elaboration of specific chapters dealing with environmental issues can have the following backgrounds: urbanism, landscape, geography, biology, ecology and engineering. They are entitled to request rights of signature for the chapters “nature and environmental quality”, “protection and development of the natural heritage” and “environmental quality”. Among the professionals other than architects and urbanists, only geographers and some engineers can also coordinate the elaboration of spatial plans, but not of the urban plans.
Before 2002 After 2002
Connected fields Bachelor’s in con- nected fields - 180- Connected fields 240 credits Graduate stu- At least 6 dies in urban & Master’s in years spatial Master’s in urban & spa- 6 years experience in planning urbanism - 120 tial planning - experience urban & credits 120 credits spatial 2 years – planning professional 2 years – professional practice practice
Examination for the attestation Examination for the attestation of signature rights; granting of professional title of signature rights
Registration Registration
Fig.1 – Procedure for the attestation of the signature rights – connected specialists
Since its foundation in 2004, the Romanian Registry of Urban Planners attested the rights of signature for 1488 architects, 138 urbanists, 79 conducting architects (lesser educational credits) and 131 specialists with a background in
322 Liliana Petrişor, Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor environmental sciences, out of which 3 are entitled to coordinate the elaboration of urban plans and 25 of spatial plans.
3. Geographical distribution of environmental sciences specialists with attested rights of signature in urban and spatial planning The distribution of environmental sciences specialists is presented in Table 1 in relationship to their county and attestation of the rights of signature for the elaboration of specific chapters or coordination of the elaboration of urban and spatial plans. The distribution displayed in Table 1 is mapped in Fig. 2. The figure indicates using the darker shades counties with most specialists. As it can easily be seen, the specialists are distributed unevenly, and most counties do not benefit upon the presence of attested environmental specialists able to contribute to the coordination and elaboration of urban and spatial plans. The underlying causes are that the specialists are grouped around large cities with a strong tradition in education, as they are most likely graduates of these university centers – Bucharest, Cluj Napoca, Iaşi and, to a lesser extent, Timişoara (Petrişor L. E., 2010).
Table 1. Distribution of environmental sciences specialists entitled to elaborate parts or coordinate the elaboration of urban and spatial plans by county Elaboration of Coordination of urban Coordination of County Total chapters plans spatial plans Argeş 1 1 Bacău 1 1 Bihor 1 3 4 Bucharest 13 1 9 23 Cluj 10 6 16 Covasna 1 1 2 Galaţi 1 1 Gorj 1 1 Ialomiţa 2 2 Iaşi 3 3 Prahova 1 1 Sălaj 1 1 Satu Mare 1 1 2 Suceava 1 1 Teleorman 1 1 Timiş 1 1
Contribution of environmental protections specialists to sustainable development 323
4. Potential territorial influence of environmental sciences specialists with attested rights of signature in urban and spatial planning The potential influence of environmental sciences specialists was assessed using a spatial analysis technique called radial basis functions, which produces extrapolation surfaces by creating a special type of neural networks passing through the values from which extrapolation originates (Johnston et al., 2001). The centers used in extrapolation are the actual geometric county centers. The method was used to generate five areas of influence based on the magnitude of influence, displayed in Fig. 3 using darker shades for increasing influence.
Fig.2 – Showing the distribution of specialists Fig.3 – Showing the areas of potential entitled to elaborate parts or coordinate the influence of specialists entitled to elaborate elaboration of urban and spatial plans by parts or coordinate the elaboration of urban county and spatial plans by county
The areas of influence clearly show that the environmental sciences specialists who can influence the process of elaborating urban and spatial plans and contribute to writing specific chapters concentrate around the large university centers (Bucharest, Cluj Napoca, Iaşi and Timişoara), but also indicate other two nuclei positioned in the counties Covasna and Bihor.
Conclusions While the legislation provides for the involvement of environmental planning specialists in the elaboration of urban and spatial plans since 2004, very few Romanian specialists have taken this advantage. Most of the attested specialists are concentrated around the large university center and can influence the surrounding counties, suggesting an uneven distribution. Its consequence is that a large number of counties lack specialists that know the territorial reality of their area and are able to contribute to its sustainable spatial development.
324 Liliana Petrişor, Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor
References Bugge H. C., Watters L. (2003), A Perspective on Sustainable Development after Johannesburg on the Fifteenth Anniversary of Our Common Future: An Interview with Gro Harlem Brundtland, Georgetown International Environmental Law Review 15:359- 366. Choay Françoise (2011), For an anthropology of the space [in Romanian], Biblioteca Urbanismul. Serie nouă, Bucharest, 271 pp. Iliescu I. (2005), For the sustainable development [in Romanian], Editura Semne, Bucharest, 188 pp. Johnston K., Ver Hoef J. M., Krivoruchko K., Lucas N. (2001), Using ArcGIS Geostatistical Analyst, ESRI Press, Redlands, CA, 316 pp. Lacaze J.-P. (1990), Methods of urbanism [in French], 2nd edition, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 127 pp. Petrişor A.-I. (2006), Role of the ecologist in urbanism [in Romanian], Amenajarea Teritoriului şi Urbanismul 6(3-4):34-35 Petrişor A.-I. (2008), Toward a definition of sustainable spatial development [in Romanian], Amenajarea Teritoriului şi Urbanismul 7(3-4):1-5. Petrişor A.-I. (2010), The Theory and Practice of Urban and Spatial Planning in Romania: Education, Laws, Actors, Procedures, Documents, Plans, and Spatial Organization. A Multiscale Analysis, Serbian Architectural Journal 2(2):139-154. Petrişor A.-I., Ianoş I., Tălângă C. (2010), Land cover and use changes focused on the urbanization processes in Romania, Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 9(6):765-771. Petrişor A.-I., Sârbu C. N. (2010), Dynamics of geodiversity and eco-diversity in territorial systems, Journal of Urban and Regional Analysis 2(1):61-70. Petrişor Liliana Elza (2010), Involvement of urban and spatial planning specialists in developing urban and rural areas [in Romanian], Amenajarea Teritoriului şi Urbanismul 10(1-2):44-47. Romanian Registry of Urban Planners (2010), Regulation on obtaining the rights of signature for spatial and urban plans and for the organization and functioning of the Romanian Registry of Urban Planners, Official Gazette 577:7-25.
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
SPECTS OF THE FOG PHENOMENON IN BACAU CITY
Doina Capşa1, Valentin Nedeff2, Ema Faciu2, Gabriel Lazăr2, Iulia Lazăr2, Narcis Bârsan2
Keywords: the fog phenomenon, geographical positioning, atmospheric calm.
Abstract.The importance of knowing the fog phenomenon results from the fact that different industry, especially in transport, it can seriously disrupt this activity by reducing visibility. This paper analyses the recorded data as fog phenomenon varies according to the main meteorological factors in Bacau City.
Introduction Bacau City, the capital of the district with the same name is located in the NE of Romania, in the lowland formed by the common valley of the Bistrita and Siret rivers.
Fig. 1 - The cartographical representation of Bacau in the context of the geographical positioning at the national level (www.harta-romaniei.ro/; www.sportman.ro/).
Bacau City is the capital of the district Bacau and it is located in NE of Romania corresponding to the coordinates 46° 35’ N, 26° 55’ E. Its surroundings represent a vast and complex geographical area with many specific peculiarities. The slopes on the left of the Siret river are always steep and tall, they are
1 Meteorologist, Ph.D. student, Regional Weather Forecasting Service, Bacău, Romania, [email protected] 2 “Vasile Alecsandri“ University of Bacau
326 Capşa, Nedeff, Faciu, G. Lazăr, I. Lazăr, Bârsan accompanied by fragments of terraces and those on the right are slower and they have a wide unfolding of the terraces. (ANM 2008, www. arpmbc.anpm.ro). The common valley of the two rivers looks like a depression corridor with north- south orientation with an opening to the west side, Bistrita valley and a narrowing to the south, “ the Siret gate” , overlapping to the contact between the hills of the Tutova and the Carpathian peaks Pietricica- Barboiu. The meadow steps and the flat or slightly sloping terraces stand as typical forms of the relief, with the eastern and south- east exhibition having a good drainage of groundwater (ANM 2008, www. arpmbc.anpm.ro). The meadows and the terraces near the city are used for the practicing of the agriculture and high terraces are used for fruit growing and viticulture. The terraces favoured the construction of the ways of communication and they facilitated the spreading of the constructions (www. arpmbc.anpm.ro).
Fig. 2 - The cartographical representation of Bacau- the delimitation of the urban and peripheral areas.
Bacau City is located at just 9,6 km upstream of the confluence of Siret- Bistrita, at an altitude of 160,056 m
1. Climatic aspects in the city of Bacau The climate of the city of Bacau is temperate - continental, with cold winters and hot dry summers, the result of the action of a complex of natural factors (general circulation of the atmosphere, the solar radiation, the landscape) and anthropogenic factors, the city itself having an essential role in creating its own
Aspects of the fog phenomenon in Bacău city 327 mezoclime by a number of factors that constantly manifest (the materials of construction, the rugged profile, the green spaces) respectively through secondary factors (the artificial heating, the polluted atmosphere ). The simultaneous action of these factors lead to the biogeochemical disturbance at the level of the system, the direct result being the urban discomfort (Gârţu 1991, ANM 2008). This area of confluence and the Bistrita river corridor favor the channeling air masses over its weather conditions characterized by winds from the south and south- east, alternating with periods of atmospheric calm (average speeds of the wind (1,5m/s), the condition which characterizes the area most of the year and the frequent appearance of thermal inversion situations. These thermal inversions (the situation where a blanket of cold air is positioned under a blanket of warm air) can occur under a stationary atmospheric front of high pressure coupled with low wind speeds (Stefan 2004, Tasnea and Sarbu 1984). In these conditions the atmospheric chemical mixtures between the atmospheric components and pollutants are slowed down, as well as reducing process, and the pollutants can be accumulated at low altitudes, close to the level of the ground (Dayan and Lamb 2005, Bogdan and Marinica 2007).
2. General aspects of the fog phenomenon The importance of knowing the fog phenomenon results from the fact that in different economic branches, especially in transport (land, air and naval) it can seriously disrupt this activity by reducing visibility. The provision of this phenomenon is a major difficulty, on the one hand because of the multitude of meteorological parameters which it depends on temperature, wind, pressure, humidity and on the other hand it depends on the local conditions (orographic). Because of this latter factor the general methods should have a strictly local application (ANM 2008, www. arpmbc. anpm. ro). According to the international standards, the fog is a phenomenon that reduces the visibility to less than one kilometre. This phenomenon consists of small water drops suspended in the air. The fog is formed when the moist air is cooled and it reaches to its point of dew, it becomes saturated and the vapours from the air are condensed forming tiny drops of water. The principle of the fog formation is the same as in cloud formation, except that this is a cloud which touches the ground (Bogdan and Marinică 2007, Gârţu 1991, Mureşan and Croitoru 2008). The water drops which form the fog are very small, the diameter of the drop is about 2/100 mm and the distance between them is about 2 mm, so more than 100 diameters. The fog drops don’t float in the air, as one might think, they fall like all the heavier bodies than the air, but the speed of fall is very small due to the very small volume. The forces that act on the drop are: the resistance force of the air and
328 Capşa, Nedeff, Faciu, G. Lazăr, I. Lazăr, Bârsan the closed sensitive weight, but they have opposite meanings, the fall of the fog drops is extremely slow, a fall on the lowest ascendant current it stops it or even it reverses it. The fall speed of a fog droplet with a diameter of 2/100 mm is about 1,3 cm/s. (Mureşan and Croitoru 2008, Tasnea and Sarbu 1984). The total mass of the drops which constitutes the fog is 2g/m3, lower to the water mass existing in the air in the vapour state. However the number of drops is very high, from 2 grams of water we can get a half billion of drops with the 2/100 mm diameter. When the drops that form the fog are quite big, the fog wets the objects which touches them, and if their size continues to grow up then it turns into drizzle. The fog opacity is a remarkable fact, considering the total mass of the particles of the water extremely small. The maximal distance of visibility of the objects during the fog it is proportional to the radius of drops and it is inversely proportional with the mass of water from cubic meter and the fog intensity is characterized by the maximum distance where the objects can be seen and from where it comes the name of the fog: 100 m, 20 m, etc (Mureşan 2008, INMH 1986). The fog has a whitish color due to air cooling, it is generally formed very quickly but it is dissipated very slowly. The general conditions of forming the fog are: a very high humidity and a wind that blows not too weak (if the temperature is below zero degrees, the drops freeze resulting the hoar frost), not too strong (in this case we can’t talk about the fog formation).
2.1. The classification of the fog 2.1.1. The advection fog. For producing this type of fog it is required the presence of a warm and humid air mass and another cold and dry air. This is a very persistent fog because its superior surface is very important for the production of the condensation (fig.3.a). The thickness of this type of fog varies between 100 m and 1 km and it increases where there is a cooling at the top of the layer. The dissipation of this type of fog is very slow because it takes a reheating of the cold surface (it produces the disruption of the thermal equilibrium air- ground) (Stefan 2004, Meteorological Institution 1963). 2.1.2 The radiation fog. This fog is formed during the clear nights following after a warm day during which the evaporation was high, a situation where the moist air could cool long enough for forming the fog provided not to be wind. The conditions of formation of this type of fog there are also conditions of beautiful time (fig. 3.b). The wind speed is almost zero (less than 10 km/h), the air is very moist and the clear sky will allow the production of the radiation fog. The air close to the soil surface is cooled by conduction in order to reach the dew point and the formed
Aspects of the fog phenomenon in Bacău city 329 water drops produce a thin film of fog. The air continues to cool, increasing the number of water drops thickening the fog, it becomes opaque to infrared. The upper layer continues to cool, increasing the thickness of the fog. The dissipation is produced by heating from the sun or by the intensification of the wind. The radiation fog is generally formed in large spaces such as airports, highways, fields and it is the type of fog that disrupts the circulation of the planes and of the cars (Iordachescu 2011, ANM 2008). 2.1.3 The smog is a type of fog whose method of training can be represented schematically in Figure 4. a.
Fig. 3 - The graphical representation of the phenomenon of fog formation: a) the formation of the advection fog; b) the formation of the radiation fog (Iordachescu 2011).
Fig. 4 - The graphical representation of the phenomenon of fog formation: a) the smog formation; b) the formation of the expansion fog (Iordachescu 2011).
The emission of the gases from the large cities may form an extended haze in the absence of the wind, where the gas tends to remain on the ground because of
330 Capşa, Nedeff, Faciu, G. Lazăr, I. Lazăr, Bârsan the water particles (the moisture), blocking the vertical displacement. The quantities of gas are accumulated in order to form a toxic fog, that it represents the smog. This fog phenomenon could be confused with the misty and dry air where there is dispersed dust (Mureşan and Croitoru 2008, Mureşan 2008). 2.1.4 The expansion fog is formed only in the mountains or in the hilly areas as it is illustrated in Figure 4 b). This type of fog is formed in the valleys due to high moisture, to a down wind and to a slope which are more or less stepped. The wind pushes the moist air on the slope, it meets the cold air from the altitude and thus creating fog expansion. The mode of the production of this type of fog can be explained by the fact that when a moist and a stable air mass cools adiabatically along a slope and the wind has speeds less than 5 km/h the fog is formed, and if the wind has speeds bigger than 5 km/h, the fog is broken forming Stratus type clouds (Iordăchescu 2011, Ştefan 2004). 2.1.5. The evaporative fog is a type of fog contrary to the mists of advection, it requires a warm surface and a very cold air mass (the difference of temperature between ground and air must be very big) and it can be represented schematically as in Figure 5 a). A mass of cold air reaches above a surface as the hot liquids and the temperature of the air is smaller than the temperature of the water, the air becomes saturated favoring a rapid condensation and resulting the formation of large amounts of water drops. Such a fog of reducing thickness it is formed on the lakes and on the rivers (Iordăchescu 2011, Tasnea and Sarbu 1984).
Fig. 5. The graphical representation of the phenomenon of fog formation: a) the formation of the evaporative fog; b) the formation of mixing fog (Iordăchescu (2011).
Aspects of the fog phenomenon in Bacău city 331
Fig. 6 - Synoptic conditions producing fog on the 16. 12. 2006 (www.wetterzentrale.de).
2.1.6. The mixing fog is a phenomenon that can be explained by the graphical representation in the Figure 5 b). The warm and moist air and the cold and humid air (with different densities) will mix producing the fog phenomenon on a small area, the visibility being bigger than 1 km. In Figure 6 there are some cartographical examples with satellite view of the synoptic conditions producing fog (on the 16. 12. 2006).
3. Results and discussions In order to achieve a more detailed analysis of the fog phenomenon in Bacau City, the main meteorological data were processed during 2005- 2010. In Figure 7 the wind directions are presented in Bacau City.
Fig. 7 - The wind direction in Bacau City.
332 Capşa, Nedeff, Faciu, G. Lazăr, I. Lazăr, Bârsan
Analyzing the chart above it can be noted that geographical position of Bacau causes airflow to be oriented on the North- South direction, the winds from the west and east being blocked by existing landforms, respectively by hills.
Fig. 8 - The graphical representation of mean values for the frequency of the winds on the S- SE and on the N- NV direction and the number of the days when the fog phenomenon was present between 2005- 2010.
Fig. 9 - The graphical representation of the average values for the winds frequency on the S- SE direction and the graphical representation of the periods of atmospheric calm between 2005- 2010.
In Figure 8 the average values are presented for the winds frequency on the S- SE and N- NV direction and the number of the days when the fog phenomenon was present between 2005- 2010.
Aspects of the fog phenomenon in Bacău city 333
In Figure 9 the average values are presented for the winds frequency on the S- SE direction and the periods of atmospheric calm are also presented as well as the number of days when the fog phenomenon was present between 2005- 2010.
Fig. 10 - The graphical representation of the average values of the number of days when the fog phenomenon was present, the frequency of the atmospheric calm and the values of the monthly temperatures between 2005 - 2010.
In Figure 10 the average values of the number of days are presented when the fog phenomenon was present, there are also presented the monthly distribution of the average frequency of the periods of atmospheric calm as well as the values of the monthly temperatures from 2005 to 2010. In Figure 11 the monthly distribution of the average of the number of days is represented when the fog phenomenon was present and the average of the monthly total precipitations it is also represented between 2005- 2010. In Figure 12 a graph is presented where the weather phenomena were correlated to each other and they are presented in the graphs above, the intensity of the winds on the N- NV and S- SE direction, the number of days when the fog phenomenon was present as well as the average of the monthly total precipitations between 2005- 2010. Analyzing the graphs above can appreciate the fact that this area of confluence and the Bistrita river corridor favor the channeling air masses over Bacau City. In the weather conditions characterized by winds from the south and south- eastern sector alternating with periods of atmospheric calm (the average speeds of the wind (1,5 m/s), it registers a specific situation of the Bacau area that causes frequent thermal inversion situations.
334 Capşa, Nedeff, Faciu, G. Lazăr, I. Lazăr, Bârsan
Fig. 11. Graphical representation of the average number of days of fog phenomenon and average monthly rainfall t in the period 2005-2010.
Fig. 12. The graphical representation of the winds frequency on the N- NV and S- SE direction, the number of days when the fog phenomenon was present and the average of the monthly total precipitations between 2005- 2010.
In order to analyse the fog phenomenon in Bacau for any time of year, there were made graphical representations for the entire analysed period, the phenomenon was analysed at the level of each calendar month (Figures 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 and 24).
Aspects of the fog phenomenon in Bacău city 335
Fig. 13 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in January between 2005- 2010
Fig. 14 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in February between 2005- 2010.
Fig. 15 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in March between 2005- 2010.
336 Capşa, Nedeff, Faciu, G. Lazăr, I. Lazăr, Bârsan
Fig. 16 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in April between 2005- 2010.
Fig. 17 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in May between 2005- 2010.
Fig. 18 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in June between 2005- 2010.
Aspects of the fog phenomenon in Bacău city 337
Fig. 19 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in July between 2005- 2010
Fig. 20. The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in August between 2005- 2010
Fig. 21. The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in September between 2005- 2010.
338 Capşa, Nedeff, Faciu, G. Lazăr, I. Lazăr, Bârsan
Fig. 22 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in October between 2005- 2010
Fig. 23 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in November between 2005- 2010
Fig. 24 - The graphical representation of the average number of foggy days in December between 2005- 2010.
Aspects of the fog phenomenon in Bacău city 339
Analyzing the graphs above we see that in January, February, November and December the meteorological conditions determined the increasing of the fog phenomenon in this period. In these months the maximum of days is recorded during the analyzed period where the fog phenomenon was produced respectively 17 days in December of 2010. This time of the year corresponds to the cold period of winter where the temperatures are low and the wind direction is primarily from N- NV but the precipitations are weak in quantity. During the specific period of spring the fog phenomenon occurred mainly in April when in 2008 there have been three days with fog. In the months of autumn the fog phenomenon was recorded in each of the analyzed six years respectively to a minimum of two days in 2010 and a maximum of 7 days in 2008. Excluding June when the fog phenomenon didn’t occur in summer, the fog phenomenon was recorded sporadically about one day per month throughout the analyzed period 2005- 2010.
Conclusions The importance of knowing the fog phenomenon results from the fact that in different industries, especially in transport (land, air and naval), it can seriously disrupt this activity by reducing visibility. The provision of this phenomenon is a matter of major difficulty, on the one hand because of the multitude of meteorological parameters that depend on temperature, wind, humidity and on the other hand because of the local conditions (orographic). According to this latter factor the general methods should have a strictly local application. At the mesoscale, the fog is a short term phenomenon, therefore, it is difficult to analyzed and to predict. As a main conclusion of the study, we noticed that the months with the most days where the fog had occurred there were those from the cold season respectively those of the transition from warm season to cold season- in autumn, at the transition from cold season to warm season- in spring, with a maximum in December followed by November, January and February. In March, April, May, June, August and September, the number of recorded days is one to three days during a calendar month and the minimum is recorded in July when the fog phenomenon wasn’t observed. The altitude, the urban environment, the depression corridor which is characteristic to the area and the fact that warm masses of tropical home reach in Bacau City, they seem to be responsible for the large number of days with fog, it is bigger with 2 to 4 days than the average feature area east of the country.
340 Capşa, Nedeff, Faciu, G. Lazăr, I. Lazăr, Bârsan
References: Dayan U. and Lamb D., (2005), Global and synoptic-scale weather patterns controllingwet atmospheric deposition over central Europe, Atmospheric Environment 39, pp. 521 - 533. Bogdan O. and Marinică I. (2007), Hazarde meteo-climatice din zona temperată: geneză şi vulnerabilitate cu aplicaţii la România, Editura “Lucian Blaga”, Sibiu, pp 422. Gârţu M. (1991), Câteva consideraţii asupra fenomenului de ceaţă în zona municipiului Bacău, lucrare internă A.N.M. Bucureşti. Iordachescu Ş. (2011), Prognoza ceţii în regiunea Olteniei, lucrare internă, C.M.R Oltenia. Mureşan T. and Croitoru A.E. (2008), Considerations on fog phenomena in the North- Western Romania, lucrare internă Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai Cluj. Mureşan T. (2008), Ceaţa în zona culoarului Someşului Mic în intervalul 1987 - 2007, lucrare internă A.N.M. Ştefan Ş. (2004), Fizica atmosferei, Bucureşti, Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti. Tasnea D. and Sarbu V. (1984), Unele aspecte privind producerea ceţii, funcţie de temperatura şi umezeala aerului, Studii şi cercetări meteorologice A.N.M. Administraţia Naţională de Meteorologie - ANM (2008), Clima României, Editura Academiei Române. Institutul Meteorologic (1963), Condiţiile meteorologice care favorizează producerea şi menţinerea ceţurilor pe aeroporturile Bacău, Iaşi, Suceava, Culegere de lucrări, pp.137 – 142. Institutul Naţional de Meteorologie şi Hidrologie - INMH (1986), Instrucţiuni pentru observarea, identificarea şi codificarea norilor şi a fenomenelor meteorologice. www. arpmbc.anpm.ro; www.wetterzentrale.de. www.harta-romaniei.ro/. www.sportman.ro/
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
FACTORS THAT INCREASE DRYNESS PHENOMENON ON SMALL RIVERS IN PRUT BASIN (ANALYSIS OF CONDITIONALITIES)
Florin Vartolomei 1
Key words: dryness, small basin, factors, intensity, Tinoasa, Prut.
Abstract. This study aims to analyze factors causing increased of dryness phenomenon on small rivers in Prut basin. Are analyzed, the non-climate components of the landscape (relief, geology, soil, vegetation) and climatic factors on corresponding area (rainfalls). In reporting the number of years that has occurred dryness to number of years of observations showed that the frequency of the dryness phenomenon is over 90% for basins with areas less than 5 km2. The maximum period recorded without flow for small rivers in this basin was 292 days in 1987 on Ciurea hydrometric station closing Tinoasa catchment (A = 4.71 km2) and 326 days on Humăria hydrometric station (A = 1.65 km2) in the same basin. Should be noted the role of factors determine increasing phenomenon, namely geology (groundwater un-interception) and wooded areas (if smaller quantities of precipitation).
Introduction The objective of this study is to determine the characteristics determinative factors of dryness phenomenon on small rivers in Prut basin. For this aim Ciurea hydrometric station on Tinoasa representative basin was selected, for reasons of necessary information convenience, continuity and accessibility of data string. Studies on minimum flow in this basin have been made by various authors over time (Chiriac, V., 1962, Pantazi, M., 1971, Păduraru, A., Popovici, V., Marţian, F., Diaconu, C., 1973 and 1974, Topor, N., 1964, Vartolomei, F., 2004, etc.) in the context of planning and economic water exploitation in this basin or to establish relations in synthetic schemes framework about hydrographic network use in Romanian Water Department, also to prepare the management Plan in Water Department Prut – Iaşi.
1 Lecturer PhD., Spiru Haret University, Bucureşti, Romania, [email protected]
342 Florin Vartolomei
1. Study area Location and morphometric features: Prut basin is located in eastern part of Romania, the catchment area is 10,970 km2 in Romania, and together with related areas in Ukraine and Moldova occupies 28,396 km2 (Diaconu C., 1969). Geological conditions: under this Prut basin overlaps three structural units: Moldavian Platform (up to fault Falciu-Plopana) Bârlad platform (between faults Fălciu-Plopana and Adjud-Oancea) and Covurlui platform, each presenting a socket covered with a folded blanket with monoclinal parties willing (Băcăuanu V. et al., 1980). Relief: looks like a large set of inter-looking bridges, hills separated by wide valleys, carved in monoclinal sedimentary. General slope of the landscape, south- south-east, in addition to the orientation of major valleys, reflect an obvious adaptation to the structure. Monoclinal structure favored the emergence of positive and subsequent valleys. Main steps to be taken in morphology, have values of 300- 500 m in the north-west, 300-400 m in the central part, 150-200 m in the north-east and south and have a relatively balanced distribution. Altitudes of 500 m are few and isolated. The lowest rates are found along the Prut river corridor (130 m on Oroftina in north, 32 m near Ungheni and less than 15 meters to the confluence with the Danube) (Băcăuanu, 1968). Climate: due to its majority position in the extra-Carpathian regions away from the influence of Atlantic air masses, but wide open to continental air masses action from the east, north-east and north, Prut basin receives moderate quantities of precipitation. Prut Basin superimposed on the Plain of Moldavia, is directly exposed to continental air masses, the air from the west to lower the surrounding physical and geographical units frequently suffer föehn processes, precipitation is low, ranging generally around 500 mm (Radauţi 564 mm, 529.4 mm in Iaşi (Octavia Bogdan, 2007).
2. Analysis of factors that determine the intensity of dryness phenomenon in small rivers The most important role in increasing intensity of dryness phenomenon is the natural factors which are substrate (relief, geology, soil, vegetation), on the one hand, and climatic factors on corresponding area on the other hand (rainfalls) (Păduraru A., V. Popovici, 1972). Geology influences the amplification of phenomenon that drying up the rivers because there are often cases where the minor bed thalweg not intersect groundwater. The immediate effects are that underground supply is not permanent for surface drainage areas, this is only occurring due to precipitation fallen on the surface basins (Table 1).
Factors that increase dryness phenomenon on small rivers in Prut basin 343
Vegetation, by the most influential component of the vegetation cover, forest, influence by withholding altogether less than 15-20 mm rainfall for their falling after long periods of drought.
Tab. 1 - Physico-geographical and morphometric features of Tinoasa representative basin on Ciurea hydrometric station
Basin Basin Forest mean Hydro Area (A mean coeff. Vegetati River slope Soils station în km2) altitude (Cp in on type (I in (H in m) %) %) Deciduo Red Humăria Humăria 1,60 270 17,0 95,4 us preluvosoil forests Tipical Deciduo preluvosoil us Red Tinoasa Ciurea 4,17 272 15,9 63,0 forests preluvosoil Pastures Pseudorendzi ne
Fig. 1 - Relationship rain (precipitation layer in mm)-flow (flow in l/s) in Tinoasa experimental basin on Ciurea hydrometric station
The soil can influence the phenomenon intensity by the presence of draining gray podzolic soil containing a large percentage of clay, over 20%, and no water storage capacity that can extend drain surface.
344 Florin Vartolomei
The landscape as an physical-geographical substrate factors may influence dryness by presence of relatively small slopes of 15-17%. Rainfall proper to excessive continental climate has annual amounts of 630 mm, but are unevenly distributed in time, with a strong torrential regime (Fig. no. 1).
3. Results and discussions In such conditions as we mention above dryness phenomenon production rate is 40-50% for basins with an area of 15-20 km2 and 90% for basins with areas less than 5 km2 (Fig. no. 2 ). If the Tinoasa representative basin on Ciurea flow throughout the year there was only in 1980 (the period of observation of 35 years from 1969 to 2003). The mathematical expression of dryness frequency phenomenon is given by the function: f = (n / N) * 100 where n - number of years that has dryness occurred, N -number of observations years.
Fig. 2 - Frequency of dryness phenomenon occurrence based on catchment areas
Annual average duration of dryness phenomenon denoted by Ns (in days) has also very high values. On hydrometric station closing Tinoasa basin (area A = 4.17 km2) Ns value is 131 days (Fig. no. 3).
Factors that increase dryness phenomenon on small rivers in Prut basin 345
160
120
80 Ns(zile) 40
0 0 10 20 30 40 A(km2)
Fig. 3 - Relationship between multi-annual average duration of dryness phenomenon and basin area
The figure above shows the relationship between Ns (days) and basin area, (such as Ns = f (A)), which shows average annual duration of dryness phenomenon (ie Ns) over 120 days to areas less than 4.5 km2. An important phenomenon on dryness duration is distribution in time of rainfalls. The maximum period recorded without flow for small rivers in this basin was 292 days in 1987 on closing hydrometric station in Tinoasa catchment (A = 4.71 km2) and 326 days on Humăria hydrometric station (A = 1.65 km2) from the same basin (Fig. no. 4).
Fig. 4 - Maximum duration without registered flow probability in Tinoasa basin (on the vertical axis is the number of days without flow recorded)
Rainfalls in 1987 were 470 mm. Not the same thing happened in 1986 when they fell less precipitation - only 381 mm, less than 89 mm in 1987. However
346 Florin Vartolomei
Ns value was lower, only 255 days. This was because more precipitation fell in the spring when humidity was high and favored leakage (Fig. no. 5).
35
30
25
20
15 Ns(zile) 10
5
0 I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
Fig. 5 - Variation in annual number of draining phenomenon days on experimentally Tinoasa basin-Ciurea hydrometric station in 1969 to 2003 period
Synthetic relationship between the maximum probability of the dryness phenomenon with 1% (Nsmax1%) and basin area exceeding 330 days in basins with less than 5 km2 area and more than 330 days in the basins of the same category but with high forest cover (Fig. no. 6).
Fig. 6 - Synthesis relationship of Nsmax1% = f (A)
Factors that increase dryness phenomenon on small rivers in Prut basin 347
For dryness mapping in Prut basin hydrographic network map was used on 1:100,000 scale, encoding streams from Atlas of Water Cadastre in Romania, Volume I of 1964 and maps from Atlas of draining rivers in Romania, scale 1:200,000, published in 1974. To characterize the phenomenon of drying up on rivers Prut basin the following categories was established (Table no. 2):
Tab. 2 - The phenomenon of dryness for rivers in Prut basin
No of river segments on 1:100,000 scale Total lengh of Dryness type (between rivers (km) confluences) draining permanent rivers 29 470 rivers with draining every year 30 22 rivers with draining every few years 35 971 rivers with rare draining 44 1381 rivers with dryness and stationary water 32 2 in natural conditions rivers with dryness and stationary water 30 5 in anthropogenic conditions rivers with dryness and water shortages in the channel in anthropogenic 29 3 conditions rivers with draining in unknown terms 56 464 secării permanent rivers 479 1601 TOTAL (including channels) 764 4919 (after Atlas of draining rivers in Romania, with additions).
-draining permanent rivers, which include rivers that flow only in high rainfall every several years; -rivers with draining every year, which includes courses with draining appearance in every year, although in a few years from 30-40 years there has been drying up completely; -rivers with draining every few years, which includes courses with long period draining appearance in average every 2-5 years; -rivers with rare draining, which includes courses with long period draining appearance more once than five years; -rivers with dryness and stationary water in natural conditions; -rivers with dryness and stationary water in anthropogenic conditions;
348 Florin Vartolomei
-rivers with dryness and water shortages in the channel in anthropogenic conditions; -rivers with draining in unknown terms. It should be noted that the rivers sectors considered are appropriate to 1:100,000 scale maps, including channels identified in Prut floodplain sectors between Iaşi and Galaţi. The base was Atlas of draining rivers in Romania, by 5 partially maps related to Prut basin on 1:200,000 scale, in addition to the information which has been studying the bibliographic sources (Chiriac, V., 1962, Diaconu, C ., 1961, Mociorniţă, C., Dinca, A., Niţulescu, M., 1963, Păduraru, A., Popovici, V., Marţian, F., Diaconu, C., 1973, Topor, N., 1964).
10% 0% 33% 20%
9% 0% 0% 28%
draining permanent rivers rivers with draining every year rivers with draining every few years rivers with rare draining rivers with dryness and stationary water in natural conditions rivers with dryness and stationary water in anthropogenic conditions rivers with dryness and water shortages in anthropogenic conditions rivers with draining in unknown terms permanent rivers
Fig. 7 - Share of river segments in Prut basin by draining categories
The analysis of the map shown in Fig. no. 8 and share of rivers segments by dryness category illustrate in Fig. no. 7 may draw the following conclusions:
Factors that increase dryness phenomenon on small rivers in Prut basin 349
Fig. 8 - Map of draining river in Romanian sector of the Prut basin (after Atlas of draining rivers in Romania, with amendments)
350 Florin Vartolomei
-draining permanent rivers (which includes rivers that flow only in high rainfall every several years) totaling 470 km and are located mainly in the Bahlui basin, but also Sitna and Miletin; -drying up rivers every few years (which includes courses with long period draining appearance average every 2-5 years) totaling 971 km and are characteristic of Jijia, Miletin and Sitna tributaries; -rare-draining rivers (which includes courses with long period draining appearance, more than once every five years) account longest (1381 km), about ¼ of the length of courses in Romanian sector of the Prut basin; -unknown rivers in draining terms including most channels, analyzed as part of the river system, located in Prut floodplain.
Conclusions On small experimental basin can be accurate calculations and assessments about: -multi-annual average number of days with dryness phenomenon; -maximum number of days with draining phenomenon recorded; -number of days with draining phenomenon by 1% probability; -monthly maximum number of days with draining phenomenon recorded; -appropriate probability. Frequency of draining phenomenon production is over 90% for basins with areas less than 5 km2. The maximum duration recorded without flow for small rivers in this basin in 1987 was 292 days on closing station hydrometric of Tinoasa catchment (A = 4.71 km2) and 326 days on Humăria hydrometric station (A = 1.65 km2). Be mentioned the role of factors determining the increase of draining phenomenon, namely geology (groundwater un-interception) and wooded areas (if smaller quantities of precipitation).
Bibliography: Băcăuanu, V., (1968), Câmpia Moldovei-studiu de geomorfologie, Editura Academiei, p. 163, 176-177, Bucureşti. Băcăuanu, V., Barbu, N., Pantazică, Maria, Ungureanu, Al., Chirac, D., (1980), Podişul Moldovei - Natură, om, economie, Editura Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică, p. 98- 129, Bucureşti. Bogdan, Octavia, (2007), Caracteristicile precipitaţiilor din sectorul vestic al văii Prutului (România), Studii şi cercetări de Geografie, Editura Academiei Române, tom. LI- LII/2004-2005, p. 13-28, Bucureşti. Chiriac, V., (1962), Seceta meteorologică la Iaşi, Hidrotehnica, Gospodărirea Apelor, Meteorologia, nr. 3, p.221-224, Bucureşti.
Factors that increase dryness phenomenon on small rivers in Prut basin 351
Diaconu, C., (1969), Elementele statistice ale reţelei hidrografice a României, Hidrotehnica, nr. 12 Bucureşti. Mociorniţă, C., Dincă, A., Niţulescu, M., (1963), Repartiţia scurgerii pe sezoane şi luni în cadrul anului mediu pe râurile din R.P.R., Studii de Hidrologie, vol. V, p. 3-20, Bucureşti. Pantazică, Maria, (1971), Scurgerea minimă pe râurile din nord-estul Moldovei, Analele Ştiinţifice ale Universităţii Al. I. Cuza, Iaşi, Seria Geografie, Tom XVII, p. 51-59, Iaşi. Păduraru, A., Popovici, V., (1972), Influenţa zonalităţii verticale a elementelor fizico- geografice asupra scurgerii medii multianuale, Lucrările Simpozionului de Geografie Fizică a Carpaţilor, p. 307-316, Bucureşti. Păduraru, A., Popovici, V., Marţian, F., Diaconu, C., (1973), Scurgerea medie lunară minimă multianuală şi asigurată 80% din perioada iunie-august pe râurile României, Studii de Hidrologie, vol. XLI, p. 113-135, Bucureşti. Păduraru, A., Popovici, V., Marţian, F., Diaconu, C., (1974), Analiza factorilor meteorologici care au generat scurgeri minime remarcabile pe râurile României în perioada 1950-1970, Studii de Hidrologie, vol. XLII, p. 99-118, Bucureşti. Topor, N., (1964), Ani ploioşi şi secetoşi în R.P.R., C.S.A., Institutul Meteorologic, Bucureşti. Vartolomei, F., (2004), Aspecte ale scurgerii minime în bazinul hidrografic Prut, Analele Universităţii „Spiru Haret“, Seria Geografie, Nr. 7, pag. 71-74, Bucureşti. * * * (1964), Atlasul Cadastrului Apelor din R.P.R., C.S.A. (D.G.G.A.), vol. I, partea I şi II, Bucureşti. * * * (1960, 1959, 1953, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958), Anuarul Hidrologic, C.S.A. (I.S.C.H.), Bucureşti. * * * (1974), Atlasul secării râurilor din România, Institutul de Meteorologie şi Hidrologie şi I.G.F.C.O.T., p.73, Bucureşti.
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PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
MONITORING DATA PROVING HYDROCLIMATIC TRENDS IN SIRET HYDROGRAPHIC AREA
Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor1
Key words: territorial system, land management, environmental deterioration, uncontrolled development, anthropization, CORINE.
Abstract. The relationship between the natural and anthropic components of territorial systems or complexes of coupled socio-economic and natural systems is changing in time under the effect of socio-economic and political drivers. One way of looking at it is through the changes of land cover and use, which are connected also to the dynamics of the eco-energies during the anthropization process. The aim of this paper is to perform an analysis of long-term land cover and use changes of the Romanian territory, hypothesizing that the transition period, with its more or less benefic economic periods, was characterized by an uncontrolled development resulting in important environmental impacts. The results confirm the hypothesis and underline several phenomena; some of them are antagonistic (decline and development of agriculture, deforestation and afforestation or reforestation), and others, such as urbanization, seem to occur mainly in one direction. The most affected areas are the limit of North-East and Center regions (due to deforestations) and the area around Bucharest and the shoreline (due to urbanization).
Introduction Two Earth sciences – ecology and geography – have developed a systemic approach to define their object of study. While describing the same spatial reality, ecologists called it “ecological system” (Botnariuc and Vădineanu, 1982; Vădineanu, 1998, 2004) and geographers, “territorial system” (Ianoş, 2000). An extensive review of the literature on the two concepts has indicated that correspondences can easily be made between them based on the spatial scale (Petrişor, 2011). In addition, their structure is similar and it consists of natural and anthropic elements (Petrişor and Sârbu, 2010). These conceptual considerations naturally lead to the question: provided that a system (ecological or territorial) is spatially delimited (Vădineanu, 1998), what is
1 Lecturer Ph.D., “Ion Mincu” University of Architecture and Urbanism, Bucureşti, Romania/ [email protected]
354 Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor the relationship of the natural and anthropic subsystems? Vădineanu (1998) shows that man-dominated systems tend to expand over the natural ones, transforming and simplifying them; this process is called anthropization. Ianoş (2000) believes that the transformation can be appreciated through the consumption of primary eco-energies, defined as the “initial energy of a territorial system before the intervention of man as a conscious factor in its structure”. If a key feature of systems, diversity, is also accounted for, biodiversity tends to decrease during the process, while geodiversity, equivalent to eco-diversity, increases (Petrişor and Sârbu, 2010). While conceptually clear, these processes lack a methodology for assessing the transformation rate. It is far easier to look at the physical changes, reflected by the modifications of land cover and use. According to Jensen (2000), land cover represents a description of what is actually there from a biophysical viewpoint, and land use identifies how human communities utilize what lies on the surface of the Earth. In an even more pragmatic sense, the United States use the two-level Anderson’s classification (Anderson et al., 1976); the first level reflects land cover and the second land use. The European Union utilizes the three-level CORINE classification (de Lima, 2005). While the first one reflects land cover, the second and third correspond to a more or less detailed description of land use in man- dominated systems or typology of natural systems (Petrişor et al., 2010). Previous research over the Romanian territory, using CORINE data and focused on urban systems, has indicated that socioeconomic and political issues are the most important drivers of the changing relationship between natural and man- dominated systems, reflected by land cover and use changes (Petrişor et al., 2010). At the same time, micro-scale analyses have shown that the spatial distribution of land cover and use changes is tightly related to the one of eco-energies (Ianoş et al., 2011). Nevertheless, the use of CORINE data is subject to several limitations. First, the analysis of an entire continent using a unitary methodology makes such inventories possible only at large intervals of time and the available data describe a past situation; we can only rely on 1990 data, 2000 data made available in 2004 and 2006 data made available in 2010. While the data have the advantage of being free of charge, the analysis of small territorial units reveals errors due to misclassification. To overcome these limitations, the present study is carried out at the scale of the national territory and of the regions of development, which also change slower (Vădineanu, 2004). From the territorial standpoint, land cover and use changes reflected by CORINE data are appropriate for analyzing changes in the higher levels of the Nomenclature of Units for Territorial Statistics (NUTS) hierarchy (Petrişor, 2008).
Environmental transformation processes during 1990-2006 in Romania 355
The concept of sustainable development has been defined by Brundtland (1987) as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. However, in interpreting its definition, it is important to find a balance between its traditional pillars – economic, social and environmental (Bugge and Watters, 2003), to which a fourth cultural one was added in 2004 (Iliescu, 2005). The relationship between the pillars is often a conflict, especially in developing countries. For example, the literature often cites what Indira Ghandi said at the United Nations in 1972 Stockholm meeting: “poverty is the worst form of pollution” (Iliescu, 2005). From this perspective, Romania offers an interesting case study. The long transition period resulted into a decline of the large industrial units, which led to a decrease of pollution (O’Brien, 2005). Moreover, the decline of the communist intensive and extensive agriculture and its transformation into a subsistence activity (Iorgulescu Polimeni and Polimeni, 2007) should be more visible and reflected by land cover and use changes. Similarly, deforestations due to the change of ownership from the state to people who reclaimed their property (Roman, 2009) ought to be reflected by land cover and use changes. Last but not least, the real estate boom has been visible through the magnitude of urbanization phenomena (Petrişor et al., 2010). The aim of this study is to analyze long term environmental modifications of the Romanian territory and its subunits reflected by land cover and use changes, hypothesizing that the transition to an open market economy was an uncontrolled process with serious negative environmental consequences visible at the spatial scale of the entire country.
1. Data and methods The CORINE data used in the study were made available free of charge by the European Environment Agency. Two data sets were used to reflect changes occurred between 1990-2000 (available on the Internet at the address http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/corine-land-cover-1990) and 2000- 2006 (http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/data/corine-land-cover-2000). Data are available in a shape format, used by the Geographical Information Systems (GIS). Nevertheless, a few changes are required. First, the projection needs to be changed from Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area used in the European Union to Stereo 1970 used in Romania. Also, a subset clipped by the administrative borders of Romania was derived and further split by the limits of the regions of development. Two different sets were used for the two periods. The analysis consisted of identifying each change according on its code and filling in the information for two fields. The type of change was either “land cover”, if the code changed its first digit, and “land use”, otherwise. The
356 Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor underlying cause was determined case-specifically, relying mainly on the final code. For the man-dominated systems, the term “urbanization” was used for land cover changes resulting into the transformation of areas belonging to other classes (natural, agricultural, wetland or water) into urban areas; unlike Petrişor et al. (2010), we used the same term for land use changes within the urban areas indicating the completion of construction works or densification of constructions. For the natural areas, of particular interest were the forests. While the transformation of forests into transitional areas was ascribed to deforestations, the reverse could be due to two phenomena, which cannot be distinguished without knowing the concrete field reality: afforestation is the conversion from other land- uses into forest, or the increase of the canopy covers above the 10% threshold, achieved through plantations or natural regeneration, while reforestation is the re- establishment of forest formations after a temporary condition with less than 10% canopy cover due to human-induced or natural perturbations (Dutcă and Abrudan, 2010). In a similar way, two antagonistic phenomena were the development or decline of agriculture. The first was defined as either a land cover change of other areas into agricultural ones or conversions due to a clear interest in agriculture, such as the conversion of pastures into orchards or permanent crops, while the second phenomenon was its opposite.
3. Results and discussion The changes are mapped in Fig. 1 and 2. The two images exaggerate the magnitude of changes for a better visualization. Similar to the conclusions of Ianoş et al. (2011), it can easily be seen that the area most affected by land use changes during 1990-2000 covers the Oriental Carpathians. This is mainly due to deforestations. Other important areas are the surroundings of Bucharest and the sea shore area covered by resorts, where increased land cover changes are due to the increase of urbanization (Petrişor et al., 2010). The pattern is similar during the next period. The overall situation of the changes according to their causes is displayed in Fig. 3. For both periods, the image depicts all changes, and land cover and use changes separately. It can easily be seen that for the first period deforestations and their opposite, afforestation or reforestation, as well as the other two antagonistic phenomena, the decline and development of agriculture, make up most of land cover and use changes. Nevertheless, when looking at land cover changes, urbanization is the most important driver, while the two antagonistic phenomena affecting agriculture and forests are reflected by land use changes. The latter two phenomena have a more
Environmental transformation processes during 1990-2006 in Romania 357 profound cause, as they represent the consequence of the activities generated by the decision to retrocede properties and changes of ownership resulted from decentralization. These remarks sustain our hypotheses according to which the effects of these activities against the environment were negative and dramatic.
Fig. 1 - Land cover and use changes in Romania between 1990-2000. Land use changes appear in green and land cover changes in red. The sizes of the areas affected by land cover and use changes are exaggerated to allow for a better visualization
The second period is characterized more by deforestations, which have a high share in all changes. They dominate land use changes, while land cover changes depict the real estate boom. The latest cannot be seen in the overall changes, as the areas affected have a small share compared to the huge percentage covered by agricultural and natural areas of the Romanian territory. The second cause of land
358 Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor use changes during this period is the decline of agriculture, documented by Bordânc (2008). The spatial distribution of changes by region of development is shown in Fig. 4. The image looks at the area (hectares) affected by changes. Nevertheless, the actual area is not the best measure in this case, as Bucharest-Ilfov, even though the smallest region, is also the most dynamic, including the land cover and use changes. For this reason, the area affected by changes was compared to the total surface of the region, and the results are displayed in Fig. 5.
Fig. 2 - Land cover and use changes in Romania during 2000-2006. Land use changes appear in blue and land cover changes in orange. The sizes of areas affected by land cover and use changes are exaggerated to allow for a better visualization
Environmental transformation processes during 1990-2006 in Romania 359
Development of agriculture Draining Development of agriculture Forestations Forestations Floods Floods Urbanization Afforestation/reforestation Urbanization Dams Decline of agriculture Afforestation/reforestation Deforestations Desertification Decline of agriculture Unknown Deforestations
All changes, 1990-2000 All changes, 2000-2006
Draining Development of agriculture Development of agriculture Forestations Forestations Floods Floods
Urbanization Urbanization
Land cover changes, 1990-2000 Land cover changes, 1990-2000
Development of agriculture Development of agriculture Urbanization Urbanization Afforestation/reforestation Dams Afforestation/reforestation Decline of agriculture Deforestations Decline of agriculture Desertification Unknown Deforestations
Land use changes, 1990-2000 Land use changes, 1990-2000 Fig. 3 - Land cover and use changes in Romania during 1990-2006 by underlying cause.
The results indicate that the North-East and Center regions were mostly affected during both periods; the changes are due to deforestations (Roman, 2009). During 1990-2000, another affected region is the South-East. Some of the phenomena responsible for it are the decline of agriculture, but also the urbanization of the coastal area (Petrişor et al., 2010). De-urbanization of cities that lost their industrial function is responsible for important land cover changes in the South-West region (Petrişor et al., 2010). When accounting for the area of the region, the only ones affected by important changes in both periods are the Center and North-East; again, this is due to the massive deforestations. They are followed by the South-East region during the first period, for the already mentioned reasons, and by Bucharest-Ilfov in the second. The explanation is that the strong
360 Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor urbanization of former agricultural administrative units around Bucharest (Peptenatu et al., 2010) reached its peak.
Buc.-IF Buc.-IF Centru Centru NE NE NV NV S S SE SE SV SV V V
All changes, 1990-2000 All changes, 2000-2006
Buc.-IF Buc.-IF Centru Centru NE NE NV NV S S SE SE SV SV V V
Land cover changes, 1990-2000 Land cover changes, 1990-2000
Buc.-IF Buc.-IF Centru Centru NE NE NV NV S S SE SE SV SV V V
Land use changes, 1990-2000 Land use changes, 1990-2000 Fig. 4 - Land cover and use changes in Romania during 1990-2006 by region of development (hectares affected by changes).
Environmental transformation processes during 1990-2006 in Romania 361
2.50 0.70 0.60 2.00 0.50 1.50 0.40 1.00 0.30 0.50 0.20 0.00 0.10 0.00 S V NE NV SE SV S V NE NV SE SV Buc.-IFCentru Buc.-IF Centru
All changes, 1990-2000 All changes, 2000-2006 Fig. 5 - Land cover and use changes in Romania during 1990-2006 by region of development (hectares affected by changes compared to the total area of the region).
Provided that a detailed analysis by region of development, period, type and underlying cause exceeds the aim of this paper, such data are presented only in Table 1 for further references, but not extensively discussed.
Conclusions The paper aimed to test the hypotheses according to which the transition from communism to democracy and an open market economy results in uncontrolled development, which in its turn is at the core of important environmental impacts, in terms of both nature and magnitude. The analyses of Romania and its regions of development as a case study support the underlying hypotheses. Several antagonistic phenomena were revealed; their origin is in changes of ownership, most of them resulted from the decision of the government to retrocede the properties, including agricultural land and forests. As a consequence, the decline of agriculture and deforestations affected important parts of the territory, especially the Carpathian massifs situated at the limit of the North-East and Center regions of development, where significant deforestation occurred.
Table 1. Land cover and use changes in the Romanian regions of development by type and underlying cause. Period All changes Land cover Land use Reg. Underlying cause Change ’90-’00 ’00-’06 ’90-’00 ’00-’06 ’90-’00 ’00-’06 Urbanization 884 910 834 910 49
- Decline of agriculture 275 275
lfov Development of agriculture 194 194 Buch. Deforestations 152 152
362 Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor
Table 1. Land cover and use changes in the Romanian regions of development by type and underlying cause. Period All changes Land cover Land use Reg. Underlying cause Change ’90-’00 ’00-’06 ’90-’00 ’00-’06 ’90-’00 ’00-’06 Development of agriculture 30 30 Plantation of forests 267 267 Floods 859 859
Urbanization 314 1110 314 1110 Afforestation/reforestation 14994 130 14994 130 Dams 156 156
Center Decline of agriculture 8240 1250 8240 1250 Deforestations 31873 17521 31873 17521 Development of agriculture 14423 159 14423 159 Unknown 260 260 Drains 597 597 Development of agriculture 10876 385 850 41 10026 345 Plantation of forests 442 442 Floods 423 423
Urbanization 1137 2097 1041 2097 96
NE Afforestation/reforestation 20765 256 20765 256 Decline of agriculture 17288 2705 17288 2705 Deforestations 17293 15400 17293 15400 Unknown 44 44 Development of agriculture 5058 109 433 0 4625 109 Plantation of forests 85 2 85 2 Floods 81 81 Urbanization 358 1504 358 1504
NV Afforestation/reforestation 11344 141 11344 141 Decline of agriculture 4620 1344 4620 1344 Deforestations 13577 13247 13577 1344 Unknown 199 199 Development of agriculture 1535 106 105 13 1430 93 Plantation of forests 21 21 Floods 246 12 246 12
Urbanization 468 630 404 493 64 137 S Afforestation/reforestation 5507 176 5507 176 Decline of agriculture 15031 644 15031 644 Deforestations 1831 4790 1831 4790 Unknown 174 174 Development of agriculture 2923 587 967 18 1956 569
Plantation of forests 866 866
SE Floods 747 747
Environmental transformation processes during 1990-2006 in Romania 363
Table 1. Land cover and use changes in the Romanian regions of development by type and underlying cause. Period All changes Land cover Land use Reg. Underlying cause Change ’90-’00 ’00-’06 ’90-’00 ’00-’06 ’90-’00 ’00-’06 Urbanization 3001 1427 2355 1339 647 88 Afforestation/reforestation 16636 264 16636 264 Dams 438 438 Decline of agriculture 29514 518 29514 518 Deforestations 3177 1955 3177 1955 Desertification 102 102 Unknown 219 219 Drains 475 475 Development of agriculture 3384 16 542 2842 16 Plantation of forests 7 72 7 72 Floods 931 931
Urbanization 3089 1197 2938 1197 151
SV Afforestation/reforestation 11948 1232 11948 1232 Decline of agriculture 6833 325 6833 325 Deforestations 3867 1295 3867 1295 Unknown 55 55 Development of agriculture 1437 53 195 1243 53 Floods 50 17 50 17 Urbanization 351 542 351 542
V Afforestation/reforestation 9585 8 9585 8 Decline of agriculture 5020 51 5020 51 Deforestations 2843 2130 2843 2130 Unknown 26 26
At the same time, the real estate boom, more visible after the year 2000, affected the areas around Bucharest and the coastal region, determining significant environmental impacts. Other important phenomena were due to the decline of cities loosing their industrial function. The lack of control is visible mainly through the fact that antagonistic phenomena occurred simultaneously, increasing the affected area. In a controlled and planned development, involving a wise land management, the development of agriculture would take place exactly in the areas that were actually abandoned after being returned to the owners, who are no longer interested or cannot practice it, instead of requiring the transformation of lands with other destination into agricultural areas. More importantly, while deforestations are obvious, the antagonistic phenomenon resulting into an increase of the area covered by forests is not
364 Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor necessarily a planned process (plantation of trees), as it could occur spontaneously through reforestation or by afforestation due to natural regeneration. Last but not least, urban development appears to take the shape of sprawl as opposed to a controlled process.
References: Anderson J. R., Hardy E. E., Roach J. T., Witmer R. E. (1976), A Land Use And Land Cover Classification System For Use With Remote Sensor Data, Geological Survey Professional Paper 964. Bordânc F. (2008), Regional Analysis of the Rural Space in Dobrudja [in Romanian], University Press, Bucharest. Botnariuc N., Vădineanu A. (1982), Ecology [in Romanian], Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucharest, 438 pp. Brundtland Gro Harlem (1987), Our Common Future, WCED, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Bugge H. C., Watters L. (2003), A Perspective on Sustainable Development after Johannesburg on the Fifteenth Anniversary of Our Common Future: An Interview with Gro Harlem Brundtland, Georgetown International Environmental Law Review 15:359- 366. de Lima M. V. N. (2005), IMAGE2000 and CLC2000 Products and Methods, Land Management Unit, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Ispra, Italy, 150 pp. Dutcă I., Abrudan I. V. (2010), Estimation of forest land-cover change in Romania, between 1990 and 2006, Bulletin of the Transylvania University of Braşov Series II: Forestry, Wood Industry, and Agricultural Food Engineering 52:33-36. Ianoş I. (2000), Territorial systems. A geographic approach [in Romanian], Editura Tehnică, Bucharest, 197 pp. Ianoş I., Petrişor A.-I., Ilinca Stoica Valentina, Sârbu C. N., Zamfir Daniela, Cercleux Andreea Loretta (2011), The different consuming of primary eco-energies and their degradation in territorial systems, Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences 6(2):251-260. Iliescu I. (2005), For the sustainable development [in Romanian], Editura Semne, Bucharest, 188 pp. Iorgulescu Polimeni R., Polimeni J. M. (2007), Multi-scale integrated analysis of societal metabolism and Jevons’ paradox for Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Poland, Romanian Journal of Economic Forecasting 4:61-75. Jensen J. R. (2000), Remote Sensing of the Environment. An Earth Resource Perspective, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 544 pp. O’Brien T. (2005), The Environment and Transition in Romania and Hungary, Griffith Journal of the Environment 1:1-25. Peptenatu D., Pintilii R., Drăghici C., Stoian D. (2010), Environmental pollution in functionally restructured urban areas: Case Study – The City of Bucharest, Iranian Journal of Environmental Health Science & Engineering 7:87-96.
Environmental transformation processes during 1990-2006 in Romania 365
Petrişor A.-I. (2008), Levels of biological diversity: a spatial approach to assessment methods, Romanian Review of Regional Studies 4(1):41-62. Petrişor A.-I. (2011), Systemic theory applied to ecology, geography and spatial planning. Theoretical and methodological developments, LAMBERT Academic Publishing GmbH & Co. KG, Saarbrücken, Germany, 172 pp. Petrişor A.-I., Ianoş I., Tălângă C. (2010), Land cover and use changes focused on the urbanization processes in Romania, Environmental Engineering and Management Journal 9(6):765-771. Petrişor A.-I., Sârbu C. N. (2010), Dynamics of geodiversity and eco-diversity in territorial systems, Journal of Urban and Regional Analysis 2(1):61-70. Roman T. (2009), The Forest of Romania: a Social - Economic’s Dramma, Theoretical and Applied Economics 6:57-64. Vădineanu A. (1998), Sustainable development [in Romanian], Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti, Bucharest, 248 pp. Vădineanu A. (2004), Management of development: an ecosystemic approach [in Romanian], Editura Ars Docendi, Bucharest, 394 pp.
366 Alexandru-Ionuţ Petrişor
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
REUSABLE ENERYGY, MAJOR PREOCUPATION FOR THE REDUCTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT’S POLLUTION
Nicolae Rusan1
Key words: climatic reusable energy, Aeolian, solar panels, biogas, hydro energy
Abstract. Assessing the The work with the title reusable energy, major preoccupation for the reduction of the nature’s pollution, analyses a part of the sources of the reusable energy, presently used worldwide and countrywide, in Romania. From all the reusable sources, Aeolian energy became known as the biggest evolver worldwide, and likewise, in Romania, over the past years. Modern civilization is conditioned on a bigger scale to satisfy the necessity and consumption of energy, elements that are indispensable towards technology, and the continued development of the quality of life. Today, there are investment efforts, technical intelligence, for the usage of unconventional energy. Towards these investments, there is a constant preoccupation for the capitalization of the potential energy that contains the seas and the oceans. The progressive wastage of the fossil fuels, and the necessity to conserve the environment, imposed 2 important characteristics for the new sources of energy: as much time possible and the lack of nuisance to avoid the pollution of the environment.
Introduction In the last decades, more than ever, unconventional energy sources,(ecological), that were not capable of being capitalized until the present time, portrays huge preoccupations for scientists, and the ones who are implicated in the economical sectors (especially the energetic ones). And there are three reasons for this, and these are: - the energy resources are exhaustible, - the energetic industry that is based on conventional fuels causes the most pollution, which regenerates greenhouse gases, and so it has a substantial contribution to global warming,
1 Meteorologist PhD at Centrul Meteorologic Regional Transilvania Sud Sibiu, Romania, [email protected]
368 Nicolae Rusan
-on the other side, to assure that there is a durable development that will beneficiate the future generations. The vast problem of the environment in the context of the durable development is concentrating to fight the pollution elements, the related and the inevitable development of the industrial and human activities, to prevent environment pollution, adaption, assimilation and application of the nature’s needs. In the present time, in Romania, the political side of the environment protection concentrates in the following priorities: the monitoring of the water quality and the state of the forests, the protection of bio diversity and the wet zones, the fight of the economic effects of worldwide scale, the solving of the acute problems, like the diminution and capitalization of the deserts and ecological agriculture, the promotion of the clean technology, the transformation of the human settlement in durable locations. We have to be aware that harsh actions towards the environment have an effect on itself, an equilibrium that is one of the essentials to the survival of the human race, plants and animals.
Contents One of the economical sectors with a big impact towards the environment is the energetic one. Worldwide, energetic politics were orientated based on the effects of the petrol crises, towards: -the reassurance of the energy which was necessary for the built of the economy. -the reassurance of the energetic security -the improvement of the impact, which the energetic sector had towards the ambient environment at local and regional levels The economical and political integration of Romania, in the UE structures, which shows the respect for the imposed conditions of two important documents from the energetic field: The Treaty of the Energy Bok and the Protocol for the Energetic Efficiency, that set out the co-operation conditions in the energetic field and that contain the following important provisions: -the promotion to stabilize the energy prices marketwise -the reflection of the costs and benefactions that refers to the environment on the whole energetic cycle -the promotion of the efficient energy, the usage of pure fuels and the reusable energy resources. Through the Protocol for the Energetic Efficiency, the signatory countries, including Romania, are obliged to stabilize and implement the strategy of energy
Reusable energy, preoccupation for the reduction of the environment’s pollution 369 growth on the whole energetic package, resources –production-transport- distribution-utilization. The major problems that overshadow the pollution and degradation of the environment are coherent to how the energy is produced, transported, stocked and utilized. The main actions of energetic politics that are taken into account by the majority of the country to reduce the impact towards the environment are: -the growth of the energetic efficiency -the reduction of the contribution of fossil fuels towards the production of the electric energy -the promotion, development and growth shared by the usage of the regeneration of energy resources. The scenario of the energetic worldwide plan, on long term, which is the most favorable in the durable development, is the one that realizes an equilibrium with the environment: stabilized stocks, and relatively limited nuclear deserts, and the reduced emission of greenhouse gases, which can be reabsorbed in a natural way, into the environment. This means resorting to the reusable energy, which should play an essential role in the future. Of all the reusable sources of energy (solar, Aeolian, geo thermal, marine waves, hydro energy, biomass, etc), it is estimated that the Aeolian energy, hydro energy, biomass energy, and that which is obtain from the sun, is the most used.
Fig.1 – The scheme for the production of reusable energy in 2020
Research carried out on a worldwide plan, for the Aeolian energy, shows that this can assure 5 times more energy, that of which is being used at the present time. This way, it will be necessary that 12.7% of the dry surface be occupied by parks with Aeolian turbines (Apostol, Jianu, 2007).
370 Nicolae Rusan
The production of the aeoliene motors, depend a lot on the frequency of the wind, of the land, and its geographical position, which can take us to a close analysis of the hour, monthly, annual and seasonal value, and also the probability and certainty of the production of the different wind speeds. Based on wind sates and studies conducted, in geographical terms, the Romania region with the greatest potential aoelian energy is located in the east of the country, including the mouth of the Danube, Delta, and the Romanian seaside of the Black Sea, and the Moldova and Dobrogea plateau, insufficient in the practical capitalization. (Rusan, 2008) (fig.2)
Fig.2 – The Romanian Map with the repartition of the wind environments (ANM Bucharest Source)
Romania has the greatest Aeolian potential from South-East Europe. A research made by the Erste Bank positions Romania on the second place on the European scale regarding the ideal location for the built of a Aeolian park. According to the national strategy of the capitalization of the energy resources from 2003, to 2015, in Romania, there Aeolian parks should be put into action with the capacity to produce over 280MW each, and a total capacity of 3000 MW, so approximately 1500 Aeolian aggregates (conf. AREE). The biggest 20 Aeolian projects in Romania, with an installed power of 2463.5 MW, is found in Constanta, Tulcea and Galati, first place being Constanta (Transelectrica). On the Romanian Map, the Aeolian locations are very different to the potential that is being displayed by the wind environment, which is used in the energetic studies (fig.3). Specialists in this field say that there are three important factors that matter most in deciding of a location to invest in the Aeolian energy field. Firstly there is the wind, which has to have a big frequency and speeds over 3 m/s, to be able to
Reusable energy, preoccupation for the reduction of the environment’s pollution 371 put the Aeolian aggregate in motion and this is why the best zones are Dobrogea and Moldova. Secondly there is the possibility of a connection to the electric network, and Dobrogea begins to lose its attraction because of numerous production projects of electric energy, not only and the Aeolian segment, and in the receiving network, it does not permit the development of some big projects.
Fig.3 – Map of Romania, with the locations of the Aeolian aggregations
In contradiction to the other sources of energy, wind power is inexhaustible, it does not pollute the environment and it does not emit acid rain or amplifies the greenhouse effect. Aeolian energy has one of the most inexpensive technology productions, with costs between 4 and 6 eurocents per kilowatt/our. Aeolian turbines can be built near farms, improving the rural economy, where the wind intensity is bigger than in other areas. Also, the turbines do not affect farm activities because it occupies a relatively small area. One of the biggest advantages of these generators is represented by their longevity, without any supplementary investments when they are being installed. In order to succeed, the Aeolian energy has to be appropriate to the cost of conventional energy. However, in this case, the competitive side of the price has to depend on the activity of the air masses from that particular zone. Even if in the last decade the cost of the production of Aeolian energy decreased, a bigger investment is necessary in this field rather than in the thermo central field. To become more profitable, there needs to be more finance projects for the development of the production technology. The biggest disadvantage is that the wind does not have continued activity and it cannot create energy all the time, and the wind power cannot be stocked and utilized when it is needed, like the solid fuels. Zones with intense wind activity are usually found in isolated places, away from the cities, where energy is necessary. Even though Aeolian energy plants have lesser influence on the environment in comparison with other energy plants, there
372 Nicolae Rusan are complaints due to the noise that is being produced by the propellers, static effect, but also due to the birds that die because of the impact they have with the generators’ propellers. Nowadays, these problems have been solved or more reduced through the technological progress or through the good position of the energy plants. We consider that the utilization of the Aeolian energy remains a priority of the present and future time and for Romania too. Another important source of energy obtained from the reusable sources is the hydraulic energy, a mechanic energy formed from the water’s potential energy, given by the difference between the level of water between the accumulation and central lake, especially from the kinetic energy of the moving water. Worldwide, hydro energy represents the second biggest source of energy production from the reusable sources. It is not a wonder that this technology, already tested, became such a predominant thing is Romania. The most recent estimations show that the potential of hydro energy of Romania is approximately 32.000 GWh/year. According to the project of Energetic Strategy of Romania from 2011-2035, authorities will continue the program of realization for the hydroelectric centrals, with approximately 1.400 MW until 2035 At the end of 2010 the capacity installed at Hidroelectrica was of 6.438,11 MW. From this total capacity, a power of 276.74 MW is installed in 162 centrals with less power or equal to 10 MW, so micro hydro central (MHC). According to information given from the CEO of Hidroelectrica, in the company’s records there are 93 dams of different importance and dimensions. (information given for “Green Report”) (fig.4).
Fig.4 – Hydro central from Portile de Fier
The advantage of this type of energy is that is has a high efficiency, small prices, having a long lifetime and does not pollute.
Reusable energy, preoccupation for the reduction of the environment’s pollution 373
Another inexhaustible and clean source is the solar energy, which, unfortunately, in Romania does not represent the interest that the Aeolian energy receives by the people. Even though Romania has an important solar potential, until 2015 there will not be a plan to develop this energy due to the dominant Aeolian energy, and from the point of view of resources that will beneficiate of certificates, the biggest part will play the Aeolian energy (source GE Energy). According to Transelectrica, the request for energy in Romania will double in approximately 20 years. Also, according to the Energetic Strategy of Romania, the solar potential of the country can generate 1.2 TWh per annum of energy, so 2.5% form the annual nation consumption. In the west of the country, Campia Romana, Dobrogea, and the south of Moldova, are the best zones for these kinds of investments (fig.5). The first investors in this field came with projects for solar energy and the biggest project is made for the town of Gataia, Timis, which spreads on a surface of 86 hectares, with an installed power of 32 MWh. Also in this town, there is the making of another smaller project, only on 20 hectares, with a power of 2.99 MWh (source Transelectrica) (fig.6).
Fig.5 – Map with sunshine time in Fig.6 – Solar panels Romania
Another zone, where reusable energy can be developed could be the biogas zone. To produce biogas, the materials that are needed can be any organic product, which can be fermented by micro organisms, but it has to be known that the prime material has to agree with the environment in which the microorganisms develop and produce activities, which occurs at the digestive layer and, finally to the production of biogas. Prime, organic materials from different surroundings can be used to obtain biogas. One of the biggest sources of biogas is the result of mud, which forms from the used waters from the exhaust stations, and so it develops a desert. It should be
374 Nicolae Rusan capitalized at all the exhaust stations from the huge urban congestions. Also deserts produced from animals in agricultural farms could be fuels instead of waste. Also household waste, under landfills, forms a gas that is shameful not to be used. This is a zone where investments should be educated and that can play and important role in the production of reusable energy (GE Energy) (fig.7).
Fig.7 – Station where production of biogas takes place
As far as geo thermal sources are concerned, the Panonica depression, which contains the west side of our country, including Banat and the west of the Apuseni Mountains, is a rich zone in geo thermal deposits.
Fig.8 – The circuit of the geothermal water for the warming up of a house
Reusable energy, preoccupation for the reduction of the environment’s pollution 375
For over 100 years, around Oradea, drilling was made and geo thermal waters have been explored in therapeutic purposes. In the last quarter of a century, systematic actions for prospect and evaluation of geothermal deposits have been made, and also of hydrocarbons in this side of the country. From this it was found that West Campia, in all the geological formations, there can be found varied aquifers layers with capacity and thermo physic properties. Thermal flows at surface have values of 85 MW/m squared, bigger than in other zones. The thermic level of the geo thermal waters from the west is reduced: 30- 90 degrees Celsius. Because of this, these can be used in special therapeutic ways, the preparation of warm household water, etc. In Oradea and Bihor, warm household water is produced for 800 apartments, to warm baths, vegetable greenhouses, pools, and hotels. In Timis, the geo thermal water is used for warmth, in therapeutic ways, and for the warming up of the household water (fig.8). Another source of reusable energy is the marine energy. The marine energy is also understood as the energy from waves, energy of currents and also the energy of the water. For the Black Sea, there is a difference in the temperature between the surface and deep water, a reason why the thermic energy is only present for a short period of time and this form of energy does not represent an interest in any form. For us, the marine energy that deserves to be taken into consideration is the energy of the waves.
Conclusion Humans are conflicted in this century with some major problems like the energy, water and alimentation, this being resolved by the preoccupation for a durable development. Concerning the reusable energy at national level, Romania shows important sources the same as they have been presented while in work. On first place, there is hydro energy, followed by Aeolian energy biomass, solar and geo thermal. At the same time as the entry into the European Union, Romania has become close to all the states of the Union, towards fighting pollution in the environment and for the reduction of any emissions, to maintain equilibrium between man and nature.
References: Apostol, L. (2003), Unele aspecte privind potenţialul de risc climatic al vântului în Subcarpatii Moldovei, Anal. Univ. Ovidius − Geogr., I, Constanţa. Apostol, L. (2004), Clima Subcarpaţilor Moldovei, Edit. Univ., Suceava, 439 p. Apăvăloae. M., Apostol, L., Pârvulescu, I. (1986), Posibilitati de valorificare a potenţialului energetic eolian în partea de nord-vest a Podişului Moldovei, Stud. şi Cercet. de Meteorolog., vol. Omagial, ,, 100 ani de la infiintarea I.M.H. ”, I.M.H, Bucureşti.
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Bogdan, Octavia (1993), Influenţe topoclimatice induse de lacurile de acumulare cu exemplificare la Porţile de Fier I (Defileul Dunării), S.C.G.-XL, p. 93-104. Patrichi Silvia, (1984), Câteva caracteristici cadastrale pentru calculul energiei vântului, cu referire specială la zonarea vitezelor energetice, pe teritoriul României, Studii şi cercetări „Fundamentarea meteorologică şi hidrologică a resurselor energetice neconvenţionale” INMH, Bucureşti, p.169-198. Popa Anestina, Tuinea, P. (1997 ), Particularităţi ale distribuţiei spaţio – temporare ale vitezelor maxime anuale ale vântului în Podişul Moldovei, Lucr. Sem. „D. Cantemir”, 13-14 /1993 – 1994 , Iaşi. Rusan, N. ( 2010 ), Potentialul energetic eolian din partea de est a Romaniei, Editura Univ. „Lucian Blaga” Sibiu, 257 p. Ţâştea, D., Lorentz, R., Bâzâc, Gh. (1976 ), Zonarea vitezelor maxime anuale ale vântului pe teritoriul României, Studii şi Cercetări , I / 2, p. 441 - 457 , INMH, Bucureşti. * * * (1983), Geografia României, I, Geografia Fizică, Edit. Academiei, Bucureşti, 662 p. * * * (1984), Fundamentarea meteorologică şi hidrologică a resurselor energetice neconvenţionale, Studii şi Cercetări , INMH, Bucureşti, 388 p. www.naturaenergy.ro www.adrcentru.ro www.energieeoliană.org http://instalatii-solare-eoliene.ro/ http://www.sunairenergy.com http://www.agir.ro/univers-ingineresc/energia_eoliana.ro
PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
SOME THERMIC DIFFERENCES IN THE SOUTHERN METROPOLITAN AREA OF IAŞI
Costel Alexe1
Key words: air temperature, thermic differencies, Iaşi metropolitan area.
Abstract. The regimen of air temperature in the Iaşi municipality and the metropolitan area is a complex one, highlighted by the particularities of the average annual temperature, soil temperature, average monthly temperature, the frequency of days with different values of temperature and inversions of temperature.
Introduction With a surface of approximately 800 km2, the metropolitan territory occupies the south-eastern part of Iaşi County, situated on the contact area between the Central Moldavian Plateau and the Moldavian Plain, the general features of the relief being dictated by the monoclinal structure of the rock strata and the evolution of the denudational process from the Pliocene to the present. The differentiated erosion based on the geologic structure and the paleogeography evolution of the relief gave birth to a contact area between the Moldavian Plain and the Central Moldavian Plateau, named “the Coast of Iaşi” (David 1921) which imposes itself in the relief through altitudes larger with up to 350 m. The altitudinal differences between the Bahlui Valley (which passes through the median area of the Iaşi metropolitan area, 35-40 m) and Păun Hill (407 m, situated south-east of Iaşi City) impress themselves on a series of differences between the climatic elements which characterize this area. The relief energy of over 250 m and the general orientation of Bahlui Valley on the east-west direction have some consequences on the dynamics of the air masses or on the origination of specific meteorological phenomena. The difference in altitude between the Coast of Iaşi and the Bahlui Valley can lead to the appearance of light foehn processes of the air masses when the air circulation is from the south or south-east, impressing some specific characteristics of the climate in the southern part of the Iaşi metropolitan area.
1 PhD. Student, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iaşi, Romania, [email protected]
378 Costel Alexe
Fig. 1 - The Iaşi metropolitan area. Regional context and physical-geographic base
1. Database In this study the author has utilized the data regarding the air and surface temperatures recorded at the Iaşi weather station, located at 47°10’ N lat. and 27°36’ E long., at an altitude of 102 m. For the analysis of the characteristics and the air and surface temperature varations in the Iaşi metropolitan area, I have taken into consideration a number of 49 years, in the 1961-2009 interval, for the Iaşi station. At the same time I have used, processed, analyzed and interpreted the data from the PoduI loaiei station between the years 1967-1993, totaling a string of data of 27 years and from Bârnova for the 2003-2009 period, adding for these the string of data to the common period (1961-2009) with the ones recorded at the Iaşi weather station, which has been utilized as a reference station.
2. The surface soil temperature – spatial differentiations The average annual soil temperature is distributed in the direction dependent on the solar radiation distribution, the dynamics of the atmosphere and the local geographic particularities and the extremely varied physical and chemical properties of the soil impress on the thermic regimen of the surface significant deviations from the averages of the diurnal and annual cycles. The values of the temperature recorded at the surface of the soil follow closely, but with a certain
Some thermic differences in the southern metropolitan area of Iaşi 379 inertia, the annual cycle of solar radiation, thus during the year there is a recorded maximum, generally in July, and minimum, preponderantly in January. Among the local modifier factors which highlight the differences inside the territory the most important are the altitude, the shape of the relief, the slope orientation and latitude. For the studied time interval, at the Iaşi weather station, the thermic multiannual average of the surface air temperature has been 11.3°C, 1.6°C higher than the air temperature at 2 m from the ground for the same interval (9.7°C), the 11°C isotherm permeating deeply on the Bahlui Valley corridor up to upstream of PoduIloaiei. At the Bârnova weather station the thermic multiannual average of the soil is with the same 1.2°C higher than the air (8.3°C), while at PoduIloaiei the air temperature is 1.9°C lower than the soil (11.5°C) (Tab.1).
Tab. 1 – The average °C temperatures of the surface of the soil in the Iaşi metropolitan area
MonthYear Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Avg. Iaşi -3.8 -2.0 3.3 12.1 20.1 24.5 26.0 24.6 17.8 10.5 3.6 -1.4 11.3 PoduIloaiei -4.1 -2.2 3.3 12.4 20.7 25.1 26.5 25.0 18.1 10.6 3.6 -1.4 11.5 Bârnova -4.7 -3.0 1.1 10.1 17.1 21.5 23.8 22.7 16.2 8.7 2.6 -2.7 9.5
Tab. 2 - The extremes of the annual temperatures at the surface and at 2 m above ground
Station Period Place Min. Year Max. Year soil 9.3 1980 13.9 2007 Iași 1961-2009 air 8.0 1985 11.8 2007 soil 9.5 1980 13.3 1990 PoduIloaie 1967-1993 air 7.9 1980, 1985 11.2 1990 soil 9.5 1980 14.0 2007 PoduIloaie* 1961-2009 air 7.9 1980, 1985 11.6 2007 soil 9.7 2006 12.4 2007 Bârnova 2004-2009 air 8.5 2006 10.2 2007 soil 7.3 1980 12.4 2007 Bârnova* 1961-2009 air 6.6 1985 10.2 2007 *: prolonged string of data (1961-2009)
The great annual variance of the climatic element is highlighted also by the annual averages, the lowest and the highest. Thus, the soil temperature has varied between 9.3°C, the annual average recorded in 1980 and 13.9°C in 2007. From the analysis of these thermic values of the soil, correlated with those of the air, it is highlighted the role that the soil temperature has in influencing the temperature
380 Costel Alexe averages of the air above, the years 1980 and 2007 representing years with extreme values for the air temperature at 2 m above ground. The year 2007 represented the year with maximum annual average of the soil, this being 13.9°C. In the year 1980 there was recorded the extreme annual minimum both for the air surface temperature and for the air temperature at 2 m above ground, both for Iaşi weather station and the PoduIloaiei and Bârnova stations (tab 2).
Fig. 3 – The spatial distribution of the annual average temperature at the ground in the Iaşi metropolitan area
A similar situation can be also observed at Bârnova, where the year 2007 represents the year with the highest annual average, both for the air temperature at the surface of the ground (12.4°C) and at air temperature at 2 m above ground (10.2°C). The high temperatures of 2007 are highlighted and supported by the fact that that year has the highest temperatures (on the surface and above ground) both for Iaşi and PoduIloaiei weather stations, for the entire observation period (1961- 2009), thus the average annual temperature at ground level, at Iaşi, was 13.9°C, which generated the highest annual average at 2 m above ground, namely 11.8°C.
Some thermic differences in the southern metropolitan area of Iaşi 381
It can be observed thus that through its particularities, the soil impresses its own characteristics on the air above, assuming the role of active, subjacent surface.
3. Air temperature The temperature of the air represents the most important climatic element. Although it presents a large degree of variability in time and space, the laws of its distribution are more stable than those of atmospheric precipitation. The air temperature is an essential element in determining climatic individuality, having an active role in the dynamics of the atmosphere, thanks to the uneven distribution, both horizontally and vertically, which generates differences in atmospheric pressure, the engine of atmospheric circulation. At the level of the Iaşi metropolitan area the determining factor for the air temperature variability is represented by the relief which acts on the parameters of air temperature through altitude, slope orientation and pitch. The thermic modifications generated by the city surface, although substantial, overlap with the general climatic variations, specific to the region in which the Iaşi metropolitan area is located. In the Iaşi metropolitan area, the urban crowd of the city, although not presenting a large development on the vertical axis of built surface, can influence air temperature values. Thus, for the period 1894-1943; 1945-1975, analyzing the multiannual average temperature of the air for the two stations that functioned simultaneously in Iaşi, Iaşi-boarding-school and Iaşi-Airport, can be observed a plus 0.3°C at the Iaşi-boarding-school station, compared to the Iaşi-Airport station (9.4°C) (tab. 3).
Tab.3 – The average monthly and annual temperature in Iaşi municipality, at Boarding- School and Airport weather stations
To highlight the thermic particularities in the south of the Iaşi metropolitan area I have considered necessary the comparative analysis of the air temperature at the Iaşi weather station with the Bârnova one (47°.00″ lat. N; 27°.34″ long. E) for the 2004-2009 period and Ciurea (1985-2009). The temperature data recorded at the weather stations Iaşi, PoduI Iloaiei, Ciurea and the meteorological radar Bârnova are insufficient to be able to determine with precision the spatial distribution of the air temperature characteristics. Still, starting from knowing the monthly and annual values of the thermic vertical and horizontal gradients, using a hypsometric map and applying laws regarding the temperature distribution on slopes based on their orientation I
382 Costel Alexe have made through successive interpolations and extrapolations, different maps in which the spatial distribution of temperature cannot be much different than the real one. In the Iaşi metropolitan area, the average annual temperatures influenced by local factors (altitude, positioning of relief forms inside the depression, exposure to the sun, slope inclination, level of vegetation covering etc.) have an uneven distribution. On the plain of Bahlui, where frequent accumulations of cold air occur, the average annual temperatures are 0.4°C lower in January and 1°C higher in July and 0.4°C higher than the annual average. In the Iaşi metropolitan area, where the differences in altitude between the bottom of valleys and the prominent parts of the relief do not exceed a few hundred meters, the influence of altitude is visible in the rise of average annual temperatures from the higher regions, Bârnova (8.3°C) to the lower, Iaşi (9.7°C), which shows the important role of relief that acts constantly on the genesis and development of atmospheric processes and phenomena (Stoenescu, Tastea, 1962). The annual distribution of air temperature in the studied area is the resultant of all the factors that contribute to the formation of the thermic regimen of our country’s territory, in time and space. Thus, the Iaşi metropolitan area with average multiannual values lower than 10°C is part of the area of influence of the masses of cold air which enter Romania’s territory from the north and east, at similar latitude and altitude, Oradea having an average annual temperature higher with 0.4°C (Bâzâc, 1983). For the Iaşi metropolitan area, the average multiannual temperature for the 1961-2009 interval had a value at Iaşi of 9.7°C, at PoduIloaiei of 9.6°C, at Ciurea of 9.4°C, while at Bârnova the average temperature was 8.3°C. (tab. 4)
Tab.4 – Average monthly and annual temperatures in °C in the Iaşi metropolitan area
Iaşi city, with an average multiannual amplitude of 25.1°C for the period 1894-1943; 1945-1975, has been included in the category of regions with high average annual amplitudes (Erhan, 1979) with values higher than the area beyond the Oriental Carpathians where the higher frequency of maritime air masses
Some thermic differences in the southern metropolitan area of Iaşi 383 hovering over than Transylvanian basin determines a slight decrease of the continentallevel of the climate. In the metropolitan area the value of the average annual amplitude in the analyzed period is 25.9°C in Iaşi, 29.4°C at Ciurea, 25.8°C at PoduIloaiei and 24.7°C, but it even reached 30°C (in the year 1963 reaching 35.2°C at Iaşi and 35.5°C at Podu Iloaiei). The lowest value of the average annual amplitude reached 20.1°C in 1989, but it dropped even below 20°C at Ciurea and PoduIloaiei reaching 19.3°C in the same year.
Fig.4 – The spatial distribution of the average annual temperature in the Iaşi metropolitan area in the 1961-2009 interval
Over a normal year the air temperature registers seasonal, monthly and diurnal variations, dependent on latitude and altitude and other factors (slopes etc.) which render the annual course of the air temperature based on characteristic time intervals, often utilized in various domains. In the metropolitan area the climate is characterized by the existence, in general, of springs and autumns with similar average temperatures, sign of a
384 Costel Alexe temperate transitional climate, of summers with average annual temperatures which rise at over 18°C for the entire metropolitan area, with a multiannual average of 20.4°C at Iaşi and 18.6°C at Bârnova. The winters, for the entire analyzed area, are very cold with temperatures dropping below -1.0°C. (tab.5)
Tab. 16 – Average seasonal and semestrial temperatures in the Iaşi metropolitan area
From the analysis of the thermic differences between the months of the year it can be observed that the modification of the average air temperature values from one month to another is done slowly in the summer and winter months, more evident thermic contrasts being recorded in the transitional season months. In the spring, the maximum difference between May and March has been 21.9°C in the year 1996, registering values of 20.0°C in other two cases, in the years 1969 and 2003, in the analyzed period for the Iaşi weather station. In the winter, the thermic characteristic is given first and foremost by a high atmospheric stability, the masses of polar and arctic continental air, strongly cooled over the snow covered surfaces in European Russia stagnating for a longer period over this region. Likewise, once installed, these masses of air continue the cooling process through radiative phenomena, reaching an even higher stability. In this season, for Iași and the entire metropolitan area the average temperatures are negative, with the mention that the lowest values are recorded in the Bahlui Valley (fig. 21), while in the higher neighboring areas the temperatures are higher, this type of distribution characterizing the inversions of temperature. These meteorological phenomena have the highest frequency and constancy in the winter months and low areas in Moldova. For the Bahlui Valley, in the winter, the inversion phenomenon is very frequent, the air temperature being sometimes with up to 10-15°C lower than the temperature of the low altitude hills in the region. (Gugiuman, 1968).
Some thermic differences in the southern metropolitan area of Iaşi 385
The summer is characterized, evidently, by the highest average seasonal temperatures for the entire metropolitan area, registering a multiannual average of 20.4°C at Iaşi, 10.4°C higher than the preceding season. In the summer the average temperatures correlate best with altitude, the vertical thermic gradient being the largest. The values exceed 20°Cat Iaşi and PoduIloaiei (at 90-100m) and drop at about 19.8°CatCiurea at 18.6 atBârnova at 396 m altitude (fig. 4).
Fig 4 – The spatial distribution of the air temperature in the winter (left) and summer (right) in the metropolitan area
In the autumn, the average temperatures return to values close to those in the spring season, however the springs are colder than the autumns due to thermic inertia which manifests coming out of the winter, and the autumns have higher values due to the fact that air cooling is produced slower than for the soil, the waters and the whole active surface have accumulated in the summer season a thermic reserve which they release gradually to the air above. Analyzing the thermic gap (the difference between the highest and lowest temperature value) in the territory of the metropolitan area of the two semesters, it results that it is about 14°C, registering values of 15.2°C at Iaşi, 15.0°C in PoduIloaiei, 14.7°C at Ciureaand 14.4°C at Bârnova. The average temperature of the cold semester, calculated from the monthly averages in the October-March interval has positive values for the entire studied area (2.1°C at Iași and PoduIloaiei, 2.0°C at Ciurea or 1.1°CatBârnova).
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In the warm semester the vertical distribution conforms to the usual thermic stratification of the troposphere, which marks a drop in temperature on the vertical (Fig. 37). Thus, in the metropolitan area, for the 2004-2009 period, it can be observed that at Ciurea the temperatures are 0.9°C lower than at Iaşi (18.0°C) and at Bârnova they are 1.9°C lower than at Iasi, the altitudinal difference of 260 m putting its mark on things. The average multiannual amplitude of the warm semester has varied in the studied period between 3.4°C at Ciurea and 3.8°C at Iaşi and PoduIloaiei, with a multiannual average of 3.5°C at Bârnova. During the year, the average monthly temperature varies in direct proportion to the amount of solar energy received by the terrestrial surface and the inertia imposed by nature to the active surface, the lowest values being in the month of January and the highest in the month of July, as for which the air temperature registers two important moments, namely that the annual minimum in the coldest month of the year corresponds to January and the annual maximum of the hottest month of the year to July. From the analysis of the monthly average values of air temperature, it results that at Iași they have a normal gait, painting an upward curve in the first part of the year, as a result of the rise in intensity of solar radiation, with a maximum in the month of July, after which the variation curb turns downward, dropping to a minimum in the month of January. Therefore, the minimum monthly value of the air temperature at Iaşi is registered in the month of January, with a value of -3.0°C, and the maximum in July, when it reaches 21.2°C, resulting in a monthly multiannual amplitude of 24.2°C. The lowest multi-monthly value of the month of January was recorded at Bârnova (-3.7°C), and the lowest at Ciurea, with 0.2°C higher than at Iaşi and with only 0.9°C higher than at Bârnova, although the altitude difference between the two stations is about 286 m (tab. 5) In the month of January, the calculation of the multiannual average shows the fact that the average monthly temperature is the lowest, being on average of - 3.0°C at Iași and -3.1°C at PoduIloaiei, lower on the average with 0.7°C compared to Bârnova (-3.7°C), which is located at an altitude of 396 m, due to the accumulation of cold air in the valleys of the metropolitan area. In the month of January the oscillations of the thermic average, based on the dynamics of the atmosphere, have been very high, being on average of 5°C. For the analyzed period, the month of January has been in some cases a warm month, as has been for example the January of 2007 with an average of 3.8°C at Iaşi, with a deviation of 6.8°C compared to the multiannual average of the month of January. January 2007 was an especially warm month for the entire metropolitan area, values of over 3°C being recorded at Bârnova (3.4°C) and Ciurea (3.6°C).
Some thermic differences in the southern metropolitan area of Iaşi 387
Tab. 17 – Average monthly and annual temperatures (°C) in the Iaşi metropolitan area
Fig.5 – The spatial distribution of air temperature at semestrial level in the Iaşi metropolitan area
The month of July is not always the hottest due to fluctuations in the general circulation of the atmosphere. In 61% of the cases the month of July is that of thermic maximum, being followed by August with 27% of cases, then June with 12% of cases. The lowest monthly average has been of 18.6°C at Iaşi in 1979, with a deviation from the average of 2.6°C, and the highest monthly average has been recorded in July 2007, having a value of 25.4°C, 4.2°C higher than the multi- monthly average of the month of July (21.2°C). For the analyzed period, at Iaşi, in 49% of cases the month of July has a temperature higher than the multi-monthly average. The diurnal regimen of the differences in temperature between the city and its surroundings has been highlighted by numerous researches, undertaken in cities from different regions of the world. These have shown that during the whole year
388 Costel Alexe the maximum differences in temperature between the city and the neighboring rural settlements are produced in the evening, at around 21:00 o’clock, and the minimum, at noon at around 14:00. The appearance of the largest thermic differences at 21:00 o’clock can be explained by the strong heating of urban constructions during the day and the crossed emission of infrared radiations in the evening, when the surrounding field has already cooled. The slower warming of the city and the faster one of the clear field renders the noon thermic differences minimum.
Fig. 6 - The spatial distribution of the average air temperature in the months of January and July in the Iaşi metropolitan area
In the winter the city stays warmer than its surroundings even at noon, but in the spring, autumn and sometimes summer it is colder than its surroundings. The values of the negative differences are extremely small however. (Ciulache, 1980) In the metropolitan area, during the year, the diurnal average amplitudes present differentiations based on the season, the lowest diurnal thermic amplitudes being recorded in January, with values of 4.7°C at Iaşi and the highest values of thermic amplitudes are in July (9.5°C). Spatial differentiations appear also in the case of the absolute maximum and minimum temperatures. The absolute maximum temperature in the metropolitan area was recorded at Iaşi(40.1°C) in July 2007, when the synoptic conditions were given by the presence of anticyclones of thermic nature in the north of Africa and above the Arabian and Anatolian peninsulas, the extensions of which, towards eastern Europe, favored conditions of clear sky and atmospheric calm and a pronounced warming of the weather. (Mihăilă, 2006).
Some thermic differences in the southern metropolitan area of Iaşi 389
Close values have also been recorded at Iaşi, thus, 40.0°C at the Iaşi- Boarding-school weather station (July 27, 1909) and +39.6°C atIaşi Airport station (August 18, 1946). Then, in both cases, over northern Africa, south-west Asia and East Europe, anticyclone areas persisted for a prolonged time, which favored over the Romanian territory a clear sky and a pronounced warming of the atmosphere. In order to have a term of comparison, it is useful to know that the absolute maximum for the whole country has been 44.5°C, recorded on August 10, 1951, in the town of Ion Sion, today called Râmnicelu, from Bărăganul Brailei. In the Iaşi metropolitan area the maximum annual temperature is recorded mainly in the month of July but also in the month of August the absolute maximum annual temperature has a high frequency, registering together with July more than 80% of the cases.
Tab. 6 - The absolute maximum monthly and annual temperatures, absolute minimum monthly and annual temperatures and the difference between them in the Iaşi metropolitan area
For the Iaşi metropolitan area, the absolute maximum recorded temperature was of 40.1°C, recorded at the 22nd of July 2007, and the absolute minimum of - 30.6°C, recorded on January 20th 1963, thus resulting in the absolute thermic amplitude of 70.7°C (tab. 28). The absolute minimum temperatures were recorded in conditions favorable for the occurrence of strong frosts through the advections of cold, arctic, continental air and radiative cooling in an anticyclone environment. Calculating the annual average of absolute minimums it is found that the lowest value was of -5.8°C, recorded in the year 1963, and the highest value of the annual average of the absolute minimum was of -0.1°C, recorded in the year 1975.
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The multiannual average of the annual absolute minimums was of -2°C, compared to -1.9°C which was recorded at Oradea. For the time interval taken into consideration the absolute minimum value of air temperature was recorded in the year 1963, being a value of -30.6°C, higher with 4.4°C than the absolute minimum recorded for the entire time interval in which there have been made meteorological observations at Iaşi (Erhan, 1979). For the analyzed periods the absolute minimums have been of -31.2°C at PoduIloaiei (January 16, 1985) and -26.2°C at Bârnova (January 23, 2006).
4. Thermic inversions Thermic inversions represent those atmospheric situations in which the air temperature rises with altitude, which means that in the lower areas the air has a lower temperature and a higher density. In the case of the metropolitan area the frequency of the appearance of this phenomenon, coupled with the periods of the year favorable for its occurrence presents a special, practical importance because their occurrence favors the appearance and lasting for a longer period of time of phenomena specific to the pollution of urban atmosphere. It is known the fact that air temperature drops as altitude rises, with 0.5-0.6°C/100m, but the local conditions and the dynamic of the atmosphere can introduce important variations in the vertical distribution of air temperature. In order to determine the thermic inversions in the metropolitan area there have been calculated the average diurnal thermic differences between the average daily temperatures recorded at the weather stations in Iaşi (102m), Ciurea (110m) and Bârnova (396m), in the 2004-2009 interval.
Tab. 7 – The frequency of thermic inversions (%) in the metropolitan area (2004-2009)
The average annual number of cases with thermic inversions at Iaşi, in terms of daily average temperatures is 9%, with a larger frequency in the winter and autumn months. Thus, at Iaşi the large number of thermic inversions is recorded in January (23%), while at Ciurea it is recorded in October (24%) (tab. 34) For the analyzed period it can be observed that both at Iaşi and at Ciurea, the minimum number of cases with thermic inversions was recorded in 2008, when the
Some thermic differences in the southern metropolitan area of Iaşi 391 phenomenon was observed in 17 cases at Iaşi and, respectively, 43 cases at Ciurea, with a recorded maximum in 2009 for Iaşi (90 cases) and in the years 2005 and 2006 for Ciurea (39 cases). The tracking of daily average thermic differences between Iaşi and Bârnova highlights negative presences in the winter, spring and autumn months, with values between -0.1°C and -7.1°C, the maximum value of inversion being recorded on February 1st 2004. In the case of the diurnal average thermic differences between Iaşi and Bârnova, in the winter months, the fact can be observed that the highest frequency of thermic inversions is produced in January (23%), December (19%) and February (17%). Thermic inversions are recorded during all seasons in the year, including in July (1%), but there are also months in which this phenomenon is not observed, namely the months of May and June. The large number of cases with thermic inversions in the months of October, November, December and January is due to the higher frequency of the anticyclone circulations, and the intensification of thermic convection at the end of the spring and beginning of the summer determines a fall in their number.
Fig.7 – The frequency of temperature inversions (%) between the weather stations Iași– Bârnova (2004-2009)
In terms of maximum temperatures I have determined a monthly frequency of thermic inversions at Iaşi of 17% in the months of December and January, and similar values in February and November, 8% and 9% respectively, these representing maximum monthly values, and for the summer months, when inversions have a lower frequency they are 2% in August and 1% in June and July, resulting in a multiannual frequency of 5% thermic inversions at Iaşi. Taking into consideration minimum temperatures the frequency of thermic inversions at Iaşi is much higher, registering a maximum value in the autumn and
392 Costel Alexe spring months (49% in September and 44% in April). Among the winter months the highest frequency of thermic inversions belongs to the month of January (32%), followed by December (24%) and February (23%). For the analyzed period the annual average of thermic inversions by minimum temperatures is 31%, with a maximum number of inversions recorded in 2009, 129 cases.
Conclusions For the studied time interval, at the Iaşi weather station, the multiannual thermic average of soil temperature was 11.3°C, 1.6°C higher than the air temperature 2m above ground for the same interval (9.7°C), highlighting in this way the role that soil temperature has in influencing the temperature values of the air above it. The extreme annual averages of temperature, at the surface of the soil and at 2 m above ground, were recorded almost in the same years. (Iaşi – annual maximum: soil:13.9°C, 2007; air:11.8°C, 2007); (PoduIloaiei – the annual minimum, soil:9.5°C, 1980; air: 7.9°C, 1980, annual maximum, soil: 14.0°C, 2007; air: 11.6°C, 2007); (Bârnova – annual maximum, soil: 12.4°C, 2007; air: 10.2°C, 2007). The average annual temperature decreases as altitude increases from 9.7°C recorded at the Iaşi weather station, the station with the lowest altitude in the metropolitan area (102m), to 9.4°C at Ciurea, only to measure an 8.3°C multiannual average at Bârnova, at 396 m altitude, registering a tendency to increase in the latest years. The analysis of data regarding the average monthly values of air temperature for the metropolitan area have highlighted the month of January as the coldest of the year, with a multiannual average for Iaşi of -3.0°C, -2.8°C at Ciurea and -3.7°C at Bârnova and the warmest month of the year being July, with a multiannual average of 21.2°C at Iaşi, 21.0°C at Ciurea and 19.2°C at Bârnova. Regarding the multiannual average amplitude of air temperature the fact emerges that it has a value of 25.9°C at Iaşi, 29.4°C at Ciurea, 25.8 at PoduIloaiei, being calculated through the average of all annual amplitude averages for the analyzed interval and not 24.2°C, as it would result from the difference between the months of July and January, because these in the studied interval have represented only 61% and 59% respectively, months with thermic maximum and minimum at the Iaşi weather station. The absolute minimum temperature recorded at Iaşi was -30.6°C and it was recorded on the 20th of January 1963, and the absolute maximum was 40.1°C, recorded on the 22nd of July 2007, the absolute thermic amplitude having a value of 70.7°C. From the analysis of data from the three weather stations in the metropolitan area the fact results that thermic inversions occur in 9% of cases in a year between
Some thermic differences in the southern metropolitan area of Iaşi 393
IaşiandBârnova and 20% of cases in a year between Ciurea and Bârnova, starting with September until March, with a maximum of 23% in January, according to the daily averages. If we take into consideration also the minimum and maximum daily averages, it can be observed that the frequency of inversions in the minimum averages is 31% compared to the 5% recorded in the case of the daily maximums.
Bibliography: BâzâcGh. (1983), The influence of relief over the main characteristics of the climate of Romania, Edit. Academiei, Bucureşti. Ciulache St. (1971),Topoclimatology and microclimatology, Bucureşti Ciulache St. (1980), The city and climate, Bucureşti. Donisă I.,Erhan Elena (1974), Course of climatology R.S.R. Fac. BIol. – Geogr., Univ. “Al.I. Cuza”, Iaşi. Erhan Elena (1963), Microclimatic observations in the area of Iaşi city. The regimen of air temperature; An. şt. ale Univ. “Al.I.Cuza”, Tom. IX, Iaşi. Erhan Elena (1971), Climatic differentiations in the urban and peripheral urban area of the city of Iaşi,Lucr. şt., Seriageografie, Înst. Ped. Oradea. Erhan Elena (1979), Climate and microclimates in the area of the city of Iaşi, Edit. “Junimea”, Iaşi. Gugiuman I., Petraş Eugenia (1963), The role of the dynamics of the atmosphere and geographic factors in determining the regimen of air temperature in the east part of Romanian R.P.” An. Şt. ale Univ. „Al. I. Cuza”, Tom. IX, Iaşi. Gugiuman I. (1967), A few problems regarding the climatology of the cities in Romania, ASUCI – GG, Secţ. II, Tom. XIII, Iaşi. Gugiuman I. (1975), The influence of relief on the climate diversification in Romania, The works of the national colloquium of applied geomorphology and geomorphological cartography, SSGRSR, Iaşi Gugiuman I., Cotrău M. (1975), Elements of urban climatology, Edit.Academiei R.S.R., Bucureşti. Gugiuman I., Erhan Elena (1962), Microclimates in the area of the city of Iaşi and its surroundings, An. Şt. ale Univ. „Al. I. Cuza”, Tom. VIII, Iaşi. Mihăila D. (2006), The Plain of Moldavia, climatic study, Edit. Univ. Suceava. Stoenescu St. M., Mihai E. Cristescu St., Cazacu G., Iliescu M., Oprescu A. ( 1969) , Particularities of the regimen of diurnal oscillations of air temperature, Collection of works of Bucharest Meteorological Institute. (1983) – The geography of Romania, vol I, Edit.Academiei R.S.R., Bucureşti. (1994) – The geography of Romania, vol IV, EdituraAcademiei, Bucureşti. (2008) – The climate of Romania, Bucureşti.
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PRESENT ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, VOL. 6, no. 1, 2012
THERMIC DIFFERENCIATIONS IN THE IAŞI MUNICIPALITY DURING A HEAT WAVE. CASE STUDY JULY 10-20 2011
Liviu Apostol1, Costel Alexe2, Lucian Sfîcă3
Key-words: thermic differentiations, heat wave, Iaşi municipality, case study
Abstract: With a surface of approximately 800 km2, the metropolitan territory of Iaşi city is extremely differentiated in terms of the way in which the physical- geographic base is occupied, with important implications for the spatial differentiations of the climatic elements. For the identification of the thermic differentiations at the level of urban area of the city of Iaşi a series of thermo- hydrometric sensors was utilized (DT171) for determining temperature and air humidity, placed in different spots of the city, through which we tried to identify the influence that this exerts over the thermic regimen in different synoptic conditions. In this respect we chose as case study the heat wave produced in the period July 10- 20th 2011 that highlights some differentiations in the manner of heat propagation at the level of the entire urban area.
Introduction In the interior of the metropolitan area, the municipality of Iaşi, the second city in terms of population and occupied surface, due to an additional quantiy of heat emitted with the burning of industrial fuels and gases, and also due to the surfaces of asphalt and cement, to which is added the large concentration of population, is outlined as an island of urban heat in the Iaşi metropolitan area, with variable intensities. Besides, since a long time ago I. Gugiuman characterized Iaşi as a thermic island in the regional landscape, because the air temperature in the city is much differentiated than the one in its surroundings, noticing that the average temperature of the urban atmosphere is 1.1°C higher than the atmosphere temperature in the outskirt area of the city (Gugiuman, 1968).
1 Prof. PhD., Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iaşi, Romania, [email protected] 2 Phd. Student, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iaşi, Romania, [email protected] 3 Lecturer PhD., Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iaşi, Romania, [email protected]
396 Liviu Apostol, Costel Alexe, Lucian Sfîcă
In the metropolitan area of Iaşi the influence of the urban environment on the air temperature is very noticeable in the cold season, when the difference between the city and surroundings can reach and even exceed 1°C, these differences in the rest of the year are greatly reduced, so much that in the summer they do not appear at all or are only 0.1°C – 0.3°C, and the multiannual average values render them null. There is the fact to underline that the size of the thermic differences between the city and surrounding area is in direct proportion to the dimensions of the city. These differences of temperature between cities and neighboring towns, with values that oscillate on average annualy between 0.5°C and 1.5°C, that apparently doesn’t mean much, reach real dimensions if we take into consideration the fact that the annual difference of 1°C corresponds in latitude to the distance of 200km, and in altitude of 150-200m. Thus, the difference between Bucuresti (10.9°C) and Iaşi (9,7°C) of 1.2°C can be compared to that of 1.1°C (between Bucuresti and Filaret and Bucuresti-Baneasa) (Ciulache, 1980).
1. Database For the identification of thermic differentiations at the level of the entire urban area of the city of Iaşi there was utilized a series thermo-hydrometric sensors (DT171) for determining the air temperature and humidity, placed in different spots of the city (fig. 1) through which we tried to highlight the influence that this exerts over the thermic regimen in different synoptic conditions.
Fig. 1 – The sensor placement at the level of the Iaşi municipality
Thermic differenciations int the Iaşi municipality during a heat wave 397
Also, Modis satellite images were utilized, in infrared domain, for satellite determining of temperature differences in the Iaşi municipality in the July 8-20th 2011 interval.
2. Synoptic conditions A dorsal of warm air of north-African origin associated to an anticyclone regimen at ground level favored the formation of the heat wave that manifested itself in the south-east of Europe in the July 8-20th interval (fig. 2). We can mention that from a synoptic standpoint these are typical conditions for the formation of heat waves in our country during the summer. The maximum temperatures at national level reached 38°C at weather stations in the western part of the country, and in Moldova the maximums were close to 36°C (Source: ANM). Judging by these values we cannot talk of an exceptional heat wave, as long as we were 4-6°C below the absolute maximum values of the month of July at national and regional level. The distinct mark of this heat wave was its duration. Based on the data from the UAIC, Iaşi weather station – we can extrapolate the analysis to the whole of extra Carpathian Moldova – we are talking about 13 consecutive days with maximum diurnal temperatures of over 30°C, the average climatic duration of these heat waves for the territory of Romania being between 7 and 10 days.
Fig. 2 - Temperatura aerului la nivelul suprafeţei de 850 hPa(stânga) şi la nivelul de 2m (dreapta) în data de 15.VII.2011 în Europa (wetter3.de)
To better understand the meteorological conditions that we have crossed we can say that the average maximum temperature of this heat wave at Iaşi was of 32.1°C, value which corresponds to the normal climatic values of the same parameter for the entire month of July in Athens. Thus, a heat wave that enables us
398 Liviu Apostol, Costel Alexe, Lucian Sfîcă to extrapolate the results of this study for all the heat waves that can manifest in the region of the Moldavian Plain in the summer months.
3. Thermic differentiations induces by the heat wave The thermic complexity of the city in its entirety compared to the peripheral urban area is generated by the multiple characteristics of the active surface and highlights some thermic differentiations existent between the different zones of the city at topo and microclimatic levels. The analysis of data from the July 10-20th 2011 period taken from the measurements made with the thermo-hydrometric sensors DT171 comparative with the data provided by the Moldova regional meteorological Center in Iaşi highlights some extremely important aspects (fig.3): - all of the observation spots in the city recorded higher values than the weather station at the airport (25.6°C) with at least 1 degree Celsius, less than the sensor in Copou which registered values of 24.9°C; this situation reflects the particular microclimatic conditions of parks and public gardens in the Iaşi municipality, these being 3-4°C cooler than the surrounding regions in terms of average temperatures and with up to 6-7°C in terms of maximum diurnal temperatures.
Fig. 3 – The average, maximum and minimum temperature in the Iaşi municipality in the observation spots in the July 10-20th 2011 period
- the strong heating of asphalt and concrete surfaces, to which it is added the presence of pollutants, lead to a rise of air temperature in contrast with the neighboring areas. Thus, in the RATP area and Podu Roş area is recorded a thermic average in the analyzed period of 28.8°C, and 28.5°C respectively, these values being able to be considered representative for the intensely circulated neighboring arteries or for those with industrial or commercial use.
Thermic differenciations int the Iaşi municipality during a heat wave 399
- in such synoptic conditions the city, on the whole, is warmer with 1.5-2°C than its neighboring regions in terms of average temperatures, with 3-4°C wamer in terms of maximum temperatures and with up to 2.5°C warmer with respect to minimum temperatures.
Fig. 4 – The distribution of average air temperatures in the Iaşi municipality in the July 8- 20th interval obtained based on the Modis images
The same differences are highlighted also through the processing of Modis images – infrared domain – for the July 8-20th 2011 interval. The images based on which the map of the distribution of temperature in the Iaşi municipality was processed (fig. 4) were taken for our country at 15:15 hours, which confers them a special climatic value through the proximity to the moment of generation of the maximum diurnal temperature. Based on this result can be outlined the island of urban heat of the Iaşi municipality which is very well delineated in the central area of the municipality having as central point Podu Roş. We can mention that the temperatures were higher than those at the official weather station in an area between Piaţa Unirii, the Alexandru cel Bun neighborhood, Nicolina, Moldoplast, Tudor Vladimirescu and Independenţei blvd. To underline the microclimatic diversity of the area that overlaps on the Iaşi municipality there have been calculated coefficients of determination between all the observation spots (tab. 1). It thus stands out the homogenous thermic behaviour
400 Liviu Apostol, Costel Alexe, Lucian Sfîcă of the central region of the city that circumscribes Piaţa Unirii, the industrial zone (Moldoplast) and the Alexandru cel Bun neighborhood, the determined coefficients of determination between these spots being over 0.90. Instead, the coefficients of determination between the observation spot at the Anti-hail Center, located in the eastern part of the municipality, outside the urban center, underline the contrast between the thermic regimen from inside the island of urban heat and its outskirts. Besides, a series of linear correlations made between the data coming from the Iaşi weather station and some observation spots in the municipality highlight some significant differentiations. If between the Iaşi weather station and the Podu Roş and Hotel Select observation spots, there aren’t significant correlations in terms of temperature values produced in the analyzed interval, between the station and the observation spot in the area of the Anti-hail Center the correlation is significant, due to the spatial proximity of the two spots and the location of both observation spots outside the island of urban heat.
Tab. 1 – The coefficient of determination (R-squared) between the temperature observation spots in the Iaşi municipality in the July 8-20th 2011 interval
Select RATP Podu Ros Moldoplast Copou ACB Antigrindina Select 1 RATP 0.88 1 Podu Ros 0.8 0.93 1 Moldoplast 0.9 0.97 0.92 1 Copou 0.9 0.92 0.83 0.92 1 ACB 0.89 0.95 0.93 0.96 0.92 1 Antigrindina 0.69 0.76 0.82 0.78 0.72 0.84 1
A decisive role in the spatial-temporary variations of the values of the climatic elements is attributed to the strictly local physical-geographic factors and especially to the way in which the terrain is covered with various constructions that imprint on the air temperature in the urban area specific particularities compared to the area surrounding the city. Instead, the values of the coefficients of determination between the official weather station and the Podu Roş and Hotel Select observation spots drop below 0.50 (fig. 5, fig. 6, fig.7), not as much because of the thermic differences between these spots, but due to the disparities that are produced in the diurnal regimen of temperature between the center and the outskirts.
Thermic differenciations int the Iaşi municipality during a heat wave 401
Fig. 5 – Linear correlation between the air temperature at the Iaşi weather station and the observation spot at the Anti-hail Center
Fig. 6 – Linear correlation between the air temperature at the Iaşi weather station and the Podu Roş observation spot
Fig. 7 – Linear correlation between the air temperature at the Iaşi weather station and the Hotel Select observation spot
402 Liviu Apostol, Costel Alexe, Lucian Sfîcă
Fig. 8 – Horary thermic differences betwee the Iaşi weather station and Podu Roş (left) and the Iaşi weather station and Copou Park (right) în the July 8-20th 2011 interval
Fig. 9 – Isopleths of horary thermic differences between the Iaşi weather station and the Podu Roş observation spot (July 8th and 20th 2011)
Fig. 10 – Isopleths of horary thermic differences between between the Podu Roş and Copou Park observation spots (July 8th and 20th 2011)
Thermic differenciations int the Iaşi municipality during a heat wave 403
The detailed analysis of horary differences between the Iaşi weather station and the observation spots placed in the interior of the urban area highlights a multitude of situations. In synthesis, at the level of the horary analysis, in general the observation spots in the city are cooler than the outskirts of the city in the first part of the day (with up to 3-4°C around 9:00 hours) but much warmer in the second part of the day and during the night, the largest horary differences being recorded in the 18:00-22:00 interval (up to 6-8°C in Podu Roş or Moldoplast). The appearance of the largest thermic differences at 20:00-21:00 hours is explained through the strong heating of the subjacent surface in the city during the day and the crossed emission of infrared radiation in the evening, when the clear field has already cooled (fig. 8, fig. 9, fig.10). If the lower morning temperatures are the direct result of the lower degree of sunshine in the interior of the city, the differences during the evening and night represent the true expression of the island of urban heat that the Iaşi municipality generates.
Conclusions The analysis of data from the July 10-20th 2011 period taken from the measurements made with the thermo-hydrometric sensors DT171 comparative with the data provided by the Moldova regional meteorological Center in Iaşi highlights some extremely important aspects: - all of the observation spots in the city registered higher values than the weather station at the Airport (25.6°C) with at least one degree Celsius, lower than the sensor in Copou that recorded values of 24.9°C; - the strong heating of asphalt and concrete surfaces, to which it is added the presence of pollutants, lead to a rise of air temperature in contrast with the neighboring areas. Thus, in the RATP area and Podu Roş area is recorded a thermic average in the analyzed period of 28.8°C, and 28.5°C respectively; - the arboreal vegetation is the one that imprints the most important climatic characteristics in the case of parks, thus the air temperature measures values lower with 2-3°C, compared to the residential areas; - the maximum differences of temperature between the city and the surroundings are produced in the evening, around 20:00-21:00 hours, reaching 7.8°C in Podu Roş and Moldoplat, and the minimum, at noon around 14:00 hours, when the heating of the city is lower than the clear field.
References: Ciulache, S. (1971),Topoclimatology and Microclimatology, Bucureşti Erhan Elena (1963), Microclimatic observations in the area of Iaşi city. The regimen of air temperature. An. şt. ale Univ. “Al.I.Cuza”, Tom. IX, Iaşi
404 Liviu Apostol, Costel Alexe, Lucian Sfîcă
Erhan Elena (1971), Climatic differentiations in the urban and surrounding area of Iaşi city. Lucr. şt., Seria geografie, Înst. Ped. Oradea Erhan Elena (1979), Climate and microclimates in the area of Iaşi city, Edit. Junimea, Iaşi Gugiuman, I. (1967), A few problems regarding the climatology of the cities in Romania, ASUCI – GG, Secţ. II, Tom. XIII, Iaşi.
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